Canadian SStandards && PPractice - Canadian Playground Advisory

ppllaayyggrroouunndd ssuurrffaacciinnggppllaayyggrroouunndd ssuurrffaacciinnggCanadian SStandards && PPracticeCanadian SStandards && PPractice

Textbook bby

Rolf HHuber, bb.com, cccpi

D

Table oof CContents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Injury SSeverity . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Play SSurface RRequirement . . . . . .3No-Encroachment Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4Standards — A Short Discussion . . . . . . . .4

Playground SSurfaces -- TTypes . . . .5Advantages and Disadvantages ofplayground surfacing systems . . . . . . . . . .5Organic Loose Fill Material . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Wood Chips and Bark Mulch . . . . . . . . . .6Engineered Wood Fibre . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Inorganic Loose Fill Material . . . . . . . . . . . .8Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8Gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9Shredded Tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Inorganic Unitary Materials . . . . . . . . . . . .11Mats or Tiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11Poured-in-Place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13Combination InorganicLoose Rubber Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14In-The-Can Inorganic Surfaces . . . . . . .15

Considerations regardingAdvantages and Disadvantages . . . . . . . .16

Performance RRequirements fforProtective SSurfacing . . . . . . . . .16The Test Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Types of Tests and Performance . . . . . .17Recording Velocity at Impact . . . . . . . . .18Laboratory Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18Field Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19Results of the Field Tests . . . . . . . . . . .20

Playground LLayout . . . . . . . . . .21

The TThree HHeightsof PPlaygrounds . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Accessibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24Ground Level Play Components . . . . . .25Play Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25Elevated Play Components . . . . . . . . . .25ASTM F1487, Section 10Accessibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25ASTM F1951 - Standard Specificationfor Determination of Accessibility ofSurface SystemsUnder andAround Playground Equipment. . . . . . . .26

Best PPractice, DDue DDiligence,and SSupervision . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Application aand EEnforcementof SStandards . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

About tthe AAuthor . . . . . . . . . . .31

Introduction

1

This course is intended to provide theparticipant with an overview of the cur-rent standards affecting playground

surfacing as well as relevant governmentguidelines, regulations, and rules. Playgroundsafety is related to the health and safety of thechild using the playground. However, becauseplayground safety also affects the exercise ofprofessional judgement, due diligence, and lia-bility, the course will discuss best practices aswell.

In her introductory letter to the Handbook forPublic Playground Safety, Ann Brown,Chairman of the U.S. Consumer ProductSafety Commission (CPSC), wrote:

“Unfortunately, more than 200,000 chil-dren are treated in U.S. hospital emer-gency rooms each year for injuries associ-ated with playground equipment. Mostinjuries occur when children fall from theequipment onto the ground.”In Canada, these accident statistics are col-

lected by the Canadian Hospital InjuryReporting and Prevention Program (CHIRPP).In 1996, playground injuries resulted in 4,000emergency room visits to 16 reporting hospitalacross Canada. As the U.S. NationalRecreation and Parks Association (NRPA)states in their promotion of the ASTM F1487-98Standard Consumer Safety PerformanceSpecification for Playground Equipment forPublic Use:

“About three fourths of these injuriesresult from falls, primarily to the surface onwhich the equipment was located.”World-wide, statistics indicate that 55% to

75% of all playground injuries result from fallsto the surface.

Protecting children from life-threatening anddebilitating playground injury has been the sub-ject of standards, articles, and handbooksthroughout the world. In some cases, such asthe CPSC Handbook for Public PlaygroundSafety and the Canadian CSA Z614-98Children’s Playspaces and Equipment, the sur-face performance and the specifications forplay equipment are in the same document. Inthe United States, however, there are stan-dards for each topic — the ASTM F1487 (playequipment) and the ASTM F1292 (surface per-formance). In addition there are guidelines foraccessible playgrounds and the associatedstandards ASTM F1951 and ASTM F1487. TheASTM F2000 standard covers playgroundfences.

In this course, we are concerned with theCSA Z614-98. Reference will be made toASTM F1487 from time to time, as there hasbeen significant harmonization between thetwo. The CSA Z614 takes precedence as thenational standard for playspaces in Canada.ASTM F1487 is referenced for information andan explanation of practices not mentioned inthe CSA Z614, such as accessibility.

It is incumbent upon all persons involvedwith design, specification, acquisition, installa-tion, inspection, and maintenance to be familiarwith these standards as a minimum. This ispart of their due diligence obligation wherethere is the potential for harm to oneself or oth-ers. Due diligence is the exercise of profes-sional judgement. CSA Z614 Standard definesprofessional judgement as:

“The ability of an individual with currentknowledge, skill or experience, or both inthe field of playgrounds/playground equip-ment design, use or operations, which

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enable the person to form an opinion ormake a decision, or both, concerning amatter within that field of expertise.”The lack of due diligence may be construed

as negligence — a legal term that is most asso-ciated with liability. You should contact a legalprofessional or risk manager to determine thespecific exposure that would relate to your spe-cific circumstances. For purposes of this dis-cussion it is enough to introduce you to themost commonly held definition. In 1856, BaronAlderson stated that negligence is:

“the omission to do something which areasonable man, guided upon those con-siderations that ordinarily regulate the con-duct of human affairs, would do, or some-thing which a prudent or reasonable manwould not do.”

The CPSC Handbook for PublicPlayground Safety, in its discussion ofthe Determining Shock Absorbency of a

Surfacing Material, states:“No data are available to predict pre-

cisely the threshold tolerance of thehuman head to an impact injury. However,biomedical researchers have establishedtwo methods that may be used to deter-mine when such an injury may be lifethreatening.

One method holds that if the peak decel-eration of the head during impact does notexceed 200 times the acceleration due togravity (200 G’s), a life threatening headinjury is not likely to occur. The secondmethod holds that both the deceleration ofthe head during impact and the time dura-tion over which the head decelerates to ahalt are significant in assessing headimpact injury. This latter method uses amathematical formula to derive a valueknown as Head Injury Criteria (HIC). Headimpact injuries are not believed to be lifethreatening if the HIC does not exceed avalue of 1,000.”Once the professional becomes knowledge-

able about playground surfacing and the typeand severity of possible injury, the next step isprevention through implementing the standardsand the recommendations of the CPSCHandbook. The standards set minimums forperformance for playground surfaces related tothe allowable impact force to the head. Thoseare:

Gmax <200 and HIC < 1000.An impact force above these levels could

result in a life-threatening head injury.

Injury SSeverity

3

CSA Z164-98 defines the “protective surfac-ing” as “surfacing material(s) to be used withinthe protective surfacing zone of an playgroundequipment. These materials are chosen so asto yield a gmax of 200 g or less and a HIC of1000 or less when tested according to therequirements of ASTM Standard F1292.”

Remember, the CPSC recommendation andthe threshold levels for pass/fail in the stan-dards are the levels that can produce a life-threatening head injury. Remember to review“Best Practices” at a later point.

K nowing the maximum allowableimpact forces, you must now decidewhich test method to use for deter-

mining the impact-absorbing properties of thesurface. Section 4.1 of the CPSC Handbook forPublic Playground Safety states:

“The most widely used test method forevaluating the shock absorbing propertiesof a playground surfacing material is todrop an instrumented metal headform ontoa sample of the materials and record theacceleration/time pulse during the impact.Test methods are described in ASTMStandard Specification for ImpactAttenuation of Surface Systems Under andAround Playground Equipment, ASTMF1292.”The CSA Z614-98 provides a section on

playspace layout in section 14.Section 14.1.1 on Protective Surfacing Zone

states:There shall be a protective surfacing

zone for each play structure, which shallconsist of obstacle-free surfacing that con-forms to the requirements of Clause 10appropriate for the fall height of the equip-ment.The ASTM F1487, Standard Consumer

Safety Performance Specification forPlayground Equipment for Public Use, makesspecific and repeated reference to the surfacetest procedure as follows:

Section 9.1.1There shall be a use zone for each play

structure, which shall consist of obstacle-free surfacing that conforms toSpecification F1292 appropriate for the fallheight of the equipment.

Play SSurface RRequirement

4

Section 11.2 for Owner/Operator’sResponsibilities states:

The owner/operator shall install protec-tive surfacing within the use zone of eachplay structure in accordance withSpecification F1292 appropriate for the fallheight of each structure.Section 13 for maintenance states:

13.2 Protective Surfacing13.2.1 The owner/operator shall main-

tain the protective surfacing within the usezone of each play structure in accordancewith Specification F1292 appropriate forthe fall height of each structure.

13.2.2 The owner/operator shall main-tain the protective surfacing within the usezone of each play structure free fromextraneous materials that could causeinjury, infection or disease.

13.3 The owner/operator shall establishand maintain detailed installation, inspec-tion, maintenance, and repair records foreach public-use playground equipmentarea.The CSA Z614-98, Section 10.5.1 on

Maintenance of Protective Surfacing states:The owner/operator shall maintain the

protective surfacing within the protectivesurfacing zone of each piece of play equip-ment in accordance with Clause 10,appropriate for the fall height of each pieceof equipment, as per Clause 15.One important consideration in this section is

that surfacing is dynamic. It must first beinstalled to meet the minimum performance ofthe ASTM F1292 and be maintained at or bet-ter than the same minimum performance. Therequirement to keep detailed records impliesthat, should there be an injury of any type,

these records can be required in any litigation.Should they not exist, be inadequate or lackspecifics or indicate uncorrected failures, theowner/operator will suffer the consequences.

The reader should be starting to notice thatthere is significant liability on the owner/opera-tor’s shoulders. You will also notice that theword “shall” continues to appear. In the lan-guage of a standard, this is mandatory andtherefore a requirement.

No-Encroachment ZZone

The CSA Z614 makes a specific effort withthe inclusion of a no-encroachment zone toprovide for circulation around play structuresthat are specifically designed to provide move-ment of the user. This provides for an unob-structed space where a pedestrian user of theplayspace would have the opportunity to avoidan impact with a moving user of a particularpiece of equipment such as a swing or slide.The no-encroachment zone shall extend a min-imum of 1800mm (72 inches) out from the pro-tective surfacing zone. The surface type of theno-encroachment zone does not have to con-form to Clause 10 of the CSA Z614-98. In addi-tion where there are two pieces of equipmentthat require a no-encroachment zone, they canshare this space.

Standards —— AA SShort DDiscussion

Before proceeding, it is appropriate to look atthe way standards affect due diligence and theexercise of professional judgement. Standardsset minimum performance and use languagethat is suggestive (recommended or should) ora requirement (shall). It is the role of the user of

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the document to provide a level of care that isat least that of the standard. However, the userof the standard must clearly assess the mini-mums in the standards to determine whetherthey will meet the specific need of a particularcircumstance. This is known as “Best Practice.”We will return to this subject later in our dis-cussions.

There are a number of materials thathave been used as protective surfacingmaterials. Although the manufacturer,

supplier or installer will argue that their surfac-ing system is the best that money can buy,there is no best. Each product has advantagesand disadvantages. It is the buyer’s responsi-bility to exercise due diligence in:• understanding the alternatives• making sure that the advantages meet

their needs • ensuring that the disadvantages can be

dealt with either through a combination ofother materials, warranties or mainte-nance.Playground surfaces are typically of two

types: Loose Fill Materials and UnitaryMaterials.

Loose Fill Materials include traditional sur-faces such as sand and pea gravel. Over thepast 20 years, woodchips, bark mulch, engi-neered wood fibres, and shredded tires havebeen installed in playgrounds. Unitary materi-als include mats, tile and poured-in-place sur-faces. The traditional view is that loose fillmaterials have a lower initial cost and higherlong-term maintenance than unitary materials.This is over-simplified and generally wrong.Each system has distinct advantages and dis-advantages.

Advantages aand DDisadvantages oofplayground ssurfacing ssystems

There are a number of surfacing systemsthat have over many years been utilized as tra-ditional materials or invented for application asa playground surfacing system. Each of these

Playground SSurfaces -- TTypes

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systems has advantages and disadvantagesrelated to cost, performance, and maintenance.In some cases, a combination of surfaceswould be best suited to a particular circum-stance. Generally combinations use a unitarymaterial and a single loose fill material. Cautionmust be exercised prior to specification orinstallation of any combination of loose fillmaterial. Approval of the compatibility of onematerial with the other must be confirmed withthe manufacturer/ supplier of each.

Each surface type should be considered inlight of the advantages and disadvantages thatfollow. Confirmation of properties and compo-nents or raw materials with themanufacturer/supplier will be of assistance tothe specifier.

The following information is inclusive anddesigned to allow for a thorough discussion ofany single type of surface system. Some prod-ucts overlap in advantages or disadvantages.However, each surface type will have uniquequalities.

Organic LLoose FFill MMaterial

WWoooodd CChhiippss aanndd BBaarrkk MMuullcchhBark mulch generally results from pruning

and disposing of trees as part of an urban treemanagement and landscape maintenance pro-gram or the debarking of trees in the forest ormill. It can contain twigs and leaves from thetrees and shrubbery processed. Wood chipsare generally uniformly crushed shreds orchips that contain no bark or leaves. The woodmust be separated prior to chipping or pro-cessing to ensure that no woods containingtoxic substances or allergens are included inthe final product. An ASTM standard for wood

engineered products went into the ballotingprocess in January 2001. This is discussed inthe following section.

The impact attenuating properties of thewood chips and bark mulch depend on manyfactors. It can only be determined through test-ing the material to the requirements of ASTMF1292. Field-testing the surface once installedand annually, using the ASTM F1292 testmethod, will ensure that the installed materialmeets the contract specification and continuesto provide protection for the user.

Wood chips and bark mulch must not beinstalled over existing hard surfaces such asasphalt or concrete. A method of containment— retaining barrier, excavated pit, etc. — isrequired. A drainage system and geotextile arerequired between the sub-base and the woodchips or bark mulch. Since wood chips andbark mulch can be a broad spectrum of shapesand sizes, maintenance of each site will bespecific to the site. Maintenance will requirecontinuous levelling, raking, grading, sifting,packing, etc. to provide adequate cover andresilience. Inspection of the surface for foreignmaterials is required on a regular basis.Replenishing of the surface to accommodatedecomposition and compression is required.The entire material must be removed andreplaced should the bulk of the surface bedecomposed. Bacteria and moulds can occuras a result of a combination of decomposition,wet or damp materials, and temperatures rang-ing from 35°F to 100°F.

Wood chips and bark mulch provide theowner/operator with a number of advantagessuch as:• low initial cost• easy to install

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• allows for good drainage• is less abrasive than sand• readily available• is less attractive to cats and dogs as com-

pared to sand• mildly acidic composition of some woods

retards the infestation of insects andretards fugal growth

• generally users of the playground will notuse the wood chips for other purposes orplay with itWood chips and bark mulch provide the

owner/operator with a number of disadvan-tages that may reduce the ability of the surfaceto conform to various performance standardssuch as:• rainy weather, high humidity, freezing tem-

peratures• with normal use over time, combines with

dirt and other foreign materials• over time, decomposes, is pulverized and

compacts. The greater the quantity ofleaves or moisture, the faster the rate ofdecomposition

• depth may be reduced by displacementdue to children’s activity or by materialbeing blown by wind

• can be blown or thrown into children’s eyes• subject to microbial growth when wet• conceals animal excrement and trash (e.g.

broken glass, nails, pencils and othersharp objects that can cause cut or punc-ture wounds)

• spreads easily outside of the containmentarea

• can be flammable

EEnnggiinneeeerreedd WWoooodd FFiibbrree(new ASTM Standard F2075)

Engineered wood fibre generally results fromgrinding virgin or new wood that has beendebarked and contains no leaves to specificdimensions and performance criteria. Thewood must be separated prior to chipping orprocessing to ensure that no woods containingtoxic substances or allergens are included inthe final product. The ASTM F2075 also speci-fies other tests to ensure a uniform product.

The impact attenuating properties of theengineered wood fibre will depend on manyfactors. It can only be determined through test-ing the material to the requirements of ASTMF1292. Field-testing the surface once installedand annually, utilizing the test method of ASTMF1292, will ensure that the material installedmeets the contract specification and continuesto provide protection for the user.

Engineered wood fibre may be installed overexisting hard surfaces (e.g. asphalt, concrete)provided:• it conforms to the ASTM F2075 standard• it conforms to the ASTM F1951 standard• the initial and maintained depth provides

for a minimum depth of 12 inches aftercompaction

• that in high traffic areas, such as underswings and at slide exits, an impact atten-uating mat that conforms to the require-ments of ASTM F1292 is installed

• a drainage system, such as stone aggre-gate sandwiched within two layers of geo-textile cloth, is installed under the entireengineered wood fibre systemA method of containment (e.g. retaining bar-

rier, excavated pit, etc.) is required. A drainagesystem and geotextile are required between

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the sub-base and the engineered wood fibre.Maintenance will require regular levelling, rak-ing, grading, sifting, packing, etc. to provideadequate cover and resilience. Inspection ofthe surface for foreign materials is required ona regular basis. Replenishing of the surface toaccommodate decomposition and compres-sion is required. The entire material must beremoved and replaced when the bulk of thesurface be decomposed. Bacteria and mouldscan occur as a result of a combination ofdecomposition, wet or damp materials, andtemperatures ranging from 35°F to 100°F.

Engineered wood fibre provides theowner/operator with a number of advantagessuch as:• easy to install• allows for good drainage• is less abrasive than sand• readily available• is less attractive to cats and dogs as com-

pared to sand• mildly acidic composition of some woods

retards the infestation of insects andretards fugal growth

• generally users of the playground will notuse the wood chips for other purposes orplay with it

• must conform to ASTM F2075 engineeredwood fibre standard

• must conform to the ASTM F1951 stan-dard (accessibility)

• must conform to the ASTM F1292 stan-dard

• is free of bark and leaves• is less likely than other loose fill material to

conceal animal excrement and trash (e.g.broken glass, nails, pencils and othersharp object that can cause cut or punc-

ture wounds)Engineered wood fibre provides the

owner/operator with a number of disadvan-tages that may reduce the ability of the surfaceto conform to various performance standardssuch as:• rainy weather, high humidity, freezing tem-

peratures• with normal use over time, combines with

dirt and other foreign materials• over time, decomposes, is pulverized and

compacts. The greater the level of mois-ture, the faster the rate of decomposition


• can be blown or thrown into children’s eyes• subject to microbial growth when wet• can conceals animal excrement and trash

(e.g. broken glass, nails, pencils and othersharp object that can cause cut or punc-ture wounds


• can be flammable

Inorganic LLoose FFill MMaterial

SSaannddSand is a naturally occurring material that

will vary in texture and composition dependingon the source and geographic location fromwhich it is mined. Once mined, the raw sand isprocessed or manufactured to provide specificgrades and classifications through washing,screening, and other actions

The impact attenuating properties of sandwill depend on many factors and can only bedetermined through testing of the material to

9

the requirements of ASTM F1292. Field-testingthe surface once installed and annually, utiliz-ing the test method of ASTM F1292, will ensurethat the material installed meets the contractspecification and continues to provide protec-tion for the user.

Sand must not be installed over existing hardsurfaces (e.g. asphalt, concrete). A method ofcontainment (e.g. retaining barrier, excavatedpit, etc.) is required. A drainage system andgeotextile are required between the sub-baseand the sand. Maintenance will require contin-uous levelling, raking, grading, sifting, packing,etc. to provide adequate cover and resilience.Inspection of the surface for foreign materials isrequired on a regular basis. Periodically thecompacted sand must be turned over, loos-ened, and cleaned. Total replacement of thesand will be required when turning and loosen-ing no longer provide the performance requiredby ASTM F1292.

Sand provides the owner/operator with anumber of advantages such as:• low initial cost• easy to install• does not easily support microbial growth• readily available• non-flammable• not susceptible to vandalism except by

contaminationSand provides the owner/operator with a

number of disadvantages that may reduce theability of the surface to conform to various per-formance standards such as:• will not meet the requirements for accessi-

bility and the performance required by theASTM F1951 standard

• finding sand that has passed the ASTMF1292 laboratory testing will be difficult

• rainy weather, high humidity, freezing tem-peratures

• with normal use over time, combines withdirt and other foreign materials


• can be blown or thrown into children’s eyes• may be swallowed• conceals animal excrement and trash (e.g.

broken glass, nails, pencils and othersharp object that can cause cut or punc-ture wounds)


• small particles bind together and becomeless cushioning when wet; when thorough-ly wet, sand reacts as a rigid material

• may be tracked onto other surfaces; wheninstalled in conjunction with a unitary sur-face the fine particles can reduce theshock absorbing properties of porous uni-tary material. The abrasive characteristicof sand can damage most other surfacesincluding non-porous unitary materials andsurfaces outside the playground.

• adheres to clothing

GGrraavveellGravel is a naturally occurring material that

will vary in texture and composition dependingupon the source and geographic location fromwhich is mined. Once mined, the raw gravel isprocessed or manufactured to provide specificgrades and classifications through the wash-ing, screening and other actions. Crushed orbroken gravel is unacceptable, as this materialwill not allow of the displacement of the parti-cles.

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The impact attenuating properties of gravelwill depend on many factors and can only bedetermined through the testing of the materialto the requirements of ASTM F1292. Field-test-ing the surface once installed and annually, uti-lizing the test method of ASTM F1292, willensure that the material installed meets thecontract specification and continues to provideprotection for the user.

Gravel must not be installed over existinghard surfaces (e.g. asphalt, concrete). Amethod of containment (e.g. retaining barrier,excavated pit, etc.) is required. A drainage sys-tem and geotextile are required between thesub-base and the gravel. Maintenance willrequire continuous levelling, raking, grading,sifting, packing, etc. to provide adequate coverand resilience. Inspection of the surface for for-eign materials is required on a regular basis.Periodically the hardened gravel must beturned over, loosened and cleaned. Totalreplacement of the gravel will be required whenturning and loosening no longer provides theperformance required by the ASTM F1292standard.

Gravel provides the owner/operator with anumber of advantages such as:• low initial cost• easy to install• does not easily support microbial growth• readily available• non-flammable• not susceptible to vandalism except by

contamination• gravel is less attractive to animals than

sandGravel provides the owner/operator with a

number of disadvantages that may reduce theability of the surface to conform to various per-

formance standards such as:• will not meet the requirements for accessi-

bility and the performance required by theASTM F1951 standard.

• rainy weather, high humidity, freezing tem-peratures

• with normal use over time, combines withdirt and other foreign materials

• depth may be reduced by displacementdue to children’s activity

• can be thrown into children’s eyes• may be swallowed• may become lodged in bodily openings

such as nose and ears• conceals animal excrement and trash (e.g.


• spreads very easily outside of the contain-ment area

• small particles bind together and becomeless cushioning and forms hard pan

• may be tracked onto other surfaces. Whenon other hard surfaces, the rolling natureof the gravel can be a contributor to slip-fall injuries.

• difficult to walk on

SShhrreeddddeedd TTiirreessShredded tire materials are the result of

either grinding, buffing or crushing the wholetire or any part of the tire. The tire particle mustnot contain any metals or foreign contami-nants. Some processing techniques provide forthe pigmenting of the outside of the black rub-ber; this must be non-toxic and contain noallergens such as latex.

The impact attenuating properties of theshredded tires will vary depending upon the

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process, shape and particle size of the productand can only be determined through testing thematerial to the requirements of ASTM F1292.Field-testing the surface once installed andannually, utilizing the test method of ASTMF1292, will ensure that the material installedmeets the contract specification and continuesto provide protection for the user.

Shredded tires must not be installed overexisting hard surfaces (e.g. asphalt, concrete).A method of containment (e.g. retaining barrier,excavated pit, etc.) is required. A drainage sys-tem and geotextile are required between thesub-base and the shredded tire. Maintenancewill require continuous levelling, raking, grad-ing, sifting, packing etc. to provide adequatecover and resilience. Inspection of the surfacefor foreign materials is required on a regularbasis. Periodically the shredded tires must beturned over, loosened and cleaned.

Shredded Tires provide the owner/operatorwith a number of advantages such as:• easy to install• not abrasive• does not easily support microbial growth• not susceptible to vandalism except by

contamination• less attractive to animals than sand

Shredded tires provide the owner/operatorwith a number of disadvantages that mayreduce the ability of the surface to conform tovarious performance standards such as:• will not meet the requirements for accessi-

bility and the performance required by theASTM F1951 standard

• may contain wires or other metal compo-nents

• depth may be reduced by displacementdue to children’s activity or by material

being blown by wind• can be blown or thrown into children’s eyes• may be swallowed• may contain lead and other toxins• small or dust sized particles may enter and

remain in lungs• when wet, small particles will stick to cloth-

ing and skin• may become lodged in bodily openings

such as nose and ears• conceals animal excrement and trash (e.g.



• difficult to walk on

Inorganic UUnitary MMaterials

MMaattss oorr TTiilleessMats or tiles are generally the result of the

combination of a chemical binder and rubberfiller product. The mats or tiles can be manu-factured using any of a combination of heat,pressure or ambient application of a mixturewithin a form or mold. The mats or tiles canappear to be monolithic in a single or multiplelayer system or have a support or leg structurecombined with a firm top. Mats or tiles can beporous or nonporous to water. Pigmentation ofthe surface can be provided through the pig-mentation of the binder holding the rubber par-ticles or utilizing coloured rubber particles orchips. Mats or Tiles are manufactured in vari-ous thicknesses, length, and width dependingupon the properties desired by the manufactur-er.

The impact attenuating properties of the

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mats or tiles will vary depending on the partic-ular product and can only be determinedthrough testing of material to the requirementsof ASTM F1292. Field-testing the surface onceinstalled and annually, utilizing the test methodof ASTM F1292, will ensure that the materialinstalled meets the contract specification andcontinues to provide protection for the user.

Mats or tiles can be installed over a variety ofbases from compacted crushed granular to ahard surface (e.g. asphalt, concrete). They areon occasion installed within a loose fill materialto reduce compaction or disruption of the loosefill materials in high traffic, repeated impact andentrance areas. The manufacturer’s procedureas to the base preparation must be followed foreach particular mat or tile. The installation pro-cedure may be such as to provide for installa-tion by the owner/operator or specializedlabour. In addition, methods of fixing the matsor tiles (bonding, pins, interlocking edges,anchors etc) will be specified by the manufac-turer and adhered to. The maintenance of matsor tiles can consist of the removal of largedebris with sweeping or blowing, while theremoval of smaller particles such as sand fromporous mats or tiles will require mechanicalcleaning such as a vacuum. For some mats ortiles, snow can be removed mechanically andde-icing materials can be used as per the man-ufacturer’s recommendations. When a mat ortile has lost its effectiveness to attenuateimpact as a result of degradation or contami-nation, the affected area will have to beremoved and replaced.

Mats or tiles provide the owner/operator witha number of advantages such as:• low maintenance• easy to clean

• consistent shock absorbency• material not displaced by children during

play activities• generally low life cycle costs• good footing (depends on surface texture)• harbour few foreign objects• generally no retaining edges required• accessible to people with disabilities

Mats or tiles provide the owner/operator witha number of disadvantages that may reducethe ability of the surface to conform to variousperformance standards such as:• initial cost is relatively high• base materials may be critical for thinner

materials• often must be used on almost smooth uni-

form surfaces without deviation in slope• may be flammable• subject to vandalism (e.g. ignited, defaced,

cut)• may curl up and cause tripping• may shrink and cause the accumulation of

dirt and debris that does not absorb impact• may become hard over time as a result of

environmental degradation. This wouldmean a total removal and replacementand the associated costs unless coveredby warranty or insurance

• some designs are susceptible to frost dam-age.

• location of seams, anchors and other fas-teners may not attenuate impact to thesame degree as the balance of the mat ortile

• mechanical fasteners or anchors canbecome dislodged and present a hazard tothe user

13

PPoouurreedd--iinn--PPllaacceePoured-in-place surface is generally the

result of the combination of a chemical binderand rubber filler product. The poured-in-placesurface can be manufactured using single ormultiple layers of materials and binders andgenerally are monolithic. Poured-in-place sur-faces are generally porous, however can benonporous to water through the application of anon-porous material. Pigmentation of the sur-face can be provided through the pigmentationof the binder holding the rubber particles or uti-lizing colored rubber particles or chips. Poured-in-place surfaces are manufactured in variousthicknesses depending upon the propertiesdesired by the manufacturer.

The impact attenuating properties of thepoured-in-place surfaces will vary dependingupon the particular chemistry, components,installation technique, etc and can only bedetermined through testing of material to therequirements of ASTM F1292. Since the play-ground site is also the site of manufacture,inconsistencies can develop in the installationprocess, providing for detrimental variation inperformance. The owner/operator may be bestserved with the site testing of the surface toconfirm compliance. Field-testing the surfaceonce installed and annually, utilizing the testmethod of ASTM F1292, will ensure that thematerial installed meets the contract specifica-tion and continues to provide protection for theuser.

Poured-in-place surfaces can be installedover a variety of bases from compactedcrushed granular to a hard surface (e.g.asphalt, concrete). Poured-in-place surfacescan also be made to conform to slopes andother shapes provided in the play environment.

They are on occasion installed within a loose fillmaterial to reduce compaction or disruption ofthe loose fill materials in high traffic, repeatedimpact and entrance areas. The manufactur-er’s procedure as to the base preparation, mustbe followed for each particular poured-in-placesurface. The installation procedure is almostalways through specialized labour and equip-ment. The maintenance of the poured-in-placesurface can consist of the removal of largedebris with sweeping or blowing, while theremoval of smaller particles such as sand fromthe porous surface will require mechanicalcleaning such as a vacuum. For some poured-in-place surfaces, snow can be removedmechanically and de-icing materials can beused as per the manufacturer’s recommenda-tions. When a poured-in-place surface has lostits effectiveness to attenuate impact as a resultof degradation or contamination, the affectedarea will have to be removed and replaced.

Poured-in-place surfaces provide theowner/operator with a number of advantages suchas:• low maintenance• easy to clean• consistent shock absorbency• material not displaced by children during

play activities• generally low life cycle costs • does not require smooth uniform surfaces

without deviation in slope• good footing (depends on surface texture)• harbor few foreign objects• generally no retaining edges required• accessible to people with disabilities

Poured-in-place surfaces provide theowner/operator with a number of disadvan-tages that may reduce the ability of the surface

14

to conform to various performance standardssuch as:• initial cost is relatively high• base materials may be critical for thinner

materials• may be flammable• subject to vandalism (e.g. ignited, defaced,

cut)• may shrink and cause the accumulation of

dirt and debris that does not absorb impactat edges

• may become hard over time as a result ofenvironmental degradation. This wouldmean a total removal and replacementand the associated costs unless coveredby warranty or insurance

• some designs are susceptible to frost dam-age.

CCoommbbiinnaattiioonn IInnoorrggaanniicc LLoooossee RRuubbbbeerr FFiillllaanndd TTiillee oorr PPoouurreedd--iinn--ppllaaccee

Combination inorganic loose rubber fill cov-ered by a tile or poured-in-place surface is gen-erally the result of laying an appropriate depthof rubber granules or shreds covered by a plas-tic matting, tile or poured-in-place tops as pre-viously described. Combination inorganic loosefill and tile or poured-in-place surface is by def-inition multiple layers of materials and bindersand are monolithic. They are generally porous,however can be nonporous to water throughthe application of a non-porous material.Pigmentation of the surface can be providedthrough the pigmentation of the binder holdingthe rubber particles or utilizing colored rubberparticles or chips. Combination inorganic loosefill and tile or poured-in-place surfaces aremanufactured in various thicknesses depend-ing upon the properties desired by the manu-

facturer.The impact attenuating properties of the

combination inorganic loose fill and tile orpoured-in-place surfaces will vary dependingupon the particular chemistry, components,installation technique, etc and can only bedetermined through testing the material to therequirements of ASTM F1292. Since the play-ground site is also the site of manufacture,inconsistencies can develop in the installationprocess, providing for detrimental variation inperformance. Field-testing the surface onceinstalled and annually, utilizing the test methodof ASTM F1292, will ensure that the materialinstalled meets the contract specification andcontinues to provide protection for the user.

Combination inorganic loose fill and tile orpoured-in-place surfaces cannot have theloose fill components installed over a hard sur-face (e.g. asphalt, concrete) whereas the tile orpoured-in-place surface can be installed over ahard surface (e.g. asphalt, concrete). Theinstallation procedure is almost always throughspecialized labour and equipment. The mainte-nance of the combination inorganic loose filland tile or poured-in-place surface can consistof the removal of large debris with sweeping orblowing, while the removal of smaller particlessuch as sand from porous is extremely difficult.When a poured-in-place surface has lost itseffectiveness to attenuate impact as a result ofdegradation or contamination, the affectedarea will have to be removed and replaced.Movement and displacement of the loose fillmaterial as a result of activity or subjection towater will require the removal of the toppingmaterials and reinstallation of the system.

Combination inorganic loose fill and tile orpoured-in-place surfaces provide the

15

owner/operator with a number of advantagessuch as:• lower initial cost to poured-in-place or mats

or tiles• consistent shock absorbency provided the

loose material stays in place• generally low life cycle costs • good footing (depends on surface texture)• harbour few foreign objects• accessible to people with disabilities pro-

vided it remains smooth; ask for testresultsCombination inorganic loose fill and tile or

poured-in-place surfaces provide theowner/operator with a number of disadvan-tages that may reduce the ability of the surfaceto conform to various performance standardssuch as:• initial cost is relatively high• loose fill material can be displaced by chil-

dren during play activities• sub-base materials may be critical for thin-

ner materials• may be flammable• subject to vandalism (e.g. ignited, defaced,

cut)• surface layer may shrink and cause the

accumulation of dirt and debris that doesnot absorb impact at edges

• generally retaining edges required• may become hard over time as a result of

environmental degradation• some designs are susceptible to frost dam-

age• loose fill material can shift, requiring reinstal-

lation.

IInn--TThhee--CCaann IInnoorrggaanniicc SSuurrffaacceessThere has of late been a development of

inorganic surfacing materials that consist of arubber crumb component premixed with a bind-ing agent that is intended for installation by thepurchaser. In most cases, the manufacturer ofthe product provides installation instructions asto thickness and some other techniques. Sincethis system, as with any poured-in-place sys-tem, requires special installation techniquesand skilled labour, it is not recommended foruse by the inexperienced person. Duplicationof original manufacturer’s result will be difficultin the field. These products are typically bestsuited to repairs or small additions to poured-in-place surfaces that are known to comply tothe ASTM F1292 through the use of field test-ing.

In-the-can inorganic surfaces provide theowner/operator with a number of advantagessuch as:• lower initial cost to having a specialist in

poured-in-place or mats or tiles perform arepair

• consistent shock absorbency provided theinstallation procedures are meticulouslyfollowed

• generally low life cycle costs • good footing (depends on surface texture)• harbour few foreign objects• accessible to people with disabilities pro-

vided it remains smoothIn-the-can inorganic surfaces provide the

owner/operator with a number of disadvan-tages that may reduce the ability of the surfaceto conform to various performance standardssuch as:• initial cost is relatively high• sub-base materials may be critical for thin-

16

ner materials• may be flammable• surface layer may shrink and cause the

accumulation of dirt and debris that doesnot absorb impact at edges

• may become hard over time as a result ofenvironmental degradation.

Considerations rregardingAdvantages aand DDisadvantages

As with any product, playground protectivesurfacing systems must be considered on theirmerits. At each stage of selection, specifica-tion, acquisition, installation, maintenance, andrepair, there will be costs that must be bal-anced with the advantages and disadvantagesof the surface system or combination of sys-tems.

Through careful specification, monitoring ofthe installation, and warranties, theowner/operator can shift some of the potentialpitfalls and issues that can be related to pre-mature replacement or liability to the manufac-turer/supplier/installer.

Both the CPSC Handbook for PublicPlayground Safety and the ASTMF1487 require that the playground

protective surface conform to the requirementsand test methods of ASTM F1292. This stan-dard was originally published as ASTM F1292-91. The most recent version is ASTM F1292-99. The highlights of the standard are:• two test methods — ASTM F355,

Procedure C and the Free Fall TestMethod.

• two types of tests — the three-temperaturelaboratory test and field testing surfaces atambient temperature

• two forces measured — Gmax and HIC• three heights to be considered — Critical,

Drop and FallA summary of the ASTM F1292 is found in

Section 5 as follows:Representative playground surface sys-tems or surfacing material samples, orboth, are tested in accordance with TestMethod F355 or the free fall test methoddescribed in Annex A.1. Conduct laborato-ry tests at various drop heights and testtemperatures. Conduct the field tests atthe drop height specified and at the ambi-ent temperature of the site within a speci-fied range. The laboratory test method willdetermine the maximum drop height atwhich the g-max does not exceed 200 orthe HIC does not exceed 1000. The fieldtest method will determine the g-max andthe HIC from the drop height specified bythe initial owner/operator at the ambienttemperature of the test.

Performance RRequirementsfor PProtective SSurfacing

17

The TTest MMethodsThe traditional test was based on the method

in ASTM F355 Procedure C, which consists ofa head-shaped metal headform mounted to arail or guide wires. The headform is connectedto special electronic equipment that recordsand generates the results of the test. Thisinstrumentation is extremely cumbersome andis very expensive to transport to a site and per-form a field test. During the 1990s, a portabletest instrument was developed, tested, refined,and accepted as equivalent to F355,Procedure C. As a matter of fact, a round-robincomparison in six laboratories across NorthAmerica between the two test methods indi-cates that the results of the Free Fall TestMethod are both more repeatable and repro-ducible than the F355, Procedure C. A summa-ry of the round robin results is published in sec-tion 15 of the ASTM F1292-99.

The free fall test method provides a portableinstrument that allows the owner/operator toreadily test surfaces at the time of installationand during its life. Contractual requirementscan be confirmed and warranty commitmentsenforced. Loose fill materials are more readilymaintained when those responsible for mainte-nance can perform benchmark testing. Theinstrumentation is easily transported to thescene of an injury to record site informationclose to the time that the injury occurred.

TTyyppeess ooff TTeessttss aanndd PPeerrffoorrmmaanncceeSection 4 of the ASTM F1292 describes two

specific styles of tests, the conditions, and theperformance requirements for the surfacebeing tested. It also stipulates the action to betaken when the surface does not meet the

requirements of the standard.This is a very important section for the

owner/operator because it sets out the obliga-tions that must be fulfilled both prior to theinstallation and during the life of the play-ground. That includes the owner/operator’sobligation to specify the height from which thedrop is to be made for each playground surfacesystem and playground site. Failure to complywith this section could be a significant source ofliability.

Section 4.1 requires that “all surface systemsmust be tested in accordance with the perform-ance requirements in 4.2”, the laboratory test.This section contains two key words for theowner/operator: all and must. There are noexemptions or exceptions.

Furthermore, ASTM F1487 Section 13.3(Records) requires that “the owner/operatorshall establish and maintain detailed installa-tion…. records.” The results of the laboratorytests performed on the surface under the playequipment will be the first record that isrequired. Other details that should be recordedinclude any available description of the surfacesystem from the manufacturer/supplier cata-logues that would help to identify it. Thedescription of the surface system —as deliv-ered — must conform specifically to thedescription of the materials tested.

For loose fill materials, descriptive detailshould include information such as the type ofmaterial (sand, pea gravel, etc.), sieve curveanalysis of the materials, source of materials,specific weight, percentage fines. Other infor-mation specific to material such as with looserubber would include whether the materials arefrom recycled tires or industrial waste and thepercentage and chemical make-up of the rub-

18

ber provided. In some cases, recycled rubbercontaining a latex component will be critical tothose with latex allergies. For pea gravel, thefact that it is washed and the maximum andminimum particle size are important. The latteris also true for sand surfaces.

For synthetic surfaces, assurances that theraw materials — binders, rubber crumb, andother components — are identical to thoseused in the tested samples should be included.

For mats, a description of the thickness ofthe structure top compared to legs must berecorded as well as a description of themechanical structure of the mat. This could bethe shape, size, and layout of the support legs.In some cases, records should include the sizeof the rubber, the source of rubber (recycled ornew materials), chemistry of the rubber (SBR,latex, Butyl, EPDM, etc.), type of particle(shreds, buffings or crumb). Changes in any orall of these components will have an affect onthe outcome of the test results for the productin which they are used.

For poured-in-place systems, the same com-ponent information must be provided as well asthe assurance that the installation labour hasbeen trained to exactly duplicate what hasbeen provided in the samples submitted forlaboratory testing.

These issues raise the reason for the recom-mendation in Section 4.1 of the ASTM F1292Standard that “surfaces may also be tested inaccordance with 4.3.” This is the field test atambient temperature. It allows the owner/oper-ator the opportunity to fulfill the requirement inASTM F1487 Section 13.3 for detailed recordsof installation and inspection.

RReeccoorrddiinngg VVeelloocciittyy aatt IImmppaaccttOne key element for both the free-fall test

procedure and the ASTM F355 Procedure C isthat the velocity at the point of impact must berecorded. The velocity measurement is used toconfirm the drop height. The velocity recordedfor the physical drop height must be within ±0.5ft/s of the theoretical velocity for the drop heightgiven. This assures the user of the test resultsthat, for the free fall method, the device wasactually dropped from the location reportedand, for the guided method, that there is no fric-tion in the drop system that would adverselyaffect the results. With this component it is vir-tually impossible to fake or provide erroneousdrop heights and data for the drops either in thelaboratory or in the field. The written record ofthe results of the velocity, the Gmax and HICwill be invaluable in assessing an injury or in lit-igation.

LLaabboorraattoorryy TTeessttiinnggAs discussed above, ASTM F1292 Section

4.2 stipulates that“ When tested in accordance with Test

Method F355 or the free fall test method inAnnex A1, using an average of the last twoof three drops, no value shall exceed 200g-max or 1000 HIC for laboratory tests attemperatures of 30, 72, and 120°F (-1, 23,and 49°C), respectively.” At least nine samples are delivered in a pre-

scribed size. Loose fill systems are tested in abox that is 18”x 18” x a depth sufficient to holdthe materials in the box during the test. Fornon-loose fill materials, the minimum samplesize is 12” x 12” x the thickness of the systemto be installed. In addition, the samples shall berepresentative of the way they are to be found

19

in the playground, “including seams, partitions,corners and fasteners, or other areas that mayresult in less than optimal impact characteris-tics.”

Each sample is preconditioned at 50±10%relative humidity and 72±5°F for a minimum of24 hours. The samples are then tested at threetemperatures, 30, 72 and 120°F after condi-tioning at that temperature for a minimum offour hours.

The impact tests are carried out to a maxi-mum drop height in one-foot increments, pro-vided that neither the Gmax exceeds 200 northe HIC exceeds 1000. Tests are performed atone foot above and below this maximum dropheight. Three drops are performed at eachincremental drop height. The drop height atwhich either the Gmax exceeds 200 or the HICexceed 1000 at any of the three temperaturesis the critical height for the surfacing system.This is a key measure for the manufacturer,supplier, installer, and the owner/operator sincea head impact with greater forces could resultin a life-threatening injury.

The laboratory test results will provide thecritical height for the surface system. Whendue diligence is applied, no part of the structurethat is determined to be the potential locationfrom which a child could fall shall exceed thecritical height of the surfacing system.

FFiieelldd TTeessttiinnggThe field test differs from the laboratory test

in a number of respects. The most important isthat it determines the Gmax and HIC for thesurfacing system from the drop height original-ly stipulated by the owner/operator prior to pur-chase. This test is to be performed at the ambi-ent temperature at the time of the test without

any preconditioning of the area for tempera-ture, humidity or compaction.

The field test is important in that it providesthe owner/operator with a number of opportuni-ties. The first is to confirm that the contractualobligation regarding the performance of thematerials purchased is greater or equal to theperformance specified in the contract and canbe recorded. The second is to provide mainte-nance staff with the opportunity to see how thesurface system should be maintained to pro-vide adequate performance. Thirdly, annualtesting can go a long way to meeting therequirements set out in ASTM F1292, ASTMF1487, and the CPSC Document 325. A fourthopportunity is for the owner/operator to deter-mine compliance to warranty performancewhere this forms part of the warranty.

The field test is performed at ambient tem-perature at the time of the test. The tempera-ture of the surface is recorded. In Northernareas, this could mean that the surface tem-perature is well below that of the lower labora-tory test temperature. In southern areas orareas of high solar radiation, the surface tem-perature could exceed the laboratory high tem-perature threshold. For the field-test, this hasno bearing on the collection or recording ofdata. There must also be no preconditioning ofthe surface and, specifically, the person per-forming the test shall select impact sites thatinclude areas displaying less than optimumimpact characteristics. The test generally is todetermine failures, should there be any at theplayground location. Therefore, areas of hightraffic, compressed or worn materials, or areascontaining seams, partitions, corners and fas-teners/anchors are to be sought out.

For the field test, a minimum of three loca-

20

tions at each playground are tested. At eachlocation, three drops are performed from theheight specified by the original owner/operator.The Gmax, HIC, and velocity at the point ofimpact are determined and recorded. TheGmax and HIC results for the last two of thethree drops for each value are averaged andthe Gmax and HIC for the location are deter-mined. The velocity reading is important indetermining that the velocity and the theoreticalvelocity do not vary by more than ±0.5 ft/s atthe drop height used.

RReessuullttss ooff tthhee FFiieelldd TTeessttssFor interpretation of the results of the field

test, ASTM F1292 Section 4.4 provides that“the surface system should be made to complyor the playground equipment on the surfaceshould not be used until the surface complies”when the test is performed at ambient temper-ature and the results exceeds 200 Gmax or1000 HIC at the height specified by theowner/operator. The reasons for the failurecould include frozen and winter conditions;however, the standard does not make anyexception for these circumstances. Thisbecomes a matter of risk management and theexercise of professional judgement as to howto take a playground structure out of service.This will b a consideration for all owners andoperators where freezing is a fact of life.

In any event, a failure of the field test meansowner will be required to take action. Thisshould include closing the playground until thesurface can be maintained or replaced. Failureto do so could place the user at risk and raisethe exposure to liability for the owner/operator.Where it is determined that the surfacing sys-tem must be replaced, the Field Test Procedure

can be used to map the specific areas thatwould be the subject of the replacement. Thiscan reduce the cost of the replacement, as theentire area would be otherwise replaced.Follow-up testing is to be used to determinethat the playground surfacing system from thedrop height as originally determined does con-form to the requirements of the Standards.Detailed records of the process are to be madeand kept.

It is important that all repairs or replacementsthat do not cover the entire playground bemade with original materials and by the originalmanufacturer/supplier. Failure to do this maycause contamination of or conflict with theexisting or replacement materials.

Playground LLayout

21

CSA Z614-98 Section 14 outlines theextent to which protective surfacingand no-encroachment zones must be

provided for each piece of playground equip-ment in general and certain specific pieces of

equipment. These are minimums. It is incum-bent upon the owner/operator to exercise duediligence in the areas that would best accom-modate their users. The specifics for layout arein the following table.

SSttrruuccttuurree TTyyppee SSeeccttiioonn iinn CCSSAAZZ661144--9988

PPrrootteeccttiivveeSSuurrffaaccee ZZoonneemmeeaassuurreedd ffrroommuunnllooaaddeeddssttrruuccttuurree

PPrrootteeccttiivveeSSuurrffaaccee ZZoonneeSSppeecciiaall RRuulleess

PPrrootteeccttiivveeSSuurrffaaccee ZZoonneeOOvveerrllaapp ooffootthheerr PPSSZZoonneess

NNoo--EEnnccrrooaacchhmmeennttZZoonnee

Stationary 14.2.1.2 > 1800mm(72 inches)

May overlap No

Rocking/SpringingFor sitting

14.2.2.1 > 1800mm(72 inches) inall directions

May overlap No

RockingSpringingFor standing

14.2.2.2 > 2100mm(84 inches) inall directions

No No

Rotatesaround verticalaxis

14.3.1.1 > 1800mm(72 inches)

No Yes

Rotatesaround hori-zontal axis

14.3.1.2 > 1800mm(72 inches)

No Yes

To-Fro Swingsopen seat direction of themotion

14.3.2.1.1 2Y to frontand backwhere Y is thedistance fromloaded seat topivot point

No Yes

To-Fro SwingsEnclosed seatdirection of themotion

14.3.2.1.2 2Y to frontand backwhere Y is thedistance fromthe sitting sur-face to pivotpoint

No Yes

22

Slides indirection of nomotion

14.4.1 > 1800mm(72 inches)

Yes No

Slides in direc-tion of motionwith platform≤ 1200mm (48inches)

14.4.2.2.1 > 1800mm(72 inches)from the endof the slide

No Yes

Slides in direc-tion of motionwith platform >1200mm (48inches)

14.4.2.2. X + 1200mm(48 inches)from transi-tion, X is theheight of theplatformabove the pro-tective surface

Lower exit iswhere transi-tion is to lessthan 5° orfrom the endof the slide.≥1800mm (72inches) fromlower exit andmay be nogreater than4200mm (68inches)

No Yes

Track Rides 14.5 ≥1800mm (72inches) in alldirections

No No

Cable Rides 14.6 ≥ 1800mm (72inches) alongcable, centredon cable

≥ 1800mm (72inches)around struc-ture

No Yes at thesides

RotatingSwings

14.3.2.2.1 > 2Y where Yis the distancebetween thetop of the seatand the pivotpoint

Extend>1800mm (72inches) fromstructure

No overlap toother struc-tures

Yes

To-Fro Swings 90° to direc-tion of motion

14.3.2.1.5 > 1800mm (72inches) fromthe supportstructure

At least aswide as thelength of thesuspendingbeam

Support struc-ture zonesmay overlap

No

The TThree HHeights oof PPlaygrounds

23

In the previous sections, the noun “height”has been used repeatedly with one ofthree adjectives: critical, drop or fall. Each

of these has a specific meaning within the stan-dards, their application, and their relationshipto the exercise of due diligence.

The Fall Height is the height that has beendefined in CSA Z614-98 as the vertical dis-tance between a designated play surface or thetop of a guardrail and the protective surfacingbeneath it. The designated play surface is anyelevated surface for standing, walking, sittingor climbing or any flat surface greater that twoinches (51mm) wide and having an angle ofless than 30° from horizontal. For swings, thefall height is the vertical distance from the pro-tective surface to the pivot point where theswing is attached to the supporting beam.

The Critical Height is the maximum heightfrom which the instrumented headform couldbe dropped at any one of the three laboratorytest temperatures and either the Gmax ≥ 200 orthe HIC ≥ 1000. This is also the height fromwhich it can reasonably be expected that, whenforces exceed those allowed in the test, a life-threatening head injury could occur.

The Drop Height is the vertical unobstructeddistance from the underside of the instrument-ed headform to the surface being tested. In thelaboratory, the Drop Height is incrementallyraised until the Critical Height is determined. Inpurchase specifications, contracts, and thefield test procedure, the Drop Height is theheight specified by the original owner/operatorof a playground surface, prior to purchase,from where the instrument head is to bedropped for data acquisition and reporting andrecording the Gmax and HIC for that specific

surface.Since the scope of ASTM F1292 states that

this Standard covers minimum impact attenua-tion requirements, the owner operator has theoption of setting both the Drop Height andallowable performance, provide that perform-ance is better than the requirement of theStandard.

All of the data indicates that for forcesgreater than the pass/fail of the Standard, alife-threatening head injury could occur. Inaddition every playground surface is dynamicand subject to change resulting from eitheractive play or environmental influences — withthe likely result of worsened impact attenuationproperties. Since the CPSC Handbook forPublic Playground Safety and ASTM F1487both require that the protective surface bemaintained to the minimum performance ofASTM F1292, it is only prudent that the surfacesystem — when initially installed and as muchas possible while in use — provide forces lowerthan those required in the Standards. Theowner/operator, their consultants, and riskmanagers should set these performances.

The determination of the Drop Height for thepurpose of specifications, contracts, war-ranties, and the field tests are totally at the dis-cretion of the owner/operator, provided thedetermination is made prior to the purchase ofthe protective surface. As a minimum, the dropheight for each piece of playground equipmentmust not be less than the fall height as deter-mined in the CPSC Handbook for PublicPlayground Safety or ASTM F1487. Since theforces tested are related to gravity, it is onlylogical that the higher the point from which achild falls, the higher and worse the forces willbe. As a result the owner/operator must set the

24

Drop Height and the point from which the sur-face performance will be measured. It shouldbe a height which the children using the play-ground can be expected to “climb to, or jumpfrom” during active play.

As a result of the exercise of due diligence,the owner operator makes various determina-tions of the playground under consideration,the relevant Standards, the design of the struc-tures, and the expected pattern of play expect-ed from the children using the structures. Anexample of this process could be as follows:

A particular structure has been designed tomeet the requirements of ASTM F1487. It hasraised platforms with the appropriate protectivebarriers, which are designed to prevent bothinadvertent and deliberate attempts to passthrough, but could still be climbed. The circum-stances that lead the child to climb the barrierare not material. Everyone has seen children,from time to time, pass over a barrier. If this isdetermined to be likely, then the Drop Heightwould be set at the top of the barrier railing andabove the Fall Height — the platform, in thiscase — provided the railing does not have a flatsurface greater than two inches.

The process of real-world assessment of theplayground is the responsibility of all thoseinvolved in the specification, design, and acqui-sition. With this process in place, a combinationof field inspections of both the structures andsurface systems — at the time of installationand throughout the life of the playground —and the provision of financial, labour, and mate-rial resources to maintain the playground cankeep it within the originally intended design andspecifications.

The Canadian experience has been toprovide accessibility as required andthrough the exercise of professional

judgement. Major initiatives such as theOntario Parks Association Playability Programprovide guidance for providing access to aplayspace.

Although good practice should promoteaccess to facilities, in the United States this hasbecome the jurisdiction of a federal agencyknow as the Access Board, established in1973. The board’s role is to promote federaldesign standards to remove architectural barri-ers for people with disabilities, to make rules orguidelines, and to enforce implementation.Detail on the Access Board can be found on theinternet at www.access-board.gov.

During the 1990s, interested stakeholderscame together to develop AccessibilityGuidelines for Play Areas. At ASTM, one newstandard (ASTM F1951) was developed by theF08.63 sub-committee for playground surfac-ing. ASTM F1487 has included Section 8,which provides for accessibility. In late 2000,the Access Board published a new section(15.6) to its ADA Accessibility Guidelines(ADAAG) that covers all newly built or alteredplaygrounds. Now that these have been adopt-ed, the Department of Justice will be taskedwith enforcement.

In this course, we look at accessibility as itrelates to surfacing for the use zone and circu-lation, including the accessible route, materialsthat can be used, and the maintenancerequired to meet Section 15.6 (ADAAG).

The Access Board has determined that aplayground consists of a collection of individualplay components. A minimum number are

Accessibility

25

required to be accessible. Of the total numberof play activities in a playground, a certainnumber must be accessed at ground level.This rule changes under certain circum-stances. It is incumbent upon the designer,manufacturer, installer, and owner/operator tobecome familiar with the detail of theGuidelines. The following tables provide anoverview of the requirements:

GGrroouunndd LLeevveell PPllaayy CCoommppoonneennttssTwo criteria must be met with Ground level

components;• Access is required to at least one of each

type provided• The number of elevated components also

determines the minimum number and vari-ety to be provided.

PPllaayy CCoommppoonneennttss

EElleevvaatteedd PPllaayy CCoommppoonneennttssAt least one-half of the elevated play compo-

nents must be accessible by either a ramp ortransfer station.

Accessible surfacing must be “firm, stableand slip resistant” as defined in the ADAAGand meet the ASTM Standard F1951, as wellas ASTM F1292.-99.

AASSTTMM FF11448877,, SSeeccttiioonn 1100,, AAcccceessssiibbiilliittyyThere is no requirement that all of the pro-

tective surface in the playground must provideaccessibility; however, ASTM F1487 says that“at least one accessible route within the usezone shall be provided from the perimeter to allaccessible play structures or components.”Where necessary, more than one accessibleroute is to be provided. This accessible routemust not be less than 60” in width and mustmeet the requirements of ASTM F1292. As aresult, the surface cannot be a hard materialsuch as asphalt, concrete or structural wood. Inaddition, the accessible route must bedesigned to minimize the possibility of trippingor having a wheelchair slide off the edge andtip over. Combination surface systems may notbe able to meet this latter requirement.

Number of ElevatedProvided

Ground LevelComponentsRequired

2 - 4

5 - 7

8 - 10

11 - 13

14 - 16

17 - 19

20 - 22

23 - 25

over 25

1

2 (at least 2 types)







8 plus 1 for eachadditional 3 over 25,or fraction thereof (atleast 5 types)

TotalProvided

less than 20

20 or more

Ramp Access

not required

25% min.

Ramp orTransferSystemAccess

50% min.

25% min.

26

AASSTTMM FF11995511 -- SSttaannddaarrdd SSppeecciiffiiccaattiioonn ffoorrDDeetteerrmmiinnaattiioonn ooff AAcccceessssiibbiilliittyy ooff SSuurrffaacceeSSyysstteemmss UUnnddeerr aanndd AArroouunndd PPllaayyggrroouunnddEEqquuiippmmeenntt..

As with the ASTM F1292, this is a perform-ance-based standard. At the present time, itonly provides for a laboratory test procedure todetermine the suitability of the surface systemfor use under the ADAAG. The test procedureis laboratory based. A 4ft x 8 ft sample of prod-uct is submitted for testing. One procedurerequires a straight traverse, while the secondrequires that a 90° turn be negotiated.

The intent of this test is to provide compara-tive information regarding crossing a 6.56 fttest surface within seven seconds for a mini-mum of five trials each on the product sampleand on a smooth, hard, 1:14 sloped surface.The wheelchair user must be 165, +11, -4.4lbto qualify for the test. In addition, the surfacesample may be levelled and compactedbetween test runs. The work required travers-ing each sample and the control surface aremeasured and recorded separately for thestraight and turn traverses.

The performance requirements of this stan-dard are such that the work required to tra-verse the playground system must be less thanthe traverse up the sloped, smooth surface.

A part of the test procedure is the completedescription of the playground system tested.Provided enough detail is available at the timeof the test and when a surface system is pre-sented to an owner/operator, there should besome assurance as to similarity between thesample tested and the product to be delivered.

When assessing the use of a surface thathas passed the requirements of the ASTMF1951, the practitioner and owner/operator

must consider a number of aspects of both thesurface being proposed and the test procedure.The average weight of the maximum user forthe playground, a 12-year-old child, is 94 lbs.for girls and 89 lbs. for boys. Therefore, anexpectation of similar performance to theresults achieved by a 165 lbs. rider may not bereasonable. The test results indicate theamount of work required to traverse the surfacein a specific amount of time. As a result, theremay be a need to accommodate users of theplayground with a combination of loose fillmaterials that have passed ASTM F1951 andunitary materials that have the same or bettertraversing properties.

Best PPractice, DDue DDiligence, aand SSupervision

27

Standards set the minimum perform-ance for the surfacing system and arethe starting point to determine better

practices and due diligence. This becomes thebest defence in terms of negligence and liability.

Our initial objective in this discussion onplayground surfacing was to eliminate as muchas possible life-threatening head injuries andreduce the severity of all other injuries resultingfrom a fall to the playground surface. The stan-dards and guidelines that have been reviewedare minimum values and at the threshold thatcould lead to the life-threatening head injury.Reduction of injuries in the playground ismany-facetted. Virtually all standards through-out the world recognize that injuries will occur.

The preface to CSA Z614-98 indicates thehistoric roots of the document. Action wasrequired to improve play equipment and play-spaces, with the goal of reduced injuries. Thereis no specific statement regarding injury withinthe body of this standard. ASTM F1292 Section1.2 states:

“this specification does not imply that aninjury cannot be incurred if the surfacesystem complies with this specification.”ASTM F1487 goes further, stating:“This consumer safety performance speci-fication does not eliminate the need forsupervision of children on public play-ground equipment. It is intended to mini-mize the likelihood of life-threatening ordebilitating injuries, such as those identi-fied by the CPSC.”The CPSC Handbook for Public Playground

Safety states:“Because all playgrounds present somechallenge and because children can be

expected to use equipment in unintendedand unanticipated ways, adult supervisionis recommended….. A playground shouldallow children to develop progressivelyand test their skills by providing a series ofgraduated challenges. The challenge pre-sented should be appropriate for age-relat-ed abilities and should be ones that chil-dren can perceive and choose to under-take.”The reality is that when the playground no

longer provides the challenges that childrenneed to develop mentally, socially, and physi-cally, they will find those challenges outside theplayground and potentially be faced withgreater risks than in the playground.

The practitioner involved in any aspect of theplayground must use professional judgement inhis or her work. Where possible, performanceresults of certain aspects of the playgroundshould be stipulated in specifications, con-tracts, and warranties to be better than the min-imums required in the standards. This is theapplication of “best practice.” Best practice willbe determined by those involved with eachplayground and will be specific to the needs ofthe users of the playground environment. Sincethe standards require that documentation bedeveloped and maintained, a section thatrelates to the application of the relevant stan-dards should be included.

Application aand EEnforcement oof SStandards

28

A ll of the Standards related to play-grounds and the CPSC Handbook onPublic Playground Safety are volun-

tary. CSA is a standard writing body that doesnot have the mandate or ability to enforce thepractices, specifications, standards, or guid-ance that are provided in their publications.Although persons with regulatory abilities arewelcome and do sit on various committees, theactivity at CSA is to develop standards. Section6.1 of CSA Z614-98 does require that:

“playground equipment represented ascomplying with this Standard shall meet allapplicable requirements specified herein.Anyone claiming compliance with thisStandard shall keep such essentialrecords as are necessary to document theclaim that the requirements of thisStandard have been met.”Any risk manager will dispel the notion that,

since the standards are voluntary, they do nothave to be followed. If nothing else, failure tocomply to standards that have been setthrough a consensus process by persons con-sidered to be expert in a particular subject willdraw considerable liability to everyone involvedin deciding not to implement the standard.Disregard for a standard is a very perilousactivity.

Mandating standards is the purview of thosewith the authority — either through legislativeauthority or contract.

The installation of any playground or compo-nent will involve a contract between theowner/operator and the manufacturer/sup-plier/contractor. Logic dictates that there will be— at minimum —a description of the servicesor product to be provided, an agreed price,

delivery date, and some agreement to pay. Thisis a contract. This will also form a major part ofthe documentation required in CSA Z614-98.

It is in the contract and specification that theowner/operator exercises his or her ability tomandate the standards. Beyond the legaldescription of the parties and general termsand conditions, the detail of the specificationfor a playground surface will include the follow-ing:• Location of the installation site• Layout and other dimensional information

regarding the quantity of material to beinstalled

• Drop height for the field testing of the sur-face; i.e. tops of all horizontal railings for thecomposite structure

• Gmax must be less than ### (maximum is200) and HIC must less than ### (maximumis 1000) from the specified drop height

• The number of years in which the playgroundsurface will be field tested and required tomeet the performance above at the dropheights specified with this compliance beingthe responsibility of the manufacturer/sup-plier/installer

• The number of years the surface manufac-turer/supplier/installer must warrant the sur-face and that the warranty must, along withdefects in materials and workmanship, coverthe maintained surface to meet a stated per-formance for impact attenuation

• The manufacturer/supplier/installer must pro-vide a certificate that the materials used inthe playground site are of same like, kind,and source as the surface systems for whichtest certificates are being submitted; that uni-tary surfaces and especially multi-layer sur-faces are the same formulations and per-

29

centage used as those for which test certifi-cates are submitted

• The manufacturer/supplier/installer must pro-vide a certificate from an independent thirdparty laboratory for tests with regard toASTM F1292, ASTM F1951 and any otherstandards relating to playground surfaces asdictated by the intended use of the surface

• An agreement to abide by the results of anyfield testing, provided it is performed as pre-scribed in ASTM F1292-99

• For unitary systems, a certificate from themanufacturer of the polymer binders thatthey have been design for outdoor play-ground use and are stable specifically to UVand submersion in water from time to time.The alternate form of mandate is legislative.

This is where a federal, provincial or municipalgoverning authority produces a specific pieceof legislation or uses existing legislation todevelop a regulation that requires the use ofany specific standard or guideline. For play-ground safety issues, this is generally underthe jurisdiction of health agencies or agenciesthat provide licensing for a facility such as day-care centres. For other issues such as acces-sibility, the relevant governing body would pro-vide the mandate — for example, a municipalpolicy.

Two mandates of standards worth noting arethe California Playground Regulations and theProvince of Ontario, Canada, Day Care Policy.Each of these demonstrates that the standardsthey mandate are recognized as being the min-imum standard for playground safety for thejurisdiction. For California, the documents ref-erences are the CPSC Publication # 325 andASTM F1487-98. The Province of Ontario ref-erences CSA Z614-98 Children’s Playspaces

and Equipment.The California Playground Regulations are

worth noting in that they take certain sectionsof each document and make them a require-ment. As well, they have legislated a change inthe language of the documents from sugges-tive to mandatory. This legislation makes spe-cific reference to the design, assembly, instal-lation, and maintenance sections of ASTMF1487 and CPSC documents. This has theeffect of placing into law the obligations for thedesigner/manufacturer and the owner/operator.This regulation requires that all playgrounds beinitially inspected by October 1, 2000 and thatoperators implement the changes required inthe inspection. Specific details on the regula-tion can be found atwww.dhs.ca.gov/epic/html/playgrnd.htm.

The procedure to mandate in the Province ofOntario, Canada was to develop a policy underthe Day Nurseries Act. All licensed daycarefacilities must be inspected by an independentthird party inspector for compliance with CSAZ614-98. All playground surfaces are to beinspected using the field test method of ASTMF1292. As a result of the inspection, theowner/operator must bring the structures andsurfaces into compliance with CSA Z614-98.The policy requires annual inspections.

There is a trend on the part of regulators toadopt and mandate part or all of the standardsas they have been published. In some cases,local health inspectors are using their powersunder existing legislation to mandate the stan-dards through health inspections. Generallythis follows the logical progression that failureto perform to the requirements of the standardcould lead to a life-threatening or debilitatinginjury. Since the inspector has the obligation to

30

protect the public from this type of hazard, heor she takes whatever steps they are empow-ered to take to correct the situation.

Even with the trend to mandate complianceto standards, it is, if nothing else, the moralobligation of the person, group or organizationinvolved with providing the playground toreview existing policies, procedures, invento-ries and bring them into compliance. All injurieswill not be prevented through the application ofthe standards — as each standard recognizes— however taking positive steps can lead toreductions that would not happen otherwise.

11. Wilkinson & Lockhart, Safety in children’sformal playgrounds, (1976)

12. American Society of Testing and Materials,ASTM F-1292-99

13. American Society of Testing and Materials,ASTM F -1487-98

14. American Society of Testing and Materials,ASTM F -1951-99

15. Handbook on Public Playground Safety,publication # 325, date code 009711,Consumer Product Safety Commission,Bethesda, MD

16. Consumer Product Safety Commission,Bethesda, MD., Impact AttenuationPerformance of Surfaces Installed UnderPlayground Surfaces, Feb 79

17. Watson & Tipp, Safety Surfaces forChildren’s Playgrounds

18. Theodora Briggs Sweeney, “PlaygroundAccidents: a new perspective” Trial, theNational Legal News Magazine, volume15, no. 4, April 1979.

19. Theodora Briggs Sweeney, Statementbefore the U.S. Consumer Product SafetyCommission, May 11, 1977

10. Peter Werner, “Playground Injuries andVoluntary Product Standards for Homeand Public Playgrounds”, Paediatrics Vol.69 No. 1, January 1, 1982

11. U.S. Consumer Product SafetyCommission, A Handbook for PublicPlayground Safety, Volume 1, 1981

References

31

12. U.S. Consumer Product SafetyCommission, A Handbook for PublicPlayground Safety, Volume 2, 1981

13. Canadian Standards Association,CAN/CSA-Z614-98, Children’sPlayspaces and Equipment, NationalStandard for Canada, 1998

14. Oppenheim, Lloyd’s Non-MarineUnderwriters, Insurance Bureau ofCanada Bulletin Report AM93-02, Feb 93

15. California Code of Regulations, Title 22.Social Security, Division 4. EnvironmentalHeath, Chapter 22 Safety Regulations forPlaygrounds

16. Accessibility Guidelines for Play Areas,Access Board, www.access-board.gov.play, January 2001.

Rolf Huber, a graduate of McMasterUniversity, has been involved in the manufac-ture and installation of playground surfacessince 1981. From 1981 to 1984, he wasinvolved in the development and manufactureof Elastocrete and training sessions in Europe.Following 1984, Rolf Huber worked with histeam to invent the EVERPLAY poured-in-placesystems and the EVERPLAY Mat systems.

Rolf Huber is a member since 1990 of theCSA Z614 task group for the CanadianStandard for Playspaces, the ASTM F08.63sub-committee that sets the standard forimpact attenuation, accessibility, and flamma-bility of playground surfaces and Co-chair ofthe ASTM F08.23 sub-committee for TennisCourts and Running Tracks.

He has worked to educate owners and oper-ators of playgrounds on the need for effectiveand well-maintained surfacing.

About tthe AAuthor

© January, 2001Canadian Playground Advisory Inc.

Documents

Canadian SStandards && PPractice - Canadian Playground Advisory