DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 2104 067 CE 071 470

AUTHOR Rauner, Felix; And OthersTITLE Training in the Motor Vehicle Repair and Sales

Sector. Report for the FORCE Programme. EuropeanReport.

INSTITUTION European Centre for the Development of VocationalTraining, Berlin (Germany).

REPORT NO ISBN-92-826-8913-1PUB DATE 93

NOTE 94p.; For related reports, see ED 379 480-484 and ED389 866-868.

AVAILABLE FROM UNIPUB, 4611-F Assembly Drive, Lanham, MD 20706-4391(catalogue no. HX-85-94-866-EN-C: 8 European CurrencyUnits).

PUB TYPE Reports - Research/Technical (143)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC04 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS *Auto Mechanics; *Continuing Education; Curriculum;

Educational Change; Educational Opportunities;*Educational Practices; Educational Quality;*Educational Trends; Education Work Relationship;Employment Qualifications; Foreign Countries; LaborForce Development; Postsecondary Education; *SalesOccupations; School Business Relationship; Synthesis;Technological Advancement; Transfer of Training;Trend Analysis; *Vocational Education

IDENTIFIERS *European Community

ABSTRACTTrends in training for employment in the motor

vehicle repair and sales sectors in the 12 European Community (EC)countries were identified through a review of 12 national reportsthat were prepared by 16 research teams involved in an EC study oncontinuing training in the motor vehicle sales and repair sector.Special attention was paid to the following topics: structure andcharacteristics of the motor vehicle sector in the EC; changing tasksin repair workshops and implications for skillrequirements/development; and objectives, content, and delivery ofcontinuing vocational training of the sector's work force. Thefollowing are among the trends and issues identified: increasedquality consciousness; standardization and modularization versustransferability and mobility; adaptive versus forward qualificationand qUalification planning; roles of the providers of continuingvocational training; training concepts and their adaption to theneeds of individual countries and repair shops; control versuscooperation of manufacturers and dealers; and high quality servicestations as sites for vocational and continuing training. (Contains23 tabies/figures and 15 referoucez. Appended are diagrams of thetechnics, training scheme and technical service training curriculumidentified and a table detailing registration of p=asonger cars inWestern Europe by country in 1985-1992.) (MN)

r

F RC EFORMATION CONN 4UE EN EUROPE

European Commission

MOTOR VEHICLE REPAIRAND SALES SECTOR

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONe ol Educational Research end Improvoment

ED CATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

This A ,cument has been reproduced asreceived from the parson or organizationoriginating it.

O Minor changes have been made toimprove reproduction quality.

Points of view or opinions stated in thisdocument do not necessarily representofficial OERI position or policy.

"PERMISSION TO REr"-^DUCE THIS

MATERIAL HAS BEV 4ANTED BY

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES

INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC).

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

2

LUCL-

0 0DLU

1102' 1

TRAINING IN THE MOTORVEHICLE REPAIR AND SALES SECTOR

REPORT FOR THE FORCE PROGRAMME

drawn up byFelix Rauner/Georg Spöttl (ITB)

Kai Olesen/Bruno Clematide (DTI)

in collaboration with:Tina Bertzeletou (CEDEFOP)Oriol Horns Ferret (CIREM)Skevos Papaioannou (SRC)

1993

First edition, Berlin 1994Published by:

CEDEFOP European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training,Jean Monnet House, Bundesallee 22, D-10717 Berlin

Fax 49-30 + 88 41 22 22Tel. 49-30 + 88 41 20 Telex 18 41 63 eucen d

The Centre was established by Regulation (EEC) No 337/75of the Council of the European Communities

3

0

Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication.

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1995

ISBN 92-826-8913-1

0 ECSC-EC-EAEC, Brussels Luxembourg, 1995

Reproduction is authorized, except for commercial purposes, provided the source isacknowledged.

Printed in the United Kingdom

INTRODUCTION

The FORCE programme for the development ofcontinuing vocational training in the EuropeanCommunity was adopted by the Council ofMinisters on 29 May 1990 and launched on 1January 1991.

Evolving from the growing recognition at Commu-nity and national levels of the strategic importanceof continuing vocational training in the face ofaccelerating economic, social and technologicalchange, FORCE was designed to achieve Corn-munity-wide impact on its quality and availability:to encourage increased investment in training inenterprises and to promote wider access totraining for employees.

FORCE then has a twofold aim: to ensure thatcompanies benefit from the skills and qualificu-tions they require to maximize their econo. nicperformance, and to promote recognition of thetraining needs, rights and aspirations of tlteindividual worker.

At the core of FORCE is the principle of thetransfer of knowledge, experience and know-howthroughout the Community. Based on activetransnational partnerships between companies,the social partners and training institutes, FORCEprojects some 430 to date, with 3,500 partners

focus on the development and dissemination ofinnovative training management, techniques andmaterials, and the analysis of enterprise trainingneeds. Research activities sectoral surveys,analysis of contractual policy, the statistical surveyof continuing vocational training in enterprisesprovide a concentration of data on national systemsand practices in all their diversity, and a substantialfund of information for both sides of industry,companies, and policy-makers at all levels.

Together these activities are creating a network totest, assess and disseminato good practice and

innovation which respond to the real trainingneeds of companies and the workforce; and, whatis more, to promote mutual understanding ofnational diversity and contribute to the greatereffectiveness of continuing vocational trainingmechanisms and their capacity to respond tochanges in the European labour market.

The survey of training plans in the automobilerepair and distribution sector is one of the firstproducts of FORCE's research strand. The TaskForce Human Resources wishes in particular tothank Professor Felix Rauner, as project leaderand Dr. Georg SOK of the Institut Technik undBildung, and the central team as a whole theDanish Technological Institut and the University ofCrete for the quality of the methodologicalconcepts adopted, and the effectiveness of theEuropean coordination. Thanks too to the nationalInstitutes for their work in a new area of scientificexploration.

The survey is also the product of a fruitfulassociation between the Commission and CEDE-FOP and we are grateful to the latter for theirindispensable methodological and technical assis-tance.

Finally, the active participation of the companieshas been essential for the successful completion ofthis survey, and the Task Force Human Resourceswishes to thank them warmly for their cooperationand support. We hope that the findings will be thestarting point for extensive further discussion andpromotion of skills, qualifications and high-qualitytraining activities in the sector.

G. KINTZELEOfficial responsiblefor FORCE Programme

J. GRIEVEAssistant FORCEProgramme

PREFACE

This report, the result of extensive work by ITB andDTI, is based on the 12 national reports preparedby the 16 research teams involved in the FORCEsurvey on continuing training in the motor vehiclesales and repair sector.

Before adopting a sectorial approach, whichalone makes possible a real comparison oftraining, the report focusses on the common areasand the main trends in the organization of trainingin the branches, authorized dealerships, salesoutlets and repair shops.

The trends observed are the leitmotif in this report.Indeed, this sector is dependent on the ongoingtechnological developments in motor vehicleconstruction.

Much water has passed under the bridge since thetime, not so long gone, when chauffeurs repairedtheir cars themselves and the computerized after-sales service of today.

Constantly on the lookout for increased competi-tiveness, the sector offers a broad spectrum oforganizational and training practices rangingfrom the most traditional to the most strikinglyinnovative. The authors are aware of this andexamine the underlying reasons.

CEDEFOP would like to express its thanks to theauthors of the national reports:

J. Denys, P. Arryn and H. Delagrange (B);J. Knoblauch, N. Sorensen and K. Andersen (DK);Professor F. Rauner, G. Spottl, R. Lichte and H.Zeymer (D);N. Pasatzis and Professor S. Papaioannou (GR);C. G. Gonzalez, J. L Esplugues, M. Méndez-Vigoand C. Prat (E);N. Agueitant (F);D. Tuite (IRL);M. Volonta (I);P. Krier and T. Mathgen (1);J. Warmerdam, H. van den lillaart andJ. Bosker (NL);Professor J. Pina da Silva (P);G. Rhys (UK).

Special thanks are extended to Professor Dr. F.Rauner and Dr. G. Spottl from ITB for their work ondesign and coordination, to K. Olesen and B.Clematide from DTI for their major contribution tothe editorial work on the European Report and to0. Horns from CIREM for monitoring work inspecific countries and his methodological support.

This report would not have been possible withoutthe involvement of the companies and organizr-tions in the sector or the training bodies ih theMember States. Whilst respecting their wish toremain nameless, CEDEFOP would like to thankthem for their substantial support.

Tina BertzeletouProject coordinator

6

Enrique RetuertoDeputy Director

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

PREFACE

PART 1 - SECTORAL CONTEXT1. Introduction2. The framework of the study

2.1 Defining the sector: motor vehicle sales and repair

2.2 Defining continuing vocational training

2.3 Methodology

2.3.1 Selection of the case studies

2.3.2 Context and comparability

2.4 Implementation of the survey and problems

encountered

3. Structure and characteristics of the motor vehiclesector in the context of the European Community3.1. Historical development

3.2 Structure of industry, repair shops and sales

3.2.1 The motor vehicle industry as the key sector for

integration in Europe

3.2.2 Manufacturers and their authorized outlets and

dealers

3.2.3 The independent repair shops

3.2.4 Mega-dealers

3.3 The role and importance of the social partners in the

EU Member States

3.3.1 How to establish a company

3.3.2 Social conditions for the workforce

3.4 Employment and labour

3.4.1 Conditions of employment

3.4.2 Recruitment conditions

3.4.3 Personnel structure

3.4.4 Job structure

4. Changing tasks in the repair workshop and itsimplications for skill requirements and theirfurther development4.1 Tasks are changing

4.2 Changing tasks are influenced by a number of

factors

4.2.1 The influences of technological change

4.2.2 The influence of the change in tools, the testing and

diagnostic equipment

4.2.3 The influence of environmental legislation

4.2.4 Influence of provisions on repair shops and safety

4.2.5 The influence of standardization and module con-

cepts

4.3 Changes in tasks in the motor vehicle repair shop

offers scope for action

4.3.1 The shaping of work organization

4.3.2 The shaping of the distribution system

4.3.3 The organization of administration

4.4 Changing tasks leads to new challenges and

continuing training strategies

PART 2 - TRAINING5. Vocational training or what does continuing

vocational training build upon?5.1 Compulsory schooling

5.2 Structure and contents of initial vocational training

5.3 The ratio of employees to initial vocational training

5.4 Summary

6. Continuing vocational training of the workforce6.1 The provision of continuing vocational training and

its importance

6.2 The training policy of providers of continuing

vocational training

6.3 Contents of courses offered by providers

6.4 The training concepts of those providing continuing

training

6.5 Trair ;ng concepts at repair shop level

6.5.1 Authorized dealer repair shops

6.5.2 Independent repair shops

).5.3 Transferability

6.6 The need for individual continuing vocational

training

6.7 Transfer of continuing vocational training in the

repair shops

6.8 Continuing training target groups

6.9 Teaching strategies of the providers of continuing

vocational training

6.10 Trainors

6.11 Costs of continuing vocational training

6.12 Evaluation of costs

PART 3 - TRENDS7. Conclusions: From repair shops to quality service

stations7.1 Quality competition and quality service

7.2 High-tech motor vehicles and the change in tasks

7.3 Repair and quality consciousness

7.4 Standardization and modularization versus

transferabil:ty and mobility

7.5 Adaptive versus forward qualification and

qualification planning

.

7.6 The role of the providers of continuing vocational

training

7.7 Training concepts and their adoption to the needs of

countries and repair shops

7.8 Need for training and restrictions on account of lack

of capacity

7.9 Continuing vocational training and work organiza-

tion

7.10 Control versus cooperation of manufacturers and

dealers

7.11 Towards the quality servicing stations

7.12 Towards universal Multi-skilled motor vehicle

mechatronics

7.13 The quality servicing station as a place for voca-

tional training and continuing training

7.14 Continuing vocational training costs as an invest-

ment in quality service

7.15 New requirements lead to a new job design and

different concepts of continuing vocational training

7.16 Smaller repair shops are facing elimination on

account of the need to invest

7.17 Environmental requirements must be respected by

quality-oriented servicing stations

BibliographyAppendicos I, II and IIIAbbreviations

9

PART 1:SECTORAL C

lit*********41111141111**********$11111$111***MHO**111111f1111

1. INTRODUCTION

2. THE FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

2.1 Defining the sector: motor vehicle sales andrepair

2.2 Defining continuing vocational training

2.3 Methodology

2.4 Implementation of the survey and problemsencountered

3. STRUCTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THEMOTOR VEHICLE SECTOR IN THE CONTEXT OFTHE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY.

3.1 Historical development

3.2 Structure of industry, repair shops and sales

3.3 The role and importance of the social part-ners in the EU Member States

3.4 Employment and labour

4. CHANGING TASKS IN THE REPAIR WORK-SHOP AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR SKILLREQUIREMENTS AND THEIR FURTHERDEVELOPMENT.

4.1 Tasks ar changing

4.2 Changing tasks are influenced by a numberof factors

4.3 Changes in tasks in the motor vehicle repairshop offers scope for action

4.4 Changing tasks leads to now challenges andcontinuing training strategies

10

1. INTRODUCTION

More than ever the motor vehicle sales and repairsector is the pivotal paint of international econom-ic competition. In manufacturing countries such asthe United States, Japan, Germany, Italy, Spain,the United Kingdom and Belgium, the motorvehicle sector is the crucial factor for employmentand prosperity. The MIT study on the superiorityof the Japanese concept of "Lean Production"(WOMACK et al. 1992) has suddenly focusedEurope's attention on the developmert, produc-tion, distribution and servicing of motor vehicles.The authors are of the opinion that manufacturerswho cannot attain higher productivity and productquality in the motor vehicle sector by adopting theprinciple of lean production will not remaincompetitive on world markets. At the beginningof the 90's the first of two key problems in themotor vehicle sector emerged, i.e. the inexpensiveproduction of high-quality products for competi-tion on a, at present, customer-oriented market.

The second key problem is ruccessful marketing ofthe motor vehicle, the interrelationship betweenthe motor vehicle manufacturers, repair shops andcustomers. This is what decides whether thecustomer will buy a certain motor vehicle andwhether he will be satisfied with service (main-tenance and repair) offered by the brand-namerepresentative. As long as the motor vehiclemanufacturers' dream of a maintenance-freemotor vehicle remains a pipe-dream, the strategicposition of the motor vehicle repair shop will.remain unchanged. From the economic point ofview the motor vehicle repair shop is involvedpredominantly with the sales of motor vehicles; theratio varying from between 20-80 percent.Repair and service is carried out in the repairshop. Repair shop staff are of crucial importancefor the motor vehicle trade. To a high degreemotor vehicle manufacturers depend on repairshops and their ability to swiftly diagnose andrepair faults. The interaction between flexibleproduction and the inroads of electronics in motorvehicle technology requires a high quality diag-nosis and repair technology and good qualitymanagement in service and maintenance.

This is emphasized by the fact that certaincountries have a comparatively large secondmotor vehicle market as motor vehicles are kepton the road for a longer period of time (forexample, Greece and Denmark). Thus repairshops must cater for the needs of severalgenerations of motor vehicle technologies.

In the motor vehicle sector, competitivenessdepends directly on occupational skills in the fieldof services. Quality of products and servicedetermine the survival of motor vehicle brandson the world market. It depends to a lesser degreeon special technological know-how availableworldwide, but more on qualifications of the staffengaged in production and servicing. There isscarcely a sector confronting such challenges withregard to vocational training and continuingtraining.

In certain European countries, the motor vehiclesales and repair sector is a particularly popularone for initial training (for example, Denmark andGermany). As a large share of apprenticesmigrate to other sectors - well over 50% duringthe first five years following completion of initialtraining in Germany, Denmark and Luxembourg -the motor vehicle sector in some EU MemberStates is an important place for general occupa-tional and technical vocational training on theEuropean labour market and its nationalbranches.

Service and repair concepts have been developedjointly by European motor vehicle manufacturersand the trade associations. Subsequent qualitystandards are also implemented in extra-Euro-pean markets (for example, the United States).These markets reveal whether European serviceconcepts can compete with, for example, theJapanese concept on third markets. This will soondecide the fate of many European motor vehiclemanufacturers.

This stresses the importance of this sector studywith regard to the labour market, competition andtraining policies. The following chapter willexamine the aims, concerns and methods usedin this sectoral study.

11

2. THE FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

As in other sectors (e.g. retail, food andbeverages, etc.) this report was drawn up as partof the FORCE programme, the main objective ofwhich is to promote larger and more efficientinvestment in continuing training with activeparticipation of all partners concerned: employ-ers, trade unions and governments. This pro-gramme includes sector studies which aim toidentify and analyze the best and most importantexperiences gathered by a number of companiesin the twelve EU Member States.

Sectoral s.udies are expected to examine amongother things six particular points in the SocialDialogue:

a. Training plans and training concepts on repairshop levelAre there training concepts for continuing voca-tional training at repair shop level available forstaff? Does the training plan adopt a globalapproach to training issues? Does organizationexist to deliver continuing vocational training ?

b. The interlinkage of training concepts anddemandHow are training plans formulated? How can theymeet training demands? How are needs ana-lyzed?

c. Target groups of trainingWhat are the target groups for training? Are allemployees involved?

d. contents of training programmesWhat are the aims and contents of trainingprogrammes? To what extent do training pro-grammes meet the workers' individual needs aswell as those of the company's?

e. Training costsWhat are the costs of continuing vocationaltraining?

f. Evaluation of Loncepts and costsIs there any evaluation of the costs, the trainingconcepts and the results of training? Are costs/benefit analyses available?

Discussion of these six points in the SocialDialogue includes consideration of the interrela-tionship between initial and continuing training.There is a need to develop a better understandingof continuing vocational training.

The motor vehicle sales and repair sector wasselected by the FORCE programme as the thirdsector for analysis. The approach in this study issimilar to that in the first study on the retail sectorwhere the validity of the approach was already

tested. The idea behind the study is to acquire'knowledge of the situations and practices in thefield of continuing vocational training in thedifferent Member States... The need for thisknowledge has become more important thanever. Indeed, it fosters development as stated inthe Maastricht Treaty, of exchanges of informationand experiences on issues common to educationsystems of the Member States' (Article 127) andthus implementation of vocational training policyresponding to the training and qualification needsin the Member States and those in the Communityas a whole.'

The sectoral approach which has been adoptedfor this study - it is part of the FORCE programme- should help to initiate and develop perspectivesfor designing work organization with regard to theuse of qualifications and modern measuring anddiagnostic tools, for skills and abilities, exchangesof experience between repair shop and manufac-turer concepts for training, concepts for customerservice and for access to continuing vocationaltraining. It is a useful means of identifying andanalyzing individual continuing training experi-ence and of assessing their importance in thevarious national contexts. Obviously individualexperience is likely to appear more homogenousand comprehensible if identified in the samesector.

The overall idea is to promote continuing voca-tional training as a key element for improvingcompetition in the European market and formaking it the core of the Social Dialogue. Oneof h most important measures is to grant accessto a itinuing vocational training to every em-ployee.

2.1 Defining the sector: motor vehiclesales and repairAll studies in the motor vehicle sales and repairsector took place at repair shop level as far ascase studies are concerned. The sectoral analysisshould serve as a reference framework foranalyzing and cothparing recent :rends in EUMember States and their implications for training.

Definition and demarcation of the sector ensuresthat national surveys and statistical data cover thesame area. This also offers a framework foranalyzing individual training experiences IA thesame fields and at the same levek and forcomparing them within the national context andwithin the EU context.

The most important criteria for defining anddemarcating the motor vehicle sales and repairsector are:

1 Task Force Human Resources, Education, Training and Youth: Synoptic Tables information available in the twelveMember States on continuing vocational training. FORCE, Brussels, page 5.

12

'

the size of companies andthe types of companies.

The following classification of company size wasadopted for the studies:

Type IType IIType IIIType IVType V

1 4 employees5 9 employees

10-19 employees20-49 employeesover 50 employees

With regard to the situation in the motor vehiclesales and repair sector companies were definedas follows:

A Subsidiaries of motor vehicle manufacturers(Controlled by motor vehicle manufacturers)

B Subsidiaries of motor vehicle manufacturers(Independent of motor vehicle manufacturers)

C Authorized sales and repair shops(Independent but linked to motor vehiclemanufacturers/producers)

D General repair shops and independent repairshops

E Motor vehicle dealers

F Repair shops specializing in the repair ofcomponents and aggregates.

Independent secondhand motor vehicle dealersdid not form part of the survey. They were onlytaken into consideration if they belonged to theabove-mentioned types of companies.

Motorcycles, service stations and leasing agentswore also excluded from the study.

This restrictive definition aimed to avoid confusion/ far as possible. Some countries had difficulty in

adhering to the definition and demarcation onaccount of the fact that some statistical dataincluded motorcycles or service stations.

2.2 Defining continuing vocationaltrainingIn order to cover the wide area of training offeredin the motor vehicle sales and repair sector, thesurvey generally adopted the concept underlyingcontinuing vocational training in other FORCEactivities:

"A structured activity, financed wholly or in partby companies, directly or indirectly, in order

that ,the persons employed might improve,acquire or maintain their skills, knowledge orqualifications from time to time in their working

The definition covers a number of different trainingactivities important to the motor vehicle sales andrepair sector:3

a. Training managed and designed by trainingproviders

Education or training courses designed andmanaged by colleges or other training organi-zations outside the company;

Training provided by suppliers or customers.This is training designed and managed bysuppliers to or customers of the company;

Training at conferences, repair shops, sympo-sium and seminars where the primary purposeof the company in sending an employee is toincrease his/her knowledge or skills.

b. Training managed and designed by thecompany

Internal instruction and training courses de-signed and managed by (or for) the companyand available only to the employees of thecompany;

Planned periods of training, tutoring, instruc-tion or practical work experience, either at theplace of work or in the work situation where theprimary aim is to teach or develop new skills;

Planned learning through work organizationfor individuals or groups of workers (e.g. jobrotation, exchanges, quality circles).

c. Training implemented by the company andmanaged by the employee

Distance or computer-based learning (includ-ing company supported access to internal(within the company) or external learningcentres).

Chapter 6 provides detailed explanations of theorganization of continuing vocational training inthe motor vehicle sales and repair sector.The above-mentioned definition roughly coversthe area of this study. The case studies show,however, that it was sometimes difficult to draw aline between the different concepts of training. Onthe whole, the range of the seven training

2 Meeting of the working group "Continuing Vocational Training Survey" held on 19 May 1992, Eurostat Dec. El /812/92

3 Continuing Vocational Training Survey. Draft list of training activities. Eurostat.

3

characteristics in a, b and c will help to allocatethe most important training activities to differentlevels. The seven characteristics of training covertraining in different kinds of institutions as well astraining delivered directly during the workingprocess through practical experience or distancelearning courses.

The relltionship between initial and continuingtraining proved to be difficult. Initial training takesplace immediately after compulsory schooling andis usually clearly defined as preparation (e.g.apprenticeship, trainee) for entering the sectorwith a minimum of qualifications necessary forwork within the motor vehicle sales and repairsector.

2.3 MethodologyThe methodology was formulated by the CentralTeam and for the most part adhered to theexample of the retail sector. New instrumentswere developed to conduct case studies andsectoral surveys. CEDEFOP and TASK FORCEprovided support in this work. The most importantobjective in developing these instruments was tomeet the above-mentioned aims.

2.3.1 Selection of the cas studiesThe surveys focused on good and normal practicein small and medium-sized companies. Trainingprogrammes of companies found to be particu-larly innovative in this sector were included in thecase studies if considered appropriate by theresearcher.

The core of the study within the companies are thefindings on the company's training policies andtraining concepts as well as training practice.Attention was given to identifying the currentsituation, efficient models with a high chance oftransferability to another context, i.e. to other firmsand countries.

The survey's initial aim was to conduct some 50case studies throughout the EU Member States. Inview of the some 400,000 companies and 1.8million employees engaged in the sector, it wasnot intended to establish a representative samplebased on purely statistical methods, but the caseswere selected in order to represent a qualitative"European landscape". The main aim was toproduce an overview of the European sector andto avoid subjective decisions in the absence ofobjective criteria. Based on these aims, criteriahad to be selected to meet the aims of the study.

The survey was to be designed in such a way as toidentify and explain models of good and normalpractice with regard to continuing vocationaltraining. This included a discussion of trainingconcepts, target groups, training needs, strategiesand costs. Models which turned out to beparticularly innovative were to represent a helpfor orientation in future planning within the twelve

14

Member States. In order to ovoid random selec-tion, the following criteria were adopted:

market shares of the countries with regard tosalessales of makes in the Member Statessize of repair shopstype of repair shops (subsidiaries, dealers,independent repair shops, etc.)types of vehicles (cars, trucks, others)training activities.

This resulted in a matrix representing the Europeanmotor vehicle sales and repair sector.

These criteria were applied in cielecting the casestudies shown in the table.

Table A Number of case studies based on market share ofcountries

Country

DK

GR

IRL

NL

UK

Total

Case Studies

445445452445

50

There was no reliable distribution factor for theclassification 'type of companies'. The proposeddistribution takes into account the importance ofthe different types. The deviation of the finalnumber does not influence the European land-scape.

Figures also include categories of motor vehiclessuch as:

a. passenger cars/light commercial vehiclesb. lorriesc. others

The share of lorries in Europe is some 14%resulting in 7 cases in Table C. Most of the othercompanies, however, also include lorries as well.For this no additional statistics were included.

Seven case studies were planned to be conductedat specialist companies in various componentsand specific vehicles. Ten case studies wereconducted in all-round companies.

In order to focus the survey on the sector and toencompass the whole range of continuing voca-tional training within a company in the sector, a

Table B - Number of case studies based on makes and their sales in EU Member States

Brand Name Planned case Final number of casestudies studies realized

VW/Audi & Seat 5 6Peugeot/Citroon 4 4Fiat 3 2Japanese Brands 5 6Renault 3 3Ford n 2Opel i 2Mercedes Benz 2 3BMW 2 2Rover 2 2GM 1 1

Saab 1 1

Volvo 1 1

Total 331 351

Minor changes to these figures are attributable to the fact that not all tho selected outlets carried out continuing vocationaltraining during the period of the study.

Table C - Number of case studies based on type of repair shop (trucks/components and general repair shops)

Type of repair shop Plannedcase studies

Final number of case studiesrealized

General repair shops/companies 10 9Specialists in componentsand special motor vehicles

7 6

Trucks (included in brand names - no extra counting) (7) (19)

Total 17 15Grand Total B + C 50 50

Table D - Number of case studies based on the size If companies and number of employees

Size of company IV V Total1-4 5-9 10-19 20-29 over 50

Case studies planned 6 12 12 10 10 50

Case studies carried through 6 12 10 12 10 50

On account of the fact that precise figures were not available for each country, the distribution of the companies in thedifferent groups is estimated as are the number of employees.

Table E - Number of case studies based on types of companies

Planned casestudies

Final number of casestudies

A. Subsidiaries of manufacturers(controlled by manufacturers)

8

B. Subsidiaries of manufacturers(independent of manufacturers)

11

C. Authorized repair and distribution repair shops(independent but linked to motor vehiclemanufacturer)

24 26

D. Genital motor vehicle repair shops andindependent repair shops

3 5

E. Motor vehicle dealers 5 2F. Repair shops specialized in the repair of

components and aggregates10 6

Total 50 50

1

description of a case study was formulated. Thus,a case is a single repair shop. A repair shop andthe customer service training centre or a motorvehicle manufacturer, however, is also a casestudy. A case study includes the repair shop linkedto a motor vehicle manufacturer within anycompany. This is true for all subsidiaries andauthorized sales and repair shops. Where asurvey in a repair shop linked to a motor vehiclemanufacturer was conducted, emphasis wasplaced on the repair shop itself and the customerservice training centre belonging to the motorvehicle manufacturer. The system and philosophyof customer service training was one of the majorfactors in the case study. The repair shop and themotor vehicle manufacturer represents one casestudy which was conducted and evaluated.

It is important to note that all case studies had torefer to the motor vehicle sales and repair sector.The employees of the company had to be the focalpoint of interviews and of the case study itself. Theanalysis of continuing vocational training ofemployees revealed all the necessary informationon trends in continuing vocational training.

Implementation of this approach at national levelrequired:

an adequate knowledge of the current situationwith regard to training in a number and varietyof companies;

the participation of employers' and employees'organizations;

firms, willing to take part in the survey.

In order to present a sound overview of theEuropean sector, the case studies had to beselected on the above-mentioned criteria.

The selection of case studies had to be consideredat a European level, with a view to designing aEuropean image of the sector. A sample of morethan 100 cases was preselected in the twelvecountries. Final selection of 50 cases was carriedout at European level through adhering to thesecriteria in order to achieve a well-balancedsample representative of the European sector.

2.3.2 Context and comparabilityTraining experiences could not be understoodwithout placing them in the context of thecompany and country. This framework is neces-sary in order to understand specific structures andactivities as well as the relationship betweencommercial aims, changing strategies, trainingconcepts and training practice. For this reason,each study had to be seen in the national context.The national context was presented in each report.The authors are aware that:

16

analysis of workers' experience of continuingtraining is part of their subjective socialization.This implies that comparison of national sectorsrequire objective criteria in the context ofspecific social and "cultural conditions. In thiskind of study this is not possible. Existingdifferences, however, may be pointed out anddiscussed.

However, some trends as a result of technologi-cal development which are monitored by asmall number of large motor vehicle manufac-turers lead to a comparative homogeneity insome areas of the sector on account of the factthat manufacturers influence the process ofdevelopment through the technology applied.

Finally, it must be stressed that an internationalstudy such as this one requires disciplinedcoordination to ensure wide compilation of datawith regard to quality and quantity. The presenta-tion of the reports must be consistent to ensure anappropriate level of comparability. Rather thanimposing a rigid structure going beyond theguidelines mentioned above, this study attemptedto encourage a common approach on the part ofall participants.

2.4 Implementation of the survey andproblems encounteredThe investigations in the motor vehicle sales andrepair sector were conducted by sixteen nationalresearch teams usually one from each country,but three from Belgium, two from Germany andtwo from Greece. The Central Team providedguidelines and tools for the investigations.Detailed guidelines were formulated for inter-views with company representatives, trainingmanagers and customer service training centres.In line with the philosophy behind this study, topromote contact with workers and their representa-tives, a special questionnaire was drawn up toobtain a more objective view of the currentsituation with regard to continuing vocationaltraining. No specific guidelines were preparedfor interviews with trade union representatives ortrade associations.

The study may be summarized in four importantareas:

Design of the sector reportPre-selection of case studiesFinal selection of case studiesConducting the case studies.

A number of problems arose with implementationof the survey.

1. Design of the sector report was an imporffintand, in some cases, difficult process. The studyrequired a good overview of the sector and called

0

upon all sources of influence (e.g. trade associa-tions, trade unions, manufacturers' organizations,statistics institutes, publishers, etc.) in order topaint a full picture of:

the process of technological development;the development of the various types of repairshops and sales organizations;the importance for the future of the motorvehicle sales and repair sector to a country;trade regulations in the sector;the systems and philosophy behind continuingvocational training and their development.

Due to a lack of data and complexity of the sectorin some countries, it was not always possible to.thtain a full picture.

The inadequacy of information made itself felt atthe level of national data and at company level.With regard to national data, the situation variesgreatly from country to country. On the other handthe main manufacturers' organizations were ableto provide important information and facts. It wasmore difficult to get valid information on continu-ing vocational training. The reason for this .waspointed out in most case studies: many companieswhich accept and support continuing vocationaltraining do not follow-up or evaluate this.

In many countries there is still a lack of data on:

average number of employees per company;

number of employees on the level of

skilled workersmaster craftsmenapprenticesadministration clerks/white-collar managers

number of women

number of training days per employee an-nually.

The aim of the forthcoming continuing vocationaltraining survey undertaken by Eurostat and Task

Force Human Resources, Education, Training andYouth as part of the FORCE programme is to fillthis gap.

2. During the process of preselecting case studies,the social partners often favoured companiescarrying through a model of good practice incontinuing vocational training. Models of normalpractice were sometimes not the focal point of theselection procedure.

3. During final selection, which was carried out atEuropean level, the major task was to avoiddisproportions and to adhere to the selectioncriteria.

4. The process of conducting the case studies alsorevealed a variety of experiences. In general,current conditions differ greatly from country tocountry. Usually, companies and their representa-tives were helpful in giving interviews withdifferent persons at different levels within thehierarchy. This resulted in substantial, detailedinterviews providing a clear picture of the situationwith regard to continuing vocational training andthe factors which influence this.

On the other hand, some companies only agreedto interviews with their manager or his represen-tative. Hence, some of the descriptions of the casestudies reflect essentially the managerial view.

There were no particular problems in analyzingother institutions, trade associations, trade unions,government organizations, involved in continuingvocational training in the motor vehicle sales andrepair sector.

With regard to some very detailed analyses oftraining, training plans as well as philosophies,strategies and training demand compared with theneeds of manpower in the sector and technologi-cal development, it was possible to develop anobjective and thorough assessment of differenttraining models (normal practice, good practice).The transferability and future trends in differentmodels and their implications will be discussed.

L 17

Motor vehicle manufacturer

Repai1r

THE MOTOR VEHICLE SECTOR IN THE CONTEXTOF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITY

3.1 Historical dovalopmant manufacturers had produced no indications ofThe development of motor vehicle repair shops production standards to be adhered to. Most ofand motor vehicle dealers in Europe has taken these were kept secret (standardized fittingplace in three subsequent phases: systems were only introduced during World

War I);1. The motor vehicle repair shop at the manufac-

turer's plant and repair at the locksmith's shop. the materials required were not available andcertain production steps unknown;

few craftsmen had realised the importance ofimminent motorization and were willing to takethe risks and make changes on account of thecapital outlay required and the predominatingconservative attitude.

2. The motormehicle trade and authorized repairshops and dealers.

3. The organized authorized repair shop.

The development of the motor vehicle trade isclosely linked to the development of the structure ofthe motor vehicle sector (trade and industry), as awhole.

The invention of the motor vehicle C. F. Benzcalled his invention the "patent motor vehicle" in1885 took place at a time when the railway wasgrowing as an efficient system for transportingpassengers and goods in many European coun-tries. Up to World War I, the motor vehicle was noserious competitor as a means of transportationand had a rather symbolic significance as ademonstration of wealth, social status and nobilityof its aristocratic proprietors who could thus showtheir independence from mass transportation,above all from the railway. (I. Petsch: Vomkollektiven zum individuellen Verkehrsmittel.)

Carl Benz exhibited his motor vehicle at the ParisFair of 1887, squeezed in between horse carts. Itreceived little attention, but in subsequent years amodest manufacturing of motor vehicles devel-oped in Europe. In 1894 the Paris-based machinetool company Panhard et lavasser was the world'sleading motor vehicle manufacturer after Emilelavasser had acquired a licence from GottliebDaimler in 1887 to manufacture the Daimler petrolengine (cf. Womack et al. 1992, p. 25ff). Thethird "International Motor Vehicle Fair" in Berlinhosted some 134 exhibitors. In 1911, some55,000 motor vehicles and motorcycles wereregistered throughout Germany.

At the outset of motor vehicle manufacture, repairand maintenance work was carried out mainly bythe chauffeurs on account of the fact that motorvehicle owners could afford a chauffeur. By theturn of the century through participation in theproduction process of their motor vehicle, chauf-feurs learned how to carry out simple repair tasks.

Up to World War I, there were scarcely anyindependent repair shops in Europe specializingin motor vehicle repair and maintenance for avariety of reasons:

the metal processing trade had not yet devel-oped the necessary machine tools, assuringadequate precision in producing spare parts;

18

Diagram 3.1 shows the relationship betweenmanufacturer, repair shop and customer whichdeveloped during the phase of craft production ofmotor vehicles.

Diagram 3.1 Production repair shop customer at thebeginning of the 20th century

ProductionlocksmithsSmithsMechanicsTrades

Customers

The development of an independent motor vehicletrade depended directly on the transition fromhandcrafting of motor vehicles to mass production.The introduction of assembly line production atFord's aimed at simple operation and mainte-nance of the motor vehicle, a factor crucial formass production. Ford presumed that motorvehicle owners would carry out the necesskalrepair work themselves. "Consequently theel-T manual explained on 64 pages with questionsand answers which the motor vehicle owner coulduse simple tools to repair each of the 140problems described which were likely to occur inthe motor vehicle" (Womack et al. 1992, p. 34).

The introduction of mass production in Europeresulted in a drastic reduction in manufacturingcompanies. This also marked the birth of stand-ardization of repair through original spare parts.Authorized repair shops developed. The manufac-turers attempted to ofhr safe and reliable servicefor the customer and to reduce the risk ofinadequate repair. The more repair shops cateredfor motor vehicles sold, the greater became themanufacturers' interest in increasing standardiza-tion of tasks in repair shops (through dealercontracts and training).

Since the 70s, developments in repair shops havebeen characterized by an expansion of theconcept of authorized repair shops, combinedwith specific division of tasks between manufac-turers and such shops. The dichotomy betweenincreasing complexity in repair shops on accountof the introduction of micro electronics equipmentand the networking of motor vehicle componentsby microprocessors and the economic necessity toproduce maintenance and repair free motorvehicles, have forced manufacturers to increas-ingly integrate and mould service and repair of'their" motor vehicles to a marketing strategy. Thesale of a motor vehicle assumes a clearlydetermined amount of guarantee provisions andservice required by the customer from dealers orrepair shops. As guarantee periods for certainmotor vehicle parts increase some manufacturersguarantee motor vehicle bodies for up to six years

the repair shops will increasingly work on behalfof the manufacturer. By providing programmedservice, the manufacturers attempt to standardizeand minimize expenditure on repair and service inthe reriair shops. This is the case for

parts to exchanged, components and aggre-gates;costs (working time, material costs, generalexpenditure);work procedures following instructions andprogrammes; andsize of spare parts stock.

With the introduction of computerized on-linednetworks to the manufacturers, the programmed

authorized repair shop is slowly drifting towardsa sphere of business (sub-centre) linked to themanufacturer.

In addition to this dominant trend, a number oforiginal and country-specific dimensions of themotor vehicle trade in EU Member States also playa less important role.

3.2 Structure of industry, repair shopsand sales

3.2.1 The motor vehicle industry as thekey sector for integration in EuropeAccording to the AID Motor Vehicle Yearbook1992 (Diagram 3.2) more motor vehicles wereregistered in the course of that year in Europeancountries (EU and EFTA Member States) in 1991(44.8%) than in the United States (27.1%) and inJapan (16.2%) taken together (43.3%).

This represented an increase of 2% over 1990figures. With the economic rapprochement of theEastern and Western European countries and thestep by step integration into an all-Europeaneconomic area, Europe obviously will form byfar the largest market for the world's motor vehicleindustry in the next decade and beyond. Thismarket, compared to the U.S. or Japan, has notbeen saturated and the motor vehicle industry inEurope will be a growing economic sector beyondthe turn of the century. The degree of competitionbetween European manufacturers and extra Euro-pean manufacturers depends on two factors:

Diagram 3.2 Passenger car registrations key western world markets

Millions14

13

12

11

10

9

8

76

5

4

3

2

1991

W-Europe MI USA C=I Japan

1990 Calendar Years

AID Graph YB921/01

1 9

Table 3.1 - World passenger car sales on major markets

Area Year1991 Share

Year1990 Share Change

Europe' 13,504 44.8 13,259 42.7 1.9USA 8,176 27.1 9,300 29.9 -12.1Japan 4,868 16.2 5,102 16.4 - 4.6Canada 873 2.9 886 2.9 - 1.5South Korea 773 2.6 604 1.9 28.0Brazil 596 2.0 526 1.7 13.3Mexico 396 1.3 354 1.1 11.9Australia 388 1.3 463 1.5 -16.2Taiwan 350 1.2 353 1.1 - 0.8South Africa 198 0.7 210 0.7 - 5.7

Total 30,122 100.0 31,057 100.0 - 3 0

1 17 markets

Source: AID

attaining productivity comparable to that ofcompetitors;

attaining product quality comparable to Japa-nese competitors.

Both these factors account for the comparativelyhigh Japanese market share in European countrieswhich do not manufacture motor vehicles. Theshare of newly-registered vehicles in someEuropean countries exceeds 40% (Ireland:45.9%; Finland: 44.4%; Norway: 44.9%; Den-mark: 42.3%). Motor vehicle manufacturers suchas Italy (2.7%), Spain (3.2%) and France (4.1%)have a very low share ofJapanese motor vehicles.There has been no substantial change in marketshares in these countries over the past five years. Ifone takes into consideration Japanese subsidiariesin new Member States, the picture is changing infavour of Japanese motor vehicle manufacturerswith plants in the UK and Spain. This is, however,not the subject of this study.

Major world passenger car sales (Table 3.1)which reached some 31 million motor vehicleson major markets (1990) and which will maintainand even increase its size after a temporarydecrease on account of a recession, clearly showsa different emphasis compared to Europeanmarkets.

These figures show that only 16% of all new motorvehicles were sold in Japan, whereas Japan'sshare in west European markets was 37%.

The economic situation of the motor vehicle tradedoes not depend on this development as it is oflittle significance to a repair shop or dealerwhether they sell and repair European or foreignmakes of motor vehicles. In the Europeaneconomic context it is important to establish theshare of the European motor vehicle trade in theEuropean sector.

20

Diagram 3.3 illustrates trends in motor vehicledensity in European countries (inhabitants permotor vehicle) between 1987 and 1991. Itconfirms continued growth in the numbers ofmotor vehicles and shows interesting differencesbetween certain European countries. In 1987,countries such as Portugal (6.4), Greece (5.0),Ireland (4.5) and Spain (3.4) had a motor vehicledensity exceeding one motor vehicle per threeinhabitants. Other EU Member States had ratesclearly below these in the same year, Denmark(2.8), Germany (2.1). The developments in 1991show three notable trends:

Between 1987 and 1991 there was an overallreduction in this gap with regard to motorvehicle density. The gap between Portugal andGermany (6.4 v. 2.1) had been reduced to 4.9v. 1.9 within 4 years. This convergent trend iscommon to all EU Member States.

Countries with the highest motor vehicle densityshowed a ratio of one motor vehicle per twoinhabitants. Differences between Luxembourg,Germany, Italy and France had becomenegligible. There is a strong trend towardssuch a ratio in the UK (2.2), Belgium (2.3), theNetherlands (2.4), Denmark and Spain (2.7).There are certain exceptions in Denmark whichhas the lowest increase (0.1) and Spain with ahigher density than Denmark in spite ofsignificant motor vehicle density in 1987 (3.4).

EU Member States with the lowest motorvehicle density ratio in 1987 also showed themost marked increases (Portugal, Greece,Ireland).

Comparing developments in Europe with those inthe United States and Japan, it is notable that theU.S. with a density of 1 .75 inhabitants per motorvehicle, has a slightly higher motor vehicle densitythan the highest densities of European countries.

Diagram 3.3 Development of motor vehicle densities in European countries (inhabitants per motor vehicle)

2

UKNL 8

DK3

..................................................

4

IRL

5

6

.. . .... . : ........................ M.

D I I

DK

NL

IRL

GR_.......

1987 1990 1991

Country 1987 1991

B 2,7 2,3D 2,1 1,9DK 2,8 2,7E 3,4 2,7F 2,2 2,0GR 5 4,2IRL 4,5 3,7I 2,2 1,9I. 2,3 1,9NL 2,6 2,4P 6,4 4,9UK 2,5 2,2

Population per car

This may be attributable to the different function ofthe motor vehicle versus the railway and publictransportation in cities as a means of transporta-tion in Europe. The comparatively low Japanesefigures similar to that of Ireland stem from amultitude of reasons which are not the subject ofthis study. One of the major issues is the trafficstructure of Greater Tokyo which does not allowfor further expansion of private transportation.

Besides the motor vehicle industry, the sales andrepair sector accounts for considerable employ-ment and economic activity in European countries.

In Germany the sector accounts for 8.5% of theGNP, in Spain for 7%, in the UK for 2.5%. Theother countries have values of between 3 and 6%.The motor vehicle sales and repair sector in the EUaccounts for 362,836 mostly small- and medium-sized companies, employing a total of 1.83million people (Table 3.2).

In comparing EU Member States, importantdifferences can be noted:

in the ratio between registered motor vehiclesper person in the repair and sales field;

in the ratio between the persons employed inthe sector over the total number of inhabitants.

A long-term comparison of the numbers employedin the motor vehicle sales and repair sector withthe number of motor vehicles directly revealsmaintenance and repair expenditure per motorvehicle (Diagram 3.4).

The comparison is not highly accurate on accountof the number of moonlight companies cnd aninformal motor vehicle sales and repair trot Ie. Noprecise data are available on these. Cuistomerinterviews reveal, however, that with increasing

Table 3.2 Number of companies and percons engaged in the sector and number of inhabitants (1991

Companies Persons engagedin Sector (A)

A/B Inhabitants(x 10 2) in Mio (B)

DK

GR

IRL

NL

UK

14,73644,84712,80052,00067,00017,8042,546

107,500421

12,0006,948

22,700

44,303357,00046,000

206,000400,000

72,11212,464

264,0003,800

70,00072,628

273,688

0.440.560.900.530.730.720.330.460.950.470.7260.48

1063.2

5.13956.310.13.7

57.60.4

1510.357.4

age of motor vehicles, "Do-it-Yourself" and the useof moonligk firms is increasing.

In 1949, orta motor vehicle mechanic in Germanycatered for 14 motor vehicles compared to 40 in1965 and 100 motor vehicles today. Since 1949the motor vehicle fleet has increased six fold overthe number of persons employed. This accounts forthe fact that with a slowing down in the increasein the number of motor vehicles in EU MemberStates, the number of persons employed in thesector is also decreasing.4

The substantial differences in the ratio of motorvehicles per person employed within EU MemberStates reflects 3 very different structures of themotor vehicle sales and repair trade. Whenignoring the differing structures of the motorvehicle fleets in EU Member States in an initialapproach to this phenomenon characterized bya differing average lifespan of motor vehicle andmarket shares of makes it is evident that themajority of the EU Member States show consider-able rationalization potential in the sector. Withrespect to a modern motor vehicle fleet with anaverage, lifespan of 10 years, and a furtherprolongation of service intervals, and a reductionof the need for repair, Europe will show a valuefar beyond 100 motor vehicles per mechanicwithin the next decade, in spite of the growingtecbnical complexity of the motor vehicle (cEChapter 4). Given the estimated continuedincrease in repair shops and the development ofdealer structures and the number of personsemployed, two contradictory trends will have tobe balanced:

the differing increases in motor vehicle density;

application of rationalization measures inservice and repair.

In a matrix (Table 3.3) the EU Member States canbe allocated to four different areas: two areashave a high motor vehicle density; area I with ahigh motor vehicle density and a high number ofmotor vehicles per person engaged in the sectorand area III with a high motor vehicle density anda low number of persons engaged. Two areasshow a low motor vehicle density: area II with ahigher and area IV with a lower number of motorvehicles per person employed in the sector.

Area II has favourable prerequisites for stabledevelopment of the labour market. Should a cleartrend towards an increase in the motor vehicledensity (area II, Ireland) prevail, this will result inan increase of persons employed and to a lesserextent in higher productivity rates as this value isalready quite high.

Table 3.3 Matrix of allocation of the EU Member States toareas according to motor vehicle and employment density(1991)

Germany 95 Ireland 83Netherlands 87Belgium 97Italy 100

Denmark 41 Greece 34Luxembourg 59 Portugal 33France 71Spain 70UK 73

III high IV low

II high

IV lowmotor vehiclesper personin sector

motor vehicle density (per inhabitant)

Area IV may witness major structural changes withan increase in motor vehicle density. Both Greeceand Portugal show a high number oF personsemployed in the motor vehicle repair sector in

4 This is only one factor. Rationalization in the repair shops is also rechicing employment in the sector.

,22

Diogram 3.4 Trends in vehicles per person employed in the sector

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

8

NL

IRL

UK

1980 1985

Country 1983/85/87 1991

87 9790 95.5

DK 41.3E 54 70

72 71.3GR 34IRL 68 831 80 100

'59 591st 84 87

33UK 63 73

motor vehicles per person in sector

DK

GR

1990 2000

spite of low motor vehicle density. The expectedstructural change in Area IV is characterized by anincrease in the motor vehicle fleet and a decreasein the persons employed in the sector. Animportant precondition for this development isEuropean policies aimed at harmonizing levels ofeconomic activity in EU Member States. A clearadjustment of motor vehicle density (Table 3.2 andDiagram 3.3) will indicate the success of thispolicy.

The structural change in Area I is comparativelylow. The slight decrease in the number of personsmployed is worthy of note. This is attributable toon improvement in the quality of motor vehicles

(including European makes) and to longer periodsbetween services. On account of market satura-tion in Area I, there is only a need for motorvehicle replacement (i.e. 8-10% of existing motorvehicles in use). Thus, the secondhand motorvehicle market will increase slightly over the totalnumber of registered vehicles. This will contributeto some extent to motor vehicle repair and service.

Area III encompasses those countries likely toexperience a decrease in the number of personsemployed in the sector over a long period. Spainis an exception as the rapid increase in motorvehicle density compensates for the numbersemployed. On the other hand, this points tosubstantial structural change in repair shops. Theratio of 1 70 in a producing country indicates aconsiderable need for modernization which hascommenced with modernization of equipmentover recent years.

Luxembourg occupies a special place in thiscomparison. The comparatively high number ofthose employed in this sector cannot be attributedto a greater need for repair of motor vehicles, butto customer behaviour. Motor vehicle owners inLuxembourg call for servicing in repair shopstwice as frequently as their counterparts in otherEU Member States. Presumably, there will be onlyminor changes in the Luxembourg workforce in themotor vehicle sales and repair sector in the future(e.g. Ll, 2).

2 3

The structure of the motor vehicle trade (dealersand repair shops) is influenced clearly by themotor vehicle market in EU Member States. Thisagain, is influenced by:

the salary situation of the population and theirstandard of living as well as the price of motorvehicles; in Denmark salaries are very high,but, on the other hand, the cost of living isclearly well above the European average.Prices for new vehicles are 40% higher thanin other EU Member States. This is the reasonfor an older motor vehicle fleet.

the share of motor vehicle makes in a country'smotor vehicle fleet; as motor vehicles fromdifferent manufacturers require differingamounts of repair, this influences the structureof the repair shops to a certain extent. A highshare of motor vehicles requiring little repair isthus influencing employment.

Motor Vehicle densiiy and the country's geo-graphy; in industrial areas it is easier to set upa dealer and repair shop network linked tomanufacturers than it is in less populated areaswith a lower traffic density. In regions with asmaller market share, the manufacturers haveto conclude dealer contracts with repair shopscatering for their makes.

The classification of motor vehicle sales and repairshops according to their size and their activities(independent repair shops, authorized repairshops, etc.) produces insight into the structure ofthe companies in the EU Member States.

3.2.2 Manufacturers and theirauthorized outlets and dealersAll manufacturers are interested in exclusivedealers' contracts as they seek to promote theirown products. They are convinced that an outlet/dealer can only achieve high quality in serviceand trade when specializing in the product of asingle manufacturer. Ms ;hare of manufacturers'subsidiaries and auftorized dectlers in EU Mem-ber States is high or average. More than 60% ofmotor vehicle dealers are linked to a manufactureror importer in all EU Member States with theexception of Greece, Portugal and Spain, whichhave a share of more than 80% of independentrepair shops.

The average number of persons employed inmotor vehicle outlets in EU Member States is under6. The UK, Portugal, Luxembourg, France andGermany have employment figures above thisaverage, whereas outlets in countries such as Italy,Spain, Greece, the Netherlands and Belgiumemploy fewer people than the European aver-age. Denmark has an average of 6.1 employeesper repair shop.

24

The share of very small companies (up toemployees) varies between 20% (UK) and over60% (DK, F, GR, I, E). These firms make upbetween 15% (D) and almost 30% (I, E, F, DK), ofall employees in the sector.

A smaller share of these very small companies actsas authorized repair shops for manufacturers.They already have considerable problems asinvestments in equipment for an authorized repairshop can amount to some DM 100,000 perworkplace.

The considerable share of very small companiesproves that the high density of motor vehicledealers and repair shops is being maintained bycustomer behaviour. The neighbourhood repairshop apparently prevents development of largermotor vehicle companies. Trends in the size ofrepair shops differ greatly. In Germany, forexample, the average repair shop size hasdecreased from 15 (1970) to 8 (1992) employ-ees. In the UK, however, the trend is in theopposite direction. The considerable decrease inthe number of outlets in the UK from 40,000 in1974 to 22,700 today, has been accompaniedby a trend towards larger repair shops and agreater but unknown number of small repair shopsas part of the "grey" market. The predominance ofvery small repair shops has a considerableinfluence on the qualification requirements ofemployees; there is scarcely any division of tasksbetween employees. This type of all-round motorvehicle mechanic is predominant in very smallcompanies with the exception of specialistsemployed in a few specialized repair shops.

Most of the workforce in the motor vehicle salesand repair sector are employed in small (size II:5-9 employees) and in medium-sized repairshops (size III: 10-19 employees). One of theexceptions is Portugal where very small repairshops predominate (56% of all repair shops).Larger companies (sizes IV and V) have a share of5.9% and 3.4% respectively. The latter, however,employ 56% of the workforce in the sector. Thehigh employment density clearly indicates thatlarger Portuguese repair shops are facing remark-able structural changes. The larger repair shops(sizes III, IV, and a great number of smallerrepair shops (II) are linked to the manufacturer bydealer contracts or are importers from manufac-turers' subsidiaries. For the most part authorizeddealers represent only one make. This is particu-lary true of countries with a high motor vehicledensity.

The total range of companies show also char-acteristics which are specific of the countries. Theexistence of 4,500 "Fast-Fit Centres" in the UKsome of them authorized dealers - and the highshare of "unofficial very small repair shops"indicate a considerable segmentation process inthe UK sector. The Fast-Fit Centres, a while-you.

wait service, focus on a large volume of trade withroutine service items such as tyres, exhausts,batteries, oil change and regular inspections.

They are usually not model-specific. They offer abrand name service where customers may choosethe items they want at a preset price (in UK).

There was a visible trend towards segmentation inthe 80s in the European motor vehicle sales andrepair sector. Apart from "Fast-Fit Centres" this isalso true of specialized repair shops for bodyworkor spraying (there are 700 sucn companies inthe Athens area alone). General motor vehiclecompanies have, over the past 17 years, lost partof their business to such specialized companies.The latter offer parts and component repair workfor simple tasks.

It is difficult to forecast if this trend towardsegmentation will continue or if it will be reversedby a trend towards authorized dealers.

If the high-tech motor vehicle dominates in thecoming years and if environmental requirementsdemand more stringent technical monitoring ofvehicles, the relationships between manufacturersand dealers/repair shops will become even0closer. This would result in an increase inauthorized dealers/repair shops. Smaller non-authorized companies will only survive if theyspecialize in certain tasks.

The considerable decrease in authorized repairshops in the UK during the 80s had little influenceon authorized repair shops. The number of thesewere not significantly reduced.

The European integration process and particularlythe creation of a Single European Market, willreduce the role of importers. One can expect tosee large scale sales Lind direct links betweendealers and manufacturers. Such a trend is

already visible in the UK Importing companies,which currently fulfil primarily a wholesale func-tion, can be expected to play a more commercialrole and offer dealers greater support in manu-facturing and supervision (NL). A new group ofcompanies is represented by motor vehicle leasingfirms. They already account for 20% of the newmotor vehicle market in the Netherlands. Theappearance of these and other fleet owners hasled to a concentration of pur:hasing power in thehands of a small number of consumers and to aweakening of the position of motor vehicle salescompanies (NL). One-third of Dutch motor vehiclecompanies offered leasing arrangements in 1988.

3.2.3 The i idependent repair shopsIndependenf 'pair shops are mostly repair shopsof size I. Mt lor vehicle sales is usually confined tosecondhand vehicles. These companies are threat-ened from two sides:

by the so-called "moonlighting companies"(black market); andauthorized dealers and manufacturers.

Manufacturers make efforts to ensure that onlytheir authorized dealers receive information viaelectronic data processing and technical docu-mentation on service, repair and spare parts oftheir vehicles.

An additional problem is presented by regularup4lating of diagnostic software and the introduc-tion of an end-of-line programming of testingequipment during motor vehicle production, thusmaking each motor vehicle an individual entitywhich can only be serviced and repaired with theaid of specialized manufacturer's software using anetwork link between manufacturer and repairshop. Vehicle repair and servicing by independentrepair shops also entails risks for the customer asguarantee provisions of the manufacturer maythen be invalidated.

On account of the lower economic potential ofindependent repair shops, one of the mainproblems is inwtstment in new diagnostic equip-ment and improving repair service for newproducts. Independent repair shops are usuallynot permitted to participate in continuing voca-tional training at customer service training cenhesof the manufacturers.

A likely scenario for the future development ofindependent repair shops is portrayed in thesector studies and the case studies carried out inthese repair shops: independent repair shops willtake over repair of secondhand vehicles, they willbecome "Fast-Fit Centres" for simple repair workand routine inspection. To a certain extent asubcontracting structure may develop betwt.,nauthorized dealers and specialized independentrepair shops (spraying, bodywork, etc.).

3.2.4 Mega-dealersThe' mega-dealer concept is more prevalent inthe U.S. A mega-dealer represents a number ofmakes and offers all kinds of manufacturer-relatedhigh quality service under one roof.

The high quality services of these companies andtheir economic strength imply a cooperativerelationship with the manufacturer in comparisonto the strictly supervisional structure prevalent inEurope. In European countries the mega-dealerconcept does not yet play an important role. It isdifficult to forecast whether this type of companywill become a significant segment of the sector orwhether manufacturers and importers, faced withchanging domestic market structures in highlyindustrialized areas, will adopt the mega-dealerconcept. Up to the present, the size of thecompany has not yet played an important role.

25

Whether the possible modification of EU Regula-tion No. 132/85 in 1995 will influence the trendtowards mega-dealers cannot be predicted. TheBelgian sector report offers a possible scenario:

"If the EU would attach more importance to therequirement of free competition in the sector, thiswould lead to a profound transformation. Approxi-mately 40% of all companies (in Belgium) wouldlose their privileged position. If the regulationwould cease to be applicable the developmentwould go in the direction of the mega-motorvehicle-centres already common in the U.S., i.e.several geagraphicalY grouped motor vehiclecompanies working together in order to offercustomers at the same time motor vehicles andaccessories, a car washing plant, leasing facil-ities, repair and maintenance services, etc."

3.3 The role and importance of thesocial partners in the EU Member States

3.3.1 How to establish a companyThe legal regulations on establishing a motorvehicle company differ greatly within the EUMember States. This is attributable to the differenttraditions and government deregulation, but alsoto differences in the educational systems.

Countries with stringent regulations are theNetherlands, Germany and Luxembourg. InLuxembourg and Germany a master craftsmancertificate is required for opening a motor vehiclecompany. This certificate requires sound initialvocational training.

The traditional concept of master craftsmanship isclosely linked to the training concept of appren-ticeship in a master craftsman's repair shop. Thisconcept is common to those countries practisingforms of dual vocational training and in whichtraining roots go back to handicraft apprentice-ship. Apart from knowledge and skills relating tomotor vehicle technology, would-be master crafts-men are also trained in company management. Inthe Netherlands, the proprietor of a motor vehiclecompany must acquire two certificates: one, theMotor vehicle Industry Proficiency Diploma, andtwo, the Small Business Diploma. The employerorganizations insist on legal provisions to governindustrial technology and the joint regulations formotor vehicle, bodywork and tyre servicingcompanies. Other certificates are required foropening a company for routine inspection or formotor vehicle demolition. Official approval forinspection repair shops is necessary and can beobtained only if the company employs a personwith a master's certificate in motor vehicleinspection. These requirements are common toGermany and Luxembourg.

EU Member States with a long tradition of schoolvocational training, have very different regulationsconcerning the establishment of companies. In

26

,these instances, certificates from specializedcolleges and universities are of great impor-tance. Greece, for example, determines thatcompanies of a certain size (more than 25employees) must employ an engineer with aqualification in this field. Small companies haveregulations defining a total of 14 categories .ofoccupational practices. In order to qualify for oneof these categories, a candidate must prove.one tofour years practical experience and have acertificate from a technical school or comparableinitial training. This regulation covering 14different fields of activity within the motor vehiclesector is special in nature. The majority of EUMember States have a less differentiated divisionof tasks (a maximum of 4 fields) in the regulations.This degree of differentiation reflects the largenumber of specialized repair shops. Greece alsohas the highest degree of specialization in itsrepair shops. Concerning the trend towards high-tech motor vehicles and integrated technology, thespecialist certificates have already shown them-selves to be outdated.

The UK has a particularly small number ofregulations governing independent repair shopsand tends more towards self regulation thandetailed government provisions. Standards areusually set by the manufacturing and dealershipnetworks for authorized dealers. The UK standard(BS 5750) plays an important role for companiesin motor vehicle sector.

"Out of direct training itself, the most significantforce for change in the sector has been the BS5750 accreditation, a government standard ofquality which has primarily been applied tomanufacturing establishments but is increasinglybeing found in retail and service applications. Toattain BS 5750 a company must first establishquality targets, then specify the measures to beused to attain these targets, and finally prove tothe inspectors that the measures proposed canactually be deployed in practice. For manycorporate and governmental customers thepossession of BS 5750 is a prerequisite to theaward of a contract or business" (UK, SectorReport). The BS 5750 accreditation will becomeincreasingly important in the future. DAF, forexample, is choosing its dealers on this basis.Another important element is a detailed trainingplan for the company and its employees. (UK,Sector Report)

Apart from the qualifications of the owner and hisemployees, requirements in the management ofmotor vehicle companies relate to the followingaspects:

road safety and motor vehicle safetyenvironmental standards.

A higher and more harmonized level of regula-tions for all EU Member Stutes is to be expected.

r7,

Adherence to such standards will certainly influ-ence the size of motor vehicle companies. Smallersized firths (size l), will have difficulty in investingin the equipment necessary to comply with therules and standards in the future. In the absence ofinterim regulations, the transition towards qualityservice will not be feasible for a number ofcompanies. For example, 80% of Greek repairshops are confronted with the problem that theyare operating on a temporary license as theirrepair shops do not comply with the regulations onrepair shop requirements. These temporarylicenses expired in May 1993.

In addition to the regulations on establishingrepair shops, there are no additional legalprovisions for a number of countries (e.g. DK,IRL, P). Any one is at liberty to set up a business.There are no requirements with respect to trainingbackground and no authorization is requested.This is, however, orly applicable to independentrepair shops.

As far as motor vehiee make repair shops areconcerned, the approval of the manufacturer

franchising rules in franchise networks isrequired. The conditions vary from make to make.Each trade name, however, maintains its ownstandards. One of the most important prerequisitesthroughout the EU Member States is membershipof a trade association. A certain level of training,equipment and working conditions are alsorequired.

3.3.2 Social conditions for theworkforceThe provisions and collective bargaining agree-ments which make provisions for the social andeconomic working conditions in the motor vehiclesector differ greatly and cover the fields of:

wages and salaries;health insurance, health and welfare;pension plans;staff classification and minimum salaries; andsanitary facilities and repair shop hygiene.

WagnWages in the motor vehicle trade are lowest formotor vehicle repair shop staff and highest forsales personnel in motor vehicle sales as they arefrequently granted sales commission in addition totheir salaries. The level of salaries and wagesdepends mainly on the influence of the trade unioncarrying out negotiations. When collective bar-gaining agreements are negotiated by strongtrade unions, the level of wages and salaries willbe higher than in cases where highly specializedbranch trade associations act as parties to thecollective bargaining agreement (cf. E, F). Herethe differences have major implications as thedegree of trade union organization is small onaccount of the large number of small and verysmall repair shops.

cco-

The level of wages and salaries and the influenceof trade unions are, however, not negligible onaccount of the fact that they foster qualificationstandards and qualification systems. Lower wagesusually impede improvements to qualificationstandards.

Working hoursIn many countries, working hours are very flexibleon account of the distinctly informal character ofvery small companies employing a considerableshare of family members. Overtime work andwork on Sundays is quite common where the needarises. In certain countries, this is even providedfor in legal regulations and collective bargainingagreements on working hours. *Greece and theUK, for example, permit work in certain regionson Sundays. In the Netherlands, with a tradition-ally high level of social and labour legislation,flexibility of working hours in general is beingconsidered at present. Other countries such asPortugal maintain a 44 hour working week.

In all EU Member States, total weekly workinghours are regulated by law or on the basis ofcollective bargaining agreements between thesocial partners. Working hours are highest inPortugal (44 hours per week) and lowest inGermany (37 hours per week).

A model of good practice is the "nationalconvention collective" (F, Sector Report) makingprovision for total working hours, overtime (mustbe paid at a higher rate of 125%), nightwork,work on Sundays and flexible working hours.Similar provisions exist in Luxembourg, collectivelabour agreements between the employers' fed-eration (FEGALUX) and the labour union (UGBLand LCGB), in Italy, law 426, Greece NationalGeneral Associated Working Contract, and Spainworkers' statutes.

Generally it can be concluded that the totalworking hours in EU Member States are regulatedby law. However, opening hours, overtime andflexibility of working hours are treated differentlyin each country.

In Greece, no benefits are paid for overtime (GR),nor in Italy (i.e. Sector Report). In most othercountries (D; E, I, IRL, F), overtime is paid at asupplement of 25%.

Opening hours also differ from country to countryand between regions and repair shops. With theemphasis on customer satisfaction, repair shopsare offering different models of opening hours.Some provide a 24-hour breakdown service,others offer opening hours from 7am to 7 pm inorder to reduce peak hours and to offer thecustomer greater flexibility. This model calls for asort of shift system (D5) or for flexible workinghours on the part of employees.

.

...... 2 7

Models providiA seven-day opening are custom-er- but not workforce-orientated: "staff work fivedays on, two days off in a shift rota system toenable the company to open seven days perweek" (UK 1).

It must be pointed out that throughout EU MemberSto' s there are divergencies from standardagreements on working hours in order to extendthe company's working hours and to comply withcustomers' wishes. The high rate of self-employ-ment, the large number of family membersemployed in the sector and the large share ofsmall-sized companies (size I) favours flexibleopening hours.

Collective bargaining agreementsConcerning labour legislation, the Dutch "Work-ing Conditions Act" is clearly of an exemplarynature. Some highly innovative provisions havebeen made in the direction of promoting well-being. "A number of recently introduced articlesrelating to well-being at the workplace requireemployers, among other things, to take account ofthe qualifications and the potential for developingqualifications of their personnel when organizingwork, installing work places and defining produc-tion and work methods. Employers must takeaccount of the workers' personal qualities includ-ing their professional skills when defining andallocating tasks. The work to be carried out by anemployee should, as far as possible, contribute toimproving his or her professional skills. All motorvehicle companies are subject to this legislation"(NL, Sector Report). One of the intentions of thislegislation is to reduce the number of personsreporting ill.

For the first time, this regulation focuses on thequalifying potential of work itself as the corner-stone of legislation fostering qualification withinlabour law. This new legislation must be stressedas normal legislation and collective bargaininGagreements in the EU Member States usuallyprovide work classifications based on a highdegree of horizontal and vertical division of tasks.Thus, the UK system of National VocationalQualifications (NVQ) defines four levels ofqualification:

Level 1:

through

Level 4:

Competence in the performance of arange of various activities most ofwhich may be routine and predictable.

Competence in a broad range ofcomplex, technical or professionalwork activities with a s ibstontialdegree of personal responsibility andautonomy.

Levels 2 and 3 lie between these two levels, e.g.complex and non-routine activities with some(level 2) and considerable (level 3) responsibility.Other EU Member States such as Germany and

2841.

Luxembourg just distinguish between skilled work-ers and master craftsmen. Apart from mastercraftsmen, a technicians' level is developing atpresent, showing a different profile of tasks. Thedifferences in the horizontal division of tasks areeven more remarkable than those of the hierarch-ical division. They range from two professionallevels in Germany to fourteen in Greece.

Social fundsLuxembourg has a well-organized funding systemwith good perspectives. The Chamber of Tradesmanages a fund for training in and creation ofbusinesses. The Chamber receives contributionsfrom the craft trades sector calculated on a profitbasis. A certain percentage is fed directly into afund which bears the costs for installation andoperation of an entire c:ontinuing vocationaltraining infrastructure; "at present the socialpartners are formulating the directive for thefuture framework law to make provision for atcessto/and financing for continuing vocational train-ing, protection of investment for continuing voca-tional training ventures, as well as issues relatingto certification" (L., Sector Report).

The Chamber of Trades formulates and imple-ments a number of continuing vocational trainingcourses and supports the development uf compa-nies and of employment. Advance courses areoffered in motor vehicle electrics and eiectronics.Success in these courses is rewarded with a smallpercentage rise in salary. This can be character-ized as an example of good practice.

A similar fund also exists in Belgium (B, SectorReport). 0.25% of the wages bill in each sector isspent on providing training and employmentopportunities for what are termed risk groups."All full-time employees in the private sector cantake advantage of this scheme. Under certainconditions the 1. employees can claim paid leaveof absence to tc.,,e part in training courses" (SectorReport). A similar proviso also exists in Denmark,but the degree to which this is implemented couldnot be ascertained..

A fund for financing training also exists in theNetherlands (NI., Sector Report). This fund re-imburses costs for staff training incurred byemployers.

The agreement governing the fund is determinedby the collective employment agreement (CAO) ofthe Social Partners (BOVAG, NCBRN, FNV, CNV,UBLHP) and includes provision for day release fortraining purposes. This training and developmentfund has existed since 1990 and is financed by agovernment grant and the income generated byCAO contributions from within the sector (0.55%of total salaries). This fund is a form of cooperationbetween employers and employees, aimed atimproving professional skills in the sector. Employ-ers are represented in BOVAG and NCBRN, the

employees in the trade unions, FNV, CNV and theUBLHP..Representatives of these various organiza-tions form the management committee of the fund.The OOMT is responsible for major decisions ontraining policy in the sector. Policy is formulatedand implemented by INNOVAM, which organizes"courses, training and exams which are recog-nized by the sector and state..., and it provides abroad range of courses and training in fields suchas management, electronics, the environment andcommercial skills" (NL, Sector Report). This fundoperates successfully and can be regarded as anexample of good practice.

In France there are similar fund provisions. Thelatest version, the national inter-professionalagreement of 3 July 1991, on continuing and in-company vocational training encompasses thefollowing aspects:

a contribution of 1.5% to be paid bycompanies with more than 10 employees asof 1 January 1993.

Companies with less than 10 employees pay0.15% of the total wage bill.

These contributions are used to finance trainingand aH employees have a right to training leave.No information exists on the success of such amodel. Ireland reported that the Irish Congress ofTrade Unions received funding from the FORCEprogramme for upgrading skills of its members.The course is designed for engineering workers.At present the unions are represented on all theengineering committees and are seeking financialsupport for the motor vehicle sector.

A collective agreement on training leave for atleast one week a year exists in Denmark andGermany (see Sector Reports).

3.4 Employment and labour

3.4.1 Conditions of employmentConditions of employment are influenced by anumber of factors and the more important aspectswill be discussed in the following.

image of the sector

It is apparent from all sector reports that the imageof the motor vehicle sales and repair sector is notthe best. The opinion prevails that work is dirtyand wages are low. The sector hus a negativeblue-collar image.

In many countries (D, DK, NL, B, IRL, UK, L, F, E)numerous activities have been launched to

improve the sector's image: special allowancesin addition to basic wages, the creation offoreman positions, introduction of workplaceconsciousness. These incentives are crucial asrecruitment of skilled staff has become difficult in anumber of countries. Although the motor vehiclesector in most countries is actively involved inattempting to raise the standard of initial andcontinuing vocational training, there is a shortageof skilled manpower. This is accounted for both bythe sector's poor image and by economic anddemographic trends.5

Employment contracts

The motor vehicle sales and repair sector is animpor`-int full-time employment area. The numberof part-time workers is estimated to be less than5% throughout the European Community. Onlysome countries report higher rates (9% B, SectorReport). Furthermore there are no reliable figureson working hou:, of owners and family membersemployed ir tht. company. It may be assumed thatowners are v. ing at least a full week, whereasfamily membei. employed in the company usuallywork part-time.

Promotion prospects

In general, the sector offers poor promotionprospects for the workforce. Experienced andwell-trained workers are attracted to other sectorsand are inclined to leave the motor vehicle sector.The introduction of the profession of ServiceTechnician in Germany following further train-ing amounting to 200 hours is a good exampleof how to grant promotion prospects for theyounger workforce. Upon successful completionof training workers have the opportunity to takeover foremen positions in the service and repairsections of companies. Promotion aspects andopportunities would also help to increase theimage of the sector.

Social context

Employment in the motor vehicle sales and repairsector is also dependent on the economic prosper-ity of motor vehicle manufacturers. In terms ofnumbers there has been growth in employment inthe sector in most EU Member States over the pastdecade. This growth is expected to level off withinthe coming year as a result of declining motorvehicle sales, technological innovation, improvedmotor vehicle quality, a reduction in repair shophours (less maintenance, longer servicing inter-vals) and an increase in business productivity. Onthe other hand, new environmental legislationwhich is being formulated at present could havepositive implications for the employment situation.

5 In Germany and Luxembourg, for example, a decreasing population and a differing choice of occupations byyoung people are a source of the shortage of potential apprentices which is hampering recruitment.

29

3.4.2 Recruitment conditionsRecruitment policy varies greatly within the EUMember States. Recruitment is greatly influencedby the image and the quality of initial vocationaltraining. In countries with apprenticeship trainingsystems or specific youth training schemes (forexample, UK) trainees are normally offered aworking contract when a job arises provided themanagement of the company is satisfied with thequality of work, the motivation and behaviour ofthe employee (L, D, Sector Reports). In othercountries where initial training fails to provideworkers with adequate qualifications (for exam-ple, Spain, Greece, Italy and Portugal) othercriteria are more important.

The following recruitment criteria can be identified:

in countries with good initial vocational trainingthe most important recruitment criteria foryoung workers are formal qualifications, i.e.a particular skills level and specialization, forexample, electronics skills (case studies on DK,D, F, B, L).

In countries without an initial training scheme orin which the quality of initial training variesgreatly, criteria such as work experience (F, E,IRI.), personal situation (married, single, plansfor the future, family life)6 (UK), work motiva-tion and motivation to undergo continuingtraining (B), character (GR), knowledge offoreign languages (GR), and company loyaltyare important criteria in recruitment.

Further criteria for recruitment are familyrelationships (son or daughter of the owner,owner's wife), recommendations and at timesthe level and quality of secondary schoolqualifications.

A number of cases report that

the level of qualification of the workforcefollowing initial training does not correspondto the level required to carry out tasks in thecompany;

there is a shortage of qualified workers in anumber of countries (NL, F, UK, P, B, L, IRL). Ashortage of highly qualified manpower isstressed in the reports on Ireland, Luxem-bourg, Germany, France and the Netherlands;

it is difficult to attract staff with a higher level ofeducation. This is partly due to the sector'simage (NL, D). The motor vehicle sales andrepair sector has a comparatively low statuscompaied to related sectors.

the assembly industry absorbs qualified work-ers (IRL, D, B).

Applicants' age does not play an important role inrecruitment for two reasons:

the average age of the workforce in the sectoris relatively low, and

older workers - over 35 years of age - are lesslikely to leave companies or leave the sector.

Newly recruited staff is the important potential forspecial continuing vocational training for exam-ple, to improve qualifications or to make trainingproduct-oriented.

3.4.3 Personnel structureThe personnel structure in the motor vehicle salesand repair sector reveals dominant characteristics:

the sector is a typical male area of occupation;

the sector employs relatively young people;

the level of manpower fluctuation is compara-tively high;

the sector employs few disabled workers;

an insignificant number of foreign workers areemployed in the sector.

Dominance of men

The maximum share of females in the sector is18% in Germany. In Denmark and Belgium theyrepresent 16% of the workforce and on averagebetween 2 and 12% in other EU Member States.

Usually, females are employed in secretarialduties, in service and administration. In repairshops and management, the share of females isless than 1%. Only Iwo cases (F, B) report womenat managerial level. Some cases report thatwomen are working in the sales department.There has been no significant increase of femaleemployment in the sector in recent years. Thereare no initiatives to increase female employment inthe sector.

High rate of comparatively young people

Concerning the average age of the workforcein the EU Member States7 the average age of staffin the motor vehicle sector is relatively low.Analysis of the age structure in the case studiesshowed that approximately 28% of the workforceis younger than 25 (in Denmark and Germany

6 These criteria are certainly not representative and contradicted labour legislation in the United Kingdom.

7 It is, for example, expected that more than half of the German workforce will be older than 50 in the year 2000.

z30

about 32%) and approximately 60% is youngerthan 35. The percentage of the workforce over 45years of age is estimated to be some 18%. Manyof these are owners of repair shops. On account ofa shortage of junior staff, the average age in Italyand Spain seems to be a little higher, but this doesnot have a significant influence on the structure asa whole. Where the workforce is older, themanpower has been employed by a specificcompany for a long period of time and is highlyexperienced.

High level of manpower fluctuation

The poor reputation of the sector (NL, SectorReport), the low salaries compared to other sectors(F, Sector Report) and poor prospects of promotionas well as difficult physical working conditions arethe reasons given in the studies for the compara-tively high fluctuation of manpower in the sector.There are no detailed figures on this except forDenmark: "Over a period of six years in the mid-80s only one half of motor vehicle mechanicsemployed remained within the motor vehiclesector". (DK, Sector Report). In Germany anestimated 50% of workers who trained for thesector leave within 5 years of qualification eitheron account of unemployment or because they areinterested in applying their skills to other trades.France and Luxembourg also report very highfluctuation rates. Other countries mention fluctua-tion as a loss of skills in the sector.

Low rate of disadvantaged workers

In a number of countries regulations and provi-sions promote disadvantaged workers (disabled,long-term unemployed, immigrants, etc.), to facili-tate entry into the motor vehicle sector. Some ofthese regulations (E, Sector Report) stipulateemployment of 2% disabled workers in acompany with more than 50 employees. Thesituation is similar in Italy where existing la, vs donot apply to small companies.

In Belgium, an ogreement between the Flemishand Walloon Employment and Training Servicesand the sector regulates the so-called 0.18% to0.25% funds since 1990. This agreement statesthat the private sector should provide 0.25%(since 1992) of total pay;oll to employees inorder to promote employment initiatives on behalfof risk groups. The intention was that at least0.10% should be spent on the most vulnerablegroups on the labour market.

The Netherlands and the United Kingdom havealso launched initiatives to favour disadvantagedgroups in the motor vehicle sector. Basic andpractical training is provided to integrate them.According to figures in the Sector Reports of the

6

various countries, it can be concluded thatdisadvantaged groups do not play a significantrole within the sector. There are a variety ofreasons for this:

work in a repair shop is difficult;a high level of qualification and skills is

required for all tasks;integration is difficult in small-sized companies(size I and II); andlaws do not .take into consideration the sizestructure in this sector. Few companies havemore than 50 employees.

Discussions with companies practising the team-work concept showed that this offers an opportu-nity for integrating disadvantaged workers.

Low rate of foreign workers

The number of foreign workers employed in thesector is comparatively low, with the exception ofLuxembourg.

In Luxembourg, approximately 45% of the work-force are foreigners of different nationalities(Portuguese, Italians, French, Belgians, Ger-mans). They are employed mainly in the main-tenance and repair sections and to a lesser extentin sales and administration.

Italy reports a maximum share of 18% of foreignworkers. Case studies for other countries revealshares of 8% and less.

3.4.4 Job structureUp to the mid-80s the job structure in the motorvehicle sales and repair sector was stable. Sincethe end of the last decade changes havecommenced. Requirements have become morevaried in comparison with the past: technology isbecoming more complex, motor vehicles arebecoming computerized and the diagnostic equip-ment has been changing towards expert systems.In addition, there is a need for communicationusing different media (manuals, microfilm, PC,CD-ROM, a variety of tables, technical regula-tions, diagnostic equipment and safety regula-tions). This has created the need for a broad rangeof skills in the workforce and has led to a new jobdesign. The workforce has to be prepared forthese varied tasks. Some manufacturers havealready created new informal career categories:

BMW's Service Technician, orToyota's High-Tech Master Technician.

Some trade associations are pursuing the sametrend. These issues will be discussed further inChapter 4.

.31

342

ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR SKILL REQUIREMENTSAND THEIR FURTHER DEVELOPMENT

In the case studies and ihe sectoral survey, thediscussion of changes in occupational profiles inthe sector is of great importance. Ideas on thefuture tasks in the repair shops are influenced bythe various perspectives. This chapter is devoted toan in-depth discussion of changes in occupationalprofiles and their implications for skill require-ments and training.

Today's high-tech motor vehicles and futuredevelopments will lead to radical changes in thissector. On the one hand motor vehicle technologywhich increasingly represents integrated systemstechnology will result in a change of tasks and onthe other the development of computerized testingand diagnostic equipment will have considerableimplications for tasks in the repair shop. Inaddition to these a number of factors influencerepair shop tasks for example, EU regulations,technical standards, customer relations, customerbehaviour, workplace awareness (UK, SectorReport).

The issue of enabling the workforce in the sector tocope with current and future needs is a very broadone. One aspect of these issues relates totechnology:

are highly specialized or multi-skilled all-roundmechanics necessary?

are mechanics with a sound background inelectronics required?

does the solution lie in creating an electrician-mechanic profile (e.g. a motor vehicle mecha-tronic)?

Another dimension relates to quality service andcorporate culture:

do:1s the future require a repair shop workforceto establish total quality systems based onactive involvement of all employees in acomprehensive workplace culture (UK, SectorReport)?

how can quality of service and customerrelations be achieved?

how can, besides skills, commitment of theindividual be improved to attain greaterperformance?

how can the workforce ensure a completerange of services?

These issues will be discussed further andperspectives identified. A number of differentaspects form the framework for discussion. Thediscussion takes into consideration a work-oriented position. Technology itself is not the main

&-

area of discussion but technology from the point ofview of the work process in the sales and repairshops.

This approach should help to identify contra-dictions concerning the development of futuretasks and requirements in the sector in the caseand sectoral studies in the' EU Member States. Thearguments put forward in the reports vary. Somedemand highly qualified workers, some lessqualified and highly specialized staff. The for-mulas propounded for customer relations andcustomer satisfaction are numerous. There isunanimity that there is need to further improvethe quality of service.

4.1 Tasks are changingDiagram 3.4 in Chapter 3 shows the density ofmotor vehicles per person employed in the motorvehicle sales and repair sector. The figures serveas a yardstick for the level of activity in the sectorthroughout the EU Member States. The grouping ofthe countries in the matrix (Table 3.3) provides in-depth information on potential to improve produc-tivity of repair shops in the various countries bymeans of rationalization. As described in Chapter3.2, major structural changes in repair shops areexpected particularly for area lV (GR, P). Changesin employment rates are also expected for am III(DK, I., F, E).

Any kind of change will influence repair shopproductivity as a result of rationalization. Thismeans that in addition to the many other changesin progress in countries belonging to area III andIV, each employee will have to attend to a greaternumber of motor vehicles in the future. This will bemade feasible by development of the sectortowards less maintenance and rationalization inthe field of maintenance and repair work. Motorvehicle inspection times have already decreasedfrom three hours to about one hour on averageover the past 30 years. The same tendency can benoted in times for repair work which is increas-ingly being reduced to merely changing parts. Atrend towards the motor vehicle requiring lessmaintenance and repair will continue as competi-tion focuses on this process. This development willlead to greater complexity in motor vehicletechnology and to a greater number of electron-ically controlled systems. This is one of the majorfactors prompting changes to job profiles in therepair shops (cf. Sector Reports of B, D, DK, E, I,

NI, UK).

The core of new technologies are networks whichinterlink the system components. This rendersmotor vehicle technology extremely complex withthe result that currently a motor vehicle may beviewed as a "service-unitTM. Usually, this unit isrepaired in one single repair shop.

34

The major tasks of the repair and service work willbe described relating to the main areas of activityin repair shops:

Inspection/Maintenance

Engine: exchange of filters and oil after longintervals, checking and adjusting ignition, chang-ing spark plugs, inspection of pare parts;

Gear box: inspection of gear box, monitoringfunction and smooth running; oil check;

Brakes: function and pressure check, leakage test,checking tubes for damage, checking and replac-ing brake linings, pipes and tubes;

General: visual check of engine; check of under-body, of suspension and analysis of exhaustfumes.

Mechanical work

Steering: function check, safety check;

Suspension system: optical and electronic adjust-ment;

Engine: replacement of engine (completion en-gine, parts of engine), replacement of cylinderheads, valves;

Gear box: repair of mechanical gear 6oxes,replacement of automatic transmissions;

Brakes: replacement of brake blocks or discs,master cylinders, conduit systems, callipers; repla-cement of brake fluids, function test on brakebench;

Underbody: replacement of steering parts, shockabsorbers, suspension.

Electrics/Electronics

Function check on aggregates and components;

Function checks on all types of electrical/electron-ically controlled systems with diagnostic equip-ment;

Application of programmed trouble-shooting andreplacement of defective components;

Application of modern testing and diagnosticdevices to more complex systems.

Body work

Panel beating, zinc coating, improvements, inertgas arc welding, panel cutting with special tools;

Use of frame straightening bench, new panelbeating and straightening tools, devices for inertgas arc welding, grinding instruments, gauges;

Use of special assembly and dismantling techni-ques

Application of new paint spraying techniques.

In a number of case studies (e.g. IRL, D, DK, E, B),the division of tasks within the four fields andchanges in these tasks are discussed. The conclu-sions drawn in the studies differ. It is, however,accepted and recognized that new motor vehiclesrequire less maintenance and traditional repairwork and that their components last for longer andare more likely to be replaced entirely (E, I, Sector.Reports).

"Many of the traditional specializations (car-burettor, radiators ... to some extent electrics)are progressively loosing significance while anew occupational profile is emerging in therepair shop, a profile that will cover morefunctions and is more based on electronic skillsrather than traditional mechanical knowledge "(I, Sector Report).

Some of the case studies (NL, UK, F, IRL, D, B, E)stress the reduction in the quantity of mechanicalrepair work and the reduction in maintenancetasks i.e. replacement instead of repair of parts.They also stress that the volume of work inelectronics is not as great as was to be expectedfrom the broad application of electronic equip-ment in new motor vehicles.

The studies draw the conclusion that the increasein the replacement of damaged parts instead oftheir repair and the greater intervals betweeninspections may be viewed as "lean service" andgreatly influence the task of mechanics in therepair shop. This development will be discussed ingreater detail from a variety of perspectives.

Against the background of changes in tasks in therepair shops on account of the introduction of newtechnological systems since the mid-70s, theincreasing variety of models as a result of qualitycompetition and stronger orientation towards thecustomer has been discussed in an in-depth survey(Rauner/Zeymer, 1991, p. 61-67). The mainfindings of this survey will be revealed later on inthis report (cf. D, Sector Study).8

The case studies did noi focus on changes in the work. Reliable observations can only be produced by studies overlonger periods. Rauner/Zeymer have presented an in-depth study of this process.

35

The survey examined the four fields of activities0 mentioned above.

The area of mechanical equipment was split upinto six repair tasks:

brakesshock absorbersexhaust systemsgear box systemsenginesclutch systems.

Such a division of activities allows comparisonwith other surveys which have focused onstructural changes in the sector. The subdivisionof the mechanical field also permits a detailedsurvey of changes in skilled work over a longerperiod of time.

In comparing the division of tasks of the repairshops studied with task development over the past30 years, some characteristic tendencies can beidentified (Diagram 4.1). During the 80s, thepreviously dominant field of tasks "motor vehiclemechanic" has fallen into second place (35%)behind the field of "motor vehicle inspection"(37%). This shift took place despite the fact thatintervals between inspections have increasedconsiderably and inspection time has shortenedon account of almost maintenance-free technol-ogy and powerful diagnosis technology. Thismeans that even more considerable improvements

have been achieved in motor vehicle mechanicsand repair. The main fields of activities ininspection/maintenance motor vehicle me-chanics motor vehicle electrics/electronics andbodywork have undergone changes in tasks infavour of inspection and motor vehicle bodywork.

The traditional work of motor vehicle mechanic aswell as the area of electrics/electronics hasdecreased in significance.

Observation of this development by Rauner/Zeymer (cf. D, Sector Report) over a lengthyperiod of time indicates that emphasis in the motorvehicle repair shop, regardless of work contentwithin the four fields of activities, has undergone abasic shift. The area of motor vehicle mechanicwhich dominated all fields of activity up to themid-60s and had accounted for 80% of all tusksin motor vehicle repair shops during its creationphase at the beginning of the century, has lost itsdominant position during the 90s. Inspection as apreventative measure of motor vehicle mainte-nonce (cf. I, Sector Report) will predominatealthough it developed much later, i.e. in the 30s.Surprisingly enough, the growth of electrics/electronics in the early decades of this centuryhas decreased slightly since the 60s despite of therising share of electronics in motor vehicletechnology. Comparatively few opportunities forrationalization in motor vehicle body repair work,the number of accidents and the comparativeincrease in the secondhand motor vehicle market

Diagram 4.1 Development of division of tasks in the motor vehicle repair shop

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

Mechanical tasks

Inspection/

maintenance

Electrics/electronics

Body work

1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000

36

are the most crucial factors accounting forcontinued growth in motor vehicle body work.

It is interesting to note that in some countries witholder motor vehicle fleets (P, D), the studies did notreport a higher demand for continuing vocationaltraining. A high volume of mechanical tasks stillhave to be carried out. The skilled workersavailable are qualified to undertake these tasks.On the contrary, Denmark, Ireland, Spain andIt9 ly which have older motor vehicle fleets, reporta need for training in modern technologies.

The decrease in tasks in electrics/electronicsreconfirmed the findings of a number of casestudies. In the Dutch case studies, interviews withrepair specialists come to the conclusion thatknowledge of electronics and diagnostic systemsshould be improved. However:

"the problem with electronics ... is that youhardly ever have any faults. The electronicsrarely break down so that you do not get anywork experience" (NI., Sector Report).

"in the context of their training or in-servicetraining ... mechanics have acquired theknowledge required in this field ... The problemis, however, to acquire sufficient experience inpractise due to the fact that electronics rarelybreak down" (NL, Sector Report).

In other words, electronics make it essential that arepair shop is able to operate in this field. Thenumber of tasks are, however, only marginalcompared to the overall activities. Profitability istherefore low (F, Sector Report). Consequently,productivity would have to increase throughapplication of advanced diagnostic equipment.Work organization must bear in mind this devel-opment of tasks.

Comparing the repair shops contained in the studyby Rauner/Zeymer, it is obvious that there arefew differences in tasks relative to the size ofcompanies. Significont irregularities within therange of tasks hove more to do with the motorvehicle make or with specialization within thecompanies.

0My through considering a large number ofrandom samples in this survey of company-specific differences in the range of tasks in themotor vehicle sector, does this reveal character-istic differences between large and small compa-nies (Diagram 4.2). Only mechanical work isbeing carrier' out by companies of all sizes. In all

her rields of activity there is a more or lessmarked tendency towards offering the full range ofmaintenanre and repair sorvices carried out atspecir4ized work places by skilled staff. Amongcompanies with up to 9 employees, this field ofactivity accounts for less than 10%. It is interestingto note that though motor vehicle electrics/

3 7

electronics increases in importance with the sizeof the company, it represents just under 60% ofmotor vehicle electrics in motor vehicle repairshops. There is no tendency towards specializationof repair shops in motor vehicle mechanics or inmotor vehicle electrics. The case studies (IRL, D, DK,NI.) and the sector reports (D, DK, B, NL, F)underline this point. Sophisticated specializedrepair shops concentrate mainly on tasks relatedto repairing specific components requiring veryspecific skills and knowledge or even authorizationfrom the producer or even the government. Anotherkind of specialization can be found in replacementrepair shops dealing with simple parts sucli asexhaust systems, shock absorbers, etc. Tasks inthese repair shops are simple manual ones. It issurprising that not all motor vehicle repair shopsassign maintenance and inspection to speciallytrained skilled workers. This phenomenon in-creases with a decrease in the size of the ropairshop. This does not mean, however, that more than30% of the companies in category III (10-19employees) do not offer maintenance inspection.This is due to the significantly lower degree of thedivision of labour in smaller repair shops.

The significant increase in motor vehicle cleaningwith the growing size of companies is due tosecondhand motor vehicle sales which are closelylinked to the sale of new motor vehicles. Second-hand motor vehicles must be resold by the dealerwho concentrates on care of secondhand motorvehicles. The larger the company, ihe greater theconcentration on the sale of new motor vehiclesand thus the trade-in of secondhand motorvehicles. Maintaining the value of these vehiclesresults, with growing size of companies, inadditional tasks and a larger share of skilledworkers.

Conclusions

In order to fully comprehend the extent of changein tasks in the motor vehicle sales and repairsector, a number of findings should be considered:

Mechanical motor vehicle and repair work hasdecreased more than sixfold between 1950and 1989.

This has resulted in a shifting of tasks marked bya comparative increase in inspection/mainte-nance and bodywork and a decrease in motorvehicle mechanics and electrics.

The increased use of electronics in motorvehicles is inversely proportional to the quan-tity of electrical and electronics work.

Complex system technology, controlled byelectronics, makes diagnosis an essential partof the work of a repair shop (B, D, IRL, DK).Correct diagnosis of complex and rare prob-lems is important.

-7-

Diagram 4.2 - Places of work in motor vehicle repair shops classified by size category

% Companies

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

ijIMMINIMorz'ImlI I

1/ r PR 1 I1 I I 1

T1 I IIIIi

I II

I . II/II (1-.9) Ill (10-19) IV (20-49)

I= Maintenance IIIIII Mechanics CI Body work Service

V (>50)

This shifting of tasks has resulted in a transfer frommechanical work and from practical repair workto computer work with diagnostic skills of primeimportance (IRL, NI.) combined with the necessarymaintenance tasks. Bodywork continues to play animportant role.

The decrease in mechanical work and electricsand electronics makes it easier to rationalize workin the repair shop as time consuming repair workno longer has to be carried out.

Repair work in the field of motor vehicle bodyworkis bocoming increasingly standardized. An inter-natio'nal database, AUDATEX, located in Muen-ster, Germany, contains the prices of components,possible repair times, configurations for repairsets of 220 models and 11,000 manufacturingversions (B). Efficiency of repair work is increasingconstantly. This will inevitably lead to higherproductivity and thus the concept of lean serviceplaying an increasing role in this area.

These findings show that a fundamental andunique change in tasks has occurred in the motorvehicle industry which effects both the individualskilled worker and the repair shop. The motorvehicle mechanic and associated technology

tvhich had dominated the motor vehicle industry

since its beginnings, has lost ground and anindependent motor vehicle sector has formed. Thefield of service and maintenance which did notexist in the beginnings of the motor vehicleindustry has developed to become the dominantsector. Nowadays, service and maintenancesupport motor vehicle sales rather than beingpart of the traditional motor vehicle repair shops.The modern repair shop clearly reflects thischange in tasks. It is specialized in diagnosisand maintenance rather than in the chemical workwhich accounts for just 10-15% of turnover ofmedium and large companies. The case studiesand the sector reports show, however, that thisdoes not reduce its strategic importance for atiourishing motor vehicle trade. On the contrary,only quality service, i.e. productivity and a highstandard of service with intense customer rela-tions, will assure growing market shares.

This again reflects the composition of employeesin the moor vehicle industry. Some 50% and moreof the staff of medium and large companies areworking in the repair shop or are assigned to it.Another important interim finding is the largediscrepancy between the increased use of electron-ics in motor vehicles which continues unabatedand a tendency to reduce the amount of thisactivity in repair shops.

t 38

IRE

These developments culminate in new and con-tinually changing requirements for individualworkers in the repair shop;

in recent years there has been little change inthe skills required for mechanical work, inspec-tion and maintenance. Ongoing continuingtraining is, however, necessary for workingwith new products, for example, new adjust-ment procedures, new information on adjust-ment data, new materials, new jigs and newtools.

As for maintenance and repair of highlydeveloped electrical and electronics technol-ogy, employees must be in a position to workwith the most modern and expensive diagnosticequipment. Where interactive diagnosticequipment is used, highly qualified employeesmust be available to handle the equipment(including test and diagnostic programmes).

These core tasks require technical and generalknowledge and the ability to analyze and interpretthe diagnostic findings (B). While actual repairand replacement of components is fairly simple,the repair of systems is a difficult task. There isneed for a new occupational profile to do justiceto these tasks and challenges.

The following chapter examines how the changesin a number of criteria can influence changingrequirements in the repair shop and what trendsthe future is likely to bring.

4.2 Changing tasks are influenced by anumber of factorsThe changing tasks described in Chapter 4.1 aremainly as a result of quantitative changes in thefour fields of activity, i.e. mechanical work,inspection and maintenance, electrics/electronicsand motor vehicle bodywork. In addition to these,there are also qualitative changes in the workingprocess, the origins of which are to be found in theinfluence exerted by a variety of factcrs: forexample, technology, tools and diagnostic equip-ment, environmental legislation, safety regula-tions, technical and labour standards. The sig-nificance of these factors and their influence on thetasks and the challenges at repair shop level arediscussed.

4.2.1 Th influences of technologicalchangeFrom the perspective of product technology, themotor vehicle sector at present is characterized byrapid product innovation and a swift increase inthe range of products. Motor vehicles are becom-ing more safe, more economical, more comforta-ble and more environmentally friendly. Newmodels are qualitatively superior to their prede-cessors. They have a longer life expectancy andrequire less maintenance and often have a wide

39

range of accessories and technical equipment toincrease driving comfort, to limit pollution and toeconomize on raw materials. They offer bothactive and passive safety. These innovations are tobe found mainly in four areas:

a. In the field of engineering/construction tech-nology: for example, in the development ofsafer bodywork, new iypes of engines, multiplevalves, chargers, new types of fuel systems andnew hydraulic and pneumatic applications,particularly in commercial vehicles, automatictransmissions, four-wheel-drives, safety -sys=tems, etc.

b. In the field of material technology: for exam-ple, the use of synthetic components,Ceramics,catalytic converters, piston components, newpaints and coatings, zinc-coated motor vehiclebodies, etc.

c. In the field of (traditional) motor vehicleelectronics: for example, built-in motor vehicleradios, cassette recorders, telecommunicationequipment, electrically operated windows,mirrors, locks, etc.

d. Through the introduction of micro-electronicsand motor vehicle information systems: forexample, the use of fuel injection systems, on-board computers, service interval displays, on-board diagnostic equipment, engine manage-ment systems, power-steering, ABS systems,etc.

The latter trend, the marked increased in micro-electronic control systems in the motor vehicle hasa major influence on work places and skillrequirements in the motor vehicle repair trade(NL, Sector Study).

Technological change is happening particularly inelectronic systems in motor vehicles. This leadsunavoidably to an increase in repair shopequipment.

With the aid of electronics, which is becomingincreasingly common in motor vehicles (seeDiagram 4.3), computer-controlled and inte-grated networks to monitor a variety of systemswill play an increasingly important role.

In 1990, the number of electronic functions in anew BMW motor vehicle was five times greaterthan in 1983. The 1976 top model contained fourelectric motors; today's top model, the BMW 750,integrates 73 of them. A similar increase can beobserved in control units, plug connections andswitches. Previously, a single wiring diagram wassufficient for the entire motor vehicle. Today 101diagrams hove to be consulted, enough to filltwelve files. Independent electronic systems haveceased to exist. Today all electronic systems arenetworked (D4).

Diagram 4.3 - Proportional manufacturing costs for electric:and electronics integrated in motor vehicles as a percentageof total cost

282624222018161412

10864201965

12,0 % Elec-tronics

8,4

.

% 9,10,0 A

7

Electrics

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

Source: Volkswagenwerk AG

The electronic systems in motor vehicles can beclassified in four categories:

electronics for controlling driving devices;entertainment electronics;electronic systems for comfort and safety; andinstruments and displays.

Diagram 4.4 illustrates the structural relationshipof certain applications and the trend towardsintegrated electronic systems.

Diagram 4.4 - An integrated electronic system of motorvehicles

Motronic2 Electronic power control3 Electronic suspension control4 Electronic transmission control3 CAN-Bus6 ABS/ASR

The driving devices encompass all functionsrelated to engine control such- as engine manage-ment, electronic ignition systems and electronicgear transmission. Entertainment systems, formerlyconfined to the radio, now include modern soundsystems. Equipment components for safety andcomfort are control units with variable power

support, active suspension systems and the ABSsystem. In the long term, an integration of singlesystems is planned. To improve data exchangebetween subsystems, Bosch has developed aCAN-system (Controller Area Network). Informa-tion is transferred by a BUS according to a fixedstandardized protocol.

The introduction of engine management systems(monojetronic with integrated ignition and fuelinjection; electronically-operated accelerator ped-al), vehicle control systems (ABD, ASR, electron-ically-controlled clutches and gearboxes, electron-ically-controlled suspension, and vehicle pilot andmonitoring systems (NI., Sector Report):adds to thegrowing complexity of motor vehicle technology.A high rate of integration of different systems,components and aggregates is necessary tooperate the motor vehicle in a safe and reliableway. These are the reasons for an apparentlyparadoxical situation. The mastering of increas-ingly complex technology will be achieved by thetechnology itself.

In this integration process an increasing number ofmechanical and electrical components and ag-gregates are networked and carry out functionsneeded to control the motor vehicle. This combina-tion is termed "mechatronic". In relation to motorvehicles, it is termed "auto mechatronic".

Employees must have specialist knowledge ofmechatronic systems. They must be acquaintedwith block diagrams, wiring, and they must knowand be able to apply signal measurement andsignal interpretation. In addition they must knowhow to use data and documentation on a productin order to carry out tasks. They must be aware ofthe significance of signals based on input-proces-sing-output of "black boxes". What actuallyhappens inside the black box of the system(particularly the mechatronic system) is of littlesignificance to him. All this requires particularcapabilities to think abstractly.

The changes in technology are leading to taskswhich differ greatly from traditional repair shopwork. The employees in repair shops must workwith networks which link mechatronic componentsto mechatronic systems.

4.2.2 The influence of the change intools, the testing and diagnosticquipmentThe development of motor vehicle technologytowards mechatronic systems implies the develop-ment of related equipment. There is no need todiscuss here changes to mechanical tools. Ofmuch more importance are changes in testing anddiagnostic equipment for

comfort and safety systems,engine management systems, andmotor vehicle bodies.

40

"140

The handling of computer-controlled testing equip-ment for engine management systems or lasertesting equipment for vehicle measurement willsoon be routine work in the repair shop.

The development of diagnostic equipment to testmotor management systems is influenced byenvironmental provisions on exhaust fumes in theEuropean Union. The introduction of such tests onthe basis of EU regulations require a testing systemspecially prepared for this type of test (D, SectorReport).

The marked increase in micro-electronics in repairshops, particularly for those tasks which are themain tasks of the trade (problem detection andcorrection), is of great importance for the work ofthe motor vehicle mechanic. "The mechanic whois in a position to make a correct diagnosis is themost important factor in the work process. Workwith diagnostic equipment requires training. Noteveryone can work with diagnostic equipment.One must learn to make balanced assessmentsand to interpret" (B). Significant developmentshave taken place in diagnostic and testingequipment and currently all types of testingequipment are being launched onto the market.They offer increasing opportunities and facilitiessurpassing traditional measurement instruments.

On account of the introduction of these newcomputer-controlled diagnostic tools, fault detec-tion, one of the most time-consuming tasks in therepair shop, is being simplified. The new diag-nostic tools hove high storage capacity and canstore the most important data, for example, theadjustment data for current models. Diskettesfacilitate rapid input of new data. Updated datacan be input immediately by diskette or on-line.These tools often not only measure values, butcompare these with the standard data producedby the manufacturer and show if a certain value iswithin a certain tolerant range (approval/errorsignal). Some testing equipment goes even furtherthan this: should a fault be detected, it alsoprovides information on possible causes for thedefect. The mechanic can then investigate faultswhich appear on the menu. The more expensiveengine diagnostic systems also print a diagnosticreport when the test programme has run and pointto deviations detected. In some cases, a customerreport can be drawn up or a repair shop reportcontaining the test results which the customer is ina position to understand. The computerizedsystems in motor vehicles, the diagnostic systemswhich are used in the repair shop and above allthe opportunity to link both, have led to a greatchange in the essence of diagnostic work andhave substantially reduced the amount of timerequired for such tasks. The engine test equipmentcan, for example, be linked to databases ofimporters or manufacturers so that data from adistance can be updated. This also opensopportunities for diagnosis from a distance, for

p 41

example, by specialists in the manufacturing firm(NL, Sector Study).

The introduction of new diagnostic systems onaccount of the development of complex mecha-tronic systems results in the motor vehiclemechanic in the repair shop having to develophis skills in order to diagnose and eliminate faultsrapidly in complex systems, not by repairing units,but by replacing them (IRL). Mastering thiscomplex motor vehicle technology in the area ofservice and maintenance requires a very highquality of diagnosis and repair technology. Thisdevelopment involves a transfer of mechanics'tasks "from practical mechanics to diagnostics"(NI., Sector Report) or even to motor vehiclemechatronics and diagnostics. The advanceddiagnostic systems will reduce time-consumingfault analysis. They will increase rationalization ofdiagnostic measurement and support lean serviceand quality service. Diagnostic equipment will begradually introduced throughout the whole sectorwithin the European Union. This is an importantchallenge to initial and continuing training in EUMember States. A number of case studies (D, B,NI., DK, !RI., GR, E, F, UK) are already contemplat-ing diagnostic systems which would be operatedby experts and networked to manufacturers'databases. The structure of these systems willhave a marked influence on the development ofskills in the repair shop. This type of expert systemcomprises a dialogue structure with a self-learningchwacter and offers the opportunity to use systemsas information and training systems. Thesesystems, however, will not determine skill require-ments. A high degree of skills on the part of theuser would, however, facilitate the tool characterof these diagnostic instruments. However, theopposite could take place if manpower is notsufficiently skilled.

A level of skills which is too low can lead to theintroduction of deterministic diagnostic systemsand reduce requirements to the level of their mereapplication. This trend could lead to the creationof a small group of diagnosis and repair experts inthe repair shop in charge of only difficult repairwork (for example, NL Sector Report).

The issue of skills should be seen from thefollowing perspective:

There are no major differences in the basicfunctions of diagnostic equipment. The use ofsuch equipment varies, however, substantially.This requires a great amount of knowledge onthe part of the operator, but this knowledgeapplies only to a certain brand name. Thus,operators in repair shops must acquire operatingknowledge which is not labour-process-specificand which is redundant when a company or motorvehicle make is changed. By improving userinterfaces, these "fake qualifications" may bereduced. Improvements may come through self-

learning or tutorial systems which enable learningduring the work process.

This will be to the benefit of both manpower andmanufacturer. For the workforce, their operatingknowledge will not be lost when they changecompany or make or the motor vehicle they repairand for the manufacturer it would mean that theskills and knowledge acquired in another make ofmotor vehicle could be applied, thus reducing theneed for learning a system or training. This wouldcreate greater scope for learning and trainingopportunities in the skills which are work-processspecific.

4.2.3 The influence of environmentallegislationIn the EU Member States there are numerousprovisions and standards for adherence to certaintechnical standards. New environmental legisla-tion and regulations present a major challenge tothe motor vehicle industry.

The ECR (European Community Regulations) or theEuropean standard ECN limiting emissions from1993 onwards, is binding for all EU MemberStates. There is a certain amount of discussion ontightening policy and regulations on the organiza-tion of business premises (Nuisance Act in NI. orthe Environmental License in B), processingmaterials and waste (oils, paints, batteries etc.)The Avoidance, Reduction and Recycling of Wastefrom the Motor Vehicle Industry in Germany, andapplication of new safety legislation for motorvehicles.

Both motor vehicle manufacturers and repairshops will have to meet higher standards andentrepreneurs and company employees will berequired to have specific qualifications in thisarea. For employers in the motor vehicle recyclingsector, the environmental legislation envisagedwithin the EU Member States will pose a challengefor the establishment of a recycling industry.

The envisaged recycling regulations with veryhigh recycling rates will accelerate developmentstowards new motor vehicle technology, morespecifically in fuel distribution and engine adjust-ment systems.

Many of the companies' studies endeavour to fulfilthe new environmental regulations for motorvehicles as well as regulations on the disposalof waste and repair shop equipment. Belgiumreported new regulations on the use of sprayingcabins, Luxembourg reported new regulationspertaining to combustion devices using liquid orgaseous fuels, on water pollution, toxic gasemission of paint shops. Greece reports newemission regulations combined with high taxes.Repair shop staff must be acquainted with thesenew challenges and training must support suchprogress.

All sector studies report that environmentallegislation is influencing the motor vehicle salesand repair industry. Spain reports that anestimated 88.7% of repair shops have purchasednew equipment (machines, measuring devices,diagnostic systems (over the past 2 years) (E,Sector Survey). Other countries, for example, B,DK, NI, D, IRL, UK, also report high investment innew equipment. On account of new exhaustcontrol regulations, this process will accelerate inall EU Member States. With the exception of somecountries GR, P the standard of availableequipment in repair shops is comparatively high. Itvaries, however, depending on the kind ofdealership.

Adherence to such regulations requires knowl-edge of and ability to carry out diagnosis withsuitable equipment. Analysis of motor vehicleexhaust emission with respect to new legislationbecomes a more complex task. This is, however,indispensable today for quality service.

The environmental legislation and growing publicawareness of environmental issues has alreadyled competing manufacturers to incorporate this intheir marketing and production strategies.

4.2.4 Influence of provisions on repairshops and safetyIn EU Member States, there are a number of safetyprovisions and quality provisions for repair shops.These provisions are so numerous that they cannotall be listed here.

However, some of the more significant provisionsshould be mentioned, in particular the UK norm BS5750 which is a quality standard for manufac-turers. This norm is making increasing in-roadsinto the sales and service sector. In addition,mention should be made of Law No. 122 in Italy,which requires supervision of repair shops in thesector and quality standards, and finally, Spain'sLaw No. 1457/86, which endeavours to raisequality by incorporating technical modernizationand company management.

One of the effects of these standards is to reducethe number of small-sized companies as they arenot able to adhere to such regulations. Thepositive effect of the regulations is a qualityimprovement of repair shops ensuring a certainlevel of quality service and safety for workplacesand motor vehicle fleets in the EU Member States.

In some cases in the UK, the standard BS 5750is described. BS 5750 could serve as a goodexample for other EU Member States in order tointroduce quality standards for operating a repairand sales facility.

It would help to improve the quality of service andthe quality of equipment used. Higher qualifiedstaff would also be required, and this would

" 42

encourage efforts to set up efficient continuingvocational training systems.

4.2.5 The influence of standardizationand module conceptsA number of technical standards do exist in themotor vehicle sector. They correspond to theproduct, i.e. the technology of motor vehiclesthemselves. There are also standards for tools andrepair shop equipment.

Apart from general standards for various compo-nents, there are a host of manufacturer-specificstandards leading to make-oriented configura-tions of motor vehicles which do not allow for anexchange of components with the products ofother manufacturers. This results in a generallyhigh make-orientation of the product, but also fortools, testing equipment, diagnostic devices, dataand workforce. Manufacturer-specific standardsencourage such a development. Continuing voca-tional training measures must therefore be ade-quately producer-oriented. The functioning princi-ples of these components or systems remain thesame. A monojetronic, for example, is a mono-jetronic regardless of which make it is part of.

On the other hand such a development promotesthe idea of lean service on account of the fact thattrends towards a repair free motor vehicle mustonly consider a very limited range of makes whichfacilitates innovation. However, producer-specificstandardization is a considerable obstacle tomobility for the workforce and a factor entailinghigh expenditure on training by the manufacturer.Daily tasks, the entire range of continuingvocational training, total dealership structure isoriented to products of one particular manufac-turer and this represents a unique workplaceculture which inevitably results in a high degreeof identification with the company.

This aspect is also accentuated by substantialdifferences in the use of tools and diagnosticequipment by various makers. Repair shops of allsizes and categories must face this fact.

This situation results in a high-degree of attach-ment to the workplace and the companY. This isconfirmed by case studies in Germany, Belgium,Italy, Ireland, Spain and Luxembourg. On theother hand such a situation reduces opportunitiesto transfer qualifications acquired to other pro-ducts without problems and without further train-ing. This is an obstacle to mobility which will havean unfavourable effect on the envisaged merger ofthe individual markets of EU Member Statestowards a single market.

A reduction of make-specific operational knowl-edge which results in "fake qualifications" is

desirable. Methodological know-how, functionalknowledge and instrumental abilities and skillsshuuld be promoted for a variety of reasons:

43

they are necessary for the work process in therepair shop;they can be easily transferred to other products.

This would have a favourable influence on theEuropean labour market.

The consistent application of producer-specificstandards to its particular products implies produc-tion of the "modular" motor vehicle, with regard totechnology. Current requirements to fulfil a greatvariety of customer requirements demand greaterdifferentiation of services and products. "Thereaction to these different customer requirementsis now expressed in the development of all sorts ofproduct variations and in the range of accessories,but it is to be expected that in the near future themotor vehicle industry will adopt introduction ofthe concept of a modular motor vehicle. Thisconcept means that the customer chooses from alimited number of more or less basic body models,plus a range of modules which allow for thecomposition of complete motor vehicle with thehelp of the motor vehicle dealer" (NL, SectorReport). Such a development is likely to influencetasks in the motor vehicle repair shop consider-ably. This modularization will facilitate service andmaintenance tasks dramatically.

The response to this forthcoming trend shouldestablish a skills profile which can be transferredto a variety of work processes: these are,primarily, methodological knowledge (for exam-ple, how diagnoses are carried out), functionulknowledge (for example, the operation of systemssuch as monojetronic or ABS) and instrumentalcapabilities and skills (for example, use ofcomputer systems).

It is likely that these measures will have afavourable influence on the European labourmarket in regard to the transferability of qualifica-tions and will thus create greater mobility ofworkers. The training required for make-specific,product-oriented courses (loss of working time,costs) could be reduced while opportunities forworkplace-related continuing training could beincreased: for example, courses in fault detection,methods of solving problems, continuing trainingto develop social skills. This strategy wouldguarantee the survival of smaller companies (size I)through reducing the degree of specialization incertain motor vehicle makes.

4.3 Changes in tasks in the motorvehicle repair shop offers scope foractionThe above-mentioned factors and their influenceon the changing tasks in motor vehicle repairshops require measures to ensure quality service inorder to remain competitive.

The following chapter discusses means by whichthe motor vehicle repair and sales sector can meet

PP=

these challenges through quality service andquality competition. The discussion will examinethe areas of work organization, company man-agement and administration.

4.3.1 The shaping of workorganization

internal organization of the workprocess in repair workThe form of work organization in the repair shop isin itself an additional important factor relating tothe tasks and challenges facing a skilled worker.The case studies have identified two standardmodels. One could be called the "ConventionalConcept", which is practised in the majority ofcompanies, and the other could be termed the"Team Concept".

Shaping work organization in companies is

primarily a management decision. This restructur-ing aims to increase productivity and customersatisfaction. There are no limitations as far asdeveloping product technology, the equipment,the testing and diagnostic equipment or standardi-zation are concerned. The size of the companyinfluences the scope of action of the various formsof work organization.

"Conventional Concepts"1. The predominant model of work organizationis characterized more or less by proscribedhorizontal division of tasks and work. The scopeof the tasks allotted to each employee or group ofemployees depends on the main systems in amotor vehicle. The following are fairly stable,demarcated areas of activity:

bodywork and sprayingmotor vehicle electronics.

While the area of mechanical components andaggregates is still fairly transparent, the above-mentioned fields of activity have clearly demar-cated special tasks. Motor vehicle electronicsrequires intensive continuing training. A mastercraftsman's diploma or an informal qualificationas a highly skilled technician is often required inthis area. The division of tasks within the companyoften corresponds to the course structure and offerof -customer service schools. As a general rule,specialists take the special courses offered bycustomer service schools.

In this concept mechanical tasks and inspection/maintenance are often subdivided in addition tothe fields of bodywork and motor vehicle electron-ics. In larger companies (size II and higher) tasksare subdivided into additional sections or depart-ments (NI., Sector Report). Sometimes mechanicaltasks are further subdivided into brake systems,gear boxes, engines, clutches, etc. In this case themechanics are highly specialized in a certain

number of tasks but this leads to a decrease inoccupational qualifications.

This also leads to a reduction in flexibility of anemployee and in the complete separation of thecustomer service department from the repair shopwhich in turn leads to a decrease in communica-tion between customer and repair shop staff.Developments of this factor which was discussedin Chapter 4.2, for example, technology, diag-nostic equipment, tools, modules, etc., seem topoint in the direction of an integrated componentsystem, systems and functions, which must bemaintained with the help of the required equip-ment. The division of tasks and work should notportray a future strategy resulting in Irs reduction ofquality service and customer service.

2. The opposing principle of work organization isthe concentration of a host of tasks in the hands ofone single mechanic. This concept is similar towhat is termed the all-round model which expectsof every employee that he carry out all types ofservice and repair work. Usually in this model onesingle mechanic repairs one motor vehicle. Eachmechanic has his "own" tools with the exceptionof diagnostic equipment and tools for changingtyres, or other large pieces of equipment.

Such work organization requires highly-qualified,multi-skilled and flexible employees and is moresuited to smaller companies (size II and II). Thisconcept helps to improve occupational qualifica-tions.

In this case, the mechanic must be qualified as anall-round mechanic, enabling him to work at anyworkplace in the repair shop. Many case studiesmention this conventional concept. Mixed organi-zational principles i.e. a combination of I and IIare prevalent in many repair shops.

The all-round model corresponds to the increasingintegration of systems. The customer communi-cates directly with the mechanic. This promotesgood customer relations. Usually the departmentalstructure is not as developed as in model I.

"Team Concept"Only two case studies (D, DK), and the Frenchconclusions report on the "Team Concept". Den-mark describes the Team Concept using theexamples of the Volvo and Renault makes andshows that this has developed differently inspecific repair shops. Denmark mentions that thistype of concept is in line with the corporatephilosophy of the Volkswagen group. On accountof the wealth of experience with this conceptwithin the VW organization (in some 25% of allrepair shops the VW dealer network approach isapplied), this merits closer description. The Volvo/Renault concept is similar to the VW concept withregard to internal organization and proved that

44

this concept can be applied to repair shops of anymake of motor vehicle.

The growth in the motor vehicle repair sector in theVAG service area in built-up areas has led to anextension of motor vehicle repair shops. As aconsequence, the assignment of tasks by therepair shop master craftsman as practised insmall companies, reached capacity limits. Central-ized task assignment with a clearing positionseemed to be the best solution and the mostadequate response to this. A crucial disadvantageproved to be the separation of order acceptanceand the repair shop. The lack of contact betweencustomer and repair shop staff proved to be theAchilles' heel of the repair shops. To solve thisimportant marketing problem the Team Conceptwas developed. This concept aims to reconsoli-date the distributed repair shop organizationVAG called this ironically "repair factory": insmaller units or teams. Each team is an independ-ent working group and assumes responsibility fora certain number of repair orders beginning withrepair acceptance to delivery of the motor vehicleto its owner. VAG envisages that these teams canbe introduced in companies of a certain size. Theminimum seems to be 20 employees in a repair3hop. Each team is comprised of:

a customer service master craftsmana mechanic-in-chiefthree to four motor vehicle mechanicstwo to three apprentices.

The customer service master craftsman is the teamsuperior with regard to specialization and dis-cipline. He is responsible for accepting the order,for its disposition, for expertise and managementof the team, for final control and handing over ofthe motor vehicle to the customer. The mechanic-in-chief is his deputy. On a daily basis, such ateam can complete 15-17 repair orders.

The degree of specialization of team members islow. The team members follow principles whichare used in smaller repair shops, i.e. the so-calledall-round model. Such a model requires highlyqualified mechanics with a broad field of activity.The teams must have plenty of scope formanoeuvre. They require a PC and all thenecessary information. Teams should be in theposition to use diagnostic equipment and othercomputer-assisted tools. The Team Concept is notonly a customer-oriented principle of workorganization, but also helps to prevent anydegree of polarization in qualifications in therepair shop.

As has been known for a long time from otherareas of organizational development, a change inwork organization or introduction of new organi-zational concepts is a task which can only becarried out with staff which has been specially

45

trained for this and through involving all partnersin the process at the correct point in time.

This type of work organization, which offers groupscope for manoeuvre with a high degree ofresponsibility, must include direct contact with thecustomer and thus contribute to better communica-tion and thus to a better quality in repair work.

Concepts must be developed to introduce andextend this type of work organization in a numberof repair shops in the sector. An assessment mustbe made of which type of formal organization ofthe repair shop promotes the Team Concept best ofall, how employees should be prepared for thisand how communication between manufacturer,customer service schools and repair shops can beorganized in this context.

Formal organization of work in therepair shopsWork organization in the repair shops varies littlefrom company to company, depending on theirsize, the skills available and the corporatephilosophy. The final chapter in the Danish reportdescribes a standard for the organization of thework process. The following steps should be citedas an example.

1. Order acceptance: The foreman, the owner oranother senior employee accepts the order,diagnoses the problem, fixes the time scheduleand, at times, the price and completes the orderform.

2. Delegation of the order: Depending on theparticular skills of the mechanic and his work load,the foreman or another senior employee assignsthe order.

3. Execution of the order: For special tasks, forexample, electronic components, mechanics in adepartment are often classified according to theirspecialist fields. Usually, however, the mechanicsare all-round mechanics who can handle all tasks.The division of work may be either "one manone job" or smaller teams doing all jobs on onemotor vehicle; this is often the case when time isshort.

There seems to be an understanding that r ot toohigh a degree of specialization helps maintain thebreadth of the mechanic's skills and increasesflexibility in the repair shops. (DK, ConcludingChapter).

Depending on the size of the company, er ere arevariations between steps 2 and 3. In smallercompanies, there is no differentiation betweenstep 1 and step 2. In medium and larger companies(starting with size II), motor vehicles move fromsection to section if required and if the companypractices a tight differentiation of tasks (E and B).

_

This type of formal organization is orientedtowards the horizontal division of tasks "Con-ventional Concepts model I". With respect to theTeam Concept and/or the all-round model(Conventional Concept II) being more customer-oriented, guaranteeing a higher quality of workand higher motivation of the workforce, the formalorganization of work described must be adaptedto these more successful models. Some changes inthe described steps would be necessary in thisprocess.

4.3.2 The shaping of the distributionsystemA number of case studies (DK, IRL, B, F, NI, D, I, L,E, UK) clearly stress that the quality of service isbecoming an increasingly important competitivefactor for the motor vehicle dealer both in salesand in motor vehicle repair.

The gradual saturation of the market in most EUMember States and the decreasing world-widesales figures have produced strong competitionbetween manufacturers represented by theiragencies. The competition is influenced by anumber of factors, for example, quality andtechnological standard of the product, price,product range, advertising, type of sales andcustomer service. All case studies which focusedon major motor vehicle makes (Mercedes, VW,Renault, Fiat, Seat, Toyota, Mazda, Nissan, Volvo,etc.) stress that good customer service is extremelyimportant. An important aspect of competition isa degree of direct communication between cus-tomers and repair shop staff.

The philosophies of maintaining and winningcustomers vary but pursue the same aims. Thefollowing strategies can be cited by way ofexample:

Nissan: putting greater emphasis onto cus-tomer service is the key to success(Concept TC3 and Eurostep) (IRL),

Toyota: "customer satisfaction a trainingprogramme" special further trainingfor sales personnel and foremen (DK),

Suzuki: "being customer-oriented" (E, Suzuki),

Mazda: "in principle, competition is good forbusiness" (D),

Volvo: creating a friendly atmosphere (DK);a clean and open repair shop createstrust (B),

Mercedes: all-round service is part of thecorporate strategy to create long-termbusiness relations with customers (D),

Fiat: "after-sales" marketing has proventhat it keeps customers (I),

VW/Audi: ... that if the customers are lookedafter properly, they will continue tobuy the (VAG) range of vehicles (IRL);good service is vital for bindingcustomers to the dealer (D),

aim: to improve quality and customerservice (E),

their main strategy ... to aim forexcellent customer service (E),

the customer is the focal point ofactivities and reflection within thecompany. Each employee is in directcontact with the customer in order tofacilitate the most rapid and reliableservice possible (L),

Ford: a system of standards to guaranteecustomer satisfaction was developed(IRL).

Seat:

Renault:

SAAB:

All these strategies aim to win and bind customersto the dealer and thus to the specific sector.

The strategies of Japanese manufacturers (Nissan,Toyota, Suzuki) state clearly and directly that thecusfomer is the target group. All other makesmention the customer indirectly and stress theimportance of service for the customer. Thecustomer is given particular attention in all com-panies. Some of them have even created specialdepartments to this end (GR).

The case studies stress (DK, L, IRL) that the servicequality of dealers in all fields of activities willbecome increasingly important. Internationaltrends have intensified the application of complexmotor vehicle technology and modern equipment.Such factors prompt a need for intensive continu-ing vocational training in company management,sales/marketing, customer relations and technol-ogy in order to prepare employees for changes intasks.

From this it can be concluded that in addition toproduct quality, customer satisfaction must be oneof the main current aims and that this can beattained through providing excellent customerservice throughout the company. The most com-prehensive strategy is described in a sector studyof the United Kingdom: "more and more UKcompanies are seeking to establish total qualitysystems based on the active involvement of allemployees drawing on a general workplaceculture" (UK).

Diagram 4.5 shows the interrelationships betweenservice, custorn3r 3atisfaction, continuing trainingin the form of a triangle.

The continuing training of employees is viewed asthe most important measure for improving the

f-1

4R

L. 77-77-1

Diagram 4.5 The interrelationships between service,customer satisfaction and training

Service Customer Satisfaction b.

Improvement

Training

Improvement

Product Quality

quality of service and customer relations in almostall case studies.An advanced knowledge of modern motor vehicletechnology is becoming increasingly important forsales personnel (IRL) who must be able to transferthis knowledge into sales arguments. "The task ofa good salesman is to translate the specifictechnological aspects of a motor vehicle intocommercial, functional and economic argumentson the basis of which a hesitant customer willultimately decide to purchase the new motorvehicle he wants." (NL, Sector Report). Inaddition, sales staff must be capable of bindingexisting customers to the company and of helpingcustomers to resolve financial issues relating to thepurchase of a new motor vehicle, and must beable to transpose customer wishes into technicalsolutions. The sales process will become increas-ingly professional, especially when customers areguaranteed that their specific wishes are beingtaken care of. Sales personnel must be preparedfor these challenges. (In other words, this cannotbe attained only through intensive continuingtraining. A general workplace culture (for exam-ple, the United Kingdom) must be developedjointly with the staff.)

4.3.3 Tho organization ofadministrationAnother area which can be restructured isadministration and computerization of administra-tion and stock. This encompasses stores, sales andmanagement functions. In recent years, manycompanies, independent of their size, havecomputerized administration and logistics (B,GR, NI., D, E). Independent repair shops are lesscomputerized.

At present, computerization of companies isfollowing three different directions:

a. Decentralized dealer computerization aimingto provide support for administration (account-ing, company finances, storage of data,warranty provisions) and the movement of

.4 7

parts in the store. These- computer systemscan be networked to the manufacturer.

Centralized computer networks which arenetworked to the manufacturer on a Europeanscale. These networks were and are being setup by major manufacturers (BMW, Mercedes,Opel, Peugeot, Renault, Fiat). This type ofsystem facilitates administration in general,particularly stores and the repair shop area.The aim is to provide information and datawhich the dealer needs in order to call up thedata on sales statistics, spare part needs, theiypes of repair shop orders and particularly fortrouble-shooting.

c. Independent repair shops and very smallrepair shops make little use of computers orcomputer networks.

In future, the companies will communicate via thenetwork with the manufacturers. All departmentsof a company will be connected to the network.

A hotline will be set up between the repeir shopand the manufacturer to help in solving technicalproblems or to consult a database, for example, informulating reports on damage. A Belgian casestudy (B) reports on the AUDATEX data bank. Withthe help of a variety of communication tools, themanufacturer transfers all the necessary informa-tion to the repair shop. Similarly, the repair shopprovides information for the manufacturer onparticular defects, quality problems, the numberof orders and other important data.

Stocks will in future also be monitored usingcomputers. The manufacturer receives informationon spare parts movements and orders for spareparts. The stores staff must be able to work withcomputer systems. The level of qualificationsrequired for this work depends on the softwareused.

A host of administrative tasks can also be carriedout with the help of electronic data processingsystems, for example, company finance, account-ing, warranty guarantees, storage of customerdata, sales figures. The staff must be trained inusing the appropriate software and in commu-nicating with the manufacturer and the customersby making use of data stored in the computer. Asmentioned earlier, the qualifications requireddepend on the software used.

The computerization of companies networked tothe manufacturer and supported by them isincreasing rapidly. Staff are only partly qualifiedfor these tasks, i.e. either by the manufacturer orby other bodies providing continuing vocationaltraining (for example, BOVAG and INNOVAM inNI; SEA, the Flemish Employment and ContinuingTraining Service; FOREM, VIZO, CEVORA in B;AMU in DK; ANFA and other institutes in F;

Chamber of Trades in L; INEMA in E; CECOA andCEPRA in P; SIMI and FAS in IRL; private bodies inGR, I and D; Chambers of Trade in D).

Independent companies only have the opportunityto participate in courses organized by spare partsuppliers or software training centres or in courseswhich are offered by the institutes listed above inthe various countries which are independent of themanufacturers.

Computerization will rationalize administrativetasks, but will also cause a reduction personaland direct contact. This provides all the morereason for developing a workplace culture pre-venting isolation of employees as their activeinvolvement is fundamental to attaining qualityservice.

4.4 Changing tasks loads to newchallenges and continuing trainingstrategiesThe results discussed in sections 4.2 and 4.3 arean example of the need to reflect on how areas ofactivity can be organized to successfully repairand sell motor vehicles. The needs differ markedlyand there are numerous different possibilities. Thevarious perspectives should be examined from thepoint of view of "Job Design".

The changes in job design depend mainly on:

increasing integration and networking of motorvehicle technology into systems technology;

the use of complex diagnostic technology andexpert systems;

extending the spectrum of tasks in the repairshop to do justice to environment legislationand safety regulations;

the increase in production of motor vehiclesusing the module system;

the increased use of electronics in administra-tion, repair shop and stores; and

the increasing intensification of customer ser-vice.

These trends have a marked influence on pro-cesses for restructuring repair shops.' The chat-

lenges have become greater. Given the complex-ity of systems in the motor vehicle, the networkingof the administration and more and betterinformed customers, it is becoming increasinglydifficult to differentiate between areas of activity.Employees in the repair shop must fulfil -a numberof functions simultaneously if forms of workorganization are selected which are close to thecustomer. The flexibility of staff must increaseaccordingly to keep pace with the rapid changesin tasks (E, Conclusions).

The variety of tasks in repair shops in those EUMember States with an established motor vehiclemarket is receding. The German and UK SectorReports and partly the Netherlands Sector Reportconfirm that in spite of increasing electronics inmotor vehicles, the share of repair specialists isclearly declining. In the UK, the share of electricalrepair specialists 4s.-.1ined by 28% in recent years,in Germany by about 10%. These figures and thefacts contained in Sections 4.1 and 4.2 are proofof the changes in job designs in the repair shop.Trends point to an increase in tasks and functionswhile at the same time employees are becomingincreasingly specialized (E, Conclusions; UKSector Study; I, Conclusions). This seems to bethe only feasible means of attaining quality serviceand intensive customer relations linked to ration-alization in the sense of lean service, and ofincreasing flexibility at the workplace.

This creates a new definition of fields of activity. Inrepair shops the high degree of specialization ofthe past has no chance of survival (see casestudies on IRL, D, DK, UK); the fields of activityhave been divided up and flexibility betweenthese fields increased for each employee. All-round tasks in smaller repair shops or workorganization according to the Team Conceptmeet these needs.

The expectations of and challenges to continuingvocational training increase on account of thesenew and extended job profiles. The continuingtraining systems react in a variety of ways.Essentially, the case studies and sector studiespoint to three directions:

Specialization model

This model which is common in Greece, has itsorigins in a highly differentiated license to pursue

9 The traditional mechanically-oriented "multiskilled" mechanics must be retrained in a relatively short period oftime. They must acquire knowledge of integrated electronics, modern testing and diagnostic equipment, newinformation systems and new types of motor vehicle body. New repair methods and strategies for solvingproblems must also be acquired.With regard to motor vehicle bodywork, new skills are needed, particularly for general work with new materialsand with regard to recycling and the use of new, efficient methods and tools.Work processes and system-oriented knowledge is more important than technology-oriented knowledge ascomponents and aggregates in the motor vehicle are no longer repaired but replaced. This means that knowledgeof the whole system Is more important than detailed knowledge.

48

an occupation as stipulated by Law 1575 (GR,Sector Report). This law divides the occupations inthe motor vehicle sector into fourteen technically-oriented specializations, producing an enormousspectrum of tasks in highly specialized repairshops. Qualifications and continuing trainingmeasures aim to increase specialization.

This development contradicts the findings ofprevious chapters which had led to the conclusionthat the motor vehicle mechatronic is most suitablyadapted to current and future needs. Models withgreater and customer-friendly work organizationare also increasing in importance. These, how-ever, cannot be implemented where there is a highdegree of specialization because this implies alarge number of specialized repair shops as forexample, is the actual case in Greece. In such astructure, the customer is not given all-roundservice in one single repair shop.

Multiplier and cascade model

This continuing training model is a response of anumber of manufacturers/imports (IRL, D, E, I) toincreasing needs on account of technical devel-opment, customer demands, environmental legis-lation and other legislative provisions. It confirmsthe changed profiles, and envisages that employ-ees should undertake more comprehensive andcomplex functions while trying to apply adecentralized concept to satisfy the needs forcontinuing training resulting from this.

Management, administrators and technicians areprepared for the various tasks by the manufac-turer. In the case of technicians, it is an instructor(multiplier) who is trained by the manufacturer. Hein turn trains his colleagues in the repair shop(cascade). The cascade is supplemented by multi-media correspondence courses which each em-ployee can follow in his own time. The aim of thismodel is to give a speedy reaction to the changingtasks with the aim to train all staff involved at areasonable cost in terms of money and humanresources and thus to swiftly adopt the newoccupational profiles.

49

Comprehensive model

This model is based on the findings relating to theneed to broaden occupational profiles and toincrease employees' flexibility within areas ofactivity (UK, Sector Study). This large scaleoccupational profile plays an important roleparticularly in smaller repair shops (category I)and repair shops applying the Team Concept. All-round employment of employees means that theymust cope v. a large variety of tasks. The multi-skilled worker, who can flexibly fulfil a variety oftasks is required. The continuing training system insuch instances can only react by offering abroadly-based programme (a broad base ofskills, extending beyond the limits of traditionalskills).

This requirement is extended by concepts such asEUROSTEP (European Technical-Education Pro-gramme), a training concept practised by Nissan(IRL) which "ensures that everyone within theorganization at a technical level in Europe istrained in a modular form from the samestandards" (IRL). This programme leads to fourlevels of education (from technician to mastertechnician). The aim is to develop Europeanmobility of repair shop staff.

An important characteristic of the comprehensivemodel is overall training of all staff by themanufacturer. Only those repair shops linked toa certain make can profit from such measures.New work organization tools can most likely beimplemented in these companies.

All firms in the sector throughout Europe areequally effected by these changes, particularly bythe extension of occupational profiles. The com-panies linked to manufacturers receive support toimplement these changes in the form of continuingtraining schemes provided by the manufacturer/importer. This encompasses some 50% of allcompanies and 70% of all employees. This modelof comprehensive continuing vocational training isbest suited to broadening the occupational profile.

For employees in independent companies, thereare no supportive measures from the manufac-turer. They must depend upon the chambers oftrade, the trade unions and state bodies which todate have produced little in the way of supportivemeasures.

5. VOCATIONAL TRAINING OR WHAT DOESCONTINUING VOCATIONAL TRAININGBUILD UPON?

5.1 Compulsory schooling

5.2 Structure and contents of initial vocationaltraining

5.3 The ratio of employees to initial vocationaltraining

5.4 Summary

6. CONTINUING VOCATIONAL TRAINING OFTHE WORKFORCE

6.1 The provision of continuing vocationaltraining and its importance

6.2 The training policy of providers ofcontinuing vocational training

6.3 Contents of courses offered by providers

6.4 The training concepts of those providingcontinuing training

6.5 Training concepts at repair shop level

6.6 The need for individual continuingvocational training

6.7 Transfer of continuing vocational training inthe repair shops

6.8 Continuing training target groups

6.9 Teaching strategies of the providers ofcontinuing vocational training

6.10 Trainers

6.11 Costs of continuing vocational training

6.12 Evaluation of costs

50

PART 2:TRAINING

o o o0 oo 0

iDoiBUILD UPON?

In this chapter we would like to present differencesand similarities with regard to vocational trainingsystems in the motor vehicle repair sector in thedifferent EU Member States differences andsimilarities with regard to the structure and thecontent of vocational training.

The main contents to be discussed are as follows:

There will be a description of what continuingvocational training builds upon. In other words,on what level of initial vocational training doescontinuing vocational training build.

This description should make it possible toanalyze and evaluate whether and how variousproviders of continuing vocational trainingreflect differences and similarities in theoccupational "entry level" (Chapter 6) ofemployees in the sales and repair sector.

We do not want to contribute to current discussionon the strengths and weaknesses of the dualsystem compared to the school or mixed system. Itis not our concern to analyze and explaindifferences in vocational training systems on thebasis of differences in religion, history, philoso-phy, economic structure or administration. Thediscussion will limit itself to the various points ofdeparture for continuing vocational training basedon an assessment of the national sector studies.

A few short examples should illustrate theimportance of this point.

In Greece, continuing vocational training initia-tives face a workforce where a large proportion ofthe employees, especially the elderly ones, havenot undergone any initial vocational training onaccount of the fact that formal initial vocationaltraining did not exist prior to 1985 and anothergroup of employees have a rather outdated poortheoretical vocational background (GR, SectorReport).

The sector study comes to the conclusion that it is"imperative" to train this manpower after recruit-ment.

In the UK, continuing vocational training cannotbe clearly separated from initial vocationaltraining as apprenticeship training is becomingless important and responsibility for continuingtraining is shifting more or less into the hands ofthe employer. Here continuing training measuresserve to bring employees up to the nationallyrecognized NVQ level which is attained in othercountries during initial vocational training.

In countries such as Germany, Denmark, Luxem-bourg, the Netherlands and Ireland, the continu-ing vocational training in the sector is confrontedwith employees who have to a large extent taken

part in initial training in the form of alternancetraining between company and school.

5.1 Compulsory schoolingToday initial vocational training follows onimmediately after nine or ten years of compulsoryschooling. In the United Kingdom, compulsoryschooling lasts eleven years. This quite homo-geneous pattern is relatively new in Portugal, forexample. Until the fall of the dictatorship, schoolwas compulsory for only five years in Portugal.Thus, many employees in the Portuguese motorvehicle repair sector have a low educational level.Today Portugal is adapting to the pattern of otherEU Member States.

In Belgium, compulsory schooling was extendedin the last decade. In 1983 the minimum schoolleaving age was extended to 16 (prior to that itwas 14) and subsequently to 18 to includesecondary school which can be a vocationalschool.

5.2 Structure and contents of initialvocational trainingThe twelve sector studies show a great diversity ininitial vocational training systems in the motorvehicle sector. The stereotypes of school training,alternance training between school and companyand mixed systems scarcely cover the variety.

The majority of countries apply simultaneouslyvarious structural systems and there have beenand continue to be many attempts to cater for theneeds of changing qualifications in the sector.

Contents/occupations

Which professions does initial vocational trainingproduce? Is there a tendency to generalize inthose cases where relatively few occupationsshould meet the needs of the repair sector? Or isthere a tendency towards specialization in smallmore specialized occupations?

It is not the aim of this study to carry out adetailed analysis of initial vocational training.The reflections contained here aim to provide abrief overview. The various descriptions ofoccupational profiles in the initial vocationaltraining systems of a number of Member Statesare listed. This adds transparency to an enor-mous variety:

In Belgium there are a relatively large number ofdifferent occupations in the motor vehicle sector:

Flanders:Focal points

a. Part-time training: motor vehicle technologybodywork/panel beating

51

Apprenticeship:

b. School-based:

c. Specializations:

administrationbodywork

motor vehicle radiatorconstruction and repair

motor vehicle technologybodywork/panel beatingtruck drivercarburettorlight combustion engines

special bodywork techniquesspecial spray techniquesmotor vehicle electricscommercial vehiclesdiesel/LPG enginesengine maintenance

The Walloon schemes show a similar variety.

Other countries with different occupational groupsand a larger number of occupations are Greeceand Luxembourg and to a less extent France.

As the Flanders example already shows, thevariety within the vocational training concept ofthe various countries is not synonymous with thevariety of occupational groups. In Greece, forexample, apprenticeship training, prepares forfew occupations and school training is notconsidered here:

motor vehicle electricsmotor vehicle mechanicsmotor vehicle bodywork mechanicsinternal combustion engineer technician.

In countries such as Germany and Denmark thenumber of occupations catered for in initialvocational training has been reduced with theresult that today there are only one or twoorganizational models through which one canqualify.

In Denmark, for example, there is only one pathvia a system which trains through alternancebetween company and school for the followingoccupations:

motor vehicle mechanic and electriciancommercial vehicle mechanicmotor vehicle bodywork mechanicmotor vehicle paint mechanicwholesale assistant.

Motor vehicle electricians and mechanics whichare two different occupations in certain countries,are occupations which are integrated in thismodel. This is true of IRL, P, 1, and NL. InGermany, the motor vehicle electrician is still aspecialization but the numbers in this occupationalgroup have decreased markedly.

52

No country has adopted a school model alone forvocational training.

In the UK, initial vocational training within acompany without formal recognition seems to bethe rule. Twenty years ago a substantial number ofapprenticeships were trained this way. The NVQsystem which has recently been introduced will, inall likelihood, imply a further change in thedominance of the company. The UK Sector Studystates that implementation of this system is still inthe development stages.

In France apprenticeship training was introducedat the end of the 1980s and it seems to besuccessful. In Ireland, the Minister of Labourannounced in 1991 the introduction of a newly-structured apprenticeship training system.

Spain has also introduced a new form of initialvocational training in 1990 which aims to developbasic knowledge and basic qualifications forfuture occupations.

5.3 The ratio of employees to initialvocational trainingWith regard to the number of skilled workers andsemi-skilled workers in repair shops, there aremajor differences throughout the EU MemberStates. This to a large extent is a result ofhistorical developments in the apprenticeshipsystem in the various countries. In countriessuch as Germany, Denmark and Luxembourg

countries which have a long tradition ofalternance training between school and com-pany almost all employees at repair shop levelhave an apprenticeship certificate. In MemberStates such as Portugal and Greece, which havelittle experience with initial vocational training,the number of formally-qualified workers isrelatively low (some 50%).

5.4 Summary1. In many countries, provisions on compulsoryschooling and initial vocational training are in astate of flux with regard to duration, content and tothe question "if initial vocational training shouldtake place only in the schools, or should alternatebetween school and company or should be in amixed form". As a result, employees in the motorvehicle sector are fairly heterogenous. Continuingtraining measures are confronted with an enor-mous variety of qualification phenomena amongemployees:

the unskilled 50 year-old worker in Portugalwith 5 years of compulsory school;

the 20 year-old motor vehicle body mechanicfrom the small business apprenticeship schemein Flanders;

the motor vehicle electronics mechanic from thealternating system in Denmark.

2. The European landscape of officially-recog-nized occupations organized in initial vocationaltraining is very broad. The motor vehicle sector isno exception. Various organizational models,often with different occupational titles within thesame country, make it rather difficult to paint aEuropean picture.

53

VW VI VI V VIM, V V VII VESA V/ `UAW IIVA MO VII/ 11111/THE WORKFORCE

6.1 The provision of continuingvocational training and its importanceFour groups are active in providing continuingvocational training in the motor vehicle sector inthe countries of the European Union. They may bedivided up as follows:

A. Manufacturer-oriented providers: Customerservice schools, of the manufacturer, trainingcentres of importers and their organizations,subcontractors of manufacturers or importersand the customer service schools of componentmanufacturers.

B. Employers' organizations, Chambers ofTrade/Guilds, Trade Unions (social part-ners).

C. Public providers: public continuing trainingcentres which are run by the state or by publicbodies.

D. Private providers.

Diagram 6.1 gives an overview the mostimportant providers of continuing training in themotor vehicle sector of EU Member States dividedup into the four groups described above.

All providers are oriented towards intensifyingcontinuing training of the workforce employed.There are a number of initiatives in the sectorresponding to latest trends in technology, to thenew challenges in the commercial sector and tothe need for quality customer service (see sections4.1 and 4.3). The tasks, concepts and strategies ofproviders vary and are influenced by specificnational situations in the sector.

There are signs of a regulation of continuingtraining in EU Member States. This applies only tocertain parts of continuing training, for example,the master craftsman training (D), improving theinterrelationship and cooperation between initialvocational training and in-company continuingtraining or special continuing training to integratewomen (B) or less qualified manpower. A policy ofself-regulation in place of a comprehensive stateprovision (UK, Sector Study) is being applied as isa policy of overall coordination of continuingvocational training activities (for example, INNO-VAM in NI.).

The organizations of public providers (group C)and those of the social partners (group B) focus onmaking qualifications compatible and compar-able, i.e. homogenous qualifications should beprovided. The NVQ approach with four qualifica-tion levels (UK) is an example of good practicewith regard to this strategy. The activities of thesocial partners and public organizations in anumber of other countries (NL, D, E, L, F) are goingin this direction.

54

The organizations of providers as in groups B andC play an important but not a dominant role inproviding continuing vocational training. Themotor vehicle manufacturers and their customerservice schools, the importers and their organiza-tions and the subcontractors of both groupsdominate the sector.

Apart from the continuing training offer of centresowned by the Chambers of Trade/Guilds, TradeUnions and other bodies belonging to the socialpartners or public and private providers in themotor vehicle sector, the authorized dealers makesole use of the continuing training offer of thecustomer service schools of manufacturers andimporters. The programmes offered by manufac-turer-oriented providers (group A) make up themajor part of continuing training measures in themotor vehicle industry and are extremely impor-tant for extending and developing the skills ofemployees in the repair shops and service centresof dealers. The progiammes include courses fortechnical employees, for sales people, adminis-trative staff and for the owners of dealerships.

Courses offered by providers in groups C and D,must be regarded as complementary courses tothe manufacturer-oriented providers. The employ-ees of independent repair shops thus have anopportunity to extend their knowledge by takingpart in the courses.

Private providers (group D) do not play animportant part. The relatively few providers inthis category work in a market-oriented way. Thismeans that the continuing training they offercovers those areas not covered by other providersor for which there is insufficient provision. A goodexample is Tecnomóvil in Spain, which mainlyoffers technical courses or CEGOS (P, F, I), whichis active in a number of markets and focuses onmanagem6nt, sales and financing.

The focus of the courses offered by the four groupsare:

a. technical continuing trainingb. management, sales staff and customer service

trainingc. training for administrative duties.

The spectrum of courses offered by each group ofproviders depends on the infrastructure of continu-ing training within the sector of each country andon specific needs defined by each group ofproviders. The manufacturer-oriented providersfocus mainly on the needs of specific makes withemphasis on technical training.

ANFA, the National Training Association for theMotor Vehicle Industry in France, is an example ofgood practice in repeesenting the social partnersand in providing support for an area of continuingtraining between manufacturer-oriented providers

Table 6.1 Summary of the main providers of continuing vocational 1ining in the motor vehicle industry in EU MemberStates

Country Manufacturer-oriented(Group A)

Trade associations,Trade unions(Group B)

Public organizations(Group C)

Private organizations(Group D)

DK

GR

IRL

NI

UK

Training centres ofmanufacturers, importersand component producers

Training centres ofmanufacturers, importers,sub-contractors andcomponent producers;contractors

Importer training centres

Training centres ofmanufacturers andimporters

Training centres ofmanufacturers andimporters

Training centres of importers

Training centres ofmanufacturers andimporters

Training centres of importersand franchise organizations

Training centres of importersond franchise organizations

Training centres ofmanufacturers andimporters; contractors

Training centres ofmanufocturers andimporters

Training centres of manu-facturers, importers andfranchise organizations

Small business trainingscheme Flemish Institute forSelf-Employed Business

ZDK Chamber of Handi-crafts, Chamber of Industryand Commerce

Danish Motor VehicleIndustries Employers'Association

Trade Unions andEmployers' organizations

Public employment andtraining service, Socialadvancement education

Of no importance

Schools for technicians, AcademiesSpecialized schools(Bundesfachschulen)

AMU-courses, ME courses Of no importance

A number of governmentagencies, INEM

Tecnomovil andsome others

ANFA Federation of Motor Some institutes CEGOSVehicle Repair Shops

SEB, TEE, GSEE, Federationof Motor Vehicle RepairShops

ECIPA, CNA, ENTI,BILATERALI

EOMMEX, ELKEP, OEEK,OAED

SIMI Colleges, FAS

Guild Chamber National CVT centresInstitute for Development ofCVT

BOVAG, INNOVAM,OOMT

CEPRA, ARAN, ANECRAM, IEPFCECOA, CITEFORMA,CENFIM

MITSC, IMI, RMI, ReMIT, NCVQ, collegesSCOTVEC, City and Guilds

EEDE; some agen-cies

CEGOS, IPSOA

Of no importance

Of no importance

Some agencies

CEGOS (C), Mercuri

Some agencies

and the repair shops through courses on the basicsof various areas in the motor vehicle sector. Thecontinuing training activities of ANFA are divided

4as follows:

a. technical continuing training 60 per centb. management training, sales staff

and customer service training 35 per centc. administrative training 5 per cent.

This overview shows that almost 2/3 of almost allcontinuing training activities focus on technicalcontinuing training. Such a division seems to betypical of all providers with certain variationsupwards or downwards.

To sum up, it can be said that the motor vehiclesector in EU Member States has a continuing

training infrastructure which is determined by fourgroups of providers. The dominant group is themanufacturer-oriented provider of vocationaltraining. They cover a wide spectrum of measuresneeded in continuing training. The provision bytrade union organizations, chambers of trade/guilds and other employer and worker organiza-tions as well as public bodies must be regarded assupplementary to the manufacturer-oriented insti-tutions and provide training opportunities forindependent repair shops.

The Danish Sector Report provides data whichstresses the dominance of manufacturer-orientedprovision. In 1988, 68% of employees in thesector took part in courses offered by importerorganizations in spite of a good infrastructure ofthe other three groups of providers. It can be

5 5

assumed that these figures have not changedsubstantially and that the figures in other EUMember States are similar.

The private providers play an insignificant part.They cover particular market segments. This groupis not regarded as a private organization when itacts as a subcontractor for manufacturer-orientedproviders.

With regard to courses offered by groups B and C,the participation of employees from authorizeddealers is only considered when the skill needsof employees are not covered by programmesoffered by the manufacturer-oriented providers.The courses provided by groups B, C and D, arevery interesting for employees in independentcompanies, particularly when no other opportu-nities exist for participation in the special pro-grammes of component manufacturers.

In countries with efficient importer, sales and serviceorganizations, for example, franchising (IRL, UKand to a lesser extent B and NL), the spectrum oiproviders of manufacturer-oriented continuing vo-cational training is broader than in countrieswithout this type of organization. It is noteworthythat in those countries more institutions (colleges,private subcontractors) are involved in trainingactivities of importers or franchising organizationsand that the dominance of motor vehicle manufac-turers is reduced to a certain extent. Case Study 3from the& is a good example:

"The providers of continuing vocational trainingare: the LEX group (management training andskills); the vehicle manufacturers (Seat, Rover,Landrover, Leyland-DAF); Newport College (arather minor input), and the three specialistcolleges ... Broadly speaking, the motor vehiclemanufacturers provide product-based trainingwhich is very much concentrated on theirvehicles. LEX provides a range of skills coursesdesigned to facilitate the development of amanagement cadre with a broad base of skills.In this sense the providers of continuingvocational training are complementary. On theother hand, there are areas of overlap andpotential conflict, notably in terms of manage-ment and sales courses established by thevehicle manufacturers." (UK).

Finally, it should be stated that some importantcomponent producers (such as Spare PartsServices, LUK, TEVES) have initiated a pilotproject in cooperation with some independentcompanies in Germany in 1993, in order topromote repair shop development and the con-tinuing vocational training measures in this kindof company. The pilot project which is called"Automeister-Konzept" (master craftsman con-cept) operates as a franchise system and will betransferred to other European countries in 1994 ifit proves successful. This pilot project must be

56

considered an innovative example to promotecontinuing vocational training measures in inde-pendent repair shops.

6.2 The training policy of providers ofcontinuing vocational trainingManufacturer-oriented providers

Continuing vocational training is vital to all repairshops linked to manufacturers. This is a result ofthe issues discussed in Chapter 4, which exert aninfluence on tasks in the repair shops. All make-oriented case studies clearly confirm these needswith regard to guaranteeing quality service in therepair shop to a large extent. The continuingtraining policies of providers vary from make tomake, country to country and from provider toprovider. The general policy is determined by themanufacturer and is taken over by the dealers andtheir organizations. The main aspects may besummarized as follows:

the content of continuing training is product-oriented to a large degree and, to a lesserextent, it is person-oriented (UK);

the contents of continuing training are compre-hensive and can be adapted to variouscontexts;

continuing training should help to adapt thequality standards of repair shops to require-ments, as for example, laid down by BS 5750(UK). A pre-condition for this is an analysis ofcontinuing training needs.

Examples:

FASA Renault: The aim of continuing training isto attain as high a quality as possible in the repairshops. Dealers are trained in order to increasetheir knowledge of the product which they aredealing with, to provide them with salesstrategies to be pursued and to acquaint themwith the organization and sales management,including after-sales service. They should beable to proffer the highest quality of after-salesservice.

General policies such as sales strategy areclosely related to the continuing training policyfor dealers. The basic idea is to adapt to theindustrial market which has changed constantlyover recent years on account of factors such astechnological innovation, better informed cus-tomers and growing competition with otherproducers (E).

Peugeot has created a special position forafter-sales service network, the position "tech-nical advisor", with three main accents:

A technical advisor provides expertise indifficult cases of fault diagnosis.

He is responsible for disseminating technicaltraining which he has acquired in specialPeugeot courses at the manufacturers.

He provides advice to dealers in the networkon continuing training as well as technicaladvice (F, I).

The continuing training programme for 1992contained, in addition to normal training,particular emphasis on customer relations andaimed to raise the levet of technical skills ofrepair shop employees and to increase sales. In1992, all employees took a customer contactcourse for a variety of reasons to increaseawareness of the need for better customerservice see chapter 4 (F, I).

On account of technical change in the productsover the past five years, the need has arisen toincrease productivity in a repair shop, to establishcustomer-oriented quality service, to remaincompetitive, and to increase the quantity andquality of continuing vocational training providedby manufacturer-oriented providers. This require-ment is mentioned in all the case studies, examplesare provided by the case studies of VW/Audidealers (I, F, D, IRL), Ford dealers (IRL, NL), Opeldealers (P, GR, UK), Seat (P, E), and Japanesemakes (F, D, E, DK, IRL, UK).

The overall aim of manufacturer-oriented provid-ers of continuing vocational training is to guaran-tee that employees in dealerships have thenecessary and required skills to work efficientlywith the help of modern methods, technologiesand equipment in order to reach a high degree ofcustomer satisfaction and to bind the latter to thedealer. This group of providers organizes theircontinuing training strategies on the basis oftechnological innovation (which is determined bythe manufacturer to which the whole network ofdealers is subordinated). Neither sales strategynor employees or representatives are activelyinvolved in deciding on continuing trainingactivities. Scarcely any dealers have an officialcontinuing vocational training committee or aseparate continuing vocational training budget.

Providers of chambers of trade, guilds, tradeunions, employees' or employers' organizations.

The continuing vocational training offered bythese providers is not normally make-dependentand covers general topics in order to improveoccupational skills in the sector and to complementthe continuing vocational training spectrum of avariety of other organizations. This has theadvantage that employees of all companies,dealers, independent companies, franchisingdealers, etc., can participate in courses and thatthe courses are designed for all groups of

employees and employers. These organizationscan provide homogenous skills when they havedeveloped a system for providing a broad basis ofqualifications. Good examples are 1NNOVAM inthe Netherlands, ANFA in France, ME in Den-mark, IMI and REMIT in Britain, FAS and SIMI inIreland, the Chamber of Trades in Luxembourgand ZDK in Germany.

Some of the providers listed above have acontinuing vocational training network withintheir country in cooperation with suborganiza-tions. INNOVAM (NL), ANFA (F), and ZDK (D),seem to have highly-developed networks. Incooperation with regional continuing vocationaltraining centres they pursue a strategy of bringingcontinuing vocational training and courses asclose as possible to the people. They also act asadvisors and coordinators for other continuingvocational training bodies. In certain instancesthey also prepare and implement continuingvocational training policy.

An innovative example of activities of the typedescribed above, is the ZDK (D) initiative tcintroduce continuing vocational training for certi .fied service technicians which commenced inSeptember 1992.

Public providers

To date there is no network of public providers inthe European Union. In same countries, institutionsdo exist which aim to offer continuing vocationaltraining ror unskilled, skilled workers and "othergroups".

AMU, the National Labour Market Authority is themain provider of continuing vocational training inDenmark after the importer organizations. Activ-ities in this sector are being reduced becauseimporter organizations are extremely dominant.The activities of the "Public Employment andTraining Service" in Belgium are comparablewith the activities of the AMU. NCVQ hasbecome firmly established in the UK. It pursues astrategy of offering broad qualification levels. Thisapproach helps to overcome the make-orientationof other providers and to develop compatiblequalifications, which is one of the main interests ofpublic providers.

In other countries (D, 1RL, UK), colleges areinvolved in continuing vocational training in thesector. Many types of courses are offered in theUK and Ireland: full-time and evening courses,courses of longer duration, etc. Some courses areoffered in cooperation with franchising or importorganizations or by the manufacturers. Their aimis to prepare employees for a variety of tasks in therepair shop through adapting courses to thedemand for continuing vocational training.

College instructors have the opportunity to takepart in the courses organized by the franchising orimporter organizations or by the manufacturers.

In Germany, motor vehicle technical schools offeriwo-year continuing vocational training courses toprepare employees for practical tasks in the sector.There are, however, only a small number of thesetechnician schools in the sector.

Private providers

The studies do not report on particular policies byprivate providers in the motor vehicle sector. Theywork in a market-oriented way and offer continu-ing vocational training for those areas which havebeen neglected by other providers. The coursesare oriented more towards basis topics thantowards special topics in the motor vehicle trade.

6.3 Contents of courses offered byprovidersThe contents of courses differ from one provider tothe next. The main characteristics are discussed inthe following paragraphs.

Manufacturer-oriented providers

They offer a broad spectrum of market-orientedcontents for the dealer network:

Basic technical courses these courses must betaken by mechanics in order to acquire knowl-edge of specific technical details of theparticular make of motor vehicle;

Special technical courses for experiencedmechanics who wish to or must prepare fornew tasks, for example, as a technicalspecialist or high-tech specialist in their occu-pation. The courses focus on fault detection andproblem diagnosis using modern electronicsystems;

Courses for new models and products theseare normally offered when new models comeonto the market;

Sales courses these comprise sales andcommunication techniques and are designedfor sales staff and official dealers;

Management courses these are designed tobind the customer to the motor vehicle makeand also include general management train-ing.

In these, the technical contents predominate. Bymeans of these courses the providers attempt toraise the employees' skills to a certain level or tomaintain this level, which eventually has conse-quences for customer service.

58

However, technical training is losing ground tomanagement issues, managing customer serviceand customer relations in the sales and servicesections.

The provision by chambers of trade/guilds, tradeunions and other employers' and employees'organizations (social pertners)

The contents of courses offered by these providersare not make-dependent and cover a broadspectrum of topics for all categories of repairshops:

Courses for self-employment they are de-signed for those intending to set up their ownbusiness (economics, legislation etc.);

Commercial courses aimed at sales staff(sales techniques, communication techniques,behaviour towards the customer);

Company management courses office organi-zation, stock administration, company ac-comas, budgeting;

Management courses management concepts,relations to employees, customer service, workorganization;

Continuing training courses in motor vehicleinspection introduction to reg.,:ar technicalinspection, brake inspection, etc.;

Courses to obtain a certificate enablingemployees to carry out exhaust emissioncontrol checks;

Continuing technical training courses basiccourses on applied electronics or other special-ist areas (for example, MAG-welding, repair ofplastic components), advanced courses incomponents and systems (fuel systems, enginemanagement, etc.).

The contents of these courses offer good opportu-nities for all those employed in repair shops toimprove their skills and their knowledge frombasic to advanced levels.

The spectrum of courses includes all areas ofactivities which an employee must master in therepair shop. Normally, the course spectrum iswider than that offered by the manufacturer-oriented providers.

Public providers

Usually, public providers offer the same spectrumand same course content as the social partnerproviders. It can be assumed that these coursesfocus more on basic knowledge than on appliedtechnology and that they supplement the ad-vanced courses offered by other providers.

Private providers

Private providers offer courses with a variety ofcontents. The main courses are management,sales and administration.

6.4 The training concepts of thoseproviding continuing trainingAll continuing training concepts developed by thevarious groups providing training focus onemployees in the repair shops. However, differ-ences in concepts may be ascertained. The mostimportant strategies of those providing trainingare examined in the following discussion.

Producer-oriented provision

Prodto-:er-oriented providers pursue the concept ofinternational differentiation and modularization ofcurricula. Two main streams have developed:

a. Stream Variation A

In recent years the providers ot continuingvocational training have developed a stableconcept and a structural design of continuingvocational training courses. It is worthy of notethat the spectrum of topics currently seems to havestabilized while increasing constantly over thepast decades.

The main task is and remains the continuingvocational training of technical staff and of salesand management staff.

A broad range of courses are offered, the contentsand concepts of which are constantly updated. Therecent spread of electronic components in motorvehicles and the networking of various systems incomplex networks implies growing pressure tofurther train repair shop employees and a constantadoption of continuing training content.

For example, in the past year, Opel/Germanyoffered 113 days of continuing vocational train-ing. The Opel range of training courses comprise(see Rauner/Zeymer 1991) the following:

Total training daysper year

Technical specialized training 113Behaviourial training 25Special training for management 28Customer service management training 25

The number of training days for non-technicalsubjects is also increasing steadily.

This training at Opel (P) is divided up into a basiclevel and three sometimes four subsequentadvanced levels.

Other providers of continuing vocational traininghave similar structures. Continuing vocationaltraining in the central customer school of Mer-cedes-Benz has comprised for some years 170continuing vocational training days (D) for specia-list technical training. If the number of coursesgiven are also considered, this makes for a total2,630 continuing vocational training days peryear in the central customer school alone.

The Opel course concept (P) contains a descriptionof the various courses required for subsequentcourses or follow-on courses. As a result, thewhole concept is organized in a flexible modulesystem.

Diagram 6.1 shows how this module system forspecialists in motor vehicle electrics/electronicscan be organized. The concept behind the modulesystem is the following:

1. Course participants who will assume respon-sibility in this area in a company in the area ofmotronics (T 8.2) must complete courses in themodule series E T4 T8 T8.2.

2. The course structure is designed for greaterspecialization in fields of activity, i.e. o greaterdegree of specialization.

3. A high degree Of specialization in repair shopscan only be prevented if the employees takecourses from a number of module series.However, this would greatly increase the needfor continuing vocational training.

Opel's technical continuing vocational trainingconcept is shown in Appendix 1. It can be termeda module system in the form of a comprehensivecurriculum (P). It can be used by repair shopswithin the dealer network for continuing voca-tional training of employees in the way described(point 1).

Opel applies the continuing vocational trainingconcept of its customer service schools withoutmaking major changes to other European coun-t-ies.

A similar concept was introduced by Ford (see NI.,IRL) and is shown in Annex 2.

Both systems are in principle similar in theirhorizontal and vertical structures. They have theadvantage that employees may use the system inan extremely flexible way. Depending on theirindividual skill levels, participants may take thewhole series of modules or they can take onlythose courses which they require. The use of themodule concept in this flexible form wouldmarkedly reduce the need for continuing voca-tional training.

59

Diagram 6.1 The module system of courses

T 7.2Euronormengines

T 8.1Opel MultecCentral point

injection

T 7.3Ecotronic

T 8.2Motronic

t tT 8

Ecotronic fuelinjectionsystems

T 4 B or T 4 SMeasuringand testing

E 3Display

andcontrol

elec-tronics

t tE: Motor vehicle electrics/electronics (fundamental course)

b. Stream I: Variation B

Other manufacturer-oriented providers use acontinuing vocational training concept which canbest be described as a "reduced module system".This topic should be discussed in combination withthe findings of the four case studies carried out inVW/Audi companies (I, F, D).

The concept is built on a three-phase model ofcontinuing vocational training of repair shopemployees:

1. Basic training (basic level)

This basic training is targeted at new recruitsjoining from competing companies or employeeswho, for a period of time, have not worked withthe components of a particular motor vehiclemake.

Basic training is designed for employees who mustimprove their technical skills, for example, forretraining from mechanics to electronics, for motorvehicle bodies or spraying.

2. Advanced training, Phase 1 (proficiency level:mechanic)

Here, repair shop staff can improve and build upontheir skills in routine work. Continuing vocationaltraining at this level is divided up into variousareas, engines, fuel and ignition systems, gearsystems, bodywork, electrical systems, motorvehicle spraying.

3. Advanced training, Phase 2 (technical level:chief mechanic)

C 0

This level is designed only for employees with highskill requirements in motor vehicle repair. Level 2en3bles participants to develop strategies to solveproblems individually. The continuing vocationaltraining topics examine only customer complaintsand can be described as "clear cut fault detectionand adequate repair".

The prerequisite for participation in level 2, isknowledge of related topics as provided in level 1.

These levels are taken one after the other (see F,D). There are also possibilities to specialize incertain areas.

The results show that "module series" leading tocertain levels of qualifications are less stringentlytailored. Like many other providers of continuingvocational training, they offer a three-levelqualification model for continuing training.

The structure of the module systems

The basic training courses offer basic training formotor vehicle mechanics and for customer servicestaff. Motor vehicle mechanics who change makesor who wish to gain knowledge of other makespartieipate in the more important continuingvocational training courses.

The basic courses are designed in such a way toensure that differences in skill levels as a result ofdiffering initial vocational training paths can becompensated for. The continuing vocational train-ing courses at level 1 focus on individualcomponents. Special emphasis is laid on new ordiffering trends in known standard versions. Thismeans that specialization is aimed for even at thebasic level. The advanced courses in level 2, offerfurther specialization in an area of activity, forexample, 'Specialists in Motor Vehicle Elec-tronics". The demand for qualifications in faultdiagnosis and repair of electrical components andaggregates is considerable. Apart from operatingprogrammed diagnostic equipment, it also in-cludes skills to eliminate unexpected faults and .torepair them.

To sum up, it can be stated that the currentcontinuing vocational training plans of manufac-turer-oriented providers of continuing vocationaltraining show clearly that the latter have a widecontinuing training concept for employees inrepair shops. These concepts encompass alltopics needed to manage a repair shop and areoriented towards the various operational levels inthe repair shop.

The model concepts are structured both horizon-tally and vertically and con be used in adifferentiated way by employees. All importantkpics are covered. The structure of the modelcoi,:.-ept described here, focuses on more spe-cialized work organization in the repair shop.

Through taking part in courses in different moduleseries, an employee can become highly flexibleand acquire a larger variety of skills. The converseis also true.

c. Stream ll

Stream II is clearly dominated by Japanesemanufacturers. Primarily Toyota and Nissan areleaders in adapting the continuing vocationaltraining structure to the requirements of dealers(NL, Sector Report).

The Toyota organization has a continuing trainingscheme which trains employees at four differentlevels:

Level 1: mechanical maintenanceLevel 2: technician (focusing on mechanics)Level 3: master technician (focusing on elec-

tronics)Level 4: high-tech master technician (focusing

on diagnosis).

The mechanics take all courses within five years.Subsequently, they participate regularly in in-company continuing vocational training coursesin order to keeP their knowledge up-to-date.

Recently, Nissan introduced a new job structurefor technical staff in repair shops. The term"mechanic" has been replaced by "technician".

The programme ensures that each employee in atechnically-oriented company in Europe receivescontinuing training in a modular form and in linewith set standards. The courses lead to qualifica-tions such as (IRL):

TechnicianSpecialistSenior SpecialistMaster Technician.

A particular feature of the continuing vocationaltraining concept for repair shops of Japanesemanufacturers is that the programmes

are closely adapted to the level of prior initialtwining in the various countries, and that

the continuing vocational training concepts aredeveloped in close collaboration with thoseproviding continuing vocational training inorder to reduce initial training efforts.

The four levels of training in Toyota and Nissan arenot provided in all EU Member States. Forexample, in Ireland, Nissan provides training inall four levels while in Germany continuingvocational training usually starts at level 4, as allother levels have already been attained throughinitial vocational training or external continuingtraining.

If one compo:es the concepts of continuingvocational training for repair shop employees inJapanese and European manufacturers, the follow-ing main differences may be determined:

Japanese providers apply their concepts moreflexibly and adapt these to the level of initialtraining in the various countries;

Japanese manufacturers treat the product- andcomponent-oriented module system of continu-ing vocational training less rigorously than theirEuropean counterparts.

They function with a type of open system, i.e.continuing vocational training courses can beadapted to the individual needs of employeesand companies within the framework of thecourses offered. Participation in these courses isfixed according to this design. The concept'sadvantage lies in the fact that a relatively closeadaption can be made to training requirementsand available training on offer. Throughmatching the continuing vocational trainingconcept to the specific national context, andas the course programmes for the employeesare tailor-made, continuing vocational trainingcourses are reduced for the provider. A pre-condition is a detailed analysis of continuingvocational training data of employees within adealer network.

Provision by trade associations, trade unions(social partners)

Committees in a number of employer and employ-ee associations are involved in developing acontinuing vocational training concept for theseproviders of continuing vocational training.

Two issues are relevant for the development ofsuch a continuing vocational training concept:

Does it lead to a certificate?Does it cover skills deficits?

If a particular course leads to a particularcertificate, the providers usually, formulate acomprehensive course concept which covers alltopics corresponding to the requirements of such acertificate. Most curricula are very systematic andthe topics covered are closely related to eachother. It can be assumed that these concepts areless work process-oriented than those of manu-facturer-oriented providers. Usually they aremake-specific and the courses are available forall employees in repair shops, and for inde-pendent repair shops. A formal requirement forparticipation is usually determined (for example, aparticular level of initial training, several years ofwork experience, etc.).

The master craftsman training in Germany (ZDK)and Luxembourg (Chamber of Trades) and the

61

77

COP Cdncept (Vocational Qualification Certifi-cates) in France (ANFA) are typical examples ofsuch a design.

If a design aims to compensate for skills deficits ina particular area, appropriate courses are organ-ized. This should avoid the creation of a systemwith a number of courses in areas for which thereis no demand.

Public provision

In general, public providers of continuing voca-tional training pursue the same strategies as theircompetitors from employer associations and tradeunions. In certain areas, they focus more onconcepts of initial training for minorities and arework process-oriented. The courses are usuallyvery structured.

Private provision

On the one hand they focus more on individualareas within certain activities (for example, dataprocessing). On the other hand they offer coursedesign for interesting areas as, for example,continuing vocational training in "handling cus-tomers". On account of their market orientationthese courses are usually well prepared and coverinteresting areas.

Transferability

The transferability of continuing vocational train-ing courses varies. To a large extent this dependson the type of concepts developed or to beformulated. As stated earlier, a number ofcontinuing vocational training courses of themanufacturer-oriented providers have been spe-cially prepared to enable them to be transferredwithin a dealership network throughout EUMember States. This is already feasible onaccount of the more or less intensive adaptationto the conditions prevailing in the variouscountries.

The module concept (Stream I see abovepursued by a number of European manufacturers)has already been transferred between a numberof EU Member States with little changes beingnecessary. The concept of a number of Japanesemanufacturers (Stream Il see above) has alreadybeen transferred to several EU Member Statestaking into consideration the particular nationalcontext. This means that this concept was adaptedwith different qualifications strategies. The aim isto develop the required qualifications.

The training concepts of all other non-manufac-turer-oriented providers are usually not transfer-able to other EU Member States as they have beencreated for the particular needs and conditions ofnational or even local markets. Parts of these canbe transferred to a certain extent if they contain

6 2

sections on specific themes which are of impor-tance internationally.

None of the concepts have been developedspecifically for transfer to other sectors.

Trends which could influence future continuingvocational training concepts

With regard to system technology in motorvehicles (see chapter 4), detailed and overallknowledge must be imparted through training. Tosurvive in this sector, an understanding of functionsand their interrelationships is vital, as is mastery ofthe whole spectrum of measurements, testing anddiagnostic technology. The question of the formallevel of special training is difficult to answer.Depending on the internal work organization, thestructure of the continuing vocational trainingcourses and the certification practices of pro-viders the answer will vary. Tasks within the areaof motor vehicle mechanic may be assigned to:

a specialized motor vehicle electronics me-chanic or master craftsman, or

a qualified "seMce technician" or "diagnostictechnician", or

a motor vehicle mechatronic, should this postexist.

The focus or specialists in motor vehicle electricsand electronics is gradually shifting towardssystem-specific differentiation of repair shopemployees (see VW/Audi, levels of continuingvocational training). Opel differentiates betweenthe following areas in continuing vocationaltraining:

comfort and safety electronics,injection systems, electronic engine manage-ment and diagnosis technology,mechanical and automatic gearboxes,inspection of systems,spraying and bodywork,light commercial vehicles and ATVs.

This new orientation is consistent as electronics isa transversal technology within motor vehicletechnology and because a specialization in thecontinuing training in line with systematic criteria,such as electronics,, hydraulics, mechanics, etc.,would lead to a reduction in practice orientationand thus to a loss in the significance of qualifica-tions.

In general it can be stated that each motor vehiclemanufacturer focusing on middle-of-the-rangeand luxury vehicles, has followed the trendtowards increasing electronics much earlier thanothers and introduced the informal task oftechnician much earlier and has developedcorresponding training schemes, for example:

"System Technician" (Bosch)"Service Technician" (BMW) (D)"Diagnostic Technician" (BMW) (D).

The training concept of the German tradeassociations in the sector (ZDK, VDA, VDIK seeSector Study, D), which has just been developedand leads to a qualification as "Service Techni-cian" is a response to these trends. This is anintegrated concept. It does not differentiatebetween various specialities and an improvedversion could lead to the occupation of "MotorVehicle Mechatronic". This trend was described inchapter 4 as a future challenge. New contents of anew quality of work are taken into consideration.Employees in the repair shop must be aware ofnew environmental legislation, new exhaust fumepollution legislation, regulations on technicalinspection and must know how to use new tools,new diagnostic equipment and new means ofcommunication.

6.5 Training concepts at repair shoplevelAt repair shop level there are various continuingvocational training concepts.

6.5.1 Anthorized dealer repair shopsThe continuing vocational training concepts inauthorized dealer repair shops are based solelyon the training offer of manufacturer-orientedproviders. The repair shops are usually guidedby this offer and the adaptation of the topics on thecourses. Rarely do they have their own (oftenprovisional) model (L, IRL, DK).

On account of the changes in tasks and the aim ofsatisfying the customer, a number of continuingvocational training concepts are applied inauthorized dealer repair shops. The models weredescribed in detail in chapter 4.4:

Specialization model

A repair shop using this model tries to ensurethat each employee attends courses in line withthe specializations which are offered by theprovider (for example, customer serviceschools). If there is a high degree of specializa-tion in the repair shop, each employee mustparticipate only in a small number of courses.

Multiplier and cascade model

This model focuses on continuing vocationaltraining courses in which a limited number oftrainers or what are termed multipliers ortechnical advisors are trained by the manufac-turers (D, F, 1, I, E). The multipliers areresponsible for disseminating the knowledgeand techniques they have acquired within thefirm through internal training days in the formof in-company continuing vocational training.Such a model requires a comprehensive plan

for in-company continuing vocational trainingat repair shop level in order to ensure thetransfer of skills to other employees.

Comprehensive model

The aim of this model is to provide employeeswith a broad basis of skills. This means that thetraining providers must offer continuing voca-tional training for all repair shop staff. Theprovider's ability to offer the required numberof courses (F, DK) depends on their continuingvocational training concept and their trainingcapacity.

The decision as to which model to apply isinfluenced by the manufacturer. The continuingvocational training offer is adapted to the modelwhich has been applied.

In repair shops applying the specialization orcomprehensive model, it is usually the foremanwho, in cooperation with the owner or manager ofthe repair shop, takes the decision as to whichemployees should participate in which coursesoffered by the providers. The selection criteriadepend on the needs which are formulated by theforeman. He tries to keep skill levels in hisdepartment up to date and attempts to guaranteea level of qualifications which is sufficient to keeppace with particular trends. The employees'wishes for continuing vocational training areusually taken into consideration when they are inline with the tasks of the repair shop and thecontinuing vocational training planned. Thecomprehensive model ensures primarily continu-ing vocational training of a large number ofemployees provided the training capacity isavailable. This creates opportunities for providingemployees with a broad range of skills andcapabilities.

Where the multiplier or cascade model isimplemented, the multiplier participates in coursesgiven by the manufacturer-oriented provider. Hethen in turn passes on this knowledge and thoseskills to employees in the repair shop through shortrepair shop classes or in-company training meet-ings. Case Study 3 in Germany describes: "Whenmechanics have taken a course they arrange aninternal seminar for all staff involved. Here thecontent of the new knowledge is transmitted toother employees. This is the most important point:the knowledge does not remain the monopoly ofan individual but information reaches all whorequire it". Self-learning programmes are alsoadopted which facilitate continued training in therepair shop and help to solve current problems.This increases the employees' knowledge and thenewly-acquired skills can be applied at repairshop level.

The multiplier and casco& models are the oldestmodels and were applied in the past when the

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master craftsman trained his son. If functioningproperly, this model entails low costs with a highlevel of know-how transfer. It requires, however,an institutional framework which causes problemsat times in repair shops. The model aggravatespolarization of qualifications and a hierarchicalorientation of task splitting. This decreases oppor-tunities for quality service in quality repair shops.

6.5.2 independent repair shopsIndependent repair shops usually have no con-tinuing vocational training concepts for the repairshop level (P, DK, GR). These repair shops arefrequently confronted with three problems:

on account of the small size of companies(usually size I, sometimes size II) the absence ofemployees who are undergoing continuingvocational training has negative consequenceson turnover.

There is an absence of courses which aretailored to the needs of this type of repair shop.

The small number of employees makes in-company continuing vocational training impos-sible. On the other hand such companiesreceive no training materials from the provid-ers.

As is the case with authorized dealers, inindependent repair shops there is a great needfor continuing vocational training as they mustoffer their services under the same conditions asother repair shops.

Independent repair shops do not have sufficientfunds to implement continuing vocational trainingconcepts at repair shop level. Their only means ofkeeping employees abreast of training is to offerthem non-manufacturer-oriented courses offeredby parts producers and courses offered by publicproviders and by the social partners. Tilt. ::rnitedopportunities result in a skills deficit whichprevents independent repair shops from carryingout servicing and repair work on new motorvehicles. There is a substantial time lag in thembeing kept up to date with new knowledge. "Studyin one's own time" (DK) and learning at theworkplace are continuing vocational trainingconcepts preferred by such repair shops. How-ever, there are no specific measures to promotelearning at the workplace which would make sucha form of continuing vocational training muchmore efficient.

6.5.3 TransferabilityNone of the concepts at repair shop level isdesigned for transfer to other sectors. Transferwithin repair shops in each sector is possible whenthe applied work organization forms and theprovider concepts (the models applied) areidentical.

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The most favourable model is the comprehensiveapproach which produces employees withbroadly-based skills or motor vehicle megatronicswho can guarantee quality service.

Regarding the transferability of concepts, menr.onmust be made of increased effort to introduce self-study programmes at repair shop level. A numberof manufacturer-oriented providers offer suchtraining courses on video, in brochures and inPC programmes. Such courses focus on two areas:the programmes help the employees to becomeacquainted with the latest technical trends forexample, in new engines, remote control, theoperation of new sunroofs, etc. On the other handthese courses are designed in such a way that theyprepare participants individually to take part inseminars which are held in the customer serviceschools. Such a strategy increases the scope ofin-company continuing vocational training. Sucha concept could, however, offer opportunities forindependent repair shops to guarantee theiremployees a minimum of continuing vocationaltraining.

6.6 The need for individual continuingvocational trainingUltimately the need for continuing vocationaltraining is the interface between various groupsproviding training and the repair shops. Therepair shops require skilled manpower in orderto provide the quality service they aim for. Theyhave only two opportunities to maintain a certainlevel of skills:

Firstly: they can send their employees to thoseproviding continuing vocational training.

Secondly: they can train employees themselves inwhat are termed in-company continuing voca-tional training courses or through learning at theworkplace.

To obtain an overview of the skills required, ananalysis of needs must be carried out.

Systematic analysis of training needs have onlyrarely been carried out by providers of continuingvocational training at repair shop level. Only onecase study (NI.) reports on such a systematicanalysis which was carried out by INNOVAM onbehalf of the Ford importers group in the Nether-lands. The analysis comprised some 250 Forddealers with some 1800 employees. The findingsof the analysis showed "clear discrepancies whichexist in dealer companies between skills that areavailable and those that are required for work(K)". These findings stress the importance ofneeds analysis and the formulation of a list ofcontinuing vocational training requirements ifquality service and customer satisfaction are theaim in the sector. They also stress the need forconstant continuing vocational training.

With the exception of the systematic needsanalysis mentiolied above, the normal proceduresfor ascertaining continuing vocational trainingneeds were carri-xl out in the same fashion asmanufacturer-oriented providers and other pro-viders in groups B, C and D.

Needs analysis by manufacturer-oriented pro-viders of training

The preparation of continuing vocational trainingschemes is influenced mainly by departmentsresponsible for developing new technologies.Manufacturer-oriented providers receive feed-back from the dealers. At dealer level the foremenreport on faults they have found. The employeesdiscuss with the foreman those areas in which theyrequire more knowledge and the requirementswhich they must fulfil. The results of these talks arethen reported within the dealership network byinspectors or trainers to the providers of trainingand thus constitute important elements for devel-oping new continuing vocational training pro-grammes.

Several companies have even created the positionof information officer or service delegate (D, F, 1,B). He is either employed by the company or visitsthe company frequently and maintains contactwith the manufacturer. With the companies, hediscusses continuing vocational training needswhich have arisen on account of changes in tasks(change of product, fluctuation in the staff,changed legislation, etc.) and passes this informa-tion on to the manufacturer, who plans continuingtraining and the customer service school. Thisprocedure, however, still has shortcomings.

Another important factor is skilling employeesbefore a new product is launched (IRL). Dependingon the scope of change to the product, newcourses are designed or existing courses aremodified.

In order to quantify the need for continuingvocational training, the continuing vocationaltraining measures of those providing training areassessed. Deficits in understanding new systemsare formulated with the course participants andare taken into consideration in preparing newcourses.

The course design is also frequently influenced byinformation received from the warranty d.part-ment on systems 'and components. Should a largenumber of faulty parts be returned to themanufacturer because kiults could not be foundin a system or a component in the repair shop,courses are developed to enable the repair shopemployees to solve the problem.

To summarize, it can be stated that analyses areinfluenced by a variety of factors. They may becarried out in a product-oriented manner (and not

according to standardized criteria) or they may bethe result of individual talks with partners at repairshop level. The transfer of this information in astructure which does justice to all requirements isthe responsibility of the planner and provider ofcontinuing vocational training. The dominant roleof the manufacturer should not be underestimated.The needs analysis formulated on the basis ofavailable information is dominated by manufac-turers. Consequently, the training plans at repairshop level of . authorized dealers are basedexclusively on the training offer of manufacturer-oriented continuing vocational training providers.The authorized repair shop dealers are guided bythis offer and the modification of topics in theprogramme.

A still unknown factor in designing continuingvocational training is the skills level followinginitial training which has a considerable influenceon the scope of the continuing vocational training.The main aim of a needs analysis is to enablerepair shop employees to keep pace 'Nesin tasks in the repair shop. This atdealership level that the employees must receivecontinuing vocational training to the extent thatthis is required to maintain skill levels. This skillingof personnel also facilitates economic repair andmaintenance of motor vehicles and imparts skillsin connection with increasingly complex systemsand innovative technologies in new models. Incontinuing vocational training employees seemore an opportunity to maintain their skills thanchances for promotion in a company.

Needs analysis by trade unions

Trade unions are not directly involved in needsanalysis or in the planning and implementation ofcontinuing vocational training activities by manu-facturer-oriented providers. At the manufacturerlevel, they are usually informed of continuingvocational training measures and at repair shoplevel can actively participate in the above-mentioned analyses.

There are only a very limited number of tradeunion representatives at repair shop level. There islittle trade union organization and their influenceis small. Only in a limited number of case studies(D) are there reports of trade union representa-tives. Thus, it can be assumed that trade unions arescarcely represented in repair shops of size III andsmaller. This applies to companies which areauthorized dealers and to independent repairshops.

Needs analysis by trade associations

Concerning the analysis by trade associations itmust be assumed that the decision-making bodiesare manufacturer or repair shop-oriented. To theextent that they are manufacturer-oriented, thefindings are universally true.. If they are more

6 5

repair shop-oriented, for example, Chamber ofTrades, bodies of independent self-employed (B),REMIT (UK), ZDK (D), TEE (GR), CEPRA (P), or ifindependent organizations cooperate (such asANFA (F) and INNOVAM (NL), the following trendcan be observed:

a. product innovation on the part of the manu-facturer and legislation (safety regulations,exhaust emission regulations, regulations onmotor vehicle inspection, brake testing, etc.)exert a considerable influence on the design ofcontinuing vocational training programmes.

b. The repair shop-oriented decision-makingbody guarantees that the demands of repairshops and the problems with which they areconfronted influence the design of continuingvocational training.

c. The representatives of independent repairshops in these committees guarantee thatrepair shop-oriented associations formulate acontinuing vocational training offer for employ-ees in such repair shops as the latter have noaccess to courses offered by manufacturer-oriented providers, with the exception ofcourses given by component producers.

The authors assume that the share of theseemployees throughout the EU Member Statesamounts to some 25-30%.

The response of this group of providers ofcontinuing vocational training to training needsof the members is the main reason for such asegmentation of the continuing vocational trainingoffer, as these schemes are meant to P4 gaps in theoverall training offer. On the other hand, thisgroup offers comprehensive training measures, forexample, master craftsmen courses in Germanyand Luxembourg.

Analysis of needs by public organizations

Needs analyses by public organizations aredetermined by their aims. These aims depend onthe extent to which certain certificates should beattained through continuing vocational trainingand on whether continuing vocational trainingshould only aim to reach a certain target group(unemployed, handicapped, etc.). Thus, the train-ing aims cover a large spectrum of tasks and arefor a lengthy period of time (several years). Theyimpart skills which are not product-dependent andreact quickly to change.

The courses given by these bodies are used byemployees from all types of companies. Reportsfrom Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, Irelandand the United Kingdom ascertain that the trainingcourses are used usually to obtain broadly-basedqualifications in order that employees have great-er chances on the labour market if employment

4 6 6

trends change or if new tasks are taken over by acompany.

Needs analysis by the private training providers

The private providers of training use very differentmethods to carry out needs analysis of continuingvocational training and design their training offerto fill the gaps in the market which such analysesreveal.

6.7 Transfer of continuing vocationaltraining in the repair shopsRapid product innovation (for example, end-of-line programming of control components) is

making in-roads into an unlimited number ofmotor vehicles. Quality competition and the needfor improvement in customer satisfaction areprompting calls for increasing continuing voca-tional training.

The case studies reveal that employees in theauthorized dealer repair shops received onaverage

4.5 days

continuing vocational training annually in amanufacturer-oriented training centre. In somecases they received

7.5 and 9.5 days per year.

In-company continuing vocational training onaverage amounts to

1.5 days per year

as revealed by the questionnaires assessed.

Self-study, at the workplace or at home amountedto

1.5 days per year.

The extent of training at the workplace isunknown.

The Greek case studies report a maximum of 23days. The average need of employees interviewedamounted to 6-8 days annually and showed anincreasing tendency towards in-company courses.

Evening courses and courses of long durationprovided by non-manufacturer-oriented providerswere not taken into consideration.

Strategies used to master costs of continuingvocational training

Developments require strategies to provide con-tinuing vocational training in the motor vehiclesector. The following ;tategies should be pro-posed and are being used commonly at present:

/:7

A further shift of continuing vocational trainingto the repair shop level by means of in-company training courses;

Extending computer-assisted diagnostic tech-niques through greater use of sensors, self-diagnostic techniques, expert systems anddiagnosis communication systems betweenmotor vehicles, repair shops and centraldiagnostic units;

A further increase in the interval betweenservices;

The integration of course material in computer-assisted stations;

Improving and extending the continuihg voca-tional training offer by the manufacturer-oriented providers which are at the disposalof both dealers and independent repair shops.

The case studies prompt the conclusion that thefirst model is the one most commonly used in theEU Member States. It requires therefore greateranalysis.

In this model the manufacturer-oriented providerof continuing vocational training focuses on theability to carry out certain tasks, for example:

the development of training programmes for thewhole organization;

highest level coordination of continuing voca-tional training (the allocation of courses amongthe customer service schools, repair shops,experts; financial support, support for problemswhich emerge);

carrying-out a certain part of continuingvocational training on behalf of particulargroups (for example, management, trainingmaster craftsmen, troubleshooters);

support for xtending decentralized trainingcentres;

drawing up teaching materials and teachingaids;

provision of information on products; and

continuing training of trainers in decentralizedcontinuing vocational training centres.

In line with this strategy, the customer servicecentre offers important courses, primarily on newtrends but also for employees involved in sales,marketing and for management. However, onaccount of financial restrictions it cannot extend itsoffer of continuing vocational training. On thisaccount, the master tradesmen, the troubleshoot-ers and trainers in decentralized training centres

are the main target of continuing training. Theindividual companies are becoming increasinglyresponsible for implementing standard training intraditional technology. If the financial situationand training capacity permits, the companies mustface this challenge for iwo reasons:

in order to make a repair shop efficient orprofitable there is a need for skilled employeeswho are capable of carrying out efficientmaintenance and repair work, even on high-tech motor vehicles.

An increasing number of regular customers canonly be bound to a firm for a lengthy period ifgood service and good and reliable customerservice is offered both at the organizationaland repair shop level.

The shift of continuing vocational training activitiesto the company level implies a reduction in directcommunication between employees and manufac-turer. The manufacturer thus loses an importantsource of information and both the manufacturerand the customer service school are not in aposition to give targeted support to repair shops ineliminating faults in new products.

To ensure communication and feedback betweenmanufacturer and repair shop in line with thisphilosophy, additional instruments must be used:on-line connections, technology advisors, organi-zation And marketing become necessary. Finally,it must be ensured that continuing vocationaltraining in conjunction with the conditions in thecompany can raise the quality of training. In spiteof this, conditions must be created, for example,skilled trainers, material and training rooms. Sucha concept opens opportunities for a practice-oriented assessment of the product. The extent towhich such a concept is successful depends on therelationship between the manufacturer and therepair shops which is based more on feedbackand cooperation than the current structure inwhich supervision is more common.

6.1I Continuing training target groupsAs described above, the target groups forcontinuing vocational training are determined inthe formulation of continuing vocational trainingplans at provider and repair shop level. The scopeof courses and the number of target groups hoveincreased significantly. Currently the followinggroups are receiving particular attention:

courses for managers of customer serviceorganizations, their subsidiaries, their generalagencies, etc.;

courses for managers in repair shops andcustomer service staff;

continuing vocational training for trainers andinstructors in decentralized training centres;

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courses for particular target groups, e.g. largecustomers, authorities, experts and members oftrade associations;

courses for technical staff and for employees inadministration and customer service;

formulation of training courses for in-companytraining and for individual decentralized train-ing centres;

pilot training courses for new programmes,development of future training, multi-mediaand distance learning courses.

Access to continuing vocational training

The courses offered by manufacturer-orientedproviders are aimed exclusively at the employeesin authorized dealers. Repair shop staff of othermakes or hdependent repair shops are notpermitted to take such courses. Participation ofdealer employees in courses depends on thecontinuing vocational training aims of the com-pany. The dealer must pursue this concept andmust select participants according to its criteria.The providers offer catalogues which describe thecourses available, the target groups, course aims,content, duration and venue. Certain courses arealso open to trainers working for public providers(IRI., Sector Study). There are also courses formultipliers working in public bodies.

The employees in independent repair shops canonly take part in the courses given by providers ingroups B, C and D. These courses are open toevery employee in the sector.

Component producers often offer courses foremployees in independent and dealer repairshops. The courses are exclusively product-oriented, i.e. they involve only the operation ofdiagnostic systems, testing equipment, measure-ment equipment, etc. (D). Courses for minoritiesand for disadvantaged groups are offered to amodest extent by non-manufacturer-oriented pro-viders. Belgium, Denmark and the Netherlandsreport that certain courses exist aiming to integratethe above-mentioned groups in the sector.

6.9 Toaching stratogios of the providersof continuing vocational trainingGiven the variety of strategies and teachingmethods, didactic and media concepts can onlybe discussed here in brief.

The customer service schools serve as an exampleof good practice (F, P, E, I., DK, UK, D). Training iscarried out with the aid of an integrated learningsetting and makes use of teamwork or workingalone on original parts, systems or motor vehicles.To elucidate the structure and function of compo-

nents and systems, cross-sections and technicalcomponents are used for demonstration and workpurposes. This ensures integrated learning (theo-ry-practice integration). Theoretical and practicalcapabilities are learned simultaneously. The find-ings from an assessment of the questionnaire inthe case studies point to this fact. In technicalcontinuing vocational training at least 50% oftraining content was devoted to practical exer-cises. Training focused on practice with theoreticalexplanations as a supplement. To facilitate skilledwork in maintenance, repair and diagnosis,exercises were carried out to ascertain typicalfaults. Equipment common to repair shops such ashandbooks, service manuals and PCs containinglatest data and system descriptions were used.

To this extent the customer service schools varygreatly from other providers of training. They haveovercome the separation of theoretical andpractical training and focus not on work byexample but on real working situations. They donot concentrate on particular systems, but arework process-oriented and support the necessaryabstraction processes using original media suchas the motor vehiclq.

This didactic concept outlined has not yet beenattained by many other providers. Private trainingproviders must become more open to this trend.

In spite of extending the continuing vocationaltraining capacity, in a number of manufacturer-oriented providers it is still insufficient to provideeach employee in the dealership with suitable andfrequent training. On account of this and becauseof the low costs, many manufacturers havebecome involved in creating and using comput-er-assisted continuing vocational training andself-study programmes. The video and PC trainingprogrammes have two aims: they help the employ-ee to become acquainted with new technicaldevelopments through self-studies in the repairshop and the programmes also can prepareemployees for participation in continuing voca-tional training courses offered by providers.

With regard to the type of continuing vocationaltraining courses offered by the manufacturer-oriented provider, it can be stated that there is aclear trend towards openness to new trainingmethods for continuing vocational training ofemployees in the dealer network. Correspond-ence courses and/or in-company continuingvocational training using interactive media areonly two examples of this. To date, the majority ofcontinuing vocational training courses are held inthe customer service schools.

Two examples illustrate the endeavours to organ-ize continuing vocational training in such a wayas to increase quality and efficiency:

a. Example I (D3)

In future, developments in continuing vocationaltraining will focus increasingly on providing repairshop staff with good knowledge of networkelectronic systems and components. Mechanicaltasks are becoming increasingly unimportant. Thehead of a customer service school states: "In 1985we started with 7 different diagnostic system,today we have between .20 and 25. By the mid-90s there will be 60. At the same time, we mustdevote attention to new trends and improvementssuch as the ABS system, the air bag or the vehicledistance control system. These innovations ant thesubject of a seminar prior to their introductionto the market. Following this, new content isintegrated into the various continuing vocationaltraining courses."

A possible response to this trend is the TIS concept(Technology Information System) of BMW which isto be introduced in repair shops in the course of1994. The TIS concept is an expert system fordiagnosing complex systems and for enabling themotor vehicle mechanic to make a diagnosis onthe basis of his personal experience, intuition andthe results of the findings given by the diagnosticequipment. The control screen of the future will bedivided into three parts: a wiring system plan, arepresentation of the component parts concernedand the values measured.

b. Example (D4)

In spite of a certain increase in continuingvocational training, capacity is not sufficient toprovide adequate training to employees in therepair shop. For this reason and on account ofskill deficits in a number of employees, theMercedes-Benz customer service school hasdeveloped new computer-assisted media. Eachrepair shop will be equipped with a practicecomputer, giving each employee the opportunity- depending on his skills and time available - toselect his personal learning method and speed.The computer-based training (CBI) offers generaltopics with which every employee is confronted.When an employee has some time, he can gothrough the lessons at the workplace. In thefuture, continuing vocational training seminarswill be stored on this type of media and will nolonger be given in continuing vocational trainingcentres. Thus, they are always available for self-study for repair shop employees.

The Mercedes-Benz project AKUBIS (acronym forservice-oriented information system within thevehicle industry) in cooperation with GermanTelecom, a branch of the Frauenhofer Institutesand SEL, is innovative. This system offers continu-ing vocational training in the form of a video-direct dialogue between various geographical

locations. It will provide opportunities for videoconferences between, for instance, the Esslingencustomer service school and up to 15 otherlocations. The transmission is either by ISDN(integrated services digital network) or via satel-lite (particularly for transmitting abroad). 300participants can take part in a teleconference andthey communicate directly with the trainer inEsslingen.

A future training programme might have thefollowing form: after the introduction of theproblem by the instructor, and having answeredinitial enquiries from the participants in severaldecentralized locations, the participants beginpractical exercises prepared in advance at allconference sites. The conference line will beinterrupted for the duration of these practicalexercises. Following this, individual experiencesand problems which emerged during the exercisewill be handled in depth with the help of videodemonstrations which were recorded in participat-ing venues. A discussion between the trainer andthe participants throughout all of Germany (and inprinciple throughout the world) follows. Mer-cedes-Benz is convinced that this continuingvocational training system is an economic, short-term strategy to provide continuing vocationaltraining for a large number of employees. Theefficiency of the system, which is to be introducedat the end of the year, lies in the large number ofparticipating repair shop staff and the possibilityof taking part in continuing vocational traininglessons without losing time through travel. Mer-cedes-Benz also regards this project as goodpublicity.

These. strategies aim to make continuing voca-tional training as efficient as possible and areoriented to that extent on using AV-media orcomputed-based learning.

Apart from the above-mentioned media, there arethree other lines of development which should benoted briefly:

1. Self-teaching materials and computer-basedlearning (AV-media and CBL)

Assessment:This method is based on a strict separation ofworking and learning with emphasis on "theo-retical knowledge".

2. Activity-oriented !earning

Assessment:This method is based on a comprehensiveapproach to continuing vocational training andthe fact that important knowledge can betransmitted by simulation and sensory experi-ences.

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3. Reintegration of work and learning throughtutorial, computer-based learning (interactivemedia)

Assessment:This takes advantage of the learning potential ofthe work process.

A detailed discussion of these lines of developmentis not possible at this juncture. Diagram 6.2 showstrends in the importance of approaches over thepast years. It is assumed and desirable that, infuture, learning by the AV-media and CBL will bereplaced by interactive learning as this integratesboth learning and working. This could alsocontribute towards overcoming the capacityproblems in continuing vocational training men-tioned earlier.

6.10 TrainersIn all groups of providers, the trainers play animportant part. They are important for the transferof know-how in two directions:

a. from the provider to the employeeb. from the employee to the provider.

The latter is considered extremely important formanufacturer-oriented providers as this offersthem a good opportunity to learn from employeesin the repair shop something about the product,the organization, the relationship between part-ners, i.e. the manufacturers, the dealers, and thecustomers. None of the studies report, however,that know-how transfer from employees in a repairshop to the manufacturer is systematically organ-ized during continuing vocational training. This isusually part of continuing vocational training, insome instances the trainers adopt particularmethods to identify the weaknesses in a repairshop.

Feedback from the employees who participated incourses given by the groups of providers in groups2, 3 and 4 is used primarily to modify courses, toupdate them and to reorganize them in order toadapt them to ihe needs of the employees.

The formal skills of trainers of all providers arevery similar. Usually the trainers are engineers,very experienced technicians or highly qualifiedmaster craftsmen. The public providers of trainingin several countries (e.g. D) require a stateexamination for trainers who are in the civilservice. In order to take this examination, thetrainers/instructors must study both technical andeducational subjects at university.

A background knowledge of motor vehicletechnology, educational skills and very goodknowledge of a foreign language are in highdemand of trainers in manufacturer-oriented andprivate providers of training.

To guarantee that skilled continuing vocationaltraining is delivered in the repair shops to attainquality service, the trainers working for manufac-turer-oriented providers often receive furthertraining in the customer service schools of themanufacturer on the following occasions:

product innovationintroduction of new service strategies andrepair methodsintroduction of new customer service strategiesintroduction of new sales strategies (only forsales personnel).

Continuing training centres involved in these tasksare usually located near to the manufacturing firmsor the importer centres. Several European import-ers have their centres in Belgium. Trainers fromthroughout Europe must travel to Belgium to takepart in continuing vocational training. The proce-

Diagram 6.2 - Importance of different approaches to continuing vocational training

Importance

1970

AV/C131.

Activity-orientedlearning

InteractiveMedia

1990

70

dure is similar for manufacturer centres. Theamount of continuing vocational training pertrainee varies between one week to 25 days peryear.

The trainers working for private providers haveno access to this type of continuing vocationaltraining. They have no regular opportunity toupdate their knowledge and skills. To compensatefor this, they attempt to take part in coursesprovid&d by component producers.

The continuing vocational training of trainersworking for associations/trade unions and publicbodies is also limited. The studies from the EUMember States did not report on frequent continu-ing vocational training for trainers. There is onlyone type of cascade system for these trainerswhich is organized in cooperation with themanufacturer and importet training centres or thecontinuing vocational training is organized in linewith the particular needs of various providers, forexample: selected trainer groups can take partin courses offered by manufacturer-oriented pro-viders.

It cannot be deduced from this that the trainers inmanufacturer-oriented providers have better op-portunities to update their skills. Trainers workingfor other providers do face limitations. It is difficultfor them to maintain the required skills.

6.11 Costs of continuing vocationaltrainingThe costs of continuing vocational training arehard to ascertain for two reasons:

a. The costs incurred at repair shop level or insmall companies are not usually calculatedbecause the owner regards continuing voca-tional training as absolutely necessary. Thiswas true for most of the case studies (e.g. NI).

Only Portugal reported a negative attitude tocontinuing vocational training in the country."Training is a waste of time" (P), in the words ofan employee.

b. There are no figures on the providers oftraining as these costs are part of the Totalcalculation of companies. The providers ingroups B and C do not make specific costcalculations.

Discussion of the costs of continuing vocationaltraining should be analyzed with regard to thefour provider groups.

Manufacturer-oriented providers

Courses organized by manufacturer-orientedproviders are usually free of charge to theauthorized dealers, whereby participation in a

number of lengthier continuing vocational trainingprogrammes as, for example, sales trainingprogrammes, are not free of charge. The tuitionfees are, however, usually low and are based onthe fact that external trainers must be employed forthis sort of training. In general it can be said thatthe costs and the funding of continuing vocationaltraining is treated very differently. The followingprovides details:

a. In smaller sized repair shops the costs forcontinuing vocational training are not calcu-lated. One pertinent justification was given bythe owner of a small repair shop (size I):

"In a family business like ours we treat thingsdifferently than in a large company whereeverything must be prepared, planned andnoted in the budget. We have no specialbudget for continuing vocational training. Wedo not count man/hours here and we do notkeep a record of costs as such." (NL)

b. In larger firms (sizes !V and V), and sometimesin smaller firms, the costs of training are oftencalculated. It is common practice that

the costs of training at a manufacturer-oriented centre are borne by the manufac-turer;

the travel and subsistence costs are borne bythe dealer;

the dealer must cope with the costs resultingfrom loss of working time and must continueto pay wages and salaries.

c. A number of case studies (P, NI, D, IRL, E)report that one day of continuing vocationaltraining in a manufacturer-oriented trainingcentre costs 500 ECU at repair shop level. Thisdoes not include the costs for the trainingprovider. Some other firms stated that the totalcontinuing vocational training costs for employ-ees were on average 0.7-2.73% of totalwage costs annually (E, 1).

Training provision from employer associations/trade unions

These provide continuing vocational trainingcourses during working time and eveningcourses. If courses are taken during working timethe costs can also be calculated as 500 ECU forthe repair shop. Normally travel costs are lowerbecause continuing vocational training centres areoften to be found in the region. The courses are notfree of charge.

In attending evening courses, there is no loss ofproduction for the company and no extra salary atrepair shr level for taking the course. This lowersthe overui cost.

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The employees in independent repair shops Another supportive measure for continuing voca-usually take those courses offered by the training tional training has been reported in Denmark andprovider. the Netherlands:

Public providers of training

With regard to costs, the public providers are in aposition comparable to that of ihe employerassociation and trade union providers. The costsat repair shop level are approximately the same.

Private providers

The costs for courses given by private providersare similar to those of manufacturer-orientedproviders. The repair shop usually must pay anadditional fee of some 1700 ECU per week. Onaccount of this the repair shops only sendemployees to courses of private providers if thesecourses are not offered by other providers (e.g.introduction to computer-based administration).

In conclusica, it can be stated that repair shopsusually do not fund evening courses taken by theiremployees. This type of training should besupported if the owner is interested in improvingthe skills level of his employees without a loss inworking time.

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When taking part in AMU courses in Denmark, theparticipant receives full salary. In the Netherlandsthe dealer pays a daily compensation from thecontinuing vocational training fund for employeeson training (NI).

6.12 Evaluation of costsThe case studies do not indicate any systeinaticevaluation of the cost benefit effect of continuingvocational training. Hence, no great need seemsto be felt for this. On the whole the costs of trainingare not excessive while the benefit is often self-evident. In particular, mechanics working indealer companies would not be able to performtheir tasks adequately without receiving on-goingcontinuing vocational training in th, latest techno-logical trends. One of the problams arising insmaller general repair shops is the fact thatmechanics do not have the opportunity to gatherexperience with the skills acquired in continuingvocational training courses as there is too link*work in the field of electronics in the company.This means that all courses do not provide amaximum return (NL, Conclusions).

0

CONCLUSIONS: FROM REPAIR SHOPS TOQUALITY SERVICE STATIONS

7.1 Quality competition and quality service

7.2 High-tech motor vehicles and the change intasks

7.3 Repair and quality consciousness

7.4 Standardization and modularization versustransferability and mobility

7.5 Adaptive versus forward qualification andqualification planning

7.6 The role of the providers of continuingvocational training

7.7 Training concepts and their adaption to theneeds of countries and repair shops

7.8 Need for training and restrictions onaccount of lack of capacity

7.9 Continuing vocational training and workorganization

7.10 Control versus cooperation ofmanufacturers and dealers

7.11 Towards the quality servicing stations

7.12 Towards universal multi-skilled motorvehicle mechatronics

7.13 The quality servicing station as a place forvocational training and continuing training

7.14 Continuing vocational training costs as aninvestment in quality service

7.15 New requirements lead to a new job designand different concepts of continuingvocational training

7.16 Smaller repair shops are facing eliminationon account of the need to invest

7.17 Environmental requirements must berespected by quality-oriented servicingstations

Bibliography

Appendix I, II and 11

Abbreviations

PART 3:TRENDS

1 1%1111111Wal%/11111a; r MAIM IMCIF1411I Jrl1J U v.QUALITY SERVICE STATIONS

7.1 Quality competition and qualityserviceThe European motor vehicle industry is confrontedwith a growing trend towards quality competitionin a global market. In addition to the high qualityexpected by the customer (customer market), thedecision on which make of motor vehicle to buy isinfluenced by the quality of after-sales service andthe quality of skilled advice at the time of the sale.For the more expensive make of motor vehicle, thesales action also plays an increasing role. TheEuropean motor vehicle industry is reading to thistrend with varying degrees of success.

The British Sector Report points to a remarkableexample of how the state provides support forstrui±ural changes: "In addition to direct continu-ing vocational training, the BS 5750 standard isthe most important factor for change in the sector.A firm working to the BS 5750 standard mustformulate aims, show proof of measures on howthese aims are to be attained and must prove toinspectors that these aims are being pursued inpractice. One element of the BS 5750 standard isthat the firms must prove that they carry outcontinuing vocational training both at companyand individual level. For many company andgovernment contracts BS 5750 is a prerequisitefor obtaining the contract and this is also the casein the motor vehiao sector".

The European moor vehicle industry is notcompetitive without ligh quality service at a highlevel particularly or third markets.

The sector studies show that the structural changetowards quality servicing stations is in full swing,but that Europeln countries still have to cope withstructural change the degree of which variesdepending on the country. A number of nationalregulations and traditions ore influential in thistrend (in the sense of good practice):

the Dutch Working Conditions Act;

the experience-oriented training, in coopera-tion with companies, of motor vehicle employ-ees with a broad skills base;

continuing vocational training opportunities forskilled workers as technicians or master trades-men (dual continuing vocational training);

the introduction of standards (e.g. BS 5750) toimprcve servicing quality at all levels of thecompany;

in a number of EU Member States (e.g. D, DK)the motor vehicle sector has the largest numberof apprentices. This results in a substantial inputin the European labour market in the form ofhighly-skilled workers.

Normal practice, on the other hand, is character-ized strongly by endeavours of the motor vehiclemanufacturers in very different national conditionsto compensate for deficits in initial vocationaltraining through manufacturer-related continuingvocational training. Of necessity, the customerservice schools currently undertake to a largeextent the tasks of initial vocational training.

7.2 High-tech motor vehicles and thechange in tasksThe trend towards high-tach motor vehicles withhighly integrated and modular technology, to-wards a multitude of motor vehicles which isscarcely surveyable even by experts in a certainmake, towards a reduction in the need for repairand towards further prolongation of serviceintervals and of guarantee periods for importantmotor vehicle components will result in a basicchange of tasks for motor vehicle repair shops:

the classical mechanical repairs will becomeless important in favour of a replacement ofcomponents (engine replacement, gearboxreplacement, replacement of control compo-nents, etc.)

skills in handling diagnostic systems willbecome increasingly important and necessary;

the share of repair work in computer andmicro-electronic components is minimal.Should repair become necessary, the compo-nent is replaced;

on the other hand, motor vehicle bodyworkand accident work is becoming increasinglyimportant;

the core of repair shop tasks is diagnosis andstandard servicing.

Mastering these tasks requires excellent motorvehicle system knowledge, to the extent that this isrelevant for servicing and repair, and, in particu-lar, methodological competence:

Using which tools and media, can I make themotor vehicle and its condition transparent?

How do I diagnose a fault as quickly aspossible with the help of self-diagnosis anddiagnostic equipment?

The creation of the service technician occupationin close cooperation between the manufacturer,the motor vehicle trade and the social partnersin Germany is a good example of innovativeregulation. This is particularly true when continu-ing vocational training is made available to asmany skilled workers as possible, up to the servicetechnician and the foreman. Normal skilling

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practices at the level of skilled worker, technicianand master tradesman are still strongly orientedtowards the classical concept of the repair shopand there is a high degree of division of labour.

7.3 Repair and quality consciousnessCarrying out repair work subsequent to faultdiagnosis requires a high degree of theoreticalknowledge as the skilled worker must make use ofwell-prepared and programmed repair manuals.This requires knowledge of symbols, diagramstructures and technical explanations as well asthe ability to implement these instructions inpractice. Here it is a question of a high degreeof quality consciousness and the ability to makehigh quality repairs without supervision by asuperior. This challenge to the motor vehicleindustry is the result of three factors:

the ;ncreasing security requirements and stand-ards;

the decisive criteria of quality servicing with aslow a level of repair as possible;

the legal provisions in the areas of environ-mental protection, road safety and consumerprotection.

7.4 Standardization andmodularizatilon versus transferabilityand mobilityTwo contradictory trends can be identified in themotor vehicle sector:

On the one hand, existing international andcompany norms facilitate a standardization ofall motor 'Aide technology. This is encour-aged by the necessity to satisfy the wholespectrum of customer wishes. This is onlypossible through a module system fewerbasic models which have differing qualitiesdepending on the components and the pro-grammed control instruments. This ultimatelyculminates in the modular motor vehicle. Theresult of this trend is that the vast array of motorvehicles is increasing while technology isconverging.

For repair shops the manufacturers and sup-pliers make available tools and diagnosticequipment for diagnosing and detectingfaults. These differ greatly in their applicabilityto similar tasks and in their work surfaces andthus their operation. The basic functions ofthese devices, however, are the same.

This trend means that there are significantdifferences in operating knowledge of tools anddiagnostic systems for comparable tasks in therepair shop. This operating know-how can only betransferred to devices of other manufacturers to avery limited extent which results in low transfer-

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ability and consequently hampers mobility. In thecase of migration to another motor vehicle make,this knowledge must be newly acquired throughadequate continuing vocational training meas-ures. This leads to avoidable continuing voca-tional training expenditure and a blocking oftraining staff who could rather be assigned todevelop skills related to work processes such asmethodical competence (e.g. how to carry outdiagnosis), functional knowledge (e.g. how doengine management systems work?) and instru-mental abilities and skills (e.g. mastering ofcomputer systems).

The development of work process rein. ,d skillswould be more advantageous. Good practicestresses work process related skills and tries toreduce the scope of operating knowledge throughuser-friendly design of equipment.

As for normal practice, the trend towards thedevelopment and implementation of equipmentand systems requiring a high degree of operatingknowledge is still continuing.

7.5 Adaptive versus forwardqualification and qualification planningThere is no other sector with more developedcontinuing vocational training systems in theshape of modular course systems featuring highlymodern media and methods than the motorvehicle sector. These measures are developed bythe motor vehicle manufacturer and are beingconstantly updated to give the outlets of thedealership and repair shop network sufficientqualifications in order that they can successfullymarket the make of motor vehicle.

This direct economic interest of the manufacturer inskilling employees in repairs and sales accountsfor the existence of the highly developed modularcurricula which motor vehicle manufacturers makeavailable to the trade for the continuing vocationaltraining of their employees. Successful sales andservicing in the sector require that in introducing anew model the trade is prepared for sales, repairand servicing. This challenge of prospectiveplanning and implementing corresponding con-tinuing vocational training programmes is beingcatered for by most manufacturers in cooperationwith their authorized dealers and subsidiaries. Theauthorized repair shops can fall bock on carefullyplanned curricula and courses.

Good practice is characterized by the fact that thedesign of the actual continuing vocational trainingoffer is a result of the dialogue between themanufacturer and the authorized dealer duringwhich the dealers concert their skill needs with theskilling offer of the manufacturer. Manufacturerssetting up decentralized continuing vocationaltraining courses in the repair shops is alsoinnovative.

Good practice in the authorized dealer consists ofproviding all employees with the opportunity totake part in broad continuing vocational trainingorganized by the providers of this.

The attempts on the part of some manufacturers tosupport the continuing vocational training ofemployees in their repair shops through register-ing on computer all continuing vocational trainingactivities and subsequently to decide on therequired skilling measures in individual cases,corresponds to a "top-down" concept. For mostplanners of continuing vocational training thisappears to be a particularly effective controlmechanism. The "bottom-up" concept is just aswidespread and in this the demand for continuingvocational training in the authorized dealerships isgauged as the scope required. There are variouscontinuing vocational training models drawn upby motor vehicle manufacturers. Both conceptshave their disadvantages. A third model, thecooperation model, attempts to blend the advan-tages of the boitom-up and the top-down conceptand to avoid disadvantages. Only through thiscan good practice be attained.

7.6 The role of the providers ofcontinuing vocational trainingThe general demand for quality servicing, techni-cal trends, environmental and safety regulationsand an improvement in customer service results ina great need for continuing vocational training inthe sector. To respond to these needs, four groupsof providers of continuing vocational training areactive in the sector:

Manufacturer-oriented providers (CustomerService Schools of the motor vehicle manufac-turers or importers; subcontractors of motorvehicle manufacturers)

Employer and employee organization provid-ers and the trade unions

Public providers

Private providers

All providers oriented themselves towards intensi-fying continuing in-service training of currentpersonnel and a number of initiatives are beingtaken in the sector to respond to those develop-ments in technical and commercial fields and inthe area of quality customer service. The tasks, theconcepts and the strategies of the providers areusually influenced by the specific situation prevail-ing in the sector of the respective country.

The infrastructure for continuing vocational train-ing in the motor vehicle sector in EU MemberStates is determined by the four groups ofproviders already mentioned.

The continuing vocational training offer is deter-mined by the motor vehicle manufacturer and itstraining centres. They cover a wide spectrum ofthe required continuing vocational training ac-tivities. Providers from trade unions, employers'associations and other organizations as well aspublic and private providers must be regarded asadditional providers of a supplementary trainingoffer. This offer can be made use of by allemployees and gives, in particular, the indepen-dent repair shops access to continuing vocationaltraining.

The Danish Sector Report quotes figures whichstress the dominant position of manufacturer-oriented providers. In 1988, some 08% of allemployees in the sector participated in coursesoffered by importers' organizations although theother three groups of providers have a goodinfrastructure. It can be assumed that these figuresdo not differ significantly and that comparablevalues can be ascertained in the other EU MemberStates.

Private providers do not play a significant part.They cover market segments which are not usuallycovered by other providers of training.

The training offer of manufacturer-oriented pro-viders is determined exclusively for the employeesof authorized dealers. Participation in coursesoffered by other providers is only considered ifskill requirements of staff are not satisfied by theprogrammes offered by the manufacturer-orientedproviders.

The employees in independent repair shops do nothave access to the courses offered by manufac-turer-oriented providers. They may participate inthe courses offered by component manufacturersand non-manufacturer-oriented providers.

For authorized dealers and their employees, theextension of the training infrastructure from thepoint of view of increasing servicing quality andskills in the face of rapid technical development isan example of good practice when all employeeshave the opportunity to benefit from this, to ensurethe required skills level and improve opportunitieson the market. Employees of independent dealerscannot participate because they do not haveaccess to the continuing vocational trainingprogrammes of authorized dealers.

This group makes up 25-30% of all employees inthe sector throughout the EU Member States andthe current offer of courses by other providers(trade union organizations, associations in thesector, state bodies, private bodies) is particularlyimportant. These bodies can promote the skillsrequired for the work process and can ensureformal skill standards through certification. Theycould also enable disadvantaged groups to gainentry to the sector.

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From this point of view, the broadly basedactivities of 1NNOVAM (NL), ANFA (F), 1NEMA(E), ZDK (D), SIMI (IRL), Guild Chamber (1.) or thefranchise group LEX (UK) may be consideredexamples of good practice because a number ofproviders supplement each other and access tothis training is not determined by allegiance to aparticular make of motor vehicle.

7.7 Training concepts and theiradoption to the needs of countries andrepair shopsThe continuing vocational training concepts areinfluenced by the policies of the provider, thenational situation (e.g. skill needs, level of initialtraining, technological developments, environ-mental and safety legislation) at national andinternational levels, current and future needs forskills and a formal or informal system of certifica-tion on the part of certain providers.

In general, the situatn may be summed up asfollows:

Providers of continuing vocational training fromthe trade union and employer sides as well aspublic and private bodies can only beregarded as supplementary to the manufac-turer-oriented organizations. Their conceptsand certifications focus on the structures of thenational market. Where possible these institu-tions award generally recognized certificates.

Manufacturer-oriented providers usually havean informal internal certification system whichis adapted to the dealer network. Theirtransversal concept strategies vary. Some offerthe same hierarchical-oriented course conceptthroughout Europe with a variety of certificates(normally three levels: elementary, mastertradesmen, technician). This course concept iswhat is termed a module concept which isstructured both horizontally and vertically.

Others offer a course concept which takes intoconsideration the skills structure in the dealers.This four-phase concept trains mechanics overa period of years. A particular characteristic ofthis concept is that it is adapted to the standardof initial vocational training in a particularcountry. The continuing vocational trainingprogrammes within this concept can beadapted specifically to the individual needs ofemployees and companies. This concept ispreferred by a number of Japanese manufac-turers.

Concepts which can be transferred to other EUMember States taking into consideration thenational context are an example of good prac-tice. National concepts which develop homoge-nous skills to promote the mobility of employeescan be regarded as normal practice.

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7.8 Need for training and restrictionson account of lack of capacityGiven the many changes in the sector, the need forcontinuing vocational training over the pastdecade has risen steadily. This trend is stillcontinuing and strategies have been developedto cope with the continuing vocational trainingneed in the motor vehicle sector. Some of thesestrategies are:

prolongation of continuing vocational trainingin the repair shops

extension of computer-bas6d diagnostic tech-niques

integration of learning aids in work stations

extension of the continuing vocational trainingoffer of non-manufacturer-oriented providers.

Each of these strategies has its limitations. The shiftin continuing vocational training activities torepair shop level results in a reduction in directcontact between employees in the repair shop andthe manufacturer. The spread of computer-basedtools and materials requires on-line connection tothe manufacturer if feedback is to be assured.

The extension of the training offer of non-manufacturer-oriented providers can help to over-come bottlenecks and would be advantageous forindependent repair shops. In this context, organi-zation solutions must be found. Examples of thisare 1NNOVAM ZDK (D) and ANFA (F).

In conclusion it must be stated that continuingvocational training in the context of real corporateconditions could raise the quality of continuingvocational training if the necessary underlyingconditions are created. The concept of goodpractice offers the opportunity for practice-relatedevaluation of products (motor vehicles, tools,diagnostic equipment). Relations and conditionsfor a cooperative model between all concerned(manufacturer provider repair shop owneremployee) must be developed.

7.9 Continuing vocational training andwork organizationPrimarily two models compete with each other inthe repair shop and have substantial implicationsfor the continuing vocational training offer:

the division of labour in the repair shopaccording to specialities carried out by special-ists;

the all-round or versatile concept in whichbroadly-skilled workers are qualified to under-take a broad range of tasks.

The first concept is more common, depending onthe size of the company, but with increasing

integrated motor vehicle technology and greateremphasis on knowledge of methods, it stands incontradiction to the trend towards quality servicein stations. To a certain extent, the continuingvocational training offer is a reaction to thisspecialization: specialists visit "their" specialcourses. A better assessment of companies underinternal division of labour and the resultingdemand for continuing vocational training (e.g.Mercedes, B) could lead to a better adoption ofprogrammes to the needs of companies. A workorganizational innovation can, however, not yetbe attained.

The second concept presupposes a high level ofskills in the repair shop and increases the flexibilityof work organization substantially. For smallercompanies and they will form the majority in thefuture this is of particular advantage. Throughthis model, the team concept can be implementedmuch more easily as has been tested successfullyin a number of instances.

Ski !ling for the team concnpt is a challenge tocontinuing vocational training in the motor vehicleindustry. The team concept as a form of goodpractice promises substantial economic and skillinnovations. Such an organizational conceptfacilitates implementation of a greater customerorientation in the servicing area as already strivenfor and implemented by many companies in thesales section. It also permits greater integration ofolder or less-skilled workers.

Between these two models there are differences inwork organization. These differences depend onthe size of the repair shop, the skills available onthe labour market, the hierarchy of continuingvocational training (e.g. various skill levels,preparation for a particular task, etc.) and onthe repair shop policy. Frequently, there is

specialization in electronics and diagnostics. Adivision of tasks in relation to simple work is alsocommon. The separation of motor vehicle body-work and spraying is standard. Other forms ofwork distribution are also to be found.

7.10 Control versus cooperation ofmanufacturers and dealersMotor vehicle manufacturers are obliged tomarket their products. Dealers and repair shopsalso ploy a decisive role in their ability tocompete. This relationship between the manufac-turer and service and trade accounts for the graatinterest of manufacturers in the broadest possiblesupport and supervision of the distributor network.Dealer contracts play an important part in definingthe relationship between manufacturer and dealer.

Normal practice is characterized by a controlrelationship through which the manufacturerattempts to steer and control the behaviour of theindividual dealer. The manufacturers, however,forget that this practice does not reveal one of the

most important sources of experience, i.e. thecustomer's verdict and evaluation of the quality oftheir products.

The organization of the relationship betweenmanufacturers and repair shops towards coopera-tion for the sake of economic prosperity of bothparties always includes the aspect: manufacturerslearn from repair shops and dealers.

The statistical methods used at present for compil-ing repair shop tasks (kind of repairs carried out,faults found) are by no means sufficient.

7.11 Towards the quality servicingstationsThe current range of motor vehicle, repair shops ischaracterized by a predominance of authorizeddealers for one make combined with the entirerange of service. These companies are character-ized by a high level of manufacturer-orientedcontinuing vocational trening of their employeesand by increasingly high quality service. The trendtowards exclusive dealers practice (one makeonly) will continue. Consequently, motor vehiclemanufacturers show a tendency towards leanservice with the following characteristics:

Development of subcontracting repair shops tocarry out specialist tasks which can be carriedout less expensively (e.g. motor vehicle body-work, spraying, repair of certain components);

Creation of a clear division of tasks in theauthorized repair shops which are morestrongly oriented towards the interests of thecustomer:

the team concept with less internal horizontaland vertical division of labour (broadly-skilled workers),

development of a quick-service section,

secondhand motor vehicle sales and service,

strengthening the customer relations sectionthrough carrying out administrative tasksrelating to the purchase, registration, insur-ance, accidents, sales, M.O.T., etc.

The freedom of sales, service and repair hasproved effective and remains the dominantcompany model. A dwindling share of very smallrepair shops for repairing secondhand vehiclesand for specialist repoirs which could almost betermed "moonlight" repair shops will remain inexistence.

With these general trends the average number ofemployees per repair shop, as in the UnitedKingdom, will increase substantially. Only thencan investments for equipment in sophisticatedworkplaces in the repair shops of the future be

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made and quality standards of distribution, serviceand repair as defined by manufacturers andgovernment regulations be met.

It cannot be forecast whether the initial trendstowards the development of mega-dealers willstabilize. They will, however, be influenced bypossible modification of EU Regulation No. 123/85 in 1995. If the EU attaches greater importanceto freedom of competition in this sector, this couldlead to a major swing towards mega-dealercentres. Further studies are required, amongothers in the US where this concept is common.

7.12 Towards universal multi-skilledmotor vehicle mechatronicsSkill development does not occur of its ownaccord, nor can it be derived from the develop-ment towards high-tech motor vehicles. A decisivemediation factor is the organizational concept ofthe company. Team organization and lean servicelinked with reduced horizontal and verticaldivision of tasks (flat hierarchy) and a high andEroad level of skills in the productive area (serviceand sales) require broadly-qualified skilled work-ers in the repair shop who can attain the level ofservice technician through continuing vocationaltraining.

More than two skill levels are therefore counter-productive. Formalized and specialized motorvehicle occupations with more than two speciali-zations in the dual vocational training scheme tothe level of skilled worker do not seem desirable.Occupational titles such as "electro-mechanic","motor vehicle electric mechanic" or "mechanicelectrician" already point towards the fact that asingle comprehensive occupational profile istrendsetting for the future. The title of motorvehicle mechatronic seems to be adequate for this.

As for the field of sales, a wide range of pre-qualifications will be maintained. Special andmotor vehicle make-related qualifications mustthen be imported within the framework of continu-ing vocaiional training.

The sector reports reveal that according to itscurricula educationally-organized continuing vo-cational training imparts semi-academic andspecialized knowledge rather than knowledgebased on work and experience.

7.13 The quality servicing station as aplace for vocational training andcontinuing trainingIn a number of European countries, the repairshops are involved in the practical training ofskilled workers in the sector. In a number ofcountries (e.g. DK, Nil the company is the placewhere commercial and technical training takesplace.

There are economic reasons for further develop-ment of this tradition of skilled practical vocationaltraining. An occupational qualification not onlyimparts occupational abilities, but social andpersonal skills required for quality service: respon-sibility, interest, ability to work in a team.

The new comprehensive occupation of motorvehicle mechatronic, the name already exists inan informal way in many repair shops, representsan important element for a wider segment of theEuropean labour market.

7.14 Continuing vocational trainingcosts as an invstment in quality serviceContinuing vocational training costs are com-posed of:

costs for developing and implementing mod-ular continuing vocational training systems bythe motor vehicle manufacturers includingtheir continuing vocational training centres;

costs of the repcii shop which are incurred onaccount of loss of working time and other directcosts (equipment, trayel costs);

costs for non-manufacturer-oriented continuingvocational training institutions covered bypublic or other budgets (fund financing).

The scope of continuing vocational trainingmeasures varies between 1 and 10 days accord-ing to the manufacturer and the authorized repairshop with an increasing tendency. The strongpressure for continuing vocational training leadsto an increased economic burden on the com-panies, manufacturers, repair shops and dealers.Should manufacturers and repair shops agree onintroducing aviodidactic materials for free timestudies, this may result in disproportionately highcontinuing vocational training pressure on employ-ees.

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In general, motor vehicle manufacturers andrepair shops and their organizations are con-vinced that continuing vocational training is notjust a cost factor, but is primarily an investment inhuman resources. Two contradictory interests mustbe reconciled by manufacturers and repair shops:

the need to improve continuing vocationaltraining;

increased pressure to rationalize as a result ofincreased competition and rising costs forcontinuing vocational training.

A number of solutions can be found for mediationbetween these two contradictory forces:

In about one-third of the cases reviewed, theconcept of continuing vocational training for allemployees has been implemented. Many manu-

focturers have stated explicitly that all employeesshould participate in continuing vocational train-ing with due regard to the division of tasks withinthe company. To this end, complicated control andmonitoring concepts have been developed. Manu-facturers rarely invest more than 3.5 trainingdays per year and employee in continuingvocational training. If more training is required,this additional need is transposed to the inter-mediate level (i.e. importers, agencies). Such acontinuing vocational training concept of trainingfor all in conjunction with manufacturer trainingadds substantially to the costs for the manufacturerand there is an increasing tendency to involveimporters and agencies to a greater extent incontinuing vocational training. .

A further cost reduction together with implementa-tion of high quality continuing vocational trainingseems to be possible through developing andimplementing tutorial computer-based and net-worked diagnostic and information systems(BMW, Mercedes-Benz). This concept of a "learn-ing by doing process" combined with high qualitycontinuing vocational training (central and decen-trap points towards good practice.

7.13 New requirements load to a nowjob design and different concpts ofcontinuing vocational trainingThe many developments in the motor vehiclesector (network components in motor vehicles,diagnostic technology, environmental and safetyregulations, module vehicles, customer orienta-tion, etc.) brings about a need for new job design.The job design must be underpinned by adaptingcontinuing vocational training courses. Threemodels are discussed in the surveys:

Specialization model

This model is still oriented towards a high degreeof specialization and a broad division of tasks andignores the change in the sector towards integrat-ing a broad spectrum of tasks. It facilitates atraditional form of work and organization.

Multiplier and cascade model

This model is a response to the change in tasks inthe repair shops and aims to ensure competitive-ness and greater customer satisfaction.

The model comprises the organization of continu-ing vocational training in such a way that a trainer

who himself has been trained in a customerservice school of the manufacturer passes on hisknowledge to colleagues in in-company continu-ing vocational training classes. This type ofcontinuing vocational training is supported bycorrespondence courses and self-learning materi-al (multimedia). Usually, the trainer also works asa troubleshooter in the repair shop.

Comprehensive model

This model takes the profound change in tasks inrepair shops into consideration and preparesevery employee for a large number of tasks atthe workplace. This increases the flexibility of theemployee and prepares him for all-round tasksand for tasks within new forms of work organiza-tion, i.e. teamwork or active involvement of allmembers of staff in a general workplace culture(UK, Sector Report). Particular variations in thismodel (e.g. EUROSTEP, Nissan) ensure Europeanmobility for every employee.

The main characteristic of this model is transversaltraining each employee receives continuingvocational training in order to cope with thelarge number of tasks.

The new job designs which are applied mainlythrough a variety of concepts in manufacturers'customer service schools are dominant in repairshops which are linked to particular makes. Theemployees in independent repair shops have noaccess to manufacturer-relevant continuing train-ing measures. They must limit themselves to thetraining offered by trade unions, employer asso-ciatbns and state bodies.

The new dimension Of quality service requirescomprehensive service and includes companypolicy on recruitment and promotion. This stressescapabilities and is based on attempts to increasethe performance of the individual. Such aphilosophy requires the development of groupconsensus on aims and measures and requires alink between the welfare of the individual and hisemployer. This could become an importantstrategy for successful development of competitionin the future.

7.16 Smaller repair shops ars facingelimination on account of the need toinvestRapid technological developments in the motorvehicle sector (see chapter 4) lead to greaterinvestment in equipment, machines and testingand diagnostic equipment. This results in a greaterneed for employees with a high level of qualifica-tion in repair work.

The repair shops for particular makes of motorvehicles which have close links to the manufacturerand those repair shops which have links to theimporter in the typical importing countries, arestrengthening their position through the supportthat they receive from the manufacturer/importerand on account of the fact that the manufacturer/importer prepares the employees of these repairshops in continuing vocational training courses fornew models and technologies (B, DK, NI, lRL, D,F, I.).

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The ncrmal all-round repair shops which have nolinks to the manufacturer or to the importer areusually smaller than those with links and do nothave sufficient financial resources to purchasenew expensive equipment. All the studies are ofthe opinion "they do not have the same access toinformation and instruction on new models as dothe repair shops linked to particular makes. These'conditions strengthen the monopoly of these repairshops" (DK, Sector Report). For example, softwarecontaining data, i.e. a new package for eachmodel, is particularly hard to obtain and smallrepair shops would have to invest substantially indiagnostic software. At present, they can repairthe older motor vehicles which are not covered bywarranty and do not have so many electroniccomponents.

The question remains open whether these smallerindependent repair shops can take up thechallenge posed by technical developments andnew equipment, environmental requirements,computerization of office administration andquality-oriented legislation, for example, BS5750 (UK) and Law 122 (I). A decrease in thenumber of small repair shops which cannot meetthese challenges and the expansion and strength-ening of larger repair shops (size III and larger)could become a trend.

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7.17 Environment& requirements mustbe respected by quality-orientedservicing stationsEnvironmental requirements in the sector play animportant role for two reasons:

the product itself, the motor vehicle, willchange in such a way that a larger share ofmaterials will be recycled. This leads to newproduct development by the manufacturer.

The repair shops themselves must learn torespect environmental legislation and to or-ganize the disposal and recycling of materialswhich are harmful to the environment. Inaddition, environmentally-friendly materials(for example, water soluble paints) should beused.

In all EU Member States there is legislation (cf.Sector Studies) on environmental protection to limitexhaust emissions. A number of countries alsohave laws making provision for handling materialswhich are harmful to the environment.

Undoubtedly the importance of environmentalissues will increase for all categories of repairshops. Employees must be prepared to respectenvironmental legislation and to make every effortto adhere to these provisions.

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Fuel

injo

ctio

n sy

stom

s

Bas

ic e

lect

rics/

elec

tron

ks

I inc

ludi

ng u

se o

f TE

CH

80/

TE

CH

1

Num

ber

in b

oxdu

ratio

n in

day

s

T 7

Fue

l eng

ines

2.0

L O

HC

2.0

L D

OH

C

T 1

0.3

ftD

iese

l eng

ines

1.5

I.

T 1

0.2

ftD

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l eng

ines

1.6,

1.7

1

T 1

0.1

Die

sel e

ngin

es2.

3 L

1 10

ftD

iese

l eng

ines

/ba

sics

Fuel

Eng

inas

Die

sel

T 3

OP

*IIn

spec

tion

Mai

nten

ance

/Se

rvic

e

T 5

.31

Dia

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is o

f isd

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=tr

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d au

to-

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T 2

.4ft

Man

ual T

rans

-m

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on

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5, R

28

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.2ft

Man

ual T

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-m

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WD

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ual T

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/Bas

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ual

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Tra

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Pai

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and

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Pro

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sol

ving

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Mic

a pa

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mat

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Pai

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us to

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(Cam

po, M

idi,

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oper

)

APPENDIX II

Technical Service Training Curriculum

0.0

g

Special topics

00

Brakes, steeringand suspension

10

Manualtransmission and

final drive16

Automatictransmission

17

Petrol Dieselengines engines

21

00/32 12

Diagnosis andtestingUpdate

00/31 15

Diagnosis andtesting

Course group Cour,*

Course level and numberJ Cc'ch

Course duration (days)

Course title

Prerequisite: Course 30/11

Training entrance point

17/31

CD+E

00/270.. 1

ModelspecificCourses

00/201.. 11-2

New productintroduction

10/23

Futuresupervision

10/22

Futuresteering

10/21

SCS/ABS

16/22 1

MTX 75 andMTX 79 4x4

16/21 12

MT 78 andMT 79 4x4

17/22

17/21

A41.D/A4LDE

21/21. 12

Petrol engines

21/22 12

Diesel engines

00/101

Market specifictopics (RS fleetpartners etc.)

10/11 13

Basic brakes,steering andsuspension

16/ 1 13

Basic-manualtransmission

and final drive

17/ 1Basic-

automatictransmission

21/1 13

Basic-enginespetrol/diesel

Source: Ford

L./ 65

AJ30/21 13

Engine managementPetrol Diesel

29

Electricalsystems

30

Body and paint

4C

PDI androutine

maintenance54

28/32 12

Weber/Morelli(Communication

2 U)

29/31 IS

EEC NE/I + C/1

29/22 3

K/KE Jetronicand electronic-

ignition A

29/21 2

Weber and MoberglV and 2Y car.

Waters, electronic.ignition systems

29/23 13

Diesel-enginemanage-

ment

30/23

In-car enter-tainment andcommunication

30/22 12

Air-conditioning

Instrumentationand comfort/

safety elecironics

44/21 12 45/21 15

Sectionalrepairs

Finishing paintapplication

technics

Ford IV and Wcorberators, coiland kansmittor.

ignition

29/12 13

Basic-diemslignition

LA.

44/13 13 44/14 11

Body Repair ofmechanicals plastic

and trim components

44/ 1 1 IT 44/12 13 45/ 1 13

Preparat:on forapplication

of finishing paintPanel repairs

Panel joiningtechniques

54/12 13

Routinemaintenance

54/11 12

Pre-deliveryinspection

D P/GZK-T1

e : 86

0

APPENDIX III

Registration of passenger cars in Western Europe, by country, 1985-1992

Units '000 % Change

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1992/91Dan-Aug)

Germany 2,379 2,829 2,916 2,808 2,832 3,041 4,159 2,769 -11.5Italy 1,746 1,825 1,977 2,184 2,362 2,348 2,340 1,722 3.7France 1,766 1,912 2,105 2,217 2,274 2,309 2,031 1,368 0.2UK 1,832 1,882 2,014 2,216 2,301 2,009 1,592 1,176 - 2.5Spain' 546 650 928 1,011 1,096 936 887 696 13.5Netherlands 496 561 557 483 496 503 490 354 - 8.7Belgium 378 395 406 427 440 474 462 3882 352Portugal 1 104 114 129 227 193 213 231 188 23.0Greece' 79 65 51 58 86 115 168 129 14.6Denmark 157 169 124 89 78 81 84 64 5.3Irish Republic 60 60 56 62 78 81 68 56 - 0.9Luxembourg 27 29 30 31 31 34 44 - -

Total EC (rounded) 9,571 10,492 11,291 11,813 12,267 12,144 12,556 8,909 - 1.8

Switzerland 265 300 303 319 320 323 310 214 - 5.0Austria 243 262 243 253 276 289 303 239 6.8Sweden 263 270 316 344 307 230 188 110 - 9.7Finland 138 143 151 174 177 139 92 50 -26.9Norway 159 167 115 68 55 62 53 40 11.7

Total EFTA (rounded) 1,069 1,143 1,129 1,158 1,135 1,043 948 653 - 2.5

Total western Europe(rounded) 10,640 11,635 12,420 12,971 13,401 13,187 13,504 9,562 - 2.3

1985 not EC2 including Luxembourg

Source: various national trade associations (1985-1991) and Automotive News (Jan-Aug 1991 and 1992)

CONTINUING VOCATIONAL TRAINING

DK AMU National Labour MarketAuthority

F ANECRAM National Association of MotorVehicle Distribution and RepairCompanies

ANFA National Association for Trai-ning in the Motor Vehicle Indu-stry

P ARAN National Motor Vehicle

NL BOVAG

P CECOA

F CEGOS

Association

Employers' organization

Vocational Training Centre forTrade and Associated Activities

Consulting and TrainingCompany

P CEPRA Vocational Training Centre forMotor Vehicle Repairs

I CNA National Confederation of CraftTrades

ECIPA National Professional TrainingOrganization

GR ELKEPA Greek Productivity CentreEEDE Greek Company of Business

AdministrationEOMMEX Greek Organization of Manu-

facturing Companies

IRL FAS Training and EmploymentAuthority

E GAMVAN Spanish Employers' Associationfor the Motor Vehicle Sector

GR GSEE

IBEPE

IEPF

General Federation of Workersof GreeceIneitute for Industrial Education

Institute for Employment andVocational Training

UK IMI Institute of the Motor VehicleIndustry

E INEM

NI INNOVAM

DK ME

UK MITSC

NCVQ

GR OAEDOBEAME

OEEK

P PESP

GR POBEAM

UK ReMIT

RMISCOTVET

GR SEA

SEAA

SEB

IRL SIMI

GR TEE

D ZDK

National Institute of Employment

Innovation and EducationalCentre for the Motor Vehicle andMotorcycle Sector

Commission for ContinuingTraining in the Metal Industries

Motor Industry TrainingStandards CouncilNational Council for VocationalQualification

Ministry of LabourFederation of Motor VehicleRepair ShopsOrganization for VocationalEducation and Training

Programme for Economic andSocial Progress

Hellenic Federation of MotorVehicle Repair Shops

Retail Motor Vehicle IndustryTrainingRetail Motor Vehicle InstituteScottish Vocational EducationalCouncil

Association of Motor VehicleTradersAssociation of Motor VehicleImportersAssociation of Greek Industries

Society of the Irish Motor VehicleIndustry

Technical Chamber of Greece

Central Association of theGerman Motor Vehicle Industry

88

SINGLE ADVISORY COMMItTEE FOREUROTECNET UND FORCE

BELGIUM

Vlaamse Gemeenschap:L. VERVLOETDirecteurBestuur Europese Sociale Zakenvan de Vlaamse GemeenschapMarkiesgebouwMarkiesstraat 1B-1000 BruxellesTel.: 32-2-507.44.34Fox: 32-2-507.44.25

Communauhi Francais*:Mark VAN RIETCabinet du Ministre duDeveloppement technologique,de la Recherche scientifique,de l'Emploi et de laFormation ProfessionnelleSquare du Bastion, 1AB-1050 BruxellesTel.: 32-2-502.10.11Fax: 32-2-502.29.36

DENMARK

Kontorchef Morten FENGER &Lene Juhl MADSENArbejcismarkedsstyrelsenBlegoamsvej 56DK-2100 Kobenhavn 6Tel.: 45-35-28.81.00Fax: 45-38-36.24.11

FuldmaegtigSvend-Erik POVELSENUndervisningsministerietErhvervsskoleafdelingenH. C. Anders:ens Boulevard,41.-45DK-1553 Kobenhavn VTell 45-33-92.57.75Fax: 45-33-92.56.66

LIST OF MEMBERS

GERMANY

Dieter LEUMANNRegierungsdirektorBundesministerium kir Bildungund WissenschaftHeinemannstracie 2D-53175 BonnTel.: 49-228-57.21.62

(57.0: Contra le)Fax: 49-228-57.20.96

Kim: ...RANDY

Nieclotrsachtisc !es Kultur-ministelurnAm Schiffgraben 12D-30159 HannoverTel.: 49-511-120.85.87Fax: 49-511-120.85.72

Uwe GRONEWALDAbteilung 5.3Bundesinstitut furBerufsbildungFehrbelliner Plotz 3D-10707 BerlinTel.: 49-30-86.43.23.41Fax: 49-30-86.43.24.55

Barbel KERNMinisterialratinVerbindungsburo des LandesNiedersachsen in BrOsselAvenue Palmerston 24B-I040 BrüsselTel.: 230.00.17Fax: 230.13.20

89

SPAIN

JosO Maria TORRES CIASubdirector General deFormaciónProfessional OcupacionalDirección General di EmpleoPio Baroja, 6E-28071 MadridTel.: 341-409.09.41Fax: 34-1-574.96.02

José Antonio GONZALESFERNANDEZJefe de Area de OrdenacianImplantación de F.P.Dirección Gen%ral deFormaciónProfesional Reglada yPromociónEducativaMinisterio di Educacióny CienciaC/Argumosa, 43 Pabellon 5E-28071 MadridTel.: 341-528.14.17Fax: 341-528.08.57

Jose Luis GARCIA MOLINADirector de Programas de laDirección General de EmpleoPio Baroja, 6E-28071 MadridTel. : 34-1-409.09.41Fax: 341-574.96.02

Felix MARTINEZ LOPEZJefe de Area de Evaluaciany FormacianDirección General deFormacian Profesional Regladay Promocian EducativaMinisterio cf. Educacióny CienciaC/Hermanos Madrazo, 15-17E-28014 MadridTel.: 34-1-528.14.51Fax: 34-1-522.92.56

FRANCE

Pierre LE DOUARONMinistire du Travail,de l'Emploi et de la FormationProfessionnelleDelégation a la FormationProfessionnelle31 quai de Grenelle -Immeuble Mercure IF-75738 Paris Codex 15Tel.: 311-45.78.45.76

(45.78 standard)Fax: 33-1-45.78.45.00

Olivier VILLEYMinistire du Travail,de l'Emploi et de la FormationProfessionnelleDelOgation a l'Emploi -Division SynthesesChargé de Mission pour lesRelations Internationales168, rue de GrenelleF-75700 ParisTel.: 33-1-47.05.73.06Fax: 33-1-47.05.68.82

GREECE

E. DRITSADirectrice de FormationProfessionnelleMinister. du TravailPireos, 40GR-10182 MikesTel.: 30-1-523.59.77Fax: 30-1-523.09.06

Theodoros CHRONOPOULOSMinister. de l'EducationPrésident de l'Organisation del'Education et de laFormation Professionnelle0.E.E.K.1, IlioupoleosGR-17236 lmittos - ManesTel.: 30-1-97.17.251

97.17.511Fax: 301-92.50.136

E. KRITIKOUChef de Service -Relations InternationalesMinister. du TravailPir6os, 40GR-10182 AthinesTel.: 30-1-524.62.79Fox: 30.1-523.09.06

Athina PAPADAKIMinister. de ['EducationDirection des CommunautésEuropoennea et desRelations Internationales0.E.E.K.1, llioupoleosGR-17236 lmittos, AthensTel.: 30-1-97.10.502Fax: 30-1-97.30.245

IRELAND

Jim KEOGHIndustry SpecialistServices to IndustryFAS27-33 Upper Baggot StreetIRL-Dublin 4Tel.: 353-1-668.57.77Fax: 353-1-668.24.80

ITALY

Maurizio POLVERARIDirigente generalUfficio Centro leFormazione ProfessionaleLavoratoriVia Caatelfidardo, 431-00185 RomaTel.: 39-6-44.40.368/373Fax: 39-6-44.40.368

Rose Ila SCHIETROMAMinistero Publica IstruzioneDirezione GeneraleScambi Culturali DIV. IIVia Ippolito Nievo, 351-00153 RomaTel.: 39-6-58.49.58.66Fax: 39-6-58.49.58.35

TAMBORLINIIstituto per lo Sviluppodella FormazioneVia G. B. Morgagni, 331-00161 RomaTel.: 39-6-44.59.01Fax: 39-6-488.43.06

WXEMBOURG

Georges ALFFMinistare de l'EducationNationaleProfesseur-IngénieurChargé de Mission29, rue Aldringen1-2926 LuxembourgTel.: 352-478.51.82Fax: 352-46.68.15

Jerry LENERTMinister. de l'EducationNationaleChargé de Mission29, rue Aldringen1-2926 LuxembourgTel.: 352-478.52.33

(4781 central)Fax: 352-47.41.16

Jean-Paul BRAQUETDirecteur adloint a laFormation ProfessionnelleMinisters de l'EducationNationale29, rue Aldringen1-2926 LuxembourgTel.: 352-478.52.31Fax: 352-47.41.16

Nadine SCHINTGENFoprogest a.s.b.l.BP 1411-2011 LuxembourgTel.: 352-22.02.66/68Fax: 352-22.02.69

Address for DHL:29, rue Aldringen1-1118 Luxembourg

THE NETHERLANDS

P. VAN DUNMinisterie van Social.Zaken en WerkgelegenheidDirectie ArbeidsmarktPostbus 90805NL-2509 LV Den HaagTel.: 31-70-333.49.99Fax: 31-70-333.40.06

Address for DHL:Anna van Hannoverstr., 4NL-2595 111 Den Haag

90

B. LENTZMinisterie van Onderwijs &WetenschappenDirectie Beroepsonderwijs envolwasseneneducatieAlgemene Beleidsaan-gelegenhedenPostbus 25000NL-2700 LZ ZoetermeerTel.: 31-79-53.44.82Fax: 31-79-53.19.53

Address for DHL:Europoweg, 4NL-2711 Am Zoetermeer

Jos TILKINCIBBP. Box 1585N1-5200 BP 's HertogenboschTel.: 31-73-12.40.11Fax: 31-73-12.34.25

Address for DHL:Pettelaarpark, 1NL-52I 6 PC 's Hertogenbosch

PORTUGAL

Carlos DIAS PAISDireccao-Geral do Emprego eFormaciio ProfissionalAv. da Rép6lica, 62-82P-1100 LisboaTel.: 351-1-796.93.61Fax: 351-1-797.52.69

Luis Carlos SILVA SANTOSMinistério do Emprego e doSegurano SocialAdjunto do Secretário de EstadoAdjunto do MinistroProw de Londres N22152 andarP-1000 LisboaTel.: 351-1-847.00.10Fax: 351-1-847.21.87

UNITED KINGDOM

Jane FVANSEuropean Training BranchEmployment DepartmentR510, Steel HouseTothill StreetUK-London SWI 8NFTel.: 44-71-273.53.97Fax: 44-71-273.54.75

Gordon PURSGLOVEEuropean Training BranchEmployment DepartmentMoorfootUK-Sheffield S1 4PQTel.: 44-742-59.35.15Fax: 44-742-59.41.03

Will THOMPSONEuropean Training BranchEmployment DepartmentRN704, MoorfootUK-Sheffie1d S1 4PQTel.: 44742-59.48.19Fax: 44-742-59.41.03

Roger LANGDONEmployment DepartmentMoorfootUK-Sheffield SI 4PQTel.: 44-742-59.43.59Fox: 44-742-59.41.03

ETUC

Maria Helena ANDRECESBoulevard E. Jacqmain, 155B-1210 BruxellesTel.: 32-2-224.04.11Fax: 32-2-224.04.54/55

Anne-Francoise THEUNISSENCSCrue de la Loi, 121B-1040 BruxellesTel.: 32-2-237.31.11Fax: 32-2-237.33.00

Anne Marie DAVIDCFDT/CESBoulevard E. Jacqmain, 155B-1210 BruxellesTel.: 32-2-224.05.47Fax: 32-2-224.04.54/55

John RODGERST. U.0 .Congress HouseGreat Russell StreetUK-London WC1B 31STel. : 44-71-636.40.30Fax: 44-71-636.06.32

Augusto GIORGIONICISLVia Po, 211-00185 RomaTel.: 39-6-837.32.43Fax: 39-6-854.60.76

91

S. Oliver LOBKEDGB-BundesvorstandAbteilung BerufficheBildungHans-Böckler-StraBe 39Postfach 10101026D-40476 DüsseldorfTel.: 49-211-430.12.93/593Fax: 49-211-430.14.71

Jeff BRIDGFORDETUCOBoulevard E. Jacqmain, 1558-1210 BruxellesTel.: 32-2-224.05.30Fax: 32-2-224.05.33

José MANZANARESUGT-EHontaleza, 88E-28004 MadridTel.: 34-1-589.76.94Fax: 34-1-589.76.03

Angel PINOCGT-FO198, Avenue du MaineF-75680 Paris Cedex 14Tel. : 33-1-45 .39.22.03Fax: 33-1-45.45.54.52

Niels Lykke JENSSENLO-DKRosen8rs Allé, 12DK-1634 Kobenhavn VTel.: 45-3-135.35.41Fax: 45-3-137.37.41

Jan CREMERSFETBB

r. Fosse aux Loups, 38, Bte. 5B-1000 BruxellesTel.: 32-2-218.12.18Fax: 32-2-219.82.28

Jens VOJTADAGBundeworstandRessort BildungspolitikD-22355 Hamburg

UNICE

Hans GLENDRUPHead of Office DECDanish EmployersConfederationVaster Volgade 113DK-1790 Kobenhavn VTel.: 45-33-93.40.00Fox: 45-33-12.29.76

Ruth McGIWCUDDYPolicy AdvisorCBICentre Point103 New Oxford StreetUK-London WC1A 1DUTel. : 4471-379.74.00Fax: 44-71-240.15.78

Alain DUMONTDirecteur de l'Enseignementet de la FormationCNPFAvenue Pierre ler de Servie, 31B.P. 15F-75784 Paris Cedex 16Tel.: 33-1-40.69.44.44Fax: 33-1-47.23.47.32

Pietro FIORENTINOENFAPIc/o CONFINDUSTRIAVia dell'Astronomia, 301-00144 RomaTel.: 39-6-590.32.25Fax: 39-6-590.34.27

Barbara DORNLabour Market and VocationalTraining DepartmentBDAGustav-Heinemann-Ufer 72Postfach 51 05080-50968 KölnTel.: 49-221-379.51.96Fax: 49-221-379.52.99

Paul RYSMANFederation des Entreprisesde Belgique FEB

Rue Ravenstein, 4B-1000 BruxellesTel.: 32-2-515.08.11Fax: 32-2-515.09.99

J. A. VAN DEN BRANDT-STELVerbond van NederlandseOndernemingen VNOPostbus 93093NI.-2509 AB 's-GravenhageTel.: 31-70-349.73.60Fax: 31-70-347.43.04

Address for DHL:Prinses Beatrixlaan, 5NL-2509 AB 's-Gravenhage

Andrew MOOREBritish Business BureauRue des deux eglises, 7, Bte. 6B-1040 BruxellesTel.: 32-2-231.04.65Fax: 32-2-230.98.32

Xenophon CONSTANTINID1SFederation des Industries.GrecquesFIG5, rue XénofontosGR-105 57 AthenesTel.: 30-1-323.73.25Fax: 30-1-322.29.29

CEEP

Joao MENDES DA FONSECAC1MPORRua d'Entrecampos 18-52 frenteP-1000 LisboaTel.: 351-1-796.06.18Fax: 351-1-356.09.91

Maria Dolores GARCIA DOTORInstituto Nacional de IndustriaINI8, Plaza Marques deSalamancaE-28071 MadridTel.: 341-396.15.32Fax: 34-1-396.15.60

92

=al nr.v.

CEDEFOP European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training

Training In the motor vehicle repair and sales sectorEuropean report(FORCE programme)

Felix Rauner/ Georg SON (178), Kaj Olesen IBaino Clematide (DM,in collaboration with: Tma Berfzeletou (CEDEFOP), Ono! Horns Ferret (C1REM),Skevos Papaloannou (SRC)

Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities

1995 89 pp. 21 x 29.7 cm

ISBN 92-826-8913-1

Price (excluding VAT) in Luxembourg: ECU 8

Vents y suscdpclones Solg og abonnement Vorkaut und Abonnernent Iliokaottc 1011 ouvapoptqSeise and subscriptions Vents et abonnornents Vendita abbonarnenti

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Pdco (excluding VAT) In Luxembourg: ECU 8 ISBN 92-826-6913-1

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