al-Muhasibi;: An early mystic of Baghdad

by Margaret Smith

Treatise For The Seekers Of GuidanceBy Zaid Shakir

product Description

The translation, notes, and commentary of Imam al-Harith al-Muhasibi s Risala al-Mustarshidin (Treatise For The Seekers Of Guidance) by Zaid Shakir is intended to serve as a layman s guide to Islamic spirituality. Al - Muhasibi presents most of the major ideas that would both serve as the basis for a full program of spiritual development and comprise an insightful overview of a system of Islamic moral psychology. He examines in great depth and penetrating insight the psychological motivations and justifications for moral thought and action and correspondingly the associated bases of immorality. In so doing, he has provided a road map that any person can follow to overcome the guiles of his fundamental enemies: the world, the ego, the whims of the soul, and Satan.

 and exegesis of a classic treatise of Islamic mysticism. Baghdad wasn't always a bombed-out, bullet-scarred city. In the ninth century, it was the center of the Islamic world and an academic mecca, embracing scholars translating classic Greek, Roman, Syrian Christian and Indian texts into Arabic. In this milieu, Imam al-Muhasibi wrote Treatise for the Seekers of Guidance, which, in a nutshell, is a explanation of Islamic spiritual development that emphasizes the importance of Muslims cleansing their hearts from worldly attractions and maintaining Taqwa, or a Godconsciousness that manifests itself in purposeful action. Shakir, translator and tour guide, walks the reader through the document, sometimes line by line, providing context and clarification through constant references to the Qur'an and Hadith (or prophetic tradition). Occasional illuminating tangents on Islam in the contemporary world, especially post-9/11, break up some of the monotony and redundancy of the treatise, making the translation more readable and relevant to non-Muslims. Through it, the reader can see Islam as a double-edge scimitar. Slicing through the garish material excess and social and moral decay that characterizes a lot of the modern capitalist world, the treatise explains that Muslims were created to worship God and serve others. It's a simple, beautiful message that makes it easy to understand why Islam is the world's most popular religion. However, the flip side of the proverbial sword reflects a conundrum. To be saved and make it to paradise in the afterworld, one must maintain a real and present fear of God and endure trials and tribulations while on earth. Shakir is to be lauded for his commentary, bold at times. He criticizes some contemporary Muslims for hypocrisy, as well as slandering, vilifying and despising their brethren, and cites an inability of Muslims to give sincere advice to other Muslims as a cause of ongoing troubles. But he also casts judgment on Western society's tendency to commoditize everything, making it difficult for Muslims to recast their gaze from earthly delights upward to more divine endeavors. A simple, easy-to-read guide to Islamic spirituality that helps to explain Islam's ongoing conflict with the Western world. -- Kirkus Discoveries, Nielsen Business Media, December 1, 2008 

"There is no way to know how much of traditional Islamic scholarship has been lost forever in libraries that have been burned, looted or destroyed. Other manuscripts lay forgotten in dusty archives, unread and untranslated. New literary works such as "A Treatise for the Seekers of Guidance" seek to preserve a part of Islamic heritage and are astoundingly relevant to our homes and society today. --Dr. Noreen Kassem, July 25, 2008

Powerful and magnetic ... it is difficult to put this book down. An essential primer for self-rectification and drawing closer to the divine, this is a highly accessible translation of a classical Islamic text that provides ample guidance and advice for souls longing for spiritual

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nourishment and refinement amid the prevailing state of social and moral disintegration. This book not only offers definitive counsels on rectifying the self and becoming responsible and dignified human beings, but it also showcases the moral and ethical standards which Islam calls to. Imam Zaid Shakir has done a tremendous service in rendering this crucial text into the English language. --Aftab Ahmad Malik, Visiting Fellow - DEPARTMENT OF CULTURE & ETHNICITY, UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM

Treatise for The Seekers of Guidance is a classic of early Islamic literature. It provides us with a document that testifies to the fundamental principles, attitudes, and incumbent conduct of Islamic moral psychology from the formative period. This work, from the pen of Imam Harith al-Muhasibi (d. 243/857), the mentor of Junayd, is one of earliest examples we have of the role these principles played in constituting the moral thought and action that constitutes the fabric of Muslim society. This translation in Imam Zaid's own words is, "a layman's guide to Islamic spirituality" and as such is a key text to our understanding today of the multiple faceted framework behind the principle themes of the teacher/disciple relationship and testifies to the manner in which these principles have became integrated within the process of Islamic spiritual orientation. Among the salient characteristics of Treatise for The Seekers of Guidance is the care Imam al-Muhasibi has taken to structure the discourse of the treatise on the foundations of the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Prophet, peace be upon him, in such a manner that he provides us with a clear and coherent criteria for both the theoretical and practical aspects that comprise the Islamic view of human development in general and salvation in particular. Imam Zaid Shakir has accompanied this text with an in-depth commentary based upon the Qur'an and Hadith that enriches and contextualizes the concise prose of Imam al-Muhasibi within the social milieu of our times. His employs language that is accessible and free of technical terminology. His translation thus provides sound guidance to anyone who is seeking in the midst of the uncertainties of social turmoil and personal struggle, a whole and integral path, a unity of form and substance,self-effacing comportment, and intimate knowledge of God. In short this is a work that no ones library should be without. --Kenneth Honerkamp, Associate Professor of Islamic Studies, The University of Georgia in Athens, August 28, 2008 - 5 stars

Review Award-Winning Finalist in the Spirituality: General category of theNational Best Books 2009 Awards, sponsored by USA Book News

From the Author Available for the first time, "Treatise for the Seekers of Guidance", is a groundbreaking work based on Risalah al-Mustarshideen, an important 6th century classical work of albeit little-known Islamic scholar Imam al-Harith al-Muhasibi.

This translation is intended to serve as a layman's guide to Islamic spirituality. That being the case, the language is kept accessible and much of the jargon that usually qualifies works of this nature has been avoided. It is hoped that such an approach, from the perspective of language, will assist in rendering this translation worthy of its title, "Treatise for The Seekers of Guidance". This approach is also befitting Imam al-Muhasibi's vernacular in this particular book. His language renders many of the most fundamental themes related to Islamic spirituality accessible to the average reader.

Customer Reviews

Wealth of wisdom and practical advice  This book review was originally published in Islamic Ink, February 2009 issue. http://www.islamicwritersalliance.net/islamicink/february2009.htm 

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"What are the signs of this in a truthful servant? When he studies he contemplates; when he falls silent he reflects; when he speaks he mentions [God]; when something is denied him he is patient; when he is given something he is thankful; when he is tested [with a death] he says, We belong to God and unto Him we are all returning (2:156); if someone behaves ignorantly with him he bears their abuse; when he learns something he humbles himself; when he teaches something he does so with gentleness; and when questioned he responds to the full extent of his knowledge." (pp. 117-18) 

Imam Zaid Shakir's translation, commentary and notes on Imam al-Harith al-Muhasibi's Risala al-Mustarshidin (Treatise for The Seekers of Guidance) is a page-turner, offering great wisdom, practical advice, and much-needed encouragement. So much wisdom, in fact, that I've made checkmarks - sometimes multiple checkmarks - on most pages, indicating passages that I want to revisit. The blank page and inside back cover are likewise full of page numbers I've noted to indicate pages which contain especially poignant passages. 

I literally had to slow myself down when reading. Treatise for the Guidance of the Seekers is one of those books that when I finished, I was sad it was over. 

Imam Abu `Abdullah al-Harith bin Asad al-Muhasibi was born in Basra between 165/781 and 170/786 and died in Baghdad in 243/857. He was a scholar and narrator of hadith and considered by many to be among the great intellectuals in Islamic history. According to Imam Zaid Shakir, "Imam al-Muhasibi's major intellectual contribution was in the development of what was to become the science of Sufism, or Islamic spirituality and moral psychology." (p. viii) In Risala, Imam al-Muhasibi bases his arguments on the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Prophet, may Allaah bless him and grant him abundant peace, which, according to Imam Zaid, gives the book "a wide reception among common Muslims, even those who do not readily identify with Sufism." (p.x) 

Imam Zaid Shakir is a respected and influential Islamic scholar in his own right. He spent many years studying Arabic, Islamic law, Qur'anic studies, and spirituality in Cairo, Syria, and Morocco and graduated from Syria's prestigious Abu Noor University. He currently is a scholar-in-residence at Zaytuna Institute and founder of the website New Islamic Directions. 

Treatise for The Seekers of Guidance is an easy visual read. The translated text of Imam al-Muhasibi is in black boldface, followed by Imam Zaid's commentary in normal type. Translated Qur'anic verses are italicized and ahadith are identified as such with sources cited in endnotes. 

The book is a surprisingly easy intellectual read as well, considering the potential complexities of the content. Imam Zaid also tries to root his commentary in the Qur'an and Hadith, and he expounds upon Imam al-Muhasibi's text in an eloquent, insightful, and clear fashion. 

A good example of the format is as follows: 

Never consider any sin to be insignificant, never divulge a secret, never reveal what God has concealed, never contemplate committing a sin, and never persistently commit a minor transgression. (p. 163) 

Imam Zaid begins his commentary on this text as follows: 

This advice is extremely relevant as many times we place ourselves in spiritual danger by having our hearts stained by numerous sins that we never bother to repent from because we deemed them insignificant. Another dangerous habit that afflicts many people is making it easy for themselves to fall into minor sins. One of the sages mentioned, "There are no minor sins if they are persistently engaged in and there are no major sins if they are

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eradicated by repentance." (p. 163) 

Iman Zaid then continues to explain the two ways in which minor sins become major sins. 

Treatise for The Seekers of Guidance helped me to understand verses of the Qur'an in new ways, clarified for me some important aspects of the deen, and provided the sources of statements that I had read before but were never properly cited. Overall, I finished the book feeling intellectually satisfied and spiritually nurtured. I end with a bit of practical advice from the commentary: 

"It is said whenever you feel arrogant, go and stand next to a mountain." 

Spiritual Quest  This book is not for the purpose of reading and putting it away. It is intended for the reader to take action, in particularly, to take action in rectifying your soul. If one is looking to get on a spiritual path as laid out by Islam this is the book. I myself as a result of reading this book have become more conscientious as a Muslim. Far from being perfect, this book has strengthened my resolve to wage jihad(spiritual struggle) against the desires of my soul. Even for the Non-Muslim one would glean from this book the comprehensiveness of Islam and what the spiritual life of a Muslim can be like once he/she has dedicated his/her life to the devotion of God. So if you're looking to cultivate your understanding and practice of Islam in general and maturing spiritually in particularly then "Treatise For The Seekers Of Guidance" is a great place to start.

One of the best Islamic purification texts you'll read  All the book is incredible, but I would especially take careful consideration of Imam al-Muhasibi's conclusion: best part of the book. It's also amazing how Imam Zaid is able to retain your attention throughout the entirety of the book (I say that because much of Imam Muhasibi's original text is somewhat redundant--not in a bad way though).

For the modern Arab, fulus, originally the word for small change, is money itself. It relates intimately to the word for a bankrupt, muflis, which either means someone who only has small change (fulus) and no gold or silver, or in the more extreme case, someone who does not even have small change. However, the former understanding would have to be read by a modern Arab as someone who only has ‘money’; i.e. if you only have money, you are bankrupt.A great deal of modern Muslims’ misunderstandings of money as a subject stem from the fact that when Europeans were dealing with Muslims, during the long centuries of confrontation, trade and imperialism, they introduced their own paper money on the false premise that it was simply fulus. The convoluted history of European money and its infestation with usury, and its long transition from being a receipt for gold or silver deposited for safekeeping with a goldsmith to being an entity invented out of nothing by wealthy private bankers who then charge interest for its use, is probably too long a detour for this essay, and is beginning to be sufficiently well known to be dispensed with. Suffice it to say, that modern money encapsulates within itself enough usury to sink an ummah (which it did), and should definitely not be confused with fulus.We come now to the students of Shaykh Dr. Abdalqadir as-Sufi, whose long and determined propagation of the (by now better understood) critique of modern money has gained them well deserved affirmation and recognition amongst the few, but amongst the many made them somewhat suspect and, in some quarters, deeply unpopular. That was until the ongoing global financial catastrophe of 2008-2010 in the light of which they began to appear somewhat prescient and more widely appreciated. However, it would now appear that they have re-opened the door to suspicion by calling for the issuance of Islamic paper money, referring to it as fulus, which the great majority of Muslims still understand as money. “Subhanallah! Weren’t they against paper money, and didn’t they publish fatwas against it, declaring it haram?”

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Therefore, given the crucial importance of what is at stake, it is imperative at this point that we clarify the matter as best we can.

The Muslims since the time of the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, and his Companions, may Allah be pleased with them all, used three things in the main for currency: the gold dinar, the silver dirham and fulus, these latter originally being small copper coins of no higher denomination than half a silver dirham. This can be seen in any work of fiqh or history, and is documented in the admirably thorough Mawsu‘ah Fiqhiyyah – Fiqh Encyclopaedia” published as a massive forty-five volume set from Kuwait.“The employment by the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, and his Companions of Roman dinars and Persian dirhams on which there were images of their kings, and they had no other currency except for fulus.”The values of the gold dinar and silver dirhams depended on their weight and the purity of their precious metals. The value of the fulus, on the contrary, did not depend on the value of the copper, but rather on the number printed on their faces. They were merely tokens for the small transactions for which even small silver coins would be too valuable.This is a matter that is beyond controversy. The works of fiqh of the madhhabs deal with it in detail, down to whether or not it is assessed for zakat, and whether or not zakat can be paid with it.When launching the currency, Shaykh Dr. Abdalqadir as-Sufi said, “At a meeting I had with Shaykh Mahmud Effendi of Turkey, the head of the Naqshabandi order, may Allah give him health and a long time with us and protection, Shaykh Mahmud Effendi said, ‘This (the dinar and dirham) is the currency of the Muslims, but you must have the fulus, for two reasons: there is no zakat on fulus because it is not a precious metal, and the widow must be able to buy her bread, a loaf of bread, with an untaxed currency that allows her to be halal in all her transactions.’”So this is a vital part of Muslim commerce, for Muslim culture very naturally centres around the needs of the poor, contrary to capitalism which caters to the priorities of an oligarchical banking plutocracy, with the disingenuous assertion that wealth will ‘trickle down’ and ultimately reach the poor, which it demonstrably doesn’t do. Capitalism obscenely enriches a very few and reduces the global population to penury and debt-slavehood. The fulus represent the currency that is in daily use in countless transactions by all segments of the society for small everyday items, but of course, it represents the dominant currency of the poor, and as the Shari’a would have it, will in most circumstances be exempt from assessment for zakat.Now, critics of modern money, rail against the retention by private banks, hidden behind names such as The Federal Reserve resonant with the sense of their being national institutions, of the power to invent new credit out of nothing and insist that such a right belongs only to the state. This is an echo of an earlier much more fundamental duty of the sovereign to authorise the minting of currency according to known purities of the precious metals and known weights and dimensions, stamping his name and, sometimes, his image on the coins in verification of that process and in acknowledgement of his responsibility in this regard. This was the case in the east and the west, in Christian lands and in the lands of Islam.

These monetarist reformers, however, being enthralled by the power of credit creation and the consumer society it has spawned, are reluctant to see this power to create money by fiat abolished; they want it retained by the state. They fail to see that the implications of this power are equally devastating no matter whose the hand that wields it. However, they are correct in identifying the ruling authority as responsible for the issuing of currency, but this should be in the sense of the authentication of the currency’s actual value, not the licence to create it at will out of thin air.

But what about the fulus? For here we have something of no intrinsic value, but rather something whose value is determined by the numbers minted or printed on it. As we said,

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its issuance belongs to governance and to no one else. Its value, however, is very limited; it is small change, and thus its effect on the economy ought, in the regular run of things, to be minimal. We note with caution that Muslim rulers at various points did wreak some havoc by an over-abundant supply of fulus.Some confusion has arisen over the fact of the traditional minting of fulus as copper coins and this recent printing of fulus as paper; ought we not to follow the traditional mode? We were fortunate recently in Norwich to hear a remarkable discourse by Dr Muhammad Ghanem on “The Islamic Concept of Money,” which is also the title of his PhD thesis. Apart from being devastatingly forthright in asserting that modern paper currency is the very essence of usury, he also made very clear that while the usage by the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, and his Companions of gold dinars and silver dirhams means that it is inconceivable that any Muslim ruler should ever prevent the usage of gold and silver as currency (even though all so-called ‘Islamic’ polities do in fact outlaw their use), it does not mean that we are obliged only to use them and no other currency.The same principle applies to fulus; the fact of their historical use as copper does not preclude their being printed on paper. This is a specific application of a general principle; the fact that something was not done in the time of the salaf does not mean that it is not allowed to do it, nor does it mean that when it was done in their time in a specific way, that other ways of doing things are thus prohibited. Only a specific prohibition means that something is prohibited.So, there is no reason for fulus not to be printed on paper, and very good reasons today why it should be, given the general acceptance of paper money by the global population. Interestingly, whereas with the dominant usury-based finance, minted coins are small change and paper is reserved for the larger denominations, with our Islamic currency the process is reversed and the gold dinar and silver dirham represent the larger denominations and paper currency represents the small change. This is really as it should be, because the global usury-driven finance system is based on a currency that is in every sense a walking debt, moreover a debt that is growing exponentially in a completely unstoppable way.Now, the proposition that someone is muflis or bankrupt if they only have ‘money’ and have no gold or silver has become self-evident to a much greater number of people than could have been hoped for even a decade ago. It is time for the Muslims to restore a genuine currency with its gold dinar and silver dirham, which have proven to be non-inflationary over millennia, and the vital fulus for the small change that is used for the huge majority of daily transactions.12 RESPONSES »

1. Posted by Abdussalaam | 23/06/10, 05:31 :

Great to have it explained. I believe it was needed for maslaha. The people are the beneficiary but the gift came with a manual in a foreign tongue. There was also the question out there if the flous was exchangeable for silver. Will the merchant who has sold caramels all day long and has a whole bag of flous be able to change it for silver at the end of the day before leaving the souk? There are two versions circulating. Best to have that explained too. Also, who has the sole right to print these flous bills?

Jazakum Allahu kulla khayr!

I know of no reason that the merchant cannot buy silver or gold with his fulus.

The amir prints the fulus.

Abdassamad

I [Sahnun] said, “What do you think if I exchange a dinar and I take a half of it in dirhams and a half in fulus.” He [Abdarrahman ibn al-Qasim] said, “There is no harm in that according to Malik.” (The Mudawwanah)

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What is the backing of the fulus? Will it have none, or will it be representative of an equivalent quantity of silver or gold deposited with the Amir, and so allowing smaller units of silver to be used for barter than are physically possible as coins? Or is it similar to the western currency with no backing?

I have never heard of any backing for fulus and would be very surprised if that was the case since you know, I am sure, the whole history of backing and the story of people depositing gold and silver with the mediaeval goldsmith who issued receipts which evolved into today’s paper currency. The key to the fulus is that it is small change and does not represent a very significant part of the economy. Fulus appear to be denominated as fractions of dirhams but not dinars, since the exchange rate between the dinar and dirham is not fixed, except in the working out of the zakat. The largest unit of fulus is equivalent to half a dirham. It is not possible to have a unit larger than that.

I see. The only reason I asked was because if it is without backing then it is similar to todays fiat currency. In which case, what is there to stop an amir from printing in excess? The idea behind a backing is that since metal can’t be conjured out of thin air, it should be the same for paper currency. I can understand that fulus is of a very small denomination. But isn’t there a danger of people forgetting this over a period of many years and then when larger denominations are thrust upon them they would not protest? Just like people forgot that the “dirham” and “dinar” not to mention the “dollar” are units of weight and not of value.

There is indeed a danger, as I alluded to in my article. That danger is lessened by a number of things: fulus is only small change.

Remember that the idea of ‘backing’ for a currency is completely spurious; from the very first day the paper notes were much more numerous than the ‘backing’, which was only used to lure in the gullible. When a panic came, everybody always found out that the paper was largely worthless.

Amirs were able to and occasionally did debase the currency: they diluted gold and silver coins with copper and nickel etc., and they could resolve some of their own financial predicaments by minting more fulus. But such debasement always recoiled on them in the end, as is the nature of existence.

The protection from that has always been and will always be the existence of stalwart men and women, particularly people of knowledge, who will not remain silent in the face of falsehood.

As-salamu alaikum,

Abdassamad

Alaikum Salam and thanks for the explanations. I’ve recently had an increasing interest in the present economic system and have been following the works of Sheikh as-Sufi and Br. Umar Ibrahim Vadillo. Hopefully this information will shed more light on the topic insha Allah.

Ma assalam

Marwan ibn al-Hakam, the fourth Umayyad Khalif forbade the buying and selling of chits of paper, denouncing it as riba. See Malik’s Muwatta Kitab al-Buyu’, bab al-‘Ina.

To exchange one’s fulus into dirhams would be selling paper for silver, or?

This too clearly demonstrates that riba is not merely ‘interest’. It was not the chits of paper as such that were forbidden as riba but the buying and selling of them as if they were a commodity. Another of the meanings of riba is that you exchange one thing for something of less value: Ibn Rushd declares in his Bidaya that one would not sell a horse for a shirt for there would be an unjust excess of profit for one partner. Likewise the exchange of a piece of paper (fulus?) for something of worth (silver?) is an example of riba.

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Please forgive us for the continuation of excessive questioning. I just want to fully understand this subject.

2. Posted by Another Muslim of Norwich | 02/07/10, 10:13 :

This text is widely misunderstood. The chits of paper were advance receipts for food. They were given paper with which to go and collect food at the market. Transacting with the chits of paper was to ‘sell food before having taking possession of it’ which is haram. It is not the sale of the receipts per se that was haram.

3. Posted by Another Muslim of Norwich | 02/07/10, 10:21 :

As I understand it, riba is a stipulated excess in a transaction without a corresponding counter-value. It happens in gold and silver, and whatever is weighed or measured of foodstuffs and drink. For example, if someone is trading in horses, it is acceptable to trade one immensely pedigreed Arab stallion for a hundred horses of a meaner quality and this is not usury, if it is done by horse traders in whose eyes such a trade is reasonable. Whatever it is that makes a tremendous horse cannot be measured or weighed, and so a transaction like this can be completely acceptable.

Most of the strange transactions that Malik details in the Muwatta’ whose haram nature he carefully exposes are covert ways of getting a loan and paying usury for it.

The exchange of fulus for silver is not necessarily such a transaction. It is a very basic currency exchange for perfectly ordinary everyday matters. Indeed, the market and the currency can almost certainly not function without this.

Feature Interview: Tim Winter (aka Abdul Hakim Murad)

18/04/2004

University Lecturer in Islamic Studies at the Faculty of Divinity, University of Cambridge, England, and Director of Studies in Theology at Wolfson College. His research work focuses on Muslim-Christian relations, Islamic ethics and the study of the Orthodox Muslim response to extremism.

John Cleary: In this hour, we turn to Islam, as a guide to life. Our guest is a Cambridge Divinity scholar who also happens to be a Muslim.

My guest now is somebody whose life is lived in two worlds. Now he may choose to dispute that, but for most people Timothy J. Winter is a university lecturer, a graduate of Cambridge and somebody who has followed the English middle-class path to academia and success. 

To many others, Sheikh Abdul Hakim Murad is a religious scholar of eminence. Eminence in the Islamic community. Both of these people reside in the one body, Tim Winter, welcome to the program.

Tim Winter: Thank you very much, it’s a pleasure to be here.

John Cleary: Do you ever feel you live in two worlds?

Tim Winter: Yes, and I enjoy it enormously. I think everybody has a complex identity nowadays, we’re all hyphenated one way or another, and I’m Anglo-Muslim, and I find that rather an interesting sort of identity to have.

John Cleary: Many Anglo-Muslims have a Muslim heritage, that is, their parents or grandparents come from an Islamic tradition; that’s not the case with you.

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Tim Winter: Well British Islam is a complicated, broad sort of church, and we have perhaps towards its core, a nucleus of converts, and that goes right back to actually the 18th century; there have always been Anglo-Muslims, or Anglo-Mohammedans, as the Victorians called us, and we had census figures released just a few months ago from the 2001 census, that indicate that there’s now 63,000 converts to Islam or descendents of converts in the United Kingdom. So, we’re a small group of eccentrics, but not small to vanishing point.

John Cleary: How did you first discover this community which you’re now so much a part of?

Tim Winter: Well I went into the religion through a rather dry and bookish route I suppose, through comparing various philosophies and theologies, and I suspect that I never met a proper practising Muslim before I actually decided to take the plunge. So it was very much principles first and then the realities of the community after.

John Cleary: Well let’s talk about those principles for a moment, because you grew up in a society, a culture that’s steeped in Christian values. Now whether or not they’re practiced is a different question, but the value system was still there and evident before you. Christianity recommends itself to millions, Islam recommends itself to millions. What were the critical elements in the choice? First the rejection of Christianity, and then the acceptance of Islam, or did it happen the other way around?

Tim Winter: Well my own background is Norfolk non-conformist, we were Congregationalist ministers in various small chapels, and temperance folk as well. My grandfather was from the last generation that took the pledge, and he never touched the demon drink until the day he died. And one ingredient in that sort of dissent was a certain hesitation about the doctrine of the Trinity. Perhaps a certain Anglo Saxon pragmatism could never quite get its mind around the intricacies of at least the classical definitions of three in one.

John Cleary: There’s a very strong history of that in British dissent too, it led to the Unitarians and other groups over the years, so it’s got a strong hold on the British imagination, that dissenting tradition, particularly on such doctrines.

Tim Winter: Yes, I’m from Cambridge, and Newton is perhaps Cambridge’s most famous product, and Newton was at least a closet Unitarian, and many other people in the 17th and 18th century privately harboured serious reservations about whether Christ and the Bible had actually taught anything resembling the later doctrine of the Trinity, and whether it actually made sense to solid, no-nonsense, English pragmatists. So I come very much out of that tradition, although I ended up in a direction rather different from the one that they would have favoured.

John Cleary: Then take us through that path.

Tim Winter: Well it was I suppose the usual earnest late-night coffee-drinking teenage angst talking about the meaning of life, and trying to figure out where I was, what I was heading for. And this was the ‘70s, the tail end of the sort of hippy trail to India. People were still experimenting with sort of oriental, exotic alternatives to solid, middle-class, tedious, worthy, Christendom. But I ended up not in the subcontinent or the Far East, as most of my generation did, but actually in the Middle East, because I felt that to switch to something so radically different as a traditional Indian religion, or Zen Buddhism, would have represented too much of a tearing, too much of a ripping out of my soul, of some of the stories that were there from my childhood, and were really part of who I was. I didn’t really want to be anything strange or exotic, I wasn’t looking for an alternative identity, but rather for a way of continuing in some way with what I already knew, and the person of Jesus was very much central to that, sort of unbesmirchable, great hero of the West’s religious history. But at the same time, squaring my conscience with the core doctrines, and it came to a point where I really could no longer recite the Creed in church and accept the doctrines of incarnation, atonement, and Trinity.

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John Cleary: They seemed unreasonable?

Tim Winter: They seemed unreasonable, and also they didn’t seem to correspond very much with what historians were, certainly in the ‘70s, discerning as the original teachings and lifestyle of the historical Jesus. There’s a big crisis now in New Testament scholarship, over whether the Christ of faith is actually the same person as the Jesus of history, the great resurrected Christ that you see in the cupolas of misty Byzantine domes, staring down from on high; is that actually the same person as that amazing wandering rabbi of 1st century Palestine with his extraordinary message of reconciliation?

John Cleary: Many of those same challenges are now being presented to Christians through the Mel Gibson film ‘The Passion’, which incarnates Christ very much as a human being.

Tim Winter: Yes, I have my own problems with the Mel Gibson sort of over-technicolour version of the suffering of Christ.

John Cleary: Yes, somebody’s described it as ‘sanctified splatter’ to me.

Tim Winter: Yes. He represents a particular kind of very conservative Catholicism that exaggerates the passion beyond the mediaeval position. If you look at mediaeval portrayals, particularly the Eastern tradition of the passion, it’s rather toned down, it’s dignified, there isn’t this sense of twisted, tortured agony, that represents I think an exaggerated, what could technically be termed a Jansenist view of original sin, and the misery of the human condition, that I think most people nowadays find rather distasteful: the idea that we’re so deeply sunk in sin and guilt and evil, that God himself has to suffer infinitely to pull us out of this mess that we’ve got ourselves in. It doesn’t speak to me, really, I find even most atheists can live reasonably decent lives. The idea that we’re sunk in a mire of despond and original sin, I think is rather a miserable under-estimation of the way that God’s actually created us. But it’s a great film.

John Cleary: which moved you away from Christianity. What then recommends Islam to you?

Tim Winter: My capacity for faith in abstract doctrines is rather limited. I’m very much a child of my time in that, and I could never really take the leap of faith required to subscribe to the indispensable Christian doctrines of Trinity, vicarious atonement.

John Cleary: And incarnation?

Tim Winter: And the incarnation, yes. And also I don’t see that it’s necessary. The Jesus that appeals to me is the Jesus of, say, the parables, particularly The Prodigal Son, who is ultimately a Jewish teacher, that the great message of the Hebrew Bible is that human being can be reconciled to God through God’s infinite power to forgive, that the prodigal returns to the father, and there’s no sign of a vicarious atonement, or the father suffering on the son’s behalf. He just forgives him and embraces him. I think that’s the highest form of monotheism for me, and I find that enshrined in Islam actually rather more accurately than at least in the developed forms of Christianity that I was brought up with.

John Cleary: You’re on Sunday Night on ABC Radio. Our guest is Timothy J. Winter, university lecturer in Islamic Studies at the Faculty of Divinity at the University of Cambridge in England. He is also known as Sheikh Abdul Hakim Murad, a Muslim scholar of eminence throughout the Islamic world.

Tim, there’s a cultural element to all this as well. Introduce us to a little music.

Tim Winter: Well, Islam is not just a great enterprise of faith and works, but it’s produced some of the world’s great civilisations. You think visually of the great world that stretches from the Taj Mahal to the Alhambra, some of the world’s great architecture. It also has wonderful sounds as well, and the key to Islamic tonality and melody is actually the formal recitation of

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the Holy Qu’ran. I used to walk down a little street when I was living in Cairo in the early morning when the shopkeepers were putting out their wares, and I counted 38 shopkeepers who actually were listening to the 24-hour a day, wall-to-wall Qu’ran radio station, which sort of invested the mundanity of their lives with the fragrance of the absolute. That’s certainly my favourite sound, it was one of the things that magnetised me and brought me towards Islam, and it is the greatest of the Islamic art, the naked, unadorned, projection of the human voice into some great dome of a sacred space; that still moves me more than any other sound.MUSIC/CHANTING

Tim Winter: But of course we have other traditions as well. We have great traditions of singing the praises of God and of the blessed prophet, in an almost infinite variety of modes. The African Islamic sound is very different from the Bosnian Islamic sound, the Turkish Islamic sound, the Uzbeks, the Malays, Islam is not just one civilisation, but a huge range of civilisations, which all have their own particular way of being Muslim, as it were metaphorically facing the same direction of prayer in Mecca, but from often quite different directions. It’s a diverse world.

John Cleary: Well let’s hear one of your favourites, from Turkish music.

MUSIC/CHANTING

John Cleary: You’re on Sunday Night on ABC Radio around Australia; John Cleary with you. My guest is Timothy Winter, lecturer in Islamic Studies at the Faculty of Divinity at Cambridge University. He is also a committed Muslim; as Sheikh Abdul Hakim Murad, he has produced a number of works on Islam and the faith, from the perspective of a believer. Tim, let us for a moment talk about some of the issues which confront us today. Writers have spoken of the clash of civilisations; you have the Huntington thesis and other things. To what extent do events such as those unfolding in Iraq influence the Muslim world as a body, that is the world of faith, to say Look, there is really a subtle clash of civilisations going on here beneath the surface. And I guess I ask it for two groups of people: one, the ordinary Muslims as they go to the mosque each week, but also the Islamic scholars and the range of people who seriously think about Islam.

Tim Winter: Well there’s certainly a clash regrettably, between the zealots on both sides, the Christian Fundamentalists in the Pentagon rattling their swords against the evil, Saracenic East, and reciprocated by Muslim zealots and Fundamentalists who are convinced that the Pentagon represents all America and the West can possibly be, and is just a negative force of domination and contempt. But I think the only positive aspect of the current standoff is that I travel a lot in the Muslim world, and in the West, and my sense is that the mainstream of the two religions actually don’t regard each other with enmity that I suppose they did in the past. Just last week I was in Washington with the Archbishop of Canterbury and a group of Muslim scholars and a group of Christian scholars, and we were actually amazed and reassured by the extent to which we’d agree, not just humanly in a sort of courteous level of interaction and shared faith, although obviously there are sharp doctrinal differences between the two religions, but also on political matters. The previous time our group met was in Qatar this time last year at the height of the war in Iraq. It was a very tense time, and the hotel where we were staying, 80 of the rooms were occupied just by the CNN team, and we were very much operating against that backdrop of a failure of communication between two parts of the world. But all of the Christian clergy and all of the Moslem clerics present were really united in their opposition to the war on Iraq. The Archbishop of Canterbury had spoken against it previously, the Vatican whose spokesman was there, had spoken against it, so the main stream clergy on both sides, actually I think view the world in rather convergent, similar ways. It’s the radicals and the zealots on both sides that unfortunately are the focus of attention for the mass media, who are really responsible for this very tragic and I think rather threatening polarisation.

John Cleary: One of the elements of the polarisation that’s pushed even in semi-serious Christian circles is a theological issue, and that is the critique that ultimately Islam in the way

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it is taught, in the majority of places, has at its heart, a notion of theocracy, which is fundamentally incompatible, and I use ‘fundamentally’ quite deliberately there, incompatible with any notion of secular pluralism.

Tim Winter: Well clearly, religion in any traditional sense is going to adopt a position of prophetic criticism of the structures of liberal consumer society. There are many aspects of the modern world and globalisation, the degradation of the environment, the control exercised over the planet by the corporations, media moguls etc., that I think people in all religions really want to criticise very sharply, and Islam is certainly not different in that respect. The issue of religion and politics, you have to remember that before say the 18th century, all religious assumed that the two were two ways of expressing the same thing, that the head of the church was the head of the State, and in Christendom, as in the Islamic world, the two were very much elided. But the Muslim tradition is actually to keep the institutions of religion very separate from the institutions of State. The men of the sword are not the men of the pen, to use the traditional language. In the Ottoman Empire the traditional Moghul Empire and elsewhere, while the Sultan, the Caliph claimed some kind of general aura of religious legitimacy, he didn’t legislate, and he had no control over religion. And religion had no formal control over him. What’s happening in modern fundamentalism, is that the tradition Sultan or Caliph figure is being abolished, because the Royal Family has become too decadent, as in the case of pre-revolutionary Iran, for instance, and the ‘clergy’ think that it’s their responsibility now really for the first time in Islamic history, to step into the vacuum and try and put things right. So what we’re seeing now, the sort of theocratic model, the Islamic republican model in many parts of the Islamic world, is something that’s radically new and doesn’t really represent our traditions.

John Cleary: Some people have also compared it to the Cromwellian period in British history, that is once one overturns one mode of government, one necessarily goes through a sort of theological Puritanism in order to sort things out, but Cromwell didn’t last all that long in England and his legacy is regarded as very mixed.

Tim Winter: Yes, I think that’s an interesting precedent. The Anglo Saxon world has, as it were, worked through the experiment of religiously zealous government, and found that it didn’t particularly deliver even religiously. One of the consequences of Cromwell’s period was the unleashing of a long tradition of English scepticism about religion, that it had behaved so badly when in power because of its well-meaning desire to drag everybody into heaven by the scruff of their necks, that many people reacted in the normal human way, by wanting to run away from religion. If you force it down people’s throats, then the danger is many of them will want to vomit it up again. And we’re seeing that in many parts of the Islamic world. If you look at the Iranian experience, after 25 years of Islamic rule, their Ministry of Religious Guidance recently published figures that show that only 3% of Iranians now attend Friday prayers. Before the revolution, it was almost 50%. So what kind of Islamic reformation and revival has that actually delivered? Religion is now identified with a kind of prison, the pan-optican idea of the man at the centre of the State looking at everybody, Calvin’s city of glass, nobody being able to misbehave in a way that annoys the clerics or the mullahs without calling down on them, not just the sanction of heaven, but the repressive capacities of the modern corporate State. So I think that there’s a dawning awareness in the Islamic world that the totalitarian model of Islamic government doesn’t actually deliver, even on its own terms, and it may well be that many Muslim countries have to work through that experience by themselves, that the West should actually let the Algerians, the Egyptians, the Yemenis, the Pakistanis and other people, experiment with the model that many of the people clearly want, and after 20 years perhaps they’ll come down to earth and they’ll see that perhaps there’s a more convivial, more sort of compromising, more real politik style of integrating religion with politics that’s more open to the outside world and ultimately more humane. But it may take a long time.

John Cleary: A recent success, surprising to many, particularly in Australia, given the testy relationship the government of this country has with Malaysia: the recent elections in Malaysia have seen a triumph of the middle-classes, which many people say is the cornerstone to success of any democracy, and belief will soon be subsumed by the good life of the middle

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classes.

Tim Winter: That’s possibly the case, yes. It may well be that in our consumerist world a totalitarian political order that can’t deliver economically will eventually be superseded. But to do that you have to have a middle-class, as you suggest, with substantial spending power, and given the demographic profile of many Muslim countries, or many Third World countries at the moment, the societies are bottom-heavy, that is to say that the peasantry, the urban proletariat, have very large families, and the middle-class, where it exists in recognisable form, is actually a very small sliver, stratum of the population, and not really enough to deliver the kind of Malaysian model that certainly under Badawi many people in this part of the world were regarding as really rather a positive way forward.

John Cleary: Let’s have a little more music now, Tim, and then I’d like to come back and talk about your life in the Islamic community.

MUSIC

John Cleary: ‘Sut el Islam’, the music of Islam, a contemplative tune from an album of authentic Arabia, the Islamic world, that’s a Sonaton authentic series recording, on Sunday Night.

How does your life as a Muslim unfold itself, Tim, during the week, how are you seen in the community? You’re seen as a scholar in your own right. How does this play out? Is the role of the scholar purely intellectual, or does it have faith and devotional aspects to it as well?

Tim Winter: Well I teach in a divinity school, and most of my colleagues, after giving their lectures, discreetly slip on the dog-collar and go off and thunder from the pulpit in Cambridge parish churches. In a sense, I’m in the same mould, and I find that actually rather stimulating, because I do want to teach and write and expound my scholarship in a way that serves ultimately the glory of God. I take it that that’s the best way of being objective.

John Cleary: And touches the people in the pews as well.

Tim Winter: Well I’m not allowed religiously to touch my students, I have to explain Islam or world religions or the philosophy of religion, a course that I also teach, in ways that are accessible to the wider secular academic world, because that’s the rules by which one has to play, and I think it’s quite bracing and helpful that you can’t take anything on trust, everything has to be proven from the word go. But then of course, I slip off Friday lunchtimes after my last seminar, and wind on my turban and mount the pulpit in the Cambridge mosque and thunder from the pulpit there, to a very diverse congregation, really couldn’t be further removed from the kind of rather languid, apathetic, middle-class English students that I teach in the morning.

John Cleary: There’s a sense in which though each influences the other. I mean the way one responds to an audience in the mosque, to a congregation, actually begins to crystallise the way one’s thoughts academically, I mean life influences art, in the broadest sense.

Tim Winter: Yes, I think particularly in a modern or to use the trendy term, post-modern academic environment, to think that one has to separate the two worlds absolutely, the world of faith and piety and quoting from the Scriptures, and on the hand the world of being philosophical and scientifically objective on the other. That’s not really necessary any longer; nobody expects it. We have different definitions of objectivity now. But in a divinity school where I work, where I find my mainly Christian but also Jewish colleagues actually very convivial and interested into entering into conversations with other faith traditions, I find that there’s a kind of half-way house between the academic objectivity and thundering from the pulpit, that we get together regularly to look at related issues in each other’s scriptures, so because we have great linguists amongst my colleagues, the Hebrew Bible about Abraham, St Paul in Greek, about Abraham, and then the Qu’ran about Abraham, and at quite a high

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level we’re able to share insights and compare and contrast. And it’s interesting to see how a kind of fellowship, that’s actually a sort of religious fellowship, can develop in an academic milieu that actually crosses the religious boundaries. So while one remains, as it were, vertically part of one’s own denomination, there’s a kind of horizontal way in which one can be in fellowship with people from very different religious traditions, because we share the same kind of academic method of looking at your heritage. So I find it a rather interesting overlap zone in which to work.

John Cleary: On the streets in Europe, religion is becoming an issue. We’ve had France recently take a recourse to their ancient republican heritage and say Look, all religious symbols are out, we just can’t afford to play the game this way. Now one can understand from the position of an intellectual heritage why France would take that line; a similar line is not being taken in Britain and in other countries, as yet. But nevertheless there is a real problem which the French are genuinely trying to come to terms with, and it’s a problem for pluralism. That is, how does one genuinely honour pluralism? Is by saying “All shall tow the same line”, or is it by saying “All shall keep their faith to themselves”? I mean this is a genuine dilemma, is it not?

Tim Winter: Yes, the French are now trying to grapple with the consequences of imposing church-State separation that was formulated at a time when religion only meant the Roman Catholic church, and was really based on a specifically anti-Catholic and anti-clerical rhetoric in the late 19th century, with the fact of a very religiously plural modern Parisian reality. So they banned the headscarf in schools, saying, We’re not specifically targeting Muslims, perish the thought, but then they find that the small Sikh community says We really have to keep our turbans on, so Lionel Jospin goes into conclave with his experts for a couple of weeks, and then they say Well you can have invisible turbans, and the Sikhs say What do you mean exactly? And they go silent for a couple of weeks and then they say, Hairnets, and we’ll give you the model of the Sikh hairnet in the schools, and that becomes absurd. And then the Assyrian community in Paris that nobody had ever heard of before, pops its head above the parapet and says But our religion requires us to have big crucifixes, this has never been a problem in schools before. And so the French secular, rather narrow tight-lipped ideology, finds itself butting its head against a French demographic reality that’s become extraordinarily diverse and rich. The Germans have taken rather a different course two weeks ago: two of the German laender provinces announced that it was specifically Islam that would not be tolerated, that the headscarf would be banned, but other religious symbols would be allowed. And I think the Danes are going to go the same way. That’s a little bit easier to administer, but of course in the context of Germany, people think about the Nuremberg laws singling out the Jews, making them dress in a way that was offensive to them, and it has a rather worrying pedigree there, and with the constant growth of neo-Nazi parties in many European countries, many in the Muslim communities are becoming quite disturbed.

John Cleary: Those countries which are taking these actions are doing it in the name of trying to preserve civil society, yet the remedies you’re suggesting and others, can have perverse side effects. But nevertheless, something needs to be done?

Tim Winter: I don’t see that it needs to be done. Why shouldn’t religious communities dress any way they please in public spaces?

John Cleary: Because they’re used as political symbols, as political rallying points.

Tim Winter: That is generally not the case. I don’t think that most young girls –

John Cleary: But that’s the accusation.

Tim Winter: But I don’t think it’s the case. Most Muslim girls who choose to cover their heads in schools do so because it’s their understanding that this is pleasing to God. They don’t assume that it has any consequences for how they’re going to vote, or their political affiliations. In the Muslim world, a woman covers her head without any indication that she

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supports any particular political party or orientation, it’s an act of piety, rather as a traditional Catholic woman or Jewish woman will often cover her head as an act of modesty, and because it seems to be recommended in scriptures, without any idea that it’s a political statement.

John Cleary: Yes, one of the amusing historical observations of this is, if this issue were stepped back 100 years, you could not find it because Catholic and Jewish women were wearing headscarves in the same way that Muslim women are today.

Tim Winter: That’s right. I think it was a universal assumption that females should be modest and a good way of expressing their modesty and demureness was for them not to project their physical charms too conspicuously in the public domain.

John Cleary: St Paul speaks about it in the New Testament

Tim Winter: Yes, it’s a good Christian and even in my own ancestral tradition, non-conformist tradition, that women dress modestly in public. It’s universal, it’s not just Islamic.

John Cleary: There are many schools in Islam, Tim. We talk about Suni and Shi’ite as the largest, there are also individual schools within those traditions, such as the Wahabis who dominate Saudi Arabia, Sufism is a long tradition that spreads itself across all of the main categories; it’s a means of doing business, if you like. When you look at contemporary Islamic theology and politics as it’s practiced, Wahabism seems to attract particular attention, and the Wahabies in Saudi Arabia attract a particular attention because of the strong Suni tradition of the imposition of law. Wahabism has a strong juridical element to it, which seems to be imposing itself very much on the way Wahabi Muslims express themselves in life, it’s leading to terrorism.

Tim Winter: Well I think that’s going a bridge too far. I’ve lived in Saudi Arabia, I know some of the Wahabi scholars, and there are really too broad tendencies within what’s conventionally called Wahabism at the moment. One you might define as the Royal Saudi Wahabies, that is to say the regime loyalists in Saudi Arabia, who certainly speak out very courageously against terrorism; and the Mufti of Saudi Arabia spoke out against suicide bombing and 9/11, but then an uneasy relationship with them, you have the radicals, who you might call the Wahabies of Mass Destruction, who’ve incorporated more recent ideas of the ideologising of religion, and particularly incorporating ideas of originally Western radical inspiration, to do with political violence and using terrorism and targeting civilians to secure a political end. And they exist in very uneasy tension at the moment in Saudi Arabia, each claiming legitimate inheritance or the original Wahabi mantle, that the movement was launched 200 years ago in Central Saudi Arabia; and the argument is, does this mean an essentially accommodationist relationship to the West and particularly America, which is the official Royal position in Riyadh, or does it mean some kind of Cromwellian international insurrection in order to impose God’s law on earth? And so intense is this tension now in Saudi Arabia that they’ve been fighting in the streets, and there have been very serious incidents in a number of Wahabi heartland towns in North Central Saudi Arabia. Several dozen people have been killed, thousands have been incarcerated with the blessing, or at least the uneasy consent of regime scholars. So it’s certainly not fair to say that somebody who identifies himself with the teachings of Wahabism is automatically a problem in Australia or in Saudi Arabia or anywhere else. But nonetheless, it’s also the case that the great majority of people who do believe in the legitimacy of terrorism to secure purportedly Islamic ends, do tend to subscribe to the rather literalist, dry, intense Wahibi theology. So there is a problem there, but you certainly shouldn’t generalise.

John Cleary: We’re looking at a Europe which is changing very rapidly. We’re looking at a Europe which is, there’s almost a re-Islamisisation of Europe. One could go back to the days of 1453, when the Spanish ruled the line, and said This far and no further, and similarly in the East up through Bosnia where we’re seeing the outcomes of many of those historic squabbles penetrating. But in another way the battle cannot be won by either side in that Turkey becomes part of the EU, and an Islamic country becomes part of the European identity. This

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is not something that rules and lines in the sand can change. There has to be at some point a cultural accommodation here. To what extent are intellectuals such as yourself and others, concerned that this long-term agenda is the real agenda? We actually need to come to a very sophisticated, mature, cultural accommodation here, and we need to have our sights clearly set on that, as a European idea.

Tim Winter: Well this has become one of the big lightning rods for the argument about European identity at the moment. Europe now is host, if you include Russia at any rate, to around 32-million Muslims, we’re by far the most substantial minority on the Continent, and given that Europe is largely surrounded by mainly Muslim areas, it’s likely that immigration will continue, families will continue, conversion will continue, and we’re part of Europe’s future. But I don’t like the language of there being a battle, because I travel a lot amongst the sort of mosque communities in the north of England and in parts of the Continent, in Spain, France and elsewhere, and overwhelmingly, the message that I pick up from the ordinary man in the mosque, is that they’re perfectly happy, they feel at ease with their Christian neighbours, they’re happy for Europe to retain a Christian identity, and they’d prefer that to some kind of vague secular alternative, and they do feel very much part of the European reality, although they like in certain aspects of their lives, to be separate and distinct, and there’s plenty of precedents for that, the Catholic communities, the Jewish communities, and many others. Unfortunately the media tends to focus on the sort of loudmouth radical fringe that is absolutely against any possibility of convivial life with Christian and other neighbours, but they’re really not representative. In England we have over 1,000 mosques that are officially registered and I would say maybe five or six are sort of block-headed, narrow-minded, fundamentalist establishments. Unfortunately they’re the ones that the television cameras always tend to focus on. But overwhelmingly I would say that the process of, well, Islamisation is too grand a word, but the cautious reception by Europe of substantial numbers of Muslims has been a considerable success, and in England now we have many successful Muslims in the media, we have Police Commissioners in London, we have Muslims in the armed forces, even in the SAS. A Muslim friend of mine is involved in guarding nuclear weapons in a submarine base, and we have Muslims in the House of Common s and the House of Lords. There is a mosque in the Palace of Westminster in London, there’s a mosque in the BBC. Overwhelmingly I think it’s a success story, and it’s regrettable that we assume that because Islam is said to be so different that there has to be some kind of problem. Inherently I think there isn’t a problem. The days of the Spanish Inquisition are over, Christianity clearly has become a hugely pluralistic and hospital force in the world, and Islam has a long tradition of dealing reasonably with religious difference. And I would describe it overwhelmingly as a success story. But those zealots who do exist are a problem, they are rocking the boat, they are giving us all a bad name, they are a source of guilt and contrition and confusion for us, and I think it’s probably fair to say that the Muslim leadership has not been as outspoken as it should be in condemning those people and trying to rein them in.

John Cleary: And we’re seeing examples of that of course in Britain in the last couple of weeks, Muslim leaders have spoken out against terrorism.

Tim, we’re rapidly running out of time, but let’s talk a bit about your life in the faith. What for you is the clear light of Islam, the thing that shines for you, that recommends it to you as a path that your life should honour?

Tim Winter: A simple definition of one God, ultimate reality is ultimately single, unconfused, uncomplicated, undifferentiated. That seems to me the clearest explanation for the otherwise intolerable mystery of human existence, and the diversity and richness and beauty of the world. And then a wonderful range of forms of meditation and worship by which one approaches and adores that one ultimate reality. One of the richnesses of Islam for me is that the core liturgy, the core practices of worship and of fasting and of charity, are the same everywhere, and have never changed. No well-meaning, liberal, woolly-minded reformers have said Let’s do mosque worship in a slightly different way. Let’s bring in the guitars and the trendy Imam with the winkle-picker boots and the jeans, trying to sing along with the Prophet, and update it. I go into a mosque and I know exactly what I’m going to get, a

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beautiful, unchanged, perfect ritual from a great age of faith, and I find that to be a unique privilege, one of the great things of being a Muslim for me, is that our core practices don’t change, and I think probably never will change. And then also the third thing is belongingness to the Abrahamic tradition. I don’t experience it as an Englishman, as something foreign. Superficially, I suppose it’s different, but at heart it’s part of the Judaeo-Christian scriptural, Middle Eastern family of faiths. I still love Jesus and Abraham, Moses, Jacob, Isaac, Ishmael, they’re all revered in the Qu’ran, they’re the great figures of my early childhood, and I still revere them to this day. So I don’t feel it’s an alienation.

John Cleary: How do you experience God? Is God then purely an intellectual abstract?

Tim Winter: One of the great mysteries of God is that the nature of God is pure compassion, and the God of compassion which is to be known by human beings, and has created the world as a diverse range of signposts, beautiful signposts pointing back to him. So wherever I look, whether it’s the beauties of the Australian outback, or the English countryside, or the deserts of the Middle East, I see the beauty of God, and that arouses in my heart a desire to return to God, to love that God, that despite his ultimate –

John Cleary: Otherness in a way.

Tim Winter: ….. Otherness, his ineffability, he can’t be described in himself, because he’s radically unlike ourselves, he’s infinite, perfect, all the things that we’re not. Nonetheless, in his compassion, he has consented to have a personal aspect, a personal face, so that we can worship, so that we can love, so that we can grow close to him and Islam has an extraordinarily rich tradition of sainthood and personal devotional poetry and prayer that certainly speaks very directly to my heart.

John Cleary: In some ways, one has to ask, it’s about the, say let’s go back to where we started, to that Trinitarian notion. In Trinitarian religions such as Christianity, the idea of the aspect of God that dwells within, the heart experience, the Holy Spirit, how is that reflected in Islam, the in-dwelling of God?

Tim Winter: Well in-dwelling, we might say very cautiously, is the nature of everything in the world, because it’s all absolutely dependent on God with every instance.

John Cleary: An eminence.

Tim Winter: There is an eminence, yes. The Qu’ran speaks of the God that’s utterly unlike ourselves, but also says God is closer to us than the jugular vein. He is with you wherever you may turn, wherever you turn, the Qu’ran says, there is the face of God. And whatever we see in terms of beauty in the world, in people’s faces, in humans, mutual compassion and love, there we discern that basic thirst that human beings have for the source of nourishment and richness and fullness that is in God. So it’s a kind of nostalgia. Religion is about awakening a nostalgia that we have for the place where we were before we were born, and the place that we hope we’ll return to after our death.

John Cleary: Tim Winter, it’s been great to have you on Sunday Night. Thanks so much for joining us.

Tim Winter: It’s been a pleasure.

MUSIC

John Cleary: Music there of the Muslim convert, Richard Thompson. The tune is called Andalus from his album, Strict Tempo.

Shaykh Abdal Hakim Murad

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Born Timothy J. Winter in 1960, Abdal Hakim studied at the prestigious Westminster School in London, UK and later at the University of Cambridge, where he graduated with first class honours in Arabic in 1983. He then lived in Cairo for three years, studying Islam under traditional teachers at Al-Azhar, one of the oldest universities in the world. He went on to reside for three years in Jeddah, where he administered a commercial translation office and maintained close contact with Habib Ahmad Mashhur al-Haddad and other ulama from Hadramaut, Yemen.

In 1989, Sheikh Abdal Hakim returned to England and spent two years at the University of London learning Turkish and Farsi. Since 1992 he has been a doctoral student at Oxford University, specializing in the religious life of the early Ottoman Empire. In 1996, he was appointed University Lecturer in Islamic Studies at the University of Cambridge.

Sheikh Abdal Hakim is the translator of a number of works, including two volumes from Imam al-Ghazali Ihya Ulum al-Din. He gives durus and halaqas from time to time and taught the works of Imam al-Ghazali at the Winter 1995 Deen Intensive Program in New Haven, CT. He appears frequently on BBC Radio and writes occasionally for a number of publications including The Independent and Q-News International, Britain's premier Muslim Magazine.

He lives with his wife and children in Cambridge, UK.

Information and photograph from Deen Intensive 

A Collection of Sufi Rules of ConductA B U A B D A L - R A H M A N A L - S U L A M I  A Collection of Sufi Rules of Conduct (Jawami Adab al-Sufiyya) was written by one of the foremost early masters of Sufism and is considered as the first work devoted to the description of the way of life and the customs of the Sufis. It represents an early attempt to illustrate the conformity of Sufi beliefs and manners with the Qur’an and the example of the Prophet (Sunna). A Collection of Sufi Rules of Conduct is therefore not only a pioneering work of ethics and mysticism, it is also a summary of the views of Sufis up till the eleventh century. It was a major influence on the development of Sufism from the eleventh century onwards. The translation by Dr Elena Biagi includes an introduction that places the author in his historical, literary and religious context, and a general glossary of Sufi technical terms.Dr. Elena Biagi is Professor of Arabic at Milan University.

The Islamic Texts Society’s al-Ghazali Series is one of the long-term projects of the Society and aims to translate into English the major works of the great medieval theologian and mystic Muhammad Abu Hamid al-Ghazali (450-1058 AH/505-1111 AD). Of these works, The Revival of the Religions Sciences (Ihya Ulum al-Din) is widely regarded as the greatest work of Muslim spirituality, and has, for centuries, been the most read work after the Qur’an in the Muslim world.The Revival of the Religious Sciences is divided into four parts each containing ten chapters. In brief, the first part deals with knowledge and the requirements of religion—ritual purity, prayer, charity, fasting, pilgrimage, recitation of the Qur’an, etc.; part two concentrates mostly on man and society—the manners relating to eating, marriage, earning a living, friendship, etc.; parts three and four are dedicated to the inner life of the soul and discuss first the vices that man must overcome in himself and then the virtues that he must strive to achieve. The Islamic Texts Society is working on a full translation of The Revival of the Religious Sciences.Aside from The Revival of the Religious Sciences, the Islamic Texts Society intends to publish other translations of works by Ghazali; of these, Al-Ghazali on the Ninety-nine

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Beautiful Names of God has already appeared.

Al-Ghazali on Poverty and AbstinenceBook XXXIV of the Revival of the Religious Sciences (Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din)Translated by: A S A A D F . S H A K E R

The Book of Poverty and Abstinence is the thirty-fourth chapter of The Revival of the Religions Sciences. It falls in the section dealing with the virtues. Ghazali gives definitions of what real poverty and abstinence should be and how the poor should conduct themselves. He goes on to describe poverty that has no virtue and which is based on greed and love of the world. For Ghazali, the virtues of real poverty and abstinence are closely linked with patience, contentment, lack of worldliness, asceticism, trust and surrender to God.

Dr Asaad F. Shaker holds a PhD from McGill University and works on classical Islam.

A Selection from the Table of Contents

1. The Reality of Poverty and its Different States

2. The Excellence of Absolute Poverty

3. Poverty’s Excellence over Wealth

4. The Reality of Abstinence

5. The Excellence of Abstinence

6. The Degrees of Abstinence

7. The Signs of Abstinence

Appendix: Persons Cited in the Text

Index to Qur’anic Quotations

Bibliography

General Index

BEGINNER

Arkoun, Mohammed. The Unthought in Contemporary Islamic Thought. London: Saqi/The Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2002.

Chittick, William C. The Heart of Islamic Philosophy: The Quest for Self-Knowledge in the Teachings of Afdal al-Din Kashani. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2001.

Druart, Therese-Anne, ed. Arabic Philosophy and the West: Continuity and Interaction.Washington, DC: Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, Georgetown University, 1988.

Fitzgerald, Michael Abdurrahman and Moulat Youssef Slitine, trans. Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya: The Invocation of God. Cambridge, UK: The Islamic Texts Society, 2000.

al-Ghazâlî, Abû Hâmid Muhammad (Richard Joseph McCarthy, trans.). Deliverance from Error--Five Key Texts, Including His Spiritual Autobiography, al-Munqidh min al-Dalal. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 2nd ed., 2000.

al-Ghazâlî (T.J. Winter, trans.). Al-Ghazâlî on Disciplining the Soul & on Breaking the Two Desires: Books XII and XIII of the Revival of the Religious Sciences. Cambridge, UK: The Islamic Texts Society, 1995.

al-Ghazâlî, Abû Hâmid Muhammad (David B. Burrell, trans.). On Faith in Divine Unity and Trust in Divine Providence. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 2001.

al-Ghazâlî, Abû Hâmid Muhammad (Michael E. Marmura, trans.). The Incoherence of the Philosophers. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University Press, 2000.

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al-Ghazâlî (Asaad F. Shaker, trans.). Al-Ghazâlî on Intention, Sincerity and Truthfulness: Book XXXVII of the Revival of the Religious Sciences. Cambridge, UK: The Islamic Texts Society, forthcoming.

al-Ghazâlî (Kojiro Nakamura, trans.). Al-Ghazâlî on Invocations and Supplications: Book IX of the Revival of the Religious Sciences. Cambridge, UK: The Islamic Texts Society, 1990.

al-Ghazâlî, Abû Hâmid Muhammad (Muhammad Abul Quasem, trans.). The Jewels of the Qur?ân.London: Kegan Paul Int?l., 1984.

al-Ghazâlî (Denys Johnson-Davies, trans.). Al-Ghazâlî on the Manners Relating to Eating: Book XI of the Revival of the Religious Sciences. Cambridge, UK: The Islamic Texts Society, 2000.

al-Ghazâlî (David B. Burrell and Nazih Daher, trans.). Al-Ghazâlî on the Ninety-nine Beautiful Names of God. Cambridge, UK: The Islamic Texts Society, 1992.

al-Ghazâlî (Henry T. Littlejohn, trans.). Al-Ghazâlî on Patience and Thankfulness: Book XXXIII of the Revival of the Religious Sciences. Cambridge, UK: The Islamic Texts Society, forthcoming.

al-Ghazâlî (Asaad F. Shaker, trans.). Al-Ghazâlî on Poverty and Abstinence: Book XXXIV of the Revival of the Religious Sciences. Cambridge, UK: The Islamic Texts Society, 2002.

Al-Ghazâlî (T.J. Winter, trans.). Al-Ghazâlî on the Remembrance of Death and the Afterlife: Book XL of the Revival of the Religious Sciences. Cambridge, UK: The Islamic Texts Society, 1989.

Hourani, Albert. Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age: 1798-1939. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1993.

Hourani, George F., ed. Essays on Islamic Philosophy and Science. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1975.

Hourani, George F. Islamic Rationalism: The Ethics of 'Abd al-Jabbâr. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1971.

Hourani, George F. Reason and Tradition in Islamic Ethics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1985.

Kelsay, John. Islam and War: The Gulf War and Beyond?A Study in Comparative Ethics.Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1993.

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1993.

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. The Islamic Intellectual Tradition in Persia. London: Curzon Press, 1997.

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. The Philosophy of Mullâ Sadrâ. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1975.

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein, et al., eds. The Philosophy of Seyyed Hossein Nasr. La Salle, IL: Open Court, 2000.

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Religion and the Order of Nature. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Sadr al-Dîn Shîrâzî and his Transcendent Theosophy. Tehran: Imperial Iranian Academy of Philosophy, 1978.

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Three Muslim Sages: Avicenna, Suhrawardi, Ibn ?Arabi. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1964.

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein and Mehdi Amin Razavi, eds. An Anthology of Philosophy in Persia. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2000.

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein and Oliver Leaman, eds. History of Islamic Philosophy. London: Routledge, 1996.

Peters, Rudolph. Jihad in Classical and Modern Islam: A Reader. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publ., 1996.

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INTERMEDIATE

Abrahamov, Binyamin, ed. Islamic Theology: Traditionalism and Rationalism. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1998.

Aminrazavi, Mehdi. Suhrawardi and the School of Illumination. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, 1997.

Arnaldez, Roger. Averroes: A Rationalist in Islam. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 2000.

Averroes (George F. Hourani, trans.). Averroes: On the Harmony of Religion and Philosophy.London: Luzac & Co., 1961.

Averroes (Erwin Rosenthal, trans. and ed.). Commentary on Plato's ?Republic?. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1956.

Averroes (Ibrahim Najjar, trans.). Faith and Reason in Islam: Averroes? Exposition of Religious Arguments. Oxford, England: Oneworld, 2001.

Bakar, Osman. The History and Philosophy of Islamic Science. Cambridge, UK: The Islamic Texts Society, 1999.

Baljon, J.M.S. The Reforms and Religious Ideas of Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1949.

Bayrak (al-Jerrahi al-Halveti), Shaykh Tosun. The Name and the Named: The Divine Attributes of God. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae, 2001.

Bell, Joseph N. Love Theory in Later Hanbalite Islam. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1978.

Bello, Iysa A. The Medieval Islamic Controversy between Philosophy and Orthodoxy: Ijmâ?and Ta?wîl in the Conflict between al-Ghazzâlî and Ibn Rushd. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1989.

Brown, Daniel. Rethinking Tradition in Modern Islamic Thought. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Burrell, David B. Knowing the Unknowable God: Ibn-Sina, Maimonides, Aquinas. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1986.

Conrad, Lawrence I., ed. The World of Ibn Tufayl: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Hayy ibn Yaqzan. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1996.

Cook, Michael. Commanding Right and Forbidding Wrong in Islamic Thought. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Corbin, Henry (W.R. Trask, trans.). Avicenna and the Visionary Recital. New York: Pantheon Books, 1960.

Corbin, Henry (Liadain Sherrard, trans.). History of Islamic Philosophy. London: Kegan Paul, 1993.

Corbin, Henry. The Man of Light in Iranian Sufism. New Lebanon, NY: Omega Publ., 1994 ed.

Corbin, Henry. Temple and Contemplation (Islamic Texts and Contexts). New York: Columbia University Press, 1986.

Daftary, Farhad, ed. Intellectual Traditions in Islam. London: I.B. Tauris, 2000.

Fakhry, Majid. Ethical Theories in Islam. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1991.

Fakhry, Majid. A History of Islamic Philosophy. London: Longman, 2nd ed., 1983.

Fakhry, Majid. Islamic Occasionalism and its Critique by Averroes and Aquinas. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1958.

Fakhry, Majid. Philosophy, Dogma, and the Impact of Greek Thought in Islam. Aldershot: Ashgate/Variorum, 1994.

Fakhry, Majid. A Short Introduction to Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Mysticism. Oxford, England: Oneworld, 1997.

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Goodman, Lenn E. Avicenna. New York: Routledge, 1992.

Hallaq, Wael B., trans. Ibn Taymiyya against the Greek Logicians. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1993.

Iqbal, Muhammad. The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 1932.

Izutsu, Toshihiko. Concept of Belief in Islamic Theology. Salem, NH: Ayer Co. Publ., 1980.

Knysh, Alexander D. Ibn ?Arabi and the Later Islamic Tradition: The Making of a Polemical Image in Medieval Islam. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1998.

Kraemer, Joel L. Philosophy in the Renaissance of Islam: Abû Sulaymân al-Sijistânî and his Circle. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1986.

Lawrence, Bruce B., ed. The Rose and the Rock: Mystical and Rational Elements in the Intellectual History of South Asian Islam. Durham, NC: Duke University Comparative Program in Comparative Studies on Southern Asia, 1979.

Leaman, Oliver. Averroes and His Philosophy. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1997.

Leaman, Oliver. A Brief Introduction to Islamic Philosophy. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1999.

Leaman, Oliver. An Introduction to Classical Islamic Philosophy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2nd ed., 2001.

Marmura, Michael E., ed. Islamic Theology and Philosophy: Studies in Honor of George F. Hourani. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1984.

Martin, Richard C. and Mark R. Woodward (with Dwi S. Atmaja). Defenders of Reason in Islam: Mu?tazilism from Medieval School to Modern Symbol. Oxford, UK: Oneworld, 1997.

Mitha, Farouk. Al-Ghazâlî and the Ismailis: A Debate on Reason and Authority in Medieval Islam.London: I.B. Tauris, 2002.

Morewedge, Parviz. Essays in Islamic Philosophy, Theology, and Mysticism. Binghamton, NY: Global Publ., Binghamton University, State University of New York, 1997.

Morewedge, Parviz. The Mystical Philosophy of Avicenna. Binghamton, NY: Global Publ., Binghamton University, State University of New York, 2001.

Morewedge, Parviz, ed. Islamic Philosophical Theology. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1979.

Morewedge, Parviz, ed. Islamic Philosophy and Mysticism. New York: Caravan, 1981.

Morewedge, Parviz, ed. Neoplatonism and Islamic Thought. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1992.

Rahman, Fazlur. The Philosophy of Mullâ Sadrâ (Sadr al-Din al-Shirazi). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1975.

Rahman, Fazlur. Prophecy in Islam. London: Allen & Unwin, 1958.

Raschid, M.S. Iqbal's Concept of God. London: Kegan Paul Int?l., 1981.

Reinhart, A. Kevin. Before Revelation: The Boundaries of Muslim Moral Thought. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1995.

Schimmel, Annemarie. Deciphering the Signs of God: A Phenomenological Approach to Islam.Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1994.

Suhrawardî, Shihâb al-Dîn Yahyâ (Hossein Ziai, trans.). The Book of Radiance: Partaw-Nâma.Costa Mesa, CA: Mazda Publ., 1998.

Suhrawardî. The Philosophy of Illumination (Hiqmat al-ishrâq). John Walbridge and Hossein Ziai, trans., commentary, etc. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University Press, 1999.

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Wahba, Mourad and Mona Abousenna, eds. Averroes and the Enlightenment. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books, 1996.

Ha?iri Yazdi, Mehdi. The Principles of Epistemology in Islamic Philosophy: Knowledge by Presence. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1992.

ADVANCED

Abed, Shukri. Aristotelian Logic and the Arabic Language in Alfarabi. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1991.

Butterworth, Charles, ed. Averroes? Three Commentaries on Aristotle's ?Topics,? ?Rhetorics,? and ?Poetics.? Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1971.

Craig, William L. The Kalam Cosmological Argument. New York: Harper and Row, 1979.

Davidson, Herbert A. Alfarabi, Avicenna, and Averroes on Intellect: Their Cosmologies, Theories of the Active Intellect, and Theories of Human Intellect. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.

Dhanani, Alnoor. The Physical Theory of Kalam: Atoms, Space, and Void in Basrian Mu?tazili Cosmology. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1994.

al-Fârâbî, Abû Nasr (Richard Walzer, trans.). On the Perfect State (Mabâdi? ârâ? al-madînat al-fâdilah). Chicago, IL: Kazi Publ., revised ed., 1998.

Frank, Richard M. Al-Ghazali and the Ash?arite School. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994.

Frank, Richard M. Beings and Their Attributes: The Teaching of the Basrian School of the Mu?tazila in the Classical Period. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1978.

Gianotti, Timothy J. Al-Ghazâlî's Unspeakable Doctrine of the Soul: Unveiling the Esoteric Psychology and Eschatology of the Ihyâ. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 2001.

Gohlman, William E., trans. The Life of Ibn Sina: A Critical Edition and Annotated Translation.Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1974.

Gutas, Dimitri. Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1988.

Gutas, Dimitri. Greek Philosophers in the Arabic Tradition. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2001.

Gutas, Dimitri. Greek Thought, Arabic Culture: The Graeco-Arabic Translation Movement in Baghdad and Early ?Abbâsid Society. London: Routledge, 1998.

Hasse, Dag Nikolaus. Avicenna's De Anima in the Latin West. London: The Warburg Institute, 2000.

Heath, Peter. Allegory and Philosophy in Avicenna: With a Translation of the Book of the Prophet Muhammad's Ascent to Heaven. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1992.

Ibn Rushd (Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee, trans.). The Distinguished Jurist's Primer, Vol. I. Reading: Ithaca Press, 2000.

Ibn Rushd (Imran Ahsan Khan Nyazee, trans.). The Distinguished Jurist's Primer, Vol. II.Reading: Ithaca Press, 2000.

Kemal, Salim. The Philosophical Poetics of Alfarabi, Avicenna, and Averroes: The Aristotelian Reception. New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.

Kemal, Salim. The Poetics of Alfarabi and Avicenna. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1991.

Kogan, Barry S. Averroes and the Metaphysics of Causation. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1985.

Mahdi, Muhsin. Alfarabi and the Foundation of Islamic Political Philosophy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 2001.

Morris, James W. The Wisdom of the Throne: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Mullâ Sadrâ.Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981.

Mullâ Sadrâ (Parviz Morewedge, trans.). The Metaphysics of Mullâ Sadrâ. Binghamton, NY:

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Institute of Global Cultural Studies, 1992.

Netton, Ian Richard. Allah Transcendent: Studies in the Structure and Semiotics of Islamic Philosophy, Theology and Cosmology. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, revised ed., 1994.

Netton, Ian Richard. Al-Fârâbî and His School. London: Routledge, 1992.

Netton, Ian Richard. Muslim Neoplatonists: An Introduction to the Thought of the Brethren of Purity. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press, 2003.

Ormsby, Eric L. Theodicy in Islamic Thought: The Dispute Over al-Ghazâlî's "Best of All Possible Worlds." Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1984.

Peters, F.E. Aristotle and the Arabs: The Aristotelian Tradition in Islam. Washington Square, NY: New York University Press, 1968.

Stroumsa, Sarah. Freethinkers of Medieval Islam: Ibn al-Râwandî, Abu Bakr al-Râzî and Their Impact on Islamic Thought. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1999.

Walbridge, John. The Leaven of the Ancients: Suhrawardî and the Heritage of the Greeks. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1999.

Walbridge, John. The Science of Mystic Lights: Qutb al-Dîn Shîrâzî and the Illuminationist Tradition in Islamic Philosophy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992.

Walbridge, John. The Wisdom of the Mystic East: Suhrawardî and Platonic Orientalism. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2001.

Wolfson, Harry A. The Philosophy of the Kalâm. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976.

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 Al-Ghazali on Patience and ThankfulnessBook XXXII of the Revival of the Religious Sciences (Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din)Translated by: H E N R Y T . L I T T L E J O H N

This is a translation of the thirty-second chapter of The Revival of the Religious Sciences. Ghazali here defines patience and its different forms; the need for patience; the degrees of patience; and why patience is considered to be half of faith. The second part of this chapter deals with thankfulness, its nature and its blessings.

 Al-Ghazali on Poverty and AbstinenceBook XXXIV of the Revival of the Religious Sciences (Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din)Translated by: A S A A D F . S H A K E R

The Book of Poverty and Abstinence is the thirty-fourth chapter of The Revival of the Religious Sciences. Ghazali gives definitions of what real poverty and abstinence should be and describes their closeness to patience, contentment, lack of worldliness, asceticism, trust and surrender to God.

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 Al-Ghazali on Intention, Sincerity and TruthfulnessBook XXXVII of the Revival of the Religious Sciences (Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din)Translated by: A S A A D F . S H A K E R

The Book of Intention, Sincerity and Truthfulness is a translation of the thirty-seventh chapter of The Revival of the Religious Sciences. Here Ghazali deals with the very important subject of intention which is of crucial importance in Islam and then goes on to discuss sincerity and truthfulness.

 Al-Ghazali on Invocations and SupplicationsBook IX of the Revival of the Religious Sciences (Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din)Translated by: K O J I R O N A K A M U R A

A translation of Book IX of The Revival of the Religious Sciences. The present volume is probably the most widely read compendium of prayers. Ghazali explores the psychological and spiritual effects of prayer and the celebration of God’s name.

 Al-Ghazali on the Manners Relating to Eating   Book XI of the Revival of the Religious Sciences (Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din)Translated by: D E N Y S J O H N S O N - D A V I E S

A translation of the eleventh chapter of The Revival of the Religious Sciences. Ghazali expounds the manners relating to eating, and the virtues of hospitality and generosity. He also discusses abstention from food, fasting, and general health.

 Al-Ghazali on Disciplining the Soul & on Breaking the Two Desires   Books XXII and XXIII of the Revival of the Religious Sciences(Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din) Translated by: T . J . W I N T E R

This is a translation of the twenty-second and twenty-third chapters from The Revival of the Religious Sciences. Ghazali explains how to acquire good character traits, and describes how the sickness of the heart may be cured. He then continues to discuss the question of gluttony and sexual desire, concluding, in the words of the Prophet, that ‘the best of all matters is the middle way’.

 Al-Ghazali on the Remembrance of Death & the AfterlifeBook XL of the Revival of the Religious Sciences (Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din)Translated by: T . J . W I N T E R

This is a translation of the last chapter of Ghazali’s Revival of the Religious Sciences. After expounding his Sufi philosophy of death and showing the importance of the contemplation of human mortality to the mystical way of self-purification, Ghazali takes his readers through the stages of the future life.

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 Al-Ghazali Letter to a DiscipleTranslated by: T O B I A S M A Y E R

An old disciple of Ghazali had studied the Islamic sciences, including the many works of his master, for most of his life. Faced with the proximity of death, he turns again to his master this time asking for a summary of all his teachings. Letter to a Disciple is Ghazali’s response.

 Al-Ghazali on the Ninety-nine Beautiful Names of GodAl-Maqsad al-Asna fi Sharh Asma’ Allah al-HusnaTranslated by: D . B U R R E L L & N . D A H E R

This book is one of the perennial classics of Muslim thought. Taking up the Prophet’s teaching that ‘Ninety-nine Beautiful Names’ are truly predicated of God, the author explores the meaning and resonance of each of these divine names, and reveals the functions they perform both in the cosmos and in the soul of the spiritual adept.

This is a story of a seeker of Truth, the story of Salman the Persian, gleaned, to begin with, from his own words: 

I grew up in the town of Isfahan in Persia in the village of Jayyan. My father was the Dihqan or chief of the village. He was the richest person there and had the biggest house.

Since I was a child my father loved me, more than he loved any other. As time went by his love for me became so strong and overpowering that he feared to lose me or have anything happen to me. So he kept me at home, a veritable prisoner, in the same way that young girls were kept. 

I became devoted to the Magian religion so much so that I attained the position of custodian of the fire which we worshipped. My duty was to see that the flames of the fire remained burning and that it did not go out for a single hour, day or night. 

My father had a vast estate which yielded an abundant supply of crops. He himself looked after the estate and the harvest. One day he was very busy with his duties as dihqan in the village and he said to me: 

"My son, as you see, I am too busy to go out to the estate now. Go and look after matters there for me today." 

On my way to the estate, I passed a Christian church and the voices at prayer attracted my attention. I did not know anything about Christianity or about the followers of any other religion throughout the time my father kept me in the house away from people. When I heard the voices of the Christians I entered the church to see what they were doing. 

I was impressed by their manner of praying and felt drawn to their religion. "By God," I said, "this is better than ours. I shall not leave them until the sun sets." 

I asked and was told that the Christian religion originated in AshSham (Greater Syria). I did not go to my father's estate that day and at night, I returned home. My father met me and asked what I had done. I told him about my meeting with the Christians and how I was impressed by their religion. He was dismayed and said: 

"My son, there is nothing good in that religion. Your religion and the religion of your forefathers is better." 

"No, their religion is better than ours," I insisted. 

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My father became upset and afraid that I would leave our religion. So he kept me locked up in the house and put a chain on my feet. I managed however to send a message to the Christians asking them to inform me of any caravan going to Syria. Before long they got in touch with me and told me that a caravan was headed for Syria. I managed to unfetter myself and in disguise accompanied the caravan to Syria. There, I asked who was the leading person in the Christian religion and was directed to the bishop of the church. I went up to him and said: 

"I want to become a Christian and would like to attach myself to your service, learn from you and pray with you." 

The bishop agreed and I entered the church in his service. I soon found out, however, that the man was corrupt. He would order his followers to give money in chanty while holding out the promise of blessings to them. When they gave anything to spend in the way oRGod however, he would hoard it for himself and not give anything to the poor or needy. In this way he amassed a vast quantity of gold. When the bishop died and the Christians gathered to bury him, I told them of his corrupt practices and, at their request, showed them where he kept their donations. When they saw the large jars filled with gold and silver they said. 

"By God, we shall not bury him." They nailed him on a cross and threw stones at him. 

I continued in the service of the person who replaced him. The new bishop was an ascetic who longed for the Hereafter and engaged in worship day and night. I was greatly devoted to him and spent a long time in his company. 

(After his death, Salman attached himself to various Christian religious figures, in Mosul, Nisibis and elsewhere. The last one had told him about the appearance of a Prophet in the land of the Arabs who would have a reputation for strict honesty, one who would accept a gift but would never consume charity (sadaqah) for himself. Salman continues his story.) 

A group of Arab leaders from the Kalb tribe passed through Ammuriyah and I asked them to take me with them to the land of the Arabs in return for whatever money I had. They agreed and I paid them. When we reached Wadi al-Qura (a place between Madinah and Syria), they broke their agreement and sold me to a Jew. I worked as a servant for him but eventually he sold me to a nephew of his belonging to the tribe of Banu Qurayzah. This nephew took me with him to Yathrib, the city of palm groves, which is how the Christian at Ammuriyah had described it. 

At that time the Prophet saw was inviting his people in Makkah to Islam but I did not hear anything about him then because of the harsh duties which slavery imposed upon me. 

When the Prophet reached Yathrib after his hijrah from Makkah, I was in fact at the top of a palm tree belonging to my master doing some work. My master was sitting under the tree. A nephew of his came up and said: 

"May God declare war on the Aws and the Khazraj (the two main Arab tribes of Yathrib). By God, they are now gathering at Quba to meet a man who has today come from Makkah and who claims he is a Prophet." I felt hot flushes as soon as I heard these words and I began to shiver so violently that I was afraid that I might fall on my master. I quickly got down from the tree and spoke to my master's nephew. "What did you say? Repeat the news for me." 

My mastcr was very angry and gave me a terrible blow. "What does this matter to you? Go back to what you were doing," he shouted. 

That evening, I took some dates that I had gathered and went to the place where the Prophet had alighted. I went up to him and said: 

"I have heard that you are a righteous man and that you have companions with you who are strangers and are in need. Here is something from me as sadaqah. I see that you are more deserving of it than others." 

The Prophet ordered his companions to eat but he himself did not eat of it. 

I gathered some more dates and when the Prophet left Quba for Madinah I went to him and said: "I noticed that you did not eat of the sadaqah I gave. This however is a gift for you." Of this gift of dates, both he and his companions ate. 

The strict honesty of the Prophet was one of the characteristics that led Salman to believe in him and accept Islam. 

Salman was released from slavery by the Prophet who paid his Jewish slave-owner a stipulated price and who himself planted an agreed number of date palms to secure his manumission. After

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accepting Islam, Salman would say when asked whose son he was: 

"I am Salman, the son of Islam from the children of Adam." 

Salman was to play an important role in the struggles of the growing Muslim state. At the battle of Khandaq, he proved to be an innovator in military strategy. He suggested digging a ditch or khandaq around Madinah to keep the Quraysh army at bay. When Abu Sufyan, the leader of the Makkans, saw the ditch, he said, "This strategem has not been employed by the Arabs before." 

Salman became known as "Salman the Good". He was a scholar who lived a rough and ascetic life. He had one cloak which he wore and on which he slept. He would not seek the shelter of a roof but stayed under a tree or against a wall. A man once said to him: "Shall I not build you a house in which to live?" "I have no need of a house," he replied. 

The man persisted and said, "I know the type of house that would suit you." "Describe it to me," said Salman. 

"I shall build you a house which if you stand up in it, its roof will hurt your head and if you stretch your legs the wall will hurt them." 

Later, as a govenor of al-Mada'in (Ctesiphon) near Baghdad, Salman received a stipend of five thousand dirhams. This he would distribute as sadaqah. He lived from the work of his own hands. When some people came to Mada'in and saw him working in the palm groves, they said, "You are the amir here and your sustenance is guaranteed and you do this work!" 

"I like to eat from the work of my own hands," he replied. Salman however was not extreme in his asceticism. It is related that he once visited Abu ad-Dardaa with whom the Prophet had joined him in brotherhood. He found Abu adDardaa's wife in a miserable state and he asked, "What is the matter with you." 

"Your brother has no need of anything in this world*" she replied. 

When Abu ad-Dardaa came, he welcomed Salman and gave him food. Salman told him to eat but Abu adDardaa said, "I am fasting." 

"I swear to you that I shall not eat until you eat also." 

Salman spent the night there as well. During the night, Abu ad-Dardaa got up but Salman got hold of him and said: 

"O Abu ad-Dardaa, your Lord has a right over you. Your family have a right over you and your body has a right over you. Give to each its due." 

In the morning, they prayed together and then went out to meet the Prophet, peace be upon him. The Prophet supported Salman in what he had said. 

As a scholar, Salman was noted for his vast knowledge and wisdom. Ali said of him that he was like Luqman the Wise. And Ka'b al-Ahbar said: "Salman is stuffed with knowledge and wisdomÑan ocean that does not dry up." Salman had a knowledge of both the Christian scriptures and the Qur'an in addition to his earlier knowledge of the Zoroastrian religion. Salman in fact translated parts of the Qur'an into Persian during the life-time of the Prophet. He was thus the first person to translate the Qur'an into a foreign language. 

Salman, because of the influential household in which he grew up, might easily have been a major figure in the sprawling Persian Empire of his time. His search for truth however led him, even before the Prophet had appeared, to renounce a comfortable and affluent life and even to suffer the indignities of slavery. According to the most reliable account, he died in the year thirty five after the hijrah, during the caliphate of Uthman, at Ctesiphon.

Biography of Hafiz Ibn KathirBy the Honored Shaykh `Abdul-Qadir Al-Arna'ut, may Allah protect him.

He is the respected Imam, Abu Al-Fida', `Imad Ad-Din Isma il bin 'Umar bin Kathir Al-Qurashi Al Busrawi - Busraian in origin; Dimashqi in training, learning and residence.

Ibn Kathir was born in the city of Busra in 701 H. His father was the Friday speaker of the village, but he died while Ibn Kathir was only four years old. Ibn Kathir's brother, Shaykh Abdul-Wahhab, reared him and taught him until he moved to Damascus in 706 H., when he was five years old.

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Ibn Kathir's Teachers Ibn Kathir studied Fiqh - Islamic jurisprudence - with Burhan Ad-Din, Ibrahim bin `Abdur- Rahman Al-Fizari, known as Ibn Al-Firkah (who died in 729 H). Ibn Kathir heard Hadiths from `Isa bin Al-Mutim, Ahmad bin Abi Talib, (Ibn Ash-Shahnah) (who died in 730 H), Ibn Al-Hajjar, (who died in 730 H), and the Hadith narrator of Ash-Sham (modern day Syria and surrounding areas); Baha Ad-Din Al-Qasim bin Muzaffar bin `Asakir (who died in 723 H), and Ibn Ash-Shirdzi, Ishaq bin Yahya Al-Ammuddi, also known as `Afif Ad-Din, the Zahiriyyah Shaykh who died in 725 H, and Muhammad bin Zarrad. He remained with Jamal Ad-Din, Yusuf bin Az-Zaki AlMizzi who died in 724 H, he benefited from his knowledge and also married his daughter. He also read with Shaykh Al-Islam, Taqi Ad-Din Ahmad bin`Abdul-Halim bin `Abdus-Salam bin Taymiyyah who died in 728 H. He also read with the Imam Hafiz and historian Shams Ad-Din, Muhammad bin Ahmad bin Uthman bin Qaymaz Adh-Dhahabi, who died in 748 H. Also, Abu Musa Al-Qarafai, Abu Al-Fath Ad-Dabbusi and 'Ali bin `Umar As-Suwani and others who gave him permission to transmit the knowledge he learned with them in Egypt.

In his book, Al-Mu jam Al-Mukhtas, Al-Hafiz Adh-Dhaliabi wrote that Ibn Kathir was, "The Imam, scholar of jurisprudence, skillful scholar of Hadith, renowned Fagih and scholar of Tafsfr who wrote several beneficial books." Further, in Ad-Durar Al-Kdminah, Al-Hafiz Ibn Hajar AlAsqalani said, "Ibn Kathir worked on the subject of the Hadith in the areas of texts and chains of narrators. He had a good memory, his books became popular during his lifetime, and people benefited from them after his death."

Also, the renowned historian Abu Al-Mahasin, Jamal Ad-Din Yusuf bin Sayf Ad-Din (Ibn Taghri Bardi), said in his book, AlManhal As-Safi, "He is the Shaykh, the Imam, the great scholar `Imad Ad-Din Abu Al-Fida'. He learned extensively and was very active in collecting knowledge and writing. He was excellent in the areas of Fiqh, Tafsfr and Hadith. He collected knowledge, authored (books), taught, narrated Hadiths and wrote. He had immense knowledge in the fields of Hadith, Tafsir, Fiqh, the Arabic language, and so forth. He gave Fatwds (religious verdicts) and taught until he died, may Allah grant him mercy. He was known for his precision and vast knowledge, and as a scholar of history, Hadith and Tafsir." Ibn Kathir's Students Ibn Hajji was one of Ibn Kathir's students, and he described Ibn Kathir: "He had the best memory of the Hadith texts. He also had the most knowledge concerning the narrators and authenticity, his contemporaries and teachers admitted to these qualities. Every time I met him I gained some benefit from him." Also, Ibn Al-`Imad Al-Hanbali said in his book, Shadhardt Adh-Dhahab, "He is the renowned Hafiz `Imad Ad-Din, whose memory was excellent, whose forgetfulness was miniscule, whose understanding was adequate, and who had good knowledge in the Arabic language." Also, Ibn Habib said about Ibn Kathir, "He heard knowledge and collected it and wrote various books. He brought comfort to the ears with his Fatwds and narrated Hadiths and brought benefit to other people. The papers that contained his Fatwds were transmitted to the various (Islamic) provinces. Further, he was known for his precision and encompassing knowledge."

Ibn Kathir's Books

1 - One of the greatest books that Ibn Kathir wrote was his Tafsir of the Noble Qur'an, which is one of the best Tafsirs that rely on narrations [of Hadiths, the Tafsir of the Companions, etc.]. The Tafsfr by Ibn Kathir was printed many times and several scholars have summarized it. 

2 - The History Collection known as Al-Biddyah, which was printed in 14 volumes under the name Al-Bidayah wanNihdyah, and contained the stories of the Prophets and previous nations, the Prophet's Sfrah (life story) and Islamic history until his time. He also added a book Al-Fitan, about the Signs of the Last Hour. 

3 - At-Takmil ft Ma`rifat Ath-Thiqat wa Ad-Du'afa wal Majdhil which Ibn Kathir collected from the books of his two Shaykhs Al-Mizzi and Adh-Dhahabi; Al-Kdmal and Mizan Al- Ftiddl. He added several benefits regarding the subject of Al-Jarh and AtT'adil. 

4 - Al-Hadi was-Sunan ft Ahadfth Al-Masdnfd was-Sunan which is also known by, Jami` Al-Masdnfd. In this book, Ibn Kathir collected the narrations of Imams Ahmad bin Hanbal, Al- Bazzar, Abu Ya`la Al-Mawsili, Ibn Abi Shaybah and from the six collections of Hadith: the Two Sahihs [Al-Bukhari and Muslim] and the Four Sunan [Abu Dawud, At-Tirmidhi, AnNasa i and Ibn Majah]. Ibn Kathir divided this book according to areas of Fiqh. 

5 -Tabaqat Ash-Shaf iyah which also contains the virtues of Imam Ash-Shafi. 

6 - Ibn Kathir wrote references for the Hadiths of Adillat AtTanbfh, from the Shafi school of Fiqh. 

7 - Ibn Kathir began an explanation of Sahih Al-Bukhdri, but he did not finish it. 

8 - He started writing a large volume on the Ahkam (Laws), but finished only up to the Hajj

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rituals. 

9 - He summarized Al-Bayhaqi's 'Al-Madkhal. Many of these books were not printed. 

10 - He summarized `Ulum Al-Hadith, by Abu `Amr bin AsSalah and called it Mukhtasar`Ulum Al-Hadith. Shaykh Ahmad Shakir, the Egyptian Muhaddith, printed this book along with his commentary on it and called it Al-Ba'th Al-Hathfth fi Sharh Mukhtasar `Ulum Al-Hadith. 

11 - As-Sfrah An-Nabawiyyah, which is contained in his book Al-Biddyah, and both of these books are in print. 

12 - A research on Jihad called Al-Ijtihad ft Talabi Al-Jihad, which was printed several times.

Ibn Kathir's Death

Al-Hafiz Ibn Hajar Al-Asgalani said, "Ibn Kathir lost his sight just before his life ended. He died in Damascus in 774 H." 

May Allah grant mercy upon Ibn Kathir and make him among the residents of His Paradise. Ameen.

The Sahaaba (Radhiallaahu Anhum) are that eminent group of people concerning whom Allah Taála has declared His eternal blessings in the indomitable words of the Qurân. Therefore, any individual who challenges and casts aspersions concerning the position of a Sahaabi has in fact challenged Allah's decree in the Qurân.

Abdullah Ibn Umar (Radhiallaahu Anhu) declares concerning the Sahaaba: 'He who wishes to follow anyone, let him follow the companions of Muhammad . They were the best and most prestigious of this Ummah. Their hearts were the purest; their knowledge the most profound; and they had the least formality about them (their humility was such that anyone could approach them). They were a nation whom Allah Ta'ala selected and chose for the companionship of His Nabi and for the propagation of His Deen. Imitate their characters and follow their way of life, for I swear an oath by the Lord of the Kaaba; the companions of Muhammad were truly on the straight path.' (Hilya). Special Virtues Whilst the collective favours of the Sahaaba upon this Ummah are innumerable, some individual Sahaaba clearly excelled in their services of the Ummah. Amongst these noteworthy Sahaaba was Muáwiya (Radhiallaahu Anhu) whose prestige and position in the eyes of Nabi was such that he was amongst those Sahaaba to whom the delicate and tremendous taste of writing down wahi (divine revelation of the Qurân) was entrusted. This special duty also necessitated his being regularly in the service of Nabi thus enabling his personality and character to be developed directly at the hands of the noble master himself. Such was the love Nabi had for him that he was given the following beautiful and concise Dua by Nabi : 'O Allah! make Muáwiya (Radhiallaahu Anhu) a means of hidaayat and make him one who is himself on hidaayat and give people hidaayat through him.' (Majmaú Zawaaid)

On another occasion Nabi said, 'Allah! guide him with guidance from yourself, save him from any disgrace and forgive all his past and future sins.' (Tabraani). Nabi even made Dua for the knowledge of Muáwiya (Radhiallaahu Anhu) where he said, ' O Allah endow Muáwiya with the special knowledge of the Qurân and save him from punishment.' (Ahmad; Tabraani).

Muáwiya (Radhiallaahu Anhu) was even privileged to be the brother-in-law of Nabi since Umme Habiba (Radhiallaahu Anha), the sister of Muáwiya, was one of Nabi 's wives. Once Nabi came home to find Muáwiya (Radhiallaahu Anhu) with his sister. He asked her whether she loved him. To this Umme Habiba (Radhiallaahu Anhu) declared that he was her brother and therefore she definitely loved him. It was then that Muáwiya (Radhiallaahu Anhu) received tremendous gladtidings from Nabi , where he said, 'Allah and His Rasul definitely love Muáwiya.' (Tabrani).

Prophecy Of LeadershipSuch was the confidence which Nabi had in the leadership qualities and trustworthiness of Muáwiya (Radhiallaahu Anhu) that Nabi once consulted with Abu Bakr (Radhiallaahu Anhu) and Umar (Radhiallaahu Anhu) regarding a certain matter. They were unable to give a suitable suggestion. Nabi then sent for Muáwiya (Radhiallaahu Anhu) saying: 'Consult Muáwiya (Radhiallahu Anhu) in your affairs since he is trustworthy and reliable.' (Tabrani, Bazzaar) The confidence which Nabi had in him was of such a level that he even made Dua: 'O Allah endow him with the knowledge of the Qurân and grant him leadership of the lands.' (Tabrani)

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This Hadith in essence represents the prophecy of Nabi with regards to Muáwiya (Radhiallaahu Anhu) gaining leadership. Similar confidence was exhibited by none other than Umar (Radhiallaahu Anhu) whose stringent requirements for governorship are well known. He appointed Muáwiya governor, in which position he remained throughout the life of Umar (Radhiallaahu Anhu) as well as that of Usman (Radhiallaahu Anhu). Umar's (Radhiallaahu Anhu) perception of character was tremendous and it was he who said: 'You praise the rulers of Persia and Rome and speak highly of their knowledge, whereas you have in your midst a man like Muáwiya (Radhiallaahu Anhu)'.

Hafiz Ibn Katheer (R. A.) reports that none other than Ali (Radhiallaahu Anhu) said after the Battle of Siffin: 'O people, do not hate or talk ill of the leadership of Muáwiya (Radhiallaahu Anhu), for if you loose him it would be such a tragedy as if you see your limbs falling from your bodies'. The books of history are replete with such praises of Muáwiya (Radhiallaahu Anhu) from other Sahaaba (Radhiallaahu Anhum). Auf Ibn Malik (Radhiallaahu Anhu) says: 'Once whilst sleeping in a masjid in Areeha, I awoke suddenly to notice a lion coming towards me. I lunged for my weapon. The lion addressed me saying that he had been sent to deliver a message. I inquired as to whom had sent him. The lion replied that Allah had sent him to instruct me to inform Muáwiya (Radhiallaahu Anhu) that he was of the people of Jannat' (Tabrani). In fact it is reported in Bukhari Shareef that Nabi said: 'The first army that will fight a naval battle in my Ummah will have made Jannat compulsory on themselves.' The first naval force was in fact headed by Muáwiya (Radhiallaahu Anhu) during the Caliphate of Usman (Radhiallaahu Anhu).

EVIL PROPAGANDA In the light of the above, who can possibly doubt the benevolent position of Muáwiya (Radhiallaahu Anhu), yet we find that he is amongst those personalities that have become the target of evil propaganda. This propaganda has its roots in the difference of opinion that arose between Muáwiya (Radhiallaahu Anhu) and Ali (Radhiallaahu Anhu). We have to understand that, on both sides there were eminent Sahaaba, all of whom motivated by a sincere belief of the truth of their cause. In such matters it is best that we hold our tongues. Of benefit in this context is the following quotation from 'Shifaâ' by Qaadhi Iyaad:

'If we claim to revere and honour the prophet , we must also respect his Sahaaba. As Muslims, it is incumbent on us to appreciate that we owe them, to follow them and to ask forgiveness of Allah for them. No doubt they had their differences but we have no right to comment on them. We must beware of the stories forged by Shiahs, innovators and biased historians, whose mischievous motive is to slander some of the Sahaaba and slight the others. We must never doubt the sincerity and honesty of Sahaaba. When we come across any event in history which appears likely to lower their status in our eyes, we must explain it as far as we can in their favour and attribute it to sincere motives, for they really deserve this line of action. We should always speak of their virtues and must hold our tongues in uttering anything likely to slight them. The Prophet himself has said:

'Observe silence in respect of my Sahaaba (when they are mentioned with disrespect).'

Ayyub Sakhtiani says: 'Whoso honours Sahaaba, can never be a munafiq. Whoso reviles them, he is surely an innovator or Munafiq or anti Sunnat. No good action of such person, I am afraid, will be accepted by Allah until he cleans his heart of their spite, and begins to love all of them.' 

May Allah Taála grant us the true love of the Sahaaba. Ameen

An-Nawawi's Hadith 19

On the authority of Aboo 'Abbaas 'Abdullah the son of 'Abbass (RA), who said:

One day I was behind the Prophet (SAW) [riding on the same mount] and he said to me:

"Young man, I shall teach you some of words [of advice]:

Be mindful of Allaah, and Allaah will protect you.

Be mindful of Allaah, and you will find Him in front of you.

If you ask, ask of Allaah;

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If you seek help, seek help of Allaah.

Know that if the Nation were to gather together to benefit you with anything, it would

benefit you only with something that Allaah had already prescribed for you, and that if they

gather together to harm you with anything, they would harm you only with something

Allaah had already prescribed for you.

The pens have been liffted and the pages have dried."

-It was related by at-Tirmithee, who said it was a good and sound Hadith.

In a version other than that of at-Tirmithee it reads:" Be mindful of Allaah, you will find Him before you.

Get to know Allaah in prosperity and He will know you in adversity.

Know that what has passed you by was not going to befall you, and that what has befallen

you was not going to pass you by. And know that victory comes with patience, relief with

affliction, and ease with hardship.

Ibn Al-Jazzar on Sexual Diseases and their Treatment.(Review) Ibn al-Jazzar on Sexual Diseases and their Treatment, translated and edited by Gerrit bos. London and New York: Kegan Paul International, 1997. Pp.417, bibliography, index. 65.00 [pounds sterling]. ISBN 0-7103-0569-9.

Ibn al-Jazzar was a tenth-century Arab physician and member of a distinguished medical family in Qayrawan, the medieval capital of Tunisia. The present volume, Zad al-Musafir wa-qut al-hadir, one of seven written by Ibn al-Jazzar, provides a concise presentation of sex-related ailments, providing an illuminating snapshot of the development of medical …

ABU AL-ABBAS AS-SAFFAH

äˈboo äl-äbäsˈ äs-säfäˈ, d. 754, 1st Abbasid caliph (749–54). Raised to the

caliphate by the armed might of Abu Muslim, he took the reign name as-Saffah

[shedder of blood]. Most of the Umayyad family was exterminated, and the reign

was one of massacre and force. He was succeeded by his brother al-Mansur.

The Revival of the Religious SciencesHujjat al-Islam Abu Hamid al-Ghazali(r.a.)

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Abridged by Shaykh Ahmad al-Shami

Quarter III: Attributes leading to Perdition

Book VIII: The Condemnation of Status and Ostentation

Section I: The Condemnation of Status and Fame

In the name of Allah, most compassionate and merciful!

The condemnation of status and the merit of anonymity

You should know - may Allah bestow uprightness upon you - that

the basis of status is reputation and fame, both of which are

blameworthy. By contrast, anonymity is praiseworthy, except for

him whom Allah, exalted is He, has given fame in the spread of

His din without him making an effort to procure it.

Allah, exalted is He, says: {As for the abode of the hereafter, We

grant it [only] to those who do not seek to exalt themselves on

earth, nor yet to spread corruption...}.[1] Note that here Allah has

juxtaposed the will for exaltation and the will for corruption, and

shown that the abode of the Afterlife is only given to the one who is

free from both wills. Allah, exalted is He, says: {As for those who

care for [no more than] the life of this world and its adornment -We

shall repay them in full for all that they did in this life, and they

shall not be deprived of their just due therein: [yet] it is they who,

in the life to come, shall have nothing but the fire. For in vain shall

be all that they wrought in this world, and worthless all that they

ever did!}.[2] In a general sense, these two verses also allude to

love of status, for status is the greatest pleasure of the world and

its best embellishment.

Allah's Messenger - peace be upon him - said: "Many a dishevelled

man covered with dust and wearing worn-out clothes passes

unnoticed, [but] were he to adjure Allah, He would bring to pass his

request."[3] And he - peace be upon him - also said: "Shall I not

inform you about the folk of Paradise: [they consist of] all weak

persons deemed weak [by others], [but who] were they to adjure

Allah, He would bring to pass their requests. As for the folk of Hell

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[they consist of] all proud, disdainful persons who are parsimonious

with their abundant wealth."[4]

Ibn Mas‘ud said: "You should be fountainheads of knowledge,

lamps of guidance, recluses in your homes, engaged in worship at

night with renewed hearts, and wearers of worn-out clothes, known

by the folk of heaven and hidden from the inhabitants of the earth."

And al-Fudayl said: "If you can afford not to be known then do so.

What harm shall ever come to you from being unknown? Why

should you care if you are not praised? And why should you care if

you are criticised by people while being praised by Allah, exalted is

He?" And Ibrahim ibn Adham said: "He who loves status is not

being truthful with Allah."

It is reported that when Ayyub al-Sakhtiyani was once travelling, a

huge group of people came to see him off. [When he saw them] he

said: "Had I not known that Allah knows that I inwardly dislike this

[reputation], I would have feared the loathing of Allah, exalted and

glorified is He."

A man said to Bishr al-Hafi: "Advise me!" The latter replied: "Retain

your anonymity and seek lawful sustenance."

These traditions and reports inform you that fame is to be

condemned and that anonymity is praiseworthy. What is meant by

fame is the repute which consists of status and position [that a

person has] in people’s hearts. Furthermore, the love of status is at

the root of all corruption. Seeking fame is blameworthy; but it is

not blameworthy to acquire it by leave of Allah, glorified is He, so

long as the bondsman makes no effort towards it.

The meaning and essence of status

Status and wealth are two pillars of this world. Wealth is the

possession of beneficial substances, and status is the possession of

[people’s] hearts from which obedience and glorification may be

expected.

Just as the rich man possesses monies by means of which he can

obtain his aims, purposes and all other requirements of the self, so

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does the person who possesses status own people's hearts. That is

to say he can use them to achieve his aims and desires. And just as

fortunes are procured by means of different crafts and occupations,

so too can people’s hearts be gained by means of different kinds of

treatment. Hearts, however, do not become devoted except through

information and conviction. If the heart believes in any trait of

perfection in anything, it yields towards it and devotes itself to it

according to the heart’s degree of conviction and the degree of

perfection it sees in that trait. A person may consider perfect what

is not actually so, yet the heart, nevertheless, necessarily yields to

the holder of that trait in conformity with its conviction.

As the owner of wealth also seeks the acquisition of slaves, so does

the seeker of status seek the bondage and slavery of freemen and

the possession of their selves by means of owning their hearts. In

fact the kind of slavery that the seeker of status aims for is the

more powerful of the two.

Hence, the meaning of status is establishing position in people's

hearts. Status gives rise to [several] outcomes such as praise,

extolling, service, assistance, preference, glorification and respect.

Its cause is the belief that a person has perfect traits with regard to

either knowledge, worship, good manners, lineage, authority or

physical beauty.

The reason for the instinctive love of status

You should know that that which is a requisite for the love of

wealth is also a requisite for the love of status. And as the

possession of gold and silver provides man with the ability to obtain

all his needs, so too does the possession of the hearts of freemen

provide the same ability. The fact that they have a common cause

implies that there is a common love. Nevertheless, there are three

factors which give precedence to the possession of status over the

possession of wealth.

First, it is easier to obtain wealth by means of status than it is to

obtain status by means of wealth. For if the man of knowledge or

the ascetic, who has status in people's hearts, were to seek wealth

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he would easily obtain it. Conversely, if the mean person were to

seek such status he would not obtain it even if he were rich.

Second, wealth is prone to misfortune and ruin, through [for

example] theft. It may also be the object of transgressors’ and

rulers’ resentful envy. As for the hearts of people, if they are

owned, they can never be exposed to such misfortunes.

Third, the ownership of hearts carries on and increases without the

need to toil or strive, whereas the increase of wealth has to be

achieved through both.

There is an amazing characteristic about [people’s] natural

dispositions towards the love of wealth and status which are used

to achieve their purposes, and this characteristic is the love of

amassing wealth, accumulating treasures and increasing the

quantity of reserves they hold for all needs. Such is the extent of

this love that were a bondsman to have two valleys of gold he

would nevertheless wish for a third. Similarly, man likes to see his

status increased and his reputation spread to the remotest lands,

even to those which he categorically knows he will never set foot

on and whose inhabitants he will never meet.

People’s hearts are hardly free from this love for two reasons.

First, it ends the pain of fear. Man is fearful for his future and has

grave anticipations even if his needs are satisfied in the immediate

term. He is conscious that the wealth which currently satisfies his

requirements may vanish and that he will consequently have to rely

on other people. Thus preoccupied, fear erupts in his heart.

Nothing can put a stop to this fear except the tranquillity that

follows the accumulation of another fortune which he may resort to

when misfortune befalls his initial wealth. Because he takes pity on

himself and because he loves life, man always expects longevity

and is alert to the possibility of unexpected needs. Because he

foresees and fears possible misfortunes befalling his wealth, he

seeks that which might drive it away, and [in his opinion] this is

abundant wealth. This fear, however, is not confined just to a

specific measure of wealth. It is also the reason which arouses in

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man the love for position and wealth in the hearts of those living far

away from his homeland. For he always expects a reason which

would cause his departure from his own country or which could

cause the departure of those distant people from their country to

his.

Second, by natural disposition each person wants perfection.

Having fallen short of such perfection, the soul does not give up its

desire for it. The soul loves and desires perfection and delights in it

for its own sake and not for any other purpose. It is in this sense

that man instinctively loves controlling things through possessing

the ability to dispose of them. Among these things are money and

belongings but also the hearts and souls of other human beings

which are the most precious of that which exists on earth.

Praiseworthy and blameworthy love of status

You have learnt that the meaning of status is the possession of

hearts and that this is among the [desirable] substances of the

world. That ends with death, and the world is but a sowing-field for

the Afterlife. However, because it is incumbent upon a person to

have a minimum of wealth for the necessities of food and drink, it is

incumbent upon him to have a minimum of status for the necessity

of living with other people. This is because he may need [for

example] a servant, a friend or a teacher. That a person wishes to

have a position in the heart of his servant as he calls the latter to

be at his service is not blameworthy. Nor is it in itself blameworthy

to like having a certain standing in the heart of one's friend in that

this cements the friendship and help him to his advantage.

Status, like wealth, is a means to [worldly] substances and in this

sense there is no difference between the two. To like them in order

to serve the needs of the body is not blameworthy, but to like them

for their essences - in what exceeds the basic necessities of the

body - is blameworthy.

In sum, status is sought in three different ways, two of them being

permissible while one is prohibited. The prohibited way is seeking

to establish a position in people's hearts by making them believe

that one possesses a trait which [in reality] one does not possess,

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such as knowledge, piety or [noble] lineage, and as a consequence

of which people take one to be knowledgeable or pious when one is

not. This way is unlawful because it is a lie and a deceit.

As for the two potentially permissible ways, the first entails seeking

position [in people's hearts] for a trait that one [truly] possesses, as

was the case with [the Prophet] Yusuf -peace be upon him - who

said as reported of him by Allah, exalted is He: {[Joseph] replied:

"Place in my charge the store-houses of the land; behold, I am a

good and knowing keeper”}.[5] [Note that] he asked for this

position owing to his being good and knowledgeable and that he

needed this position, but he was truthful [in attributing goodness

and knowledge to himself]. The second involves concealing a defect

or offence lest discovering it cause the cessation of one's position.

This is also permissible because concealing one's ugly traits is

permissible; to reveal what is concealed [of one’s failings] and to

display one’s repulsive traits is not allowed. There is no deceit in

such behaviour, for it is nothing more than concealing information

which yields no benefit [to others]. It is like the person who

although he hides the fact that he drinks wine nevertheless does

not pretend to be a pious person. But if this person were to claim

that he were pious then he would be committing a deception. The

fact that he does not admit to drinking wine does not imply belief in

his piety, for this [concealment] only prevents knowledge of his

drinking.

Among those acts that are prohibited is perfecting one's prayer in

front of a person so that the latter thinks well of one, for this is

nothing but ostentation. It is also an act of deception because it

gives the other person the impression that one is among those who

are sincere and humble with Allah while one is in fact indulging in

a performance. How can such a one be sincere?

Seeking status through this means is unlawful, and so is seeking

status through any offensive act. Seeking status through an

offensive act is analogous to acquiring unlawful wealth. Just as a

person is not allowed to take possession of someone else's property

by cheating in indemnification or in any other deal, so it is unlawful

to take possession of a person's heart by means of forgery or

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cheating; this because the possession of hearts is a more serious

matter than the possession of properties.

The reason for loving praise and loathing condemnation

We mention this only so that one knows how to treat the love of

status and the fear of condemnation. This is because a cause which

is unknown cannot possibly be treated, for real treatment is

nothing other than ending the causes of the disease.

Know that there are several reasons for the love of status and the

heart's joy in it.

The first and most powerful reason is the soul's sense of perfection;

and we have shown that perfection is cherished. Consequently,

praise makes the praised person's soul feel perfect. Here, a

person's joy is greater when the praise issues from a person who is

knowledgeable and acquainted with these [praised] traits, a person

who would not arbitrarily speak without proper verification. An

example would be a pupil's happiness with his teacher's praise.

[Praise which emanates from such people] is the acme of joy. For

the same reason a person also loathes condemnation, and this

loathing becomes all the greater when the condemnation emanates

from a trusted, knowledgeable person.

Secondly, praise indicates that the heart of the praiser is possessed

by the praised one, and that the former is a follower of the latter.

The possession of hearts is something cherished and the feeling of

its attainability brings joy. Moreover, this joy is greater when the

praise emanates from a person of considerable power, and it

weakens when the one who is praising has no weight. For the same

reason, a person hates condemnation and his heart becomes

offended.

Thirdly, the laudation of the one who is lauding and the praise of

the one who is praising are means for captivating the heart of an

audience, especially if they are among those whose words are

taken into consideration and whose praise is highly valued.

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All these factors might be present in the praise of a single praising

person, so that the joy ensuing from such praise becomes greater.

However, the first joy - the sense of perfection - is abandoned when

the praised one knows that the praising person is not correct, as is

the case when one is praised for being a man of knowledge when

one knows that one is not. And the second joy - taking possession of

the heart of the one who is praising - is also relinquished when one

knows that the one who is praising does not believe in what he

says, and when one knows that one does not truly possess the gifts

that are being praised. In this case, all joys are annulled.

Healing the love of status

The one whose heart is overwhelmed by the love of status devotes

himself completely to playing up to those he is infatuated with so as

to gain their esteem. To this end, he indulges in performances for

their sake, and always pays heed, in his speech and actions, to what

magnifies his standing in their eyes. This is the seed of hypocrisy

and the root of corruption which inevitably lead to making light of

acts of worship, using them for display, and indulging in what is

prohibited for the sake of hunting hearts.

Now, anyone who seeks a position in people's hearts is forced to be

deceitful with them and to display praiseworthy traits that he does

not have; and this is the very essence of hypocrisy. Love of status,

therefore, is among those perils which ought to be healed and

driven from the heart. This because the heart has a natural

propensity for status, just as it is naturally disposed towards the

love of wealth. Its treatment is a synthesis of knowledge and action.

With regard to knowledge, a person should know the reason why he

loves status. This can only be because he seeks full power over

other people and especially their hearts. Even when this is sought

for good and sincere purposes, status will end at death, for it is not

among the everlasting good deeds. Hence, man should never leave

the din, which is the eternal life, for its sake.

Love of status can also be healed by knowing its this-worldly

defects, in essence by contemplating the dangers to which people

of status are exposed. For everyone endowed with status is envied,

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and is always a target of hurt, constantly in fear for his status and

wary that his position in people's hearts might change. Moreover,

such hearts are more prone to change than [the contents of] a

cooking pot when it is boiling, and are always wavering between

responsiveness and avoidance. Hence, anything resting on people’s

hearts is like something built on the waves of the sea: it has no

stability. The preoccupation with paying deference to [other

people's] hearts, protecting one's status, ending others’ sly

resentful envy and obstructing the hurt of one’s enemies, are all

immediate anxieties which disturb the pleasure of status. This is

then the healing [of status] as far as knowledge is concerned.

As for [its healing by means of] action, it consists of finding

intimacy in anonymity and being content with the Creator's

responsiveness by eliminating one's greed for what people have.

Indeed, the content person can dispense with other people, and

once he does so his heart is not preoccupied with them, nor does

establishing his position in their hearts carry any weight. A person

cannot give up seeking status unless he is content and gives up his

greed for what people have. He can, however, seek help in the

hadiths relating to the condemnation of status and the praise of

anonymity [in order to achieve this contentment].

Healing the love of praise

You should know that most people have perished simply because of

their fear of others’ condemnation and their love of others’ praise.

Consequently, all their actions became responses to what pleases

other people so that they could win their praise and avoid their

criticism. Such a state of affairs is lethal and must be treated. In

order to treat it you should ask yourself whether or not you truly

possess the trait that you are praised for. If you do possess it then

this trait is either one that is praised rightly, such as knowledge or

piety, or one that is not praised rightly, such as fortune, status and

all other such worldly substances. If the trait belongs to the

category of worldly substances, then being delighted with it is like

being delighted with the plants of the earth which before long will

turn into chaff, only to be blown away by the wind. This can only be

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attributed to weak mental faculties, for the one endowed with

reason would say, as the poet al-Mutanabbi said long ago:

To me, the sharpest distress lies in a delight

Of whose cessation one is certain.

On the other hand, if the trait is such that a person may rightly be

delighted with it, for example knowledge or piety, then he should

learn not to be so delighted with it because the way in which his

life will be concluded is not known. He may feel delight in

possessing such traits because they bring him nearer to Allah, but

the danger of concluding his life in disobedience to Allah still

remains. The fear of a bad conclusion to one’s life furnishes ample

preoccupation from being delighted with all there is in the world.

As for being delighted by praise for a trait that one does not

possess, this is the height of all folly.

Healing the hate of condemnation

It was indicated earlier that the root cause why people hate being

condemned stands at the opposite of that for love of praise. Its

treatment, therefore, can be understood therein. We should,

however, also say with regard to this question that the one who

condemns you belongs to one of the following three states:

[1] Either he is truthful about what he says and his intention is

offering you good advice, and he desires to benefit you;

[2] Or he is truthful about what he says, but his intention is to hurt

you and to display enmity;

[3] Or he is lying.

Within the first state, if a person is truthful and wants to offer you

good advice you should not be angry with him, condemn him, or

feel rancour towards him. Rather, you should seize his favour

because the one who brings your defects to your attention has

indicated to you a source of danger so that you might avoid it.

Hence, you should be happy with such a person and proceed, if you

can, to remove this blameworthy attribute from yourself. As for any

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distress, hatred or condemnation felt as a result of this person’s

expression, it is nothing but the height of your ignorance.

As for the second context, where a person intends to display

enmity, [know that] you have nevertheless benefited from what he

has said because he has pointed out to you your defect, should you

have been ignorant of it. [Even if you were aware of the defect] he

has nevertheless reminded you of it, in case you had become

heedless of it; and should this defect have become unobjectionable

to you he may have made it look repulsive to you so that your

concern to remove it is reawakened. Either way, these are causes

for your felicity, for you will derive from them benefit. You should,

therefore, occupy yourself with seeking felicity because its means

have been provided to you as a result of the criticism you have

heard. Had you been about to enter upon a king, unknowingly

wearing dirty clothes, and someone shouted at you: “You with the

dirty clothes! Go and clean yourself!”, you would have been

pleased.

The third context relates to criticism directed against you by

someone but from which you are exempt in the sight of Allah,

exalted is He. You should not hate such a person nor should you

occupy yourself with condemning him. Instead, you should ponder

the following three things:

First, even if you are free from the defect which is being attributed

to you, you nevertheless are not free from similar defects, indeed

your defects that Allah has kept concealed are more abundant. You

should, therefore, thank Allah, exalted is He, that He has not

revealed your real defects to this person, and led him instead to

attribute to you something from which you have been protected.

Second, this accusation may act as an atonement for the rest of

your defects; being accused of a defect that you are exempt from

cleanses you from other defects that you are defiled with.

Moreover, anyone who backbites against you has [by his action]

offered you [the outcome of] his good deeds. Why should you feel

sad to receive gifts which bring you closer to Allah, exalted is He?

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Third, the poor person [who falsely accuses you] has harmed

his din to the extent that he made himself fall in the Eyes of Allah

and destroyed himself because of his calumny. Hence you should

not add your anger to Allah’s wrath; nor let Satan be spiteful with

him by causing you to say: “O Allah! Destroy him!” Rather, you

should say: “O Allah! Give him uprightness! O Allah! Please forgive

him!”

It is reported that Ibrahim ibn Adham once invoked Allah to forgive

a man who had fractured his skull. When asked why he did so, he

replied: “I know that I am getting a reward thanks to him and that I

did not get but good from him. Hence I did not want him to be

punished because of me.”

The disparity in people’s responses to praise and criticism

People have four states in relation to the one who praises them and

the one who criticises them:

[1] A person may be delighted with the praise, and thank the

person who is praising him. He hates condemnation, feels a

rancour against the person who condemns him and retaliates

against him or at least wishes to do so. This state represents the

penultimate degree of offence in this context.

[2] A person may inwardly resent a person who condemns him but

refrain from retaliation either in speech or action. Similarly he may

inwardly love the one who praises him and feel comfortable with

him but equally refrain from displaying any outward delight. This is

[a kind of] shortcoming but it is nearer to wholesomeness than is

the preceding state.

[3] Next there comes the first degree of wholeness. A person may

treat with equal indifference both the one who praises him and the

one who condemns him. He is neither grieved by condemnation nor

delighted with praise. Many a devotee may think of himself as

possessing this state, but he will still be conceited if he does not

have the same attitude in all respects with regard to the one who

praises him and the one who condemns him. How rare is such a

state! And how very hard it is for people’s hearts!

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[4] The fourth state, which can be referred to as truthfulness in

worship, is that a person should hate praise and detest the person

who praises him because he knows that such a person is a [cause

of] tribulation that may cause subversion and damage to his din. He

should also love the person who condemns him because he knows

that it is to his advantage to have his defects identified, as it draws

attention to what is beneficial to him.

However, all that people like ourselves can aspire to is the second

state.

Section II: Ostentation [riya’]

Condemning ostentation

‘Ostentation’ is seeking status and position by means of acts of

worship. Ostentation is unlawful, and the ostentatious person is

loathed by Allah. This is evidenced by the verses of the Qur’an, the

traditions of the Prophet - peace be upon him - and the traditions of

his Companions and their successors.

Within the Qur’an, Allah, exalted is He, says: {Woe, then, unto

those praying ones whose hearts from their prayer are remote -

those who want only to be seen and praised}[6]. {... But as for

those who cunningly devise evil deeds - suffering severe awaits

them; and all their devising is bound to come to nought.}[7]

[Commenting on this verse] Mujahid said that these were the

ostentatious. Allah, exalted is He, also says: {... “We feed you for

the sake of God alone: we desire no recompense from you, nor

thanks...”}.[8] [In this verse,] Allah praises the sincere by denying

[their aspiration for] any wish except the sake of Allah, whereas

ostentation is the exact opposite. Allah, exalted is He, also says:

{... Hence, whosoever looks forward [with hope and awe] to

meeting his Sustainer, let him do righteous deeds, and let him not

ascribe unto anyone or anything a share in the worship due to his

Sustainer}.[9]

Concerning the traditions of the Prophet - peace be upon him -, it is

reported that he - peace be upon him - said: “Whosoever acts with

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the intention of being heard or seen by people, Allah will cause him

to be heard or seen by them but he will not receive His

reward.”[10] The Prophet - peace be upon him - also said: “The

worst I fear for you is minor associationism (al-shirk al-asghar)”.

“What is minor associationism, O Messenger of Allah?” they asked.

He replied: “[It is] ostentation; Allah, glorified is He, will say on the

Day of Judgement when He repays the servants for their deeds: ‘Go

to those with whom you were ostentatious in the world and see

whether you find reward with them.’”[11] He - peace be upon him -

also said: “Allah, glorified and exalted is He, says: ‘Whosoever

performs a deed for My sake but associates in it someone else with

Me, that deed will be entirely for the latter; I disavow the doer and

I absolutely dispense with associationism.’”[12] The Prophet -

peace be upon him - also said: “Allah will extend His mercy [on the

Day of Judgement] to seven [kinds of people]”, and he mentioned

among them: “... a man who gave alms and concealed his act so

that his left hand would not know what his right hand had

given.”[13]

As to the traditions of the Companions and their successors, it is

reported that `Umar ibn al-Khattab - may Allah be pleased with him

– once saw a man bending his head [in prayer], so he said: “O you

with the head! Lift your head up, for humility does not lie in heads

but in hearts.” Abu Umama al-Bahili - may Allah be pleased with

him - saw a man at the mosque crying in his prostration, so he said

to him: “What a virtuous person you could have been if only this

[crying] had taken place in [the privacy of] your house.” And al-

Fudayl ibn `Iyad said: “People used to be ostentatious with deeds

they [truly] performed, but now they are ostentatious with deeds

they do not perform at all.” And `Ikrima said: “Allah gives more

reward for the bondsman’s intention than He does for his action

because there can be no ostentation in intention.”

The essence of ostentation and its manifestations

The Arabic word for ostentation (riya’) is derived from ‘seeing’

(ru’ya), and the basis of ostentation is seeking position in people’s

hearts by showing them good virtues. Nevertheless, status and

position in the heart may be sought by means other than acts of

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worship just as they are also sought through acts of worship. [The

word] ‘ostentation’ (riya’) is restricted through common usage only

to seeking position in [people’s] hearts by means of acts of worship

and their display. Thus, the definition of ostentation is: ‘seeking

bondsmen by means of [displaying] obedience to Allah.’ The person

who is ostentatious is the worshipper [who displays his worship].

Manifestations of this ostentation are the virtues which the

ostentatious mean to display, and the ostentation itself is their

intent to display these virtues.

Although the manifestations of ostentation are abundant, they can

all be gathered together in five divisions which sum up all the ways

in which a person can show off to others. These five divisions are:

the body, attire, speech, action, followers and the external things.

Worldly people do indeed display ostentation through these five

means, but seeking status through non-worshipping acts is less

serious than seeking it by means of acts of worship.

The first division is being ostentatious in din through the body, by

showing a thinness and paleness to give the impression that one is

striving hard, that one is greatly concerned with the din and is

overwhelmed by fear of the Afterlife. By means of such thinness a

person gives the impression that he eats little, and by his paleness

he gives the impression that he stays awake at night, strives hard

[to perform acts of worship] and that he is deeply concerned for the

commandments of the din.

The second division is being ostentatious through outward

appearance and attire. As for the outward appearance, it is done by

dishevelling the hair to give the impression that one is fully

absorbed in one’s concern for din and that one lacks the time to

comb one’s hair or trim the moustache. It is also done by lowering

the head when walking, showing a calmness in movement, leaving

the mark which is caused by [repeated] prostration on the brow,

wearing rough clothes and rolling them up nearly to the thigh,

shortening the sleeves and not cleaning one’s clothes. All these acts

are done to give the impression that one follows the sunna and

imitates Allah’s righteous bondsmen. The ostentatious through

attire belong to different categories, each of which identifies his

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standing by means of a specific attire and thus finds it difficult to

change for what is best or even worse, even if it is permissible, lest

people say: ‘he chose asceticism but has given up that path and

sought the world’.

The third division is ostentation through speech. The ostentation of

the folk of din is achieved in the form of preaching, reminding

[others], pronouncing [words of] wisdom and memorising the

traditions of the Prophet - peace be upon him -, and those of his

Companions and their successors, when the intent behind all this is

to display erudition and to.givethe impression that one pays great

attention to the states of the righteous salaf. Such people pretend

to be immersed in the remembrance [of Allah] in the presence of

other people, display their anger against objectionable matters that

take place and pretend to be sorry for offences committed by

people. Ostentation by speech abounds and its different

manifestations are beyond demarcation.

The fourth division is ostentation through action. Such is the case

with the one who performs the prayer (salat) and who stands a long

time [in each unit of prayer], who prolongs his bowing and

prostration, lowers his head and makes a show of serenity. This

behaviour also involves other acts of worship such as

fasting, jihad, hajj, almsgiving, displays of humility when one is

walking or meeting [someone else], and speaking in a dignified

manner. Some people even force themselves to walk in a dignified

manner whilst on their own; this so that they do not have to alter

their gait when they are seen by others. In this way their

ostentation is total, for they have become ostentatious even in

solitude.

The fifth division is being ostentatious through one’s friends,

visitors and acquaintances. Such is the case with the one who goes

through much difficulty in order to make a man of knowledge visit

him so that it can be said: ‘so-and-so has visited so-and-so’; or such

as the person who works hard to achieve a visit from a devotee

(`abid) so that it can be said that a pious man has been blessed

with his visit. Or the one who often mentions the men of knowledge

so that it can.be said that he has met many and received benefit

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from them, all of which serves him as a means to taking pride in

himself.

[The legal ruling on ostentation]

Were you to ask: ‘Is ostentation unlawful, reprehensible or

permissible? Or is there some need for elaboration?’,I would

answer as follows. If a person is ostentatious by means of things

other than acts of worship then this attitude should be viewed in

the same manner as seeking wealth. As such, it is not prohibited to

seek position in bondsmen’s hearts. However, just as it is possible

to acquire wealth by deception and through forbidden means, so

too is it possible to acquire status by the same; and just as it is

praiseworthy for a man to acquire some wealth for which he is in

need, so too may it be praiseworthy to acquire some status with

which one can avoid some misfortune. It was for this reason that

Yusuf - peace be upon him - asked [for status] when he said: {... I

shall be a good and knowing keeper}.[14] Owing to this we would

say that refining the clothes that a man wears when he meets

people is [a kind of] ostentation, but it is not of the unlawful type,

for it is ostentation through [a substance of] the world and not

through acts of worship. Analogous to this are all the

embellishments and outward beautifications that people choose.

They are permissible even if such embellishments and refinements

are done in order that one look good in other people’s eyes, avoid

their blame and condemnation and find gratification in their

respect. For a man has the right to avoid the pain engendered by

condemnation and to seek the tranquillity of intimacy with his

brothers.

Hence, to be ostentatious by means of acts which are not acts of

worship may be permissible, as this can be an act of obedience [to

Allah]. It may also, however, be a blameworthy act, depending on

the aim through which one seeks to obtain it. In this respect, we

should say that if a man spends his wealth on a group of wealthy

people not as an act of charity or worship but only so that people

believe that he is generous, then he is guilty of an ostentatious act,

but it is not in itself unlawful, just as all similar instances are not

unlawful.

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If ostentation is displayed through acts of worship such as

almsgiving, prayer, fasting and hajj, then the person who is

ostentatious falls into one of two cases:

First, there is he who by his acts seeks nothing but absolute

ostentation, and not reward [from Allah]. In this case his [act of]

worship is void, for actions depend on intentions and his intention

was not worship. Such an act does not simply nullify the worship,

leaving one to assume that the ostentatious person remains as free

of sin as he was before performing this act. No, the ostentatious

person in this respect is sinning and offending, as is indicated by

the verses of the Qur’an and the traditions of the Prophet - peace

be upon him - and those of his Companions and their successors.

There are two issues regarding this. Firstly, people imagine that

the ostentatious person is sincere, that he is obedient to Allah and

that he is of the folk of din, whereas in fact he is not. Deceiving in

the affairs of the world [it must be remembered] is also unlawful.

Secondly, by seeking Allah’s bondsmen through worship of Allah,

exalted is He, the ostentatious person is mocking Him. An example

of this is the servant who spends an entire day in the presence of a

king, as is the servants’ habit, but his presence there is only to

watch one of the king’s concubines. This servant is mocking the

king, for he did not draw near to serve him, but rather his goal was

one of the king’s slaves. Can there be anything more contemptible

on the part of the bondsman than harbouring an intent through

worship of Allah, exalted is He, to show off to a weak person who

holds neither benefit nor harm for him? Is this not proof that the

ostentatious person thinks that this person is more capable of

fulfilling his goals than Allah; and that he is more deserving to get

near to than Allah, for he prefers him to the King of kings and has

made him the goal of his worship? This, indeed, is among the major

perils, and it is because of this that the Messenger - peace be upon

him - called it ‘minor associationism’.

Secondly, there is he who does not intend to draw near to Allah,

intending to draw near to other than Him. Upon my life! If such a

person were to glorify anyone other than Allah, through prostrating

to him, he would be committing plain disbelief (kufr). Moreover,

ostentation is a hidden disbelief, because the ostentatious person

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has glorified other people in his heart, and in some aspect, it is as if

these other people are glorified when the ostentatious person

prostrates. To the extent that the glorification of Allah through

prostration ceases and glorification of other people remains, this

amounts to something like associationism.

Such a state of affairs is the pinnacle of ignorance and none shall

engage in it except the one whom Satan has deceived; the one

whom Satan has deceived into believing that bondsmen have more

ability than Allah, exalted is He, to harm him, benefit him, provide

him with sustenance and control his life-span.

Degrees of ostentation

Some avenues of ostentation are graver and more serious than

others, and the difference in ostentation is due to the difference of

its pillars and degrees. There are three pillars of ostentation,

namely: the object of the ostentation, the purpose of the

ostentation and the intention of the ostentation itself.

The first pillar: the intention of ostentation

The intention behind any ostentation has itself four degrees:

The first, which is the most serious, is where a person does not

initially intend to gain any reward [from Allah for his action], such

as the one who prays when in the company of others so that if he

were alone he would never perform the prayer; or even prays with

the people but without performing the ritual ablution. Such a

person is fully intent upon ostentation and is loathed by Allah,

exalted is He. This is the most extreme degree of ostentation.

The second is where the person intends to gain some reward [from

Allah for his action] but his intention is weak in the sense that if he

were alone he would not perform this action, nor would his

intention to gain [His] reward drive him otherwise to perform such

an action. This person is similar to the preceding one, and his

intention to gain Allah’s reward will neither abolish the offence nor

Allah’s loathing.

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The third degree is where a person is intent on gaining Allah’s

reward and also ostentation, but both purposes are equal in such a

way that were either of these intentions to be absent he would not

be prompted to perform the action in the first place. Only when

both intentions are brought together is this person’s desire [for

performing the action] aroused. Alternatively, it could be the case

that this person equally intends to obtain [Allah’s] reward and be

ostentatious, but the presence of either intention is sufficient for

him to perform the action. The act of corruption that such a person

effects is equal to the benefit he brings forth. We hope that such a

person will [on the Day of Judgement], be simply acquitted, neither

possessing a surplus of rewards nor punished for excess sin, or that

his reward will equal his sins. Nevertheless, the apparent meaning

of the traditions [on this issue] indicates that a person recurrently

in this state will not attain salvation.

The fourth is where people’s knowledge [of the performance of an

act of worship] favours and enhances a person’s resolve [to

perform it], although were they to be ignorant of it he would still

not abstain from the performance of that worship. Furthermore,

had he solely intended ostentation, he would not have undertaken

that act in the first place. We think, and Allah alone knows best,

that this person will not be entirely deprived of reward but will not

be given it in full; or he might be punished in accordance with the

extent of his ostentatious intent and rewarded in accordance with

the extent of his intention to gain Allah’s reward. As for the saying

of the Prophet -peace be upon him -: “Allah, exalted is He, says: ‘...

I absolutely dispense with associationism;’”[15] this should be

understood as referring to the instances where the intent for

achieving Allah’s reward and the intent for being ostentatious are

equal in strength, or where the intent to show off is stronger.

The second pillar: the object of ostentation

This refers to acts of obedience, and can be divided into two

categories:

(i) Being ostentatious through the principles of acts of worship.

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(ii) Being ostentatious with the outward performance of acts of

worship.

The first category, which is the more serious of the two, entailing

displays of ostentation through principles, has three degrees:

The first degree is ostentation in relation to the principle of faith

(iman), which is the most serious form of ostentation. The ones who

practise it will be cast into Hell for eternity; amongst them will be

the one who utters the shahada in public while inwardly being filled

with disbelief, the one who simply shows off his compliance to the

outward form of Islam. It is to this type of ostentation that Allah,

exalted is He, refers to time and again in His Book, such as by His

saying, glorified and exalted is He: {When the hypocrites come

unto thee, they say, “We bear witness that thou art indeed God’s

Apostle!” But God knows that thou art truly His Apostle; and He

bears witness that the hypocrites are indeed false.}[16] {Now

there is a kind of man whose views on the life of this world may

please thee greatly, and [the more so as] he cites God as witness to

what is in his heart and is, moreover, exceedingly skilful in

argument. But whenever he prevails, he goes about the earth

spreading corruption and destroying [man’s] tilth and progeny...}

[17] {... And when they meet you, they assert, “We believe [as you

believe]”; but when they find themselves alone, they gnaw their

fingers in rage against you ...}[18] {... They rise reluctantly, only to

be seen and praised by men, remembering God but seldom,

wavering between this and that.}[19]

In the early days of Islam hypocrisy abounded, for there were

people who would embrace Islam outwardly only to achieve some

of their own goals. Nowadays, this phenomenon is less common.

However, the hypocrisy of those who inwardly slip away from

the din, and deny [the reality of] Paradise, Hell and the abode of

the Afterlife still abounds, as is the case with heretics. The

hypocrisy of those who suspend the authority of the shari`a and the

legal ordinances, as is the case with the antinomianists, still

abounds, as does the hypocrisy of those who believe in kufr or

innovation but who pretend the opposite. This is the summit of

hypocrisy and ostentation, and the hypocrites and ostentatious of

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this type will be eternally cast into Hell. Moreover, the condition of

such people is worse than that of the disbelievers who openly

declare their disbelief; this because they have combined inward

disbelief with outward hypocrisy.

The second degree is being ostentatious with the principles of acts

of worship while still believing in the principle of the din. This is

also a grave matter with regard to Allah, but it is significantly less

serious than the first [degree]. An example of this would be the

man who asks the person who acquired his property to pay

thezakat due from it, for fear that the latter might condemn him,

but Allah knows that had the property remained in his possession

he would not have given thezakat out. This person is ostentatious.

He possesses the principle of believing in Allah and believes that

there is none worthy of worship except Him. Had he been asked to

worship any other than Allah or to prostrate himself to other than

Him he would have refused. But such a person also abstains from

performing acts of worship because of his laziness, and is in

invigorated only when people see his acts. This person’s standing

with his fellowman is dearer to him than his position with his

Creator. It is the height of ignorance, and the one who behaves

thus deserves loathing even though he has not slipped away from

the principle of faith as far as belief (i`tiqad) is concerned.

The third degree does not entail displays of ostentation through

belief or [religious] obligations but rather in relation to

supererogatory acts and the sunnas (which if a person were to

leave he would not be sinning). In other words, this person is lazy

in the performance of these acts when alone but performs them

when in the company of others. Allah knows that were this person

to be alone he would never have performed more than what is

obligatory upon him.

This also is a serious matter, but less serious than the two degrees

which preceded it, and it further seems to be a ramification of the

second degree. The punishment for such behaviour is half the

punishment of the second degree of ostentation.

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The second category is ostentation through the outward

performance of acts of worship and not with its principles, and this

is also divided into three degrees.

The first entails displaying ostentation through a deed the

abstention from which constitutes a deficiency in the [act of]

worship. An example would be the person who intends to shorten

his prostration or bowing and curtail his recitation [during prayer],

and only when people see him does he perfect the bowing,

prostration and the sitting position between the two prostrations.

This is also [a form] of prohibited ostentation because it gives

precedence to one’s fellowmen over the Creator, but it is less

serious than ostentation through the principles of entire

supererogatory acts.

The second entails displaying ostentation through a deed the

abstention from which does not constitute a deficiency, but the

undertaking of which is considered to complete and perfect a

person’s worship, such as prolonging the bowing and prostration,

assuming an upright posture (i`tidal) [with each act in prayer], and

reading more from the Qur’an [than is usual].

The third degree entails displaying ostentation through acts which

do not belong to the supererogatory category such as attending

prayer in congregation well before other people [arrive at the

mosque], standing in the first row and praying on the right side of

the imam.

These are, then, the degrees of ostentation which relate to the

objects through which ostentation is undertaken. Some of them are

worse than others; but all are blameworthy.

The third pillar: the purpose of ostentation

In displaying ostentation, the person doing so has inevitably a

purpose, such as obtaining wealth, status or some other goal. Such

a purpose also has three degrees:

The first, which is the worst and most pernicious, is where a person

displays ostentation in order to be in a position to commit an

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offence. Such is the case of the one who is ostentatious through his

acts of worship, who pretends to be pious and righteous by

multiplying his supererogatory acts and who abstains from taking

properties emanating from doubtful sources, only to be known as a

trustworthy person. Once entrusted with the office of judgeship

(qada’), [public] endowments (awqaf), trusts and bequests

(wasaya), the properties of orphans (mal al-aytam) or mortgage

pledges (wada’i`) he will abuse his position and will embezzle

money for his own use. Some even wear the attire of Sufis and

assume postures of humility when their whole aim is simply to draw

near to a woman.

This type of ostentatious person is the most loathed by Allah,

exalted is He, because he has used obedience to his Sustainer as a

ladder to offend against Him, and has taken this obedience as a

tool, store and commodity for his sinfulness.

The second degree is where a person aims at obtaining worldly

gain that is in itself lawful, for example property or marriage. An

example would be the man who shows how he has suffered

affliction, and undertakes the admonition and reminding of people

so that he be given money and so that women will desire to marry

him. This kind of ostentation is prohibited, for it entails seeking a

substance of this worldly life through obedience to Allah; but it is

less grave than the previous degree.

The third degree is where a person does not intend to obtain a

worldly gain or wealth, but rather displays his worship for fear that

he may be thought of as defective and not of the elite and ascetics.

Here one would include the person who [usually] walks in a hurried

manner but when he is seen by others walks slowly and with

gravamen, lest it be said that he does not belong to the community

of serious believers. One would likewise include he who joins

others in the tarawih ortahajjud prayers for fear that he be accused

of laziness and classified as one of the commoners. These too are

among the pitfalls of ostentation, for the sincere believer does not

care how his fellowmen look at him.

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All these degrees of ostentation and ranks of different types of

eyeservice are exposed to Allah’s wrath and loathing, exalted is He.

Furthermore, ostentation is one of the severest causes of peril; so

great is its severity that it contains pitfalls that are more hidden

than the creeping of ants.

The ostentation which is more hidden than the creeping of ants

Ostentation may be either ‘apparent’ or ‘hidden’. The apparent type

is that which moves and entices a person to perform an action,

even if he seeks [Allah’s] reward, and this is the most apparent

form of ostentation. Ostentation which is of a slightly hidden nature

is that which in itself does not drive a person to perform an act but

which nonetheless eases that action for him by which he seeks the

face of Allah. Here, one would include the person who is used to

constantly praying in the depths of the night (tahajjud), and who

finds it difficult to do so, but who when he has a guest becomes

invigorated and thereby finds the practice easier. Yet, this person

still knows that had it not been for the expectation of reward from

Allah he would not have prayed simply out of a desire to impress

his guest.

A more hidden type of ostentation is that which neither affects the

action nor makes it easy on the doer, yet is still harboured in the

heart. For as long as it does not affect the motive for action, this

type of ostentation cannot be noticed except by certain signs. The

most apparent sign is when a person is pleased that other people

take notice of his acts of worship. For there are many bondsmen

who are sincere in their actions, who do not wish to be

ostentatious, and in fact hate it, but who, when others notice their

actions, are pleased and contented. Such pleasure implies a hidden

ostentation, for had these people’s hearts not been turned towards

others their pleasure would not have materialised when their

actions were noticed.

If these people feel pleasure when others take notice of their

actions and if they do not react disapprovingly against these

feelings, they will become a source of nourishment and supply for

their hidden disposition towards ostentation. This hidden

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ostentation will continue to grow within them, driving them, albeit

subtly, towards means through which their actions are allusively

noticed, even though they do not themselves aim for any open

declaration of ostentation. It might also be that these people do not

call others to notice their actions whether through allusion or by

open declaration, but instead do so via outward manifestations of

habit, for example by displaying thinness, paleness, lowering their

voice, tear-stained faces and revealing signs of sleepiness to give

the impression that they pray at length at night .

Even more hidden than this is the case where a person hides away

and does not wish people to notice his action and indeed would be

unhappy if they were to notice it. Despite all this, however, he likes

others to greet him first, to respect him and be cheerful with him

whenever he encounters them, and equally becomes vexed if he is

neglected by others. Now, had it not been for this person’s previous

practice of pious deeds, he would not have found it unlikely that

people would be neglectful of him. Moreover, if the practice of an

act of worship in relation to others is not equal to its non-practice

then the person performing the act is not content with Allah’s

knowledge of it, and thus is not immune from the hidden blemish of

ostentation, that which is ‘more hidden than the creeping of ants’.

The sincere are always wary of hidden ostentation, making an

effort to dupe people about their good acts and concealing them

more than others insist upon hiding their vices, all in the hope that

their righteous deeds may be sincere. Allah will reward them on the

Day of Judgement for their sincerity that was open in front of

people, because they knew that Allah will not accept on that Day

any act except that which is sincerely accomplished for His sake.

[On that Day] neither property nor progeny will be of any avail; it

will be a Day when a father will not give ransom for his son and

when even the truthful will be preoccupied with themselves, each

one saying: “Me, me!”

Indeed, the pitfalls of hidden ostentation are multifarious and

beyond count.

Delighting in the disclosure of a pious deed

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If you were to say: “But no one can escape feeling delight when his

pious deeds are disclosed, therefore is delighting to be condemned

entirely or only partially?”, know that such delighting can be either

praiseworthy or blameworthy. As for that which is praiseworthy, it

can be divided into four categories.

First, a person’s aim may be to hide his good act and to be sincere

to Allah. However, when others learn of his act he will know also

that it was Allah Who disclosed it to them and that it was He Who

revealed his good. Hence this person takes this disclosure as

implying Allah’s good treatment of him and His care about him, for

He concealed his sins and disclosed his good deeds. Consequently,

this person becomes delighted only at Allah’s good treatment of

him, and not as a result of anyone else’s praise of him or because

he has acquired a position in their hearts.

Second is the person who deduces from Allah’s good treatment of

him and His concealment of his repulsive deeds in this world that

Allah will treat him in the same way in the life-to-come. For Allah’s

Messenger - peace be upon him - said: “Allah shall not conceal a

bondsman’s sin in this world without concealing it in the

Afterlife.”[20] Hence this person’s delight is as a result of this.

Third, a person might think that those to whom his good action is

disclosed will want to emulate it. Consequently his reward will

multiply, for he will be rewarded for what he disclosed at a later

stage and also rewarded for concealing what he initially intended.

Expecting this is deserving of delight.

Fourth, those to whom the good act is disclosed may praise the

doer for that act. He will be delighted at their pious deed, which is

accomplished by praising him and showing love to such an obedient

person, and also for the inclination of their own hearts towards

obedience of Allah. Here the sign of sincerity is that a person is just

as delighted at people praising others as he is when they praise

him.

As for that delight which is blameworthy, know that it is a person’s

delight for the rising of his position in other people’s heart so that

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they praise, love, and revere him, attend to his needs and treat him

with deference. This type of delight is blameworthy.

And Allah, exalted is He, knows best.

Ostentation that thwarts one’s deeds, and ostentation which does not

When a bondsman is resolved to perform an act of worship with

sincerity but then senses the insinuation of ostentation, this

insinuation can occur either before or after completing the act. If

he feels a simple delight at the disclosure of the act after

completing it but does not show this delight, then the act is not

invalidated, for the act itself was initially carried out with sincerity

and was free from ostentation. It is further hoped that what takes

place after completing the act does not have an effect, especially if

the bondsman does not make an effort to show or speak about his

deed. In this instance, the act’s disclosure coincides with Allah’s

wanting it to be known. What the bondsman himself has done is

simply to experience a delight and comfort in his own heart.

True, if the person were to feel a desire to disclose his act, to show

and speak about it after he initially carried it out with sincerity and

without any ostentatious intent, then he ought to fear for himself.

But if the insinuation of ostentation takes place before completing

the prayer, for instance, even though the person is initially sincere,

then the delight that might be felt as a result can be either one that

does not affect the act, or the kind of ostentation that drives a

person to act. If it is the latter, and the person completes his act of

worship with the same disposition, his reward will be nullified.

However, if the insinuation of ostentation does not prevent him

from intending to complete the act for the sake of achieving

[Allah’s] reward, then it will not invalidate the action. That is,

provided that its effect is not reflected on the action itself, that the

undertaking of the action remains motivated by the din, and that

the delight that this person feels is just supplemented. The action is

not invalidated in this case because this person’s initial intent is not

nullified, and it was this intention which motivated him and drove

his action in the first place.

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The cure of ostentation and treatment of the heart

From what has been indicated above, you will realise that

ostentation thwarts action, that it is a cause for Allah’s loathing,

exalted is He, and that it is one of the qualities which lead to peril.

Therefore it is right that one’s zeal should be turned to removing it,

even [if this can only be done] through effort and hardship. This

because there is no recovery except through swallowing a bitter

medicine, and this is one type of striving to which all people are

forced. None can do without this strife, and although it is initially

hard, it becomes easier. There are two stages in the treatment of

ostentation: eradicating its roots and sources, and driving away

that which occurs immediately.

The first stage is the eradication of roots and sources. The basis of

this vice is love of position and status. Namely, the joy of being

praised, escape from the pain of condemnation, and desiring what

other people possess.

That these are the causes of ostentation and the motive which

drives the ostentatious is substantiated by the report of Abu Musa

where a Bedouin asked the Prophet - peace be upon him: “O

Messenger of Allah! A man who fights driven by hamiyya (i.e. he

resents being defeated or condemned as being defeated or beaten),

a man who fights to acquire position (one who seeks the joy of

status and esteem in others’ hearts), and a man who fights so that

he be talked about (one who enjoys the verbal praises of others),

are they fighting for the sake of Allah?”.He - peace be upon him -

replied: “Whosoever fights so that Allah’s Word prevails is fighting

for the sake of Allah.”[21]

These three things are what drive the ostentatious to play up to

others, and the cure is that which was identified in the first section

of this book.[22] Here, we will mention only that which is particular

to ostentation. It is obvious that a human being seeks and desires

something only if he thinks that in that thing lies his good, and that

it is beneficial and delightful. If he realises that this thing is

immediately delightful, but subsequently harmful, it is easy for him

to give up his desire for it.

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So, if a person were to realise the harmful effect of ostentation, and

what he will miss in terms of his heart’s uprightness and what he

will be deprived of in terms of immediate success and of rank in the

eyes of Allah in the hereafter and his exposure to great

chastisement, severe loathing and outright disgrace, [he will

consequently avoid ostentation]. For so long as a bondsman

meditates on this disgrace, compares what he will get from other

people with what he is going to miss in the Afterlife and compares

this with the thwarted reward of his actions, knowing that a single,

sincere act might preponderate in the balance of his good deeds,

and that if it is corrupted with ostentation it will be transferred to

his offences, then he will realise that had there been in ostentation

nothing except the thwarting of a single devotional act, that would

be enough to make its harm plain. Furthermore, if his good deeds

preponderate he will obtain high rank in the sight of Allah, exalted

is He. Moreover, why should a person seek others’ praise and

Allah’s condemnation when he knows that the praise of others will

add neither to his sustenance nor his life-span? Nor will their

praise benefit him at the time of his extreme need and poverty on

the Day of Judgement.

As for desiring what other people possess, this can be dealt with by

realising that it is Allah, exalted is He, Who commands people’s

hearts to give or hold back, that people in this respect are not free,

that there is no Lord except Allah, and that a person who covets

what other people have will not reap anything except humiliation

and disappointment. So how can someone then leave what is with

Allah for false fancy and ill-founded expectation?

As for other people’s condemnation, why should anyone be wary of

it? Other people’s condemnation of one will not add anything that

Allah has not already decreed. Nor will such condemnation hasten

the end of one’s life-span or delay one’s sustenance.

If a person inwardly admits the defect and damage of these causes,

his desire will slacken, and he will be wholeheartedly devoted to

Allah, for a person endowed with reason will not desire something

whose harm is great and whose benefit is small.

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Moreover, at the beginning of this chapter we expounded upon the

cures related to knowledge which uproot the very foundations of

ostentation. As for a practical cure, this consists of accustoming

oneself to concealing acts of worship and not disclosing them to

others, just as one would not disclose one’s bad habits. This is

because there is no cure for ostentation like concealment.

The second stage involves driving away the insinuation of

ostentation that comes to mind while performing devotional acts.

This also needs to be learnt, because even a person who strives

against himself, who eradicates the foundations of ostentation from

his heart by means of contentment, elimination of greed, not

seeking others’ esteem, and showing contempt for others’ praise

and condemnation, will not be spared by Satan when he is

practising devotional acts. On the contrary, Satan will expose him

to the insinuations of ostentation, and his incitement to evil will not

stop. Furthermore, the soul’s caprice and its inclination [to seek

others’ praise] cannot be completely effaced. Hence it is necessary

that a person’s zeal be turned towards driving away whatever such

insinuations come into his consciousness.

Such insinuations of ostentation are threefold. They may either

come to mind in one go, or present themselves in succession.

The first insinuation concerns knowing that others have taken

notice of one’s action and hoping that they might take notice of it.

This is then followed by the soul’s strong desire for other people’s

praise and for obtaining a position amongst them. This is followed

by a strong desire for the soul to accept it, to be confident with it

and to be resolved to achieve it. The first is a state of awareness

(ma`rifa), the second is a state of pleasure and desire, and the third

is an intention and resolve.

The greatest form of strength lies in suppressing the first

insinuation and driving it away before it is followed by the second.

If this occurs, the person concerned should drive such notions away

by considering that regardless of whether other people know about

his act or not, Allah nevertheless knows his state. So what benefit is

there in other people’s knowledge of his act?

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If a person longs for the joy of being praised, he should remember

the defect of ostentation which permeated his heart before, and

remember his exposure to Allah’s loathing on Judgement Day.

Knowledge of the defects of ostentation will arouse a dislike

capable of opposing that desire. Desire calls him to accept

ostentation, while dislike calls him to reject it, and the soul will

inevitably obey that which is stronger and overwhelming. Hence, in

order to drive away ostentation one needs [to be able to recognise]

three things: namely, an awareness, a dislike and a rejection.

Rejection is the result of dislike, and dislike is the result of

awareness.

You may ask this question: ‘[What about] someone who dislikes

ostentation and rejects it, but who is nevertheless still not free from

an inclination towards it, a love of it and an inner fight against it?

This even though he dislikes such love and inclination. Is this

person still to be counted among the ostentatious?’

[In response] you should know that Allah has charged His servant

only with what he can endure, and it is not in the servant’s power

to stop Satan’s evil insinuations, nor to suppress any natural

disposition to the point that he does not incline towards desire. All

that a person is required to do is to meet his desire with a dislike,

and if he does so, then he has accomplished the goal behind

fulfilling what he is [legally] bound with.

This is evidenced by the Companions’ complaints to the Prophet -

peace be upon him. One of them once said: “It would be better for

us to be thrown down from the sky than to repeat some of the

things that occur to our hearts.” The Prophet - peace be upon him -

asked: “Does this occur to you?” “Yes!” he replied. “That is the

solid iman”, he replied.[23] [Note that] they experienced only evil

insinuations and felt a dislike for them. Now, it cannot be said that

the Prophet - peace be upon him - referred to these insinuations as

‘the concrete iman’. Therefore, the only interpretation of the

meaning of this expression is that it refers to having devilish

insinuations which one follows with a dislike.

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Despite being vile, ostentation is less grave than devilish

insinuations with regard to Allah, exalted is He. Now, if the harm of

something vile is driven away by simple dislike, what is less serious

is more likely to be easily driven away by the same.

[Wariness of Satan]

If you were to say: ‘One cannot be safe from Satan’s evil

insinuations; therefore, should one be on guard before he is present

so that one might be wary of him? Or, should one rely on Allah so

that He be the One Who drives him away? Or, should one busy

oneself with worship and forget about him?’

With regard to these questions three different opinions are held. A

group [of scholars] from Basra were of the opinion that the

[spiritually] strong do without such a wariness of Satan, because

they have devoted themselves to Allah and have preoccupied

themselves with His love, and as a result Satan leaves them alone,

having despaired of them. Another group [of scholars] from the

Levant held the view that vigilance, in wariness of Satan, is

necessary only for those whose certainty [in Allah] is weak and

whose reliance [tawakkul] is lacking. This is because the one who

has certainty that there is no partner with Allah in His providence

will not be wary of any other than Allah, exalted and glorified is He.

Yet another group of scholars advanced the view that wariness of

Satan is indispensable, and that the Basran opinion is almost

tantamount to a satanic deception. This because the Prophets

themselves - peace be upon them - were not immune from Satan’s

enticements and evil insinuations, so how could others be immune

from these things?

Furthermore, not all evil insinuations concern pleasures and love of

the world; they can also be about God’s attributes and names, and

about innovations, misguidance and other things. No-one is

immune from the danger of such things, which is why Allah, exalted

is He, says: {Yet whenever We sent forth any apostle or prophet

before thee, and he was hoping [that his warning would be

heeded], Satan would cast an aspersion on his innermost aims: but

God renders null and void whatever aspersion Satan may cast; and

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God makes His messages clear in and by themselves - for He is all-

knowing, wise}.[24] And the Prophet - peace be upon him - said:

“My heart does sometimes feel slackness and heedlessness ...”,

[25] and this despite the fact that his shaytan had become a Muslim

and would not command him to do anything except that which was

good.

Now, anyone who thinks that his preoccupation with the love of

Allah is greater than that of Allah’s Messenger - peace be upon him

- and that of all the prophets - peace be upon them - is in the grip of

vainglory. Even in their complete immersion in divine love, none of

these people felt immune from Satan’s ruse. It is for this reason

that Adam and Eve were not spared it [even] in Paradise which is

the very abode of peace and joy. Furthermore, Musa, peace be

upon him, said, as reported by Allah, exalted is He-: {... “This is of

Satan’s doing!”...};[26] and this is why Allah warns all His

creatures against him when He, exalted is He, says: {O children of

Adam! Do not allow Satan to seduce you in the same way as he

caused your ancestors to be driven out of the Garden...}.

[27] Moreover, the whole Qur’an, from beginning to end, is a

warning against Satan; and this being the case, how can anyone be

safe from him?

On the other hand, a wariness of Satan does not contradict one’s

preoccupation with the love of Allah, as part of this love is to obey

Allah’s command, exalted is He, to be wary of unbelievers and of

Satan. Nor does this wariness of Satan contradict complete

reliance [on Allah, exalted is He].

Wearing armour, using weapons, gathering an army and digging a

trench did not impair the reliance [tawakkul] of Allah’s Messenger -

peace be upon him - so how can taking guard from that which Allah

has warned against impair reliance on Him? This is the opinion of

al-Harith al-Muhasibi - may Allah have mercy on his soul - and it is

the right opinion which is attested to by the light of knowledge,

whereas other opinions seem to be the words of servants whose

knowledge was not vast.

Revealing one’s devotional acts as a legal concession (rukhsa)

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In keeping one’s acts secret there is the benefit of sincerity and

safety from ostentation, while in revealing them there is the benefit

of inspiring imitation and awakening other people’s desire to do

good; and yet this may entail the defect of ostentation. It is for this

reason that Allah, exalted is He, praises [the use of] both secrecy

and openness when he says: {If you do deeds of charity openly, it is

well; but if you bestow it upon the needy in secret, it will be even

better for you...}.[28]

The showing of [one’s acts] is of two divisions: one concerns the

action itself, and the other the disclosure of the action to others.

The first division

This concerns showing the action itself, such as openly giving alms,

in order to awaken other people’s desire to do so, as was reported

about the Ansari who had come with a bag of money, so that upon

seeing him other people followed suit, with the result that the

Prophet - peace be upon him - said: “Whosoever introduces a good

sunna which is carried on by others, will have a reward for

initiating the deed and also the equivalent reward of all those who

follow his example.”[29] This applies to all actions.

The one who shows his action has two duties. The first is to show it

where he thinks that his example is going to be followed, or at least

likely to be followed. Many a man is imitated by his family and not

by his neighbours, or perhaps by his neighbours and not by those

who frequent the marketplace. Showing deeds for others to follow

is valid only if done by a person who is in a position to prompt

others to imitate his deeds. The second duty is for this person to

keep his heart in check, for it may well harbour a love of hidden

ostentation. Such a love would induce him to show his action under

the pretext of awakening other people’s desire to follow suit, while

his real desire is to brighten his own reputation through displaying

his deeds and through being imitated by others. This is the state of

all those who disclose their deeds, except for the sincere and

strong; and they are very few. The weak should not deceive

themselves with such notions, which would destroy them unawares.

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The second division

This concerns disclosing one’s deed after completing it. The ruling

on this is the same as the case of disclosing the action itself. In

fact, the danger inherent here is more serious because speech is

easy on the tongue, and it may well happen that one exaggerates

what happened. The soul finds great joy in disclosing claimed

actions, although if ostentation does creep in it would not

invalidate the devotional act already performed. In this sense it is

less serious than disclosing the action itself.

The ruling on such disclosure is that it is permissible, indeed

praiseworthy, provided that the person who does so has a strong

heart, that his sincerity is complete, that he pays little attention to

other people and that their praise and condemnation are of equal

weight to him. That is, so long as the intention is pure and the

action free from all defects.

A similar situation to this was reported from a group of

strong salaf. `Umar, may Allah be pleased with him, said: “I do not

care whether I get up in the morning to face hardship or comfort,

because I do not know which is better for me”. Ibn Mas`ud said: “I

never reached a state and wished for another.”

All these are examples of the disclosure of exalted states, and such

utterances can entail serious ostentation if they come from a

person who speaks thus for the sake of display, just as there is in

them the ultimate awakening of people’s desire for goodness if they

proceed from someone who is imitated in his deeds.

Indeed the ostentatious disclosure of devotional acts brings much

benefit for others, particularly if the latter do not know that it is

ostentation. But it has evil consequences for the ostentatious

themselves. Many a sincere person imitates, because of his

sincerity, the one who is ostentatious in the eyes of Allah.

It is reported that a certain man used to hear the voices of people

praying as they read the Qur’an from their houses every morning

as he passed through the roads of Basra. Someone then wrote a

book on the subtle aspects of ostentation, so those people gave up

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reading the Qur’an out loud and consequently people’s desire for it

waned. They used to say: ‘We wish that that book had never been

written!’

Hence the disclosures of an ostentatious person may carry much

good for others - that is if his ostentation is not known - and

“Indeed Allah may support this dinwith the help of the corrupt

man,”[30] and also “... with the help of people without any share [of

the good things of the Afterlife]”[31].

Concealing sins, and resentment at their being noticed

A person is rarely free from committing sins with either his heart or

limbs, and he always tends to conceal these and to dislike their

being noticed by others. He might think that their concealment is a

prohibited act of ostentation while it is not. What is prohibited,

however, is concealing sins so that other people think he is pious,

and this is what constitutes the concealment of the ostentatious.

A person may well conceal his offences and have a valid intention in

doing so. Equally valid may be his anxiety when other people take

notice of his offences. This is due to different considerations, some

of which are as follows:

First, he should be delighted with Allah’s concealment of his sins

owing to the hadith: “Whensoever Allah conceals someone’s sin in

this world, He shall conceal it for him in the Afterlife,”[32] and this

emanates from a strong iman.

Second, he knows that Allah dislikes the disclosure of offences,

preferring instead their concealment. Hence, even if he has

committed an offence, his heart will not be devoid of liking what

Allah likes. This grows out of a strong iman in Allah’s dislike of the

disclosure of offences. The sign of sincerity in all this is when the

person equally dislikes other people’s sins being disclosed.

Third, shame (haya’) is a noble trait and a praiseworthy attribute.

The Prophet -peace be upon him - said: “Shame (haya’) is good on

all accounts.”[33]Therefore, the one who engages in vice and does

not care if it is revealed to others, has added insolence and lack of

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shame to the sin itself. Such a person’s state is worse than that of

someone who commits sins but is ashamed of committing them and

who conceals his offences.

Fourth, he should be wary of his sin’s disclosure, lest others dare

do the same so that he has set a bad precedent.

The error of abstaining from devotional acts for fear of ostentation

Some people abstain from good works for fear of seeming

ostentatious. This is wrong, and is an attitude which is a submission

to Satan. Abstaining from an action for fear that it might be said:

‘he is ostentatious’, is in fact itself a form of ostentation. This

because if one did not love other people’s praise and fear their

condemnation, one would not have minded their opinion that one

was ostentatious or sincere.

Furthermore, what difference is there between abstaining from an

action for fear of being accused of ostentation and performing an

action for fear of being accused of heedlessness and neglect? In

fact, abstaining from the good action is more serious. All this is

part of Satan’s ruse against ignorant worshippers (`ubbad).

You should know that it might be that a man spends the night

somewhere with other people, and they, or some of them, happen

to get up for the night prayer (tahajjud), and upon seeing them his

desire to follow their example is aroused, beyond what he normally

performs in the way of night prayer. Or, it may be that he joins

those people in their prayer when he is not accustomed at all to

praying at night. This could well be considered as ostentation, and

may require that this person does not join in. But such is not the

case. This is so because each believer desires to worship Allah,

exalted is He, to pray at night and to fast during the day, but he

may well be obstructed from doing so. His work may stop him from

engaging in such acts, or it may be that heedlessness has

enchanted him. Hence, it may well be that seeing others brings an

end to his heedlessness, or that all obstacles and preoccupations

cease in some places and his resolve be aroused.

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What the disciple (murid) ought to do before,during and after an action

The first thing that a disciple needs to restrain his heart with at all

times is his contentment with Allah’s knowledge about all his good

acts. No-one shall be content with Allah’s exclusive knowledge but

he who fears Allah and whose hope is towards Him. As for the one

who fears other than Him and whose hope is directed towards

other than Him, he desires that others take notice of his good state

of affairs. If one is at this level, one should force one’s heart to hate

it from the point of view both of reason and of iman, owing to the

danger of exposing oneself to Allah’s loathing.

One should keep oneself in check while performing great, hard

devotional acts which others are unable to perform. This because

the soul is then almost boiling for want of divulging such acts. In

such matters, one needs to keep one’s feet firmly grounded, and

remember that in return for one’s great deeds, there will be the

greatness of the kingdom of the Afterlife, the bounty of Paradise

and its everlasting bliss; but that there shall be the rigour of Allah’s

wrath and loathing for the one who seeks a reward from mere

creatures by means of His obedience.

One should hold one’s heart to this truth after completing the

action so that one does not disclose it or speak about it to others.

And even when one has done all this, one should remain afraid for

one’s deeds, and be in fear that they have been tainted with hidden

ostentation of which one was entirely unaware.

Notes1 Al-Qasas: 83.

2 Hud: 15-16.

3 Narrated by Muslim with the following wording: "Many a dishevelled man who

would be turned back from people's houses, were he to adjure Allah to do something

He would bring it to pass for him".

4 Bukhari and Muslim.

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5 Yusuf: 55.

6 Al-Ma`un: 4-6.

7 Fatir: 10.

8 Al-Insan: 9.

9 Al-Kahf: 110.

10 Bukhari and Muslim.

11 Narrated by Ahmad and al-Bayhaqi.

12 Narrated by Malik without the expression “I disavow the doer” and also narrated

by Muslim and Ibn Maja.

13 Bukhari and Muslim.

14 Yusuf: 55.

15 Narrated by Muslim.

16 Al-Munafiqun: 1.

17 Al-Baqara: 204-205.

18 Al `Imran: 119.

19 Al-Nisa’: 142-143

20 Narrated by Muslim.

21 Bukhari and Muslim.

22 Cf. the section on status above.

23 Narrated by Muslim.

24 Al-Hajj: 52.

25 Narrated by Muslim, and the continuation of the hadith is “... and I do seek

forgiveness from God a hundred times a day.” Commenting on this hadith al-Qadi

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`Iyad says that it refers to an abatement about and distraction from the dhikr that he

used to practise continuously. He used to consider distraction from such

supererogatory acts a sin from which he had to seek forgiveness.

26 Al-Qasas: 15.

27 Al-A`raf: 27.

28 Al-Baqara: 271.

29 Narrated by Muslim.

30 Bukhari and Muslim.

31 Narrated by Muslim.

32 Narrated by Muslim.

33 Narrated by Muslim.

The Emergence of Shi'ism and the Shi'ites  

by  Imam Sayyid Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr  

Translated from the Arabic by Asaad F. Shaker    

Published by: Imam Ali Foundation C.P. 712 Succ. B Montreal, Qc. H3B 3K3, Canada    ISBN 2-9804196-7-2  1996-1417 

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In The Name of Allah The All Merciful Imam Ali Foundation has published books and book translations of high quality concerning many subjects, especially regarding a wider understanding of Islam both in its dogmatic and legal aspects. Dear Reader, the book which you have in your hands treats a most important topic regarding the relation between the ideological and the theological realms in Islam. It concerns theories of the Caliphate and the Imamate in Islam and especially the historical developement of Shi'ism, which insists upon a strict observance of Koranic and prophetic texts in everyday life. The first text represents the inspired thought of the martyr Sayyed Mohammad Baqir As-Sadr, who was highly reputed for the intellectual quality, scientific value and objectivity of his works. Dr. Abdul Jabbar Chararah has been given the great distinction, and privilege, to annotate this work and to present it here, in order to facilitate its access to the public. Imam Ali Foundation 

The Author and the Book Imam Sayyid Muhammad Baqir al-Sadr, the author of this study, was a reverent scholar and one of the most eminent jurists of our time. He struggled diligently in the way of God; his devotion to Islam was complete to the point of martyrdom, which he finally attained in 1979. An endless source of learnedness, his genuine gift, he was unrivaled in the study of legal principles and jurisprudence. Imam al  Sadr was a rare mind in the area of logic and the logic of inquiry, and sought to renew Islamic thought in the face of contemporary intellectual challenges in philosophy, economy and sociology. By setting forth his theses, observations and positions, he helped to establish firmly the Islamic School. He refurbished theological studies, enriched knowledge of the Qur'an and secured the pillars of a sober scientific method in every subject he took up through his pen. In the probing study of Shi'ism before us, Imam al-Sadr brought to bear a sedate, scholarly method supported by that impeccable logic for which he is so well known. At every step, he has the depth of a skilled expert who knows from the very outset how to take the reader wherever true logic dictates. He handled this weighty subject with concision in a way unmatched by anyone, thanks to his strength of argument, compactness, evenness and subtlety of expression, to say nothing of the sheer elegance of his presentation. This, despite the number of points and allusions made. These may be perfectly comprehensible to cultured or attained persons, but less so to those inexperienced in this kind of extended theological inquiry. The allusions are not easily understood by those uninitiated in the area of debate and argumentation, or who have never before had to deal with either Prophetic traditions (hadi`ths) or historical events. In view of the significance of the subject matter, style and treatment, it is regrettable that this study has not received the attention it deserves. Nor has it been properly

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edited and commented on, for proper guidance through all the evidence invoked. We have yet to be enlightened on its references or the context of its arguments - which should reveal to the reader the soundness of the logic and leave him or her reassured, in turn, as to the logic of their soundness. This study was originally written in Baghdad in 1970 AD/1390 AH as a preface to a book by Dr. `Abdullah Fayyad entitledHistory of the Imamites and Their Shi'ite Predecessors, and published in Baghdad by Matba`at As`ad. The first independent edition was published in Cairo in 1977 AD/1397 AH, under the supervision of Mr. Talib al-Husaym al-Rifai. [1] In the same year, but just earlier, it was also published in Beirut by Dar al-Ta`aruf lil-Matbu`at. These two editions, however, have failed to measure up to their goal, since there was little effort to edit or accurately to determine the text. Neither are the Prophetic traditions expounded nor the texts properly supported, to say nothing of the many printing errors. Nevertheless, the Cairo edition is provided with Mr. al-Rifais helpful comments; it is also the more precise of the two, having fewer errors. The two editions have different titles - the Cairo going by Shi'ism, an Authentic Phenomenon Within the Call of Islam, [2] the Beirut by A Study Concerning Guardianship. [3] The result was that there arose a need for this study to be given the attention it rightly deserved in terms of textual editing, exactness and commentary. I have made every effort to determine the precise expressions by benefiting from the editions just mentioned, with a view to the necessary corrections. As to the title, I have heeded the view of the eminent Ayatullah al-Sayyid Mahmud al-Hashimi, who suggested to me that it be The Emergence of Shi'ism and the Shi'ites. It was the most appropriate one. Finally, I have seen it fit to append another scholarly study, adhering to the very same sober method he used, to this solid research by the late Imam al-Sadr. I hope to analyze something to which he pointed without much elaboration, instead relying on its obvious sense on the assumption that it has been related by several transmitters and handed down through many biographical works: namely, the intellectual and moral preparation for Imam `Ali's spiritual leadership (imamah) and political succession (khilafah) to the Prophet. Concerning the Present Edition First of all, only printed copies, together with the preface in the introductory section of Dr. `Abdullah Fayyad's History of the Imamites and Their Shi'ite Predecessors, have been available to me. But since the Cairo copy that came out under Mr. Talib al-Husayni al-Rifa i's supervision is the better and more accurate one, I have basically relied on it. In order to determine the text and to rectify the errors and whatever seems doubtful, I have referred to the other two editions, that of Beirut and that of Baghdad (the one included in the introduction to Dr. Fayyad's book). Secondly, I have devised a new layout for the study; it is now divided into an introduction and two chapters. The first chapter is entitled "What is the origin of Shi'ism?" - exactly as the author wished by way of presentation. I broke it up into three discussions. The first deals with what the title it carries says, "The First Path - Denial," that is, "Neglecting the Succession." This title appears in the Cairo edition. The Second Discussion deals with the path of affirmation, epitomized by the

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consultative system. The Third Discussion presents the affirmative path, exemplified by the preparation and investiture of whomever was to lead the Ummah, or the community. The second chapter is called "How did the Shiites become Shiite?" It, too, is divided into three discussions. The first is concerned with the two principal trends that accompanied the development of theUmmah; the second with intellectual authority and guidance; and the third with the issue of spiritual and political Shi`ism. Thirdly, I have consulted those references given by Imam al-Sadr, and have been able to establish the specific texts he relied on. I have, therefore, indicated the volume of the Tradition source left out, along with the page numbers. All told, twenty-three references were given. I have attached the word "Imam" to them, thereby retaining the original text written in the notes and distinguishing them from my own comments. Fourthly, with respect to those texts which Imam al-Sadr does quote or refer to, I have sought to provide the source, based on the information he gives. I have also made available the references to the dyat of the Qur'an and to the Prophetichadiths. Fifthly, wherever needed, I have documented the views and ideas evoked by the Imam. Sixthly, in order to clarify the objects of discussion, or to reinforce through evidence and proof, I have in many cases made the appropriate comments. I implore God to render pure this work before Him. Praise be to God, Lord of the World. Editor Dr. Abd al Jabbar Sharrarah Notes: [1] By Dar Ahl al-Bayt, Matabi` al-Dajawi, Abidin. [2] Al-Tashayyu zahirah tabi'iyyah fi itar al-da'wah al-islamiyyah 

[3] Bahth hawl al-walayah. 

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ntroduction

Some scholars who study Shi`ism describe it as a phenomenon that is incidental to Islamic society. They observe the Shi segment within the body of the Islamic community precisely in its quality of a segment, one that first came into being, through the passage of time, as a result of specific societal events and developments, leading to the intellectual and doctrinal formation of one part only within the larger body; a part which gradually broadened later. [4] Beyond this assumption, these scholars differ as to the particular events and developments that led to the rise of such a phenomenon. Some assume that `Abd Allah b. Saba' [5] and his alleged political activity were at the origin of the rise of the Shi`ite bloc. Others trace the phenomenon of Shi`ism back to the era of Imam `Ali's Caliphate and whatever political and social circumstances had taken shape within the pale of events of the time. Still others claim that, within the historical sequence of the Islamic community, the appearance of the Shi`ites occurred through still later events than these. [6] As far as I can tell, what has prompted many of these scholars to believe that Shi`ism was a phenomenon merely incidental to Islamic society is precisely that the Shiites of early Islam represented but a tiny portion of the Ummah. This fact may have inspired the feeling that what was not Shi`i must have then been the predominant pattern in Islamic society, and that Shi'ism was the exception, an accidental phenomenon whose causes can be discovered through developments relating to the opposition to the dominant order. But to consider either numerical majority or relative minority as grounds enough for distinguishing the dominant order from the exception, or the original root from the schism, lacks logical rigour. It is incorrect to describe "non-Shi'ism" as dominant simply on the basis of a numerical majority; and, based on numerical inferiority, to relegate "Shi'ism" to an incidental phenomenon and the idea of schism. That would not agree with the nature of credal divisions, since many divisions can remain within the fold of a single message and arise only through the differences attending the process of definining certain of the message's features. No two credal divisions ever have numerical equivalence, although both sides may at bottom be seeking to express the same message on whose nature they disagree. Hence, under no circumstances can we build our conception upon a credal division between Shi'ism and other currents within the Islamic Mission [7] based on numbers alone; just as we may not link the birth of the Shi'i thesis, as it occurs within the framework of the Islamic Mission, with the advent of the word "Shi'ites" or "Shi'ism" taken as a technical term or proper noun for a clearly defined group among the Muslims. This is because the advent of names and technical terms is one thing, and the development of the content, the actual current and the thesis are another. If we cannot find the word "Shiites" [8] in current usage at the time of God's Messenger, or immediately following his death, this does not mean that the Shiite current and thesis did not exist. With this frame of mind, then, let us turn to the issue of "Shi`ism" and "Shi`ites" in order to answer the following two questions:

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 What is the origin of Shi'ism? How did the Shi'ites emerge? Notes: [4] See Dr. Kamil Mustafa al-Shaybi, al-Silah bayna al-tasawwuf wal-tashajyu; I:11-14, where he presents the views of many ancient and contemporary investigators into the origin and evolution of Shi'ism. He also states that some of them differentiate between political and spiritual (i.e. doctrinal) Shi`ism. See Dr. Mustafa al-Shak`ah, Islam bila madhahib, p. 153; and Dr. Diya' al-Din al-Rayyis, al-Nazariyyat al-siyasiyyah al  islamiyyah, p. 69. [5] See Dr. Mahmud Jabir `Abd al-`Al, Harakat al-Shi`ah al-mutatarrafin ma atharuhum fi al-hayat al-ijtimiyyah, p. 19. This claim is ascribed to some Muslim historians. However, al-`Al points out that this was rejected by Bernard Lewis, the well-known Orientalist. Wellhausen and Friedlander, two of the biggest scholars in the field, are quoted as saying, "Ibn Saba' was fabricated by those who came later in time." Dr. Taha Husayn, in his al-Fitnah al-kubra, II:327, says: "The Shiites' opponents exaggerated the issue of Ibn Saba' in order to defame Ali and his followers." He added that `We find no mention of Ibn Saba' in any of the important sources ...He is not mentioned in Baladhuris Ansab al-ashraf, but is in Tabari'sTarikh, as reported by Sayf b. `Umar al-Tamimi About this Sayf, though, Ibn Hayyan said that "He related forgeries and was said to fabricate hadiths himself." Al-Hakim stated that he was accused of heresy, and that his hadiths were omitted. See Ibn Hajar, Tadhhib al-tadhbib IV:260. Concerning the legend of `Abd Allah b. Saba, see `Allamah Murtadha al `Askari's book, `Abd Allah b. Saba'. [6] See al-Shaybi al-Silah bayna al-tasawwuf wal-tashayyu;Dr. `Abd Allah Fayyad, Ta'rikh al-Imamiyyah wa aslafihim min al-Shi'ah; Dr. Mustafa al-Shakah, Islam bila madhahib,p. 152ff; Dr. Diya' al-Din al-Rayyis, al Nazarijyat al-siyasiyyah al-islamiyyah, p. 72ff. [7] Indeed, it is consistent neither with ordinary logic nor with the logic of the Holy Qur'an. In numerous places, the Qur'an mostly, if not always, censures the majority, and praises the few in as many places. For instance, God says: "And yet most are not wont to be thankful..." (Qur'an 27:73 "al-Naml"). God also says: "... but a few of my servants are grateful" (34:13 "al-Saba"); "...and many people are sinful" (5:52 "al -Maidah")...Those are they who are brought near in the Gardens of Delight, a party from those of old and a few from those who have come later" (56:11-4 "al-waqiah"). This is one aspect. The other is that the Holy Qur'an informs us in many places that those who adhere to Truth and to God's Messengers, and are directed by Divine teachings, are always fewer in comparison to those who headstrongly resist the truth. God says: "Most of them dislike the truth..." (23:70 "al-Mu'minun"); "Yet no faith will the greater part of mankind have, however ardently thou dost desire it" (12:103 "Yusuf"). In every case, there is allusion to the invalidity of relying on the standards of the majority in order to evaluate the correctness of a trend or an opinion. See Muhammad Fuad `Abd al-Baqi, al-Mujam al-mufahris li-alfaz al-Qur'an, p. 597ff.

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 [8] It appears that the Imam is proffering this by way of humbleness and tolerance; otherwise there are prophetichadiths which utter the word "Shi'ism" in connection with `Ali. It is said in Ibn Manzur's Mukhtasar Tar'ikh Ibn Asaki'r(XVII:384) that `Ali uttered: "The Prophet told me [May God bless him and his Household [you and your followers [shiatuka] are in the Garden of Paradise." But there is another account by Jabir (XVIII:14). Cf. Ibn al-Athir, al-NihayahIV:106 ("Madat qamh"): "You and your followers [shiatuka] will be pleased and pleasing..." - addressed to `Ali. 

  The Emergence of Shi'ism

Preliminary Remarks With respect to the first question - "What is the origin of Shi`ism?" -one may safely regard Shi'ism as a consequence that is natural to Islam, representing a thesis whose realization is imperative for the Call (or Mission of Islam [9]) if the latter's sound progress is to be assured. It is possible for us logically to infer this thesis from the Call of Islam, led by the Prophet, because its formation was natural and due to particular circumstances. The Prophet had put into practice a revolutionary leadership, and drove for a comprehensive change of society, its conventions, structures and ideas. But the road to such a change was not to be a short one. It was long, extending the length of that deep spiritual chasm separating pre-Islam from Islam. The calling pursued by the Prophet had to begin with the man of pre-Islam in order to create a new being out of him; it was from the pre-Islamic world that the man of Islam would issue, carrying the new light to the rest of the world. This Mission had to extirpate every last root and vestige in him of pre-Islam. [10] Within a short period of time, this remarkable leader was able to make quite amazing progress in the drive for change. But this drive had also to continue its lengthy path even after his death. The Prophet had known for some time that his term was nearing an end. He openly announced it at the "Farewell Pilgrimage."[11] Death hardly took him by surprise. That means that he had ample opportunity to ponder the fate of the Mission beyond his lifetime, even if we disregard the element of a liaison with the hidden world, or for that matter the direct Grace of God evinced by the Message revealed to him. [12] In the light of this, we may note that the Prophet had before him three possible paths to choose from with respect to the future. First, the path of denial; second, the affirmative path (for example, consultation); third, appointment. [13] These will constitute the three discussions to be taken up below. Notes: [9] These two terms, "Call" and "Mission" of Islam, are used interchangeably in this translation - Translator. 

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[10] The Qur'an affirms that "He is the one who sends down to His servants the clear signs, that He may bring ye out of the veils of darkness and unto the Light" (57:9 "al Had"). [11] This was done at the formal address of the Farewell Pilgrimage, where he declared: "I am about to be summoned forth, and am about to reply." And in another account: "It is as if I am being summoned forth and am answering. Verily, I leave thee two weighty things..." (Sahih Muslim, IV4:1874). `Abd Allah b. Mas`ud, is reported as saying, `We were with the Prophet [May God Bless him and his household] one night, when he sighed. So, I asked him, `What ails you, O Messenger of God?' He said: `My death has been announced to me"' (Mukhtasar Ta'r'ikh Ibn Asakir XVIII:32). [12] That is, if we suppose the Prophet to have been so keen to have his blessed calling go the full length set for it - as indeed it was his nature to be - and to have striven to take it to the rest of the world, it could only be that he took it upon himself to reckon the future. [13] That is, of a successor - Translator. 

ppendix - The Moral and Intellectual Preparation for 'Ali's Guardianship and Succession

Introduction 

Dr. `Abd al Jabbar Shararah Initiated by the Prophet, the intellectual and moral preparation for 'Ali b. Abi Talib's Guardianship and Succession proceeded along two parallel but complementary lines: the preparation of Ali and of the Ummah, both at the same time. While the Prophet, as Leader, was committed to a special intellectual and doctrinal education for `Ali that conformed to a rigorous daily schedule, he also took charge of the Muslim Ummah's mental adjustment. He undertook to educate it intellectually and doctrinally in order firmly to establish `Ali's Guardianship. He wanted to ensure that `Ali was qualified to lead the journey, the whole experience, of Islam immediately after he departs. According to numerous sources, as we shall see, direct Revelation was another interposing factor pointing in this direction. Invariably, the Qur'an comes down sometimes lauding Ali's virtues and other times pointing to his special qualities. It identifies him as being unique, to the point of making the delivery of God's Message conditional upon the announcement of his Guardianship or its proclamation to the Ummah. We shall be seeking to establish this in our appendix to Imam al-Sadr's already deep and original inquiry. We shall arrange our own study into three discussions. The first discussion will present 'Ali's intellectual and moral preparation for the task of leading after the Prophet. The second will deal with the intellectual and moral preparation of the MuslimUmmah for the sake of this task. The third will demonstrate the pertinence of `Ali's unique and special knowledge of the Qur'an to this task. 

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In this summary essay, we shall try to shed light on these facts by relying on the accepted rules and principles of scholarly investigation, without exaggeration or artifice. The study will be based on had'ith and exegetical works written by scholars, traditionists, renowned researchers and prominent Sunnis. We pray that God may extend His assistance.   

he Third Discussion

Spiritual Shi'ism and Political Shi'ism Here I would like to draw attention to a point whose clarification I consider to be of the utmost importance. Some investigators try to distinguish between two aspects of Shi'ism, the first Spiritual Shi'ism and the second Political Shi`ism. Spiritual Shi ism is believed to be the earlier of the two. [156] It is also thought that the religious heads, or imams, of Imamate Shi'ism (descended from Husayn) had retreated from politics after the massacre of Karbala', devoting themselves only to guidance and worship, keeping aloof of worldly affairs. The reality, though, is that Shi'ism has never at any time since its birth been a purely spiritual tendency. Rather, it was born in the midst of Islam as a thesis for the continuation by Imam 'Ali of intellectual, social and poetical leadership alike after the Prophet, in the manner illustrated above with respect to the conditions that had given rise to Shi'ism. Because of those conditions, it is not possible to isolate the spiritual from the political side in this thesis, certainly no more than it is to isolate it in Islam itself. Therefore, Shi'ism cannot be subdivided in this way except in the event where it no longer implies defending the future of the Call after the Prophet, a future that is in equal need of intellectual authority as it is of political leadership over the Islamic experiment. And here there existed a wide range of allegiances to Imam `Ali among the Muslims, inasmuch as he was considered to be just the person fit to resume the role of governing arrogated by the three Caliphs. This is precisely the loyalty that brought him to power after the Caliph `Uthman's murder. [157] But it was neither spiritual nor political Shi'ism, since Shiites believe `Ali to be an alternative to the three Caliphs, the Prophet's direct successor (khalifah).The allegiance extended by Muslims to the Imam had a wider range than Shi`ism proper, taken as a whole. But although spiritual and political Shi`ism developed within the broad limits of this loyalty, it cannot be regarded as an instance of a compartmentalized Shi`ism. Imam `Ali commanded spiritual and intellectual loyalty from the most prominent Companions at the time of Abu Bakr and `Umar - as illustrated by Sahnan, Abu Dharr, 'Ammar and others. But this hardly means that it was a spiritual Shi'ism divorced from the political side. It was an expression of faith by the Companions in Imam `Ali's political as well as intellectual leadership of the Islamic Mission after the Prophet. On the one hand, their faith in the intellectual side of his leadership was reflected in the spiritual fidelity alluded to above; on the other, their faith in the

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political was reflected in their struggle with the Caliph Abu Bakr, and against the attempt to divert power away from Imam `Ali toward another figure. [158] In fact, the compartmental view of spiritual Shi'ism was not unrelated to the emergence of political Shi`ism. Nor did it arise in the mind of Shi'ite man except in resignation to a faitaccompli. As a definite formula for continuing the Islamic leadership in the hope of building the Ummah - a way of implementing the great drive for change begun by the Prophet - the embers of Shi`ism were all but put out inside and transformed into pure belief ensconced in the heart of man for solace and hope. We now come to what is alleged to be the abandonment of politics and the withdrawal from worldly affairs by the Imams of the Household descended from Husayn. In the light of the foregoing, we might reiterate that Shi`ism made for the continuation of Islamic leadership, and that Islamic leadership simply meant pursuing that project of change which the Prophet had begun, in order to complete the construction of the Ummahon the basis of Islam. It is not possible, therefore, to imagine the Imams relinquishing the political aspect without renouncing Shi'ism altogether. What contributed to the idea that they had abandoned the political aspect of their leadership was their seeming failure to mount military action to overturn the prevailing situation, the political aspect of leadership being taken strictly in its narrow military sense. But there are many explicit utterances by the Imams which make it plain that an Imam is always ready to take the military course, provided he found enough assistance and the capacity to realize the Islamic objectives beyond the military campaign itself. [159] When we trace the course of the Shi'ite movement, we notice that its leadership, comprised of the Imams of the Household, believed the transference of power alone to be insufficient. The realization of change in an Islamic sense is impossible so long as this power was not shored up by a popular base conscious of the goals of power, believing in its theory of governance, acting to defend it, explaining its stances to the larger populace and braving the storms. Midway through the first century after the Prophet's death, the Shiite leadership, shunned from power, sought constantly to return to rule in the ways it deemed proper. It was convinced of the existence of popular bases of consciousness, or vigilantMuhajirin, Ansar and all those who emulated their best actions. However, half-a-century later, when little remained of these popular bases, and with indecisive generations [160]newly emerging under the influence of deviationism, the accession to power by the Shiite movement would never have achieved the larger goal; the popular bases that reinforced consciousness and sacrifice no longer existed. In the face of this situation, there were only two possible avenues for action: One, action for the sake of rebuilding the popular and conscious bases that could properly pave the way to a transfer of power. Two, stirring the Islamic Ummah's conscience and will; safeguarding some degree of life and stalwartness to fortify theUmmah against abdicating unconditionally its identity and honour to deviationist rulers. 

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The first option was the one chosen by the Imams themselves; whereas the second was taken by the revolutionary partisans of 'Ali as they sought through fearless sacrifice to sustain the Islamic conscience and will. The Imams used to support the more sincere among them. Imam `Ali b. Musa al-Rida once said to Caliph Ma'mun, in reference to Zayd b. `Ali al-Shahid, that he was one of the learned from the House of Muhammad. He was angered for the sake of God, fought enemies until he was killed in God's way. Abu Mus'a b. Ja`far has related to me that he heard his father Ja'far b. Muhammad say: "May God have merry on my uncle Zayd. He made summons on behalf of al-Rida, of the House of Muhammad. Had he triumphed, he would have fulfilled his promise. Zayd b. `Ali did not call what was not in his right to do so. He was more heedful toward God than that. He simply) said: I summon you to al-Rida, of the House of Muhammad." [161] In one account, those of the House of Muhammad who ventured forth were mentioned before Imam Ja'far al-Sadiq, who then answered, "I and my partisans will always be well so long as there is someone from the House of Muhammad who ventures forth. How I long for him to venture forth! And incumbent upon me is the maintenance of his dependents."[162] In sum, the Imams' abandonment of direct military action against the deviationist rulers did not imply that they had foresaken the political aspect of their leadership and devoted themselves solely to worship. It expressed merely a difference in the form of social action, and was limited by the actual conditions. It also expressed a profound grasp of the nature of reform activity and the method by which to achieve it. Notes: [156] See Dr. Shaybi, al-Silah bayna al-tasawwuf wal-tashayyu I:12; Dr. `Abd al-`Aziz al  Duri, Muqaddamah fitar'ikh al-Islam, p. 72. [157] Cf. Ta'rikh al-Tabari II:696ff See also the description of the situation in Imam `Ali's Address, where he states, "Nothing was more delightful to me than people swarming around me, as hyenas do, from every side ...and gathered round like a resting herd of sheep (Nahj al-balaghah, ed. Dr. Subhi al-Salih, p. 48 ("al-Shaqshaqivyah") [158]See what Tabarsi relates in his al-Ihtijaj I:75. [159] Cf. Usul al-Kafi II:190 (Ch. "Fi qillat `adad al-mu'minin") (Tehran: al-Matba`ah al  Islaamiyyah, 1388 AH). [160] Consider what Umayyid policy visited upon the Ummahin pastimes, buffoonery, wine drinking, and brutality and repression against all opponents. On this question, see al-Mas`udi, Muruj al-dhahab III:214ff; Ibn `Abd Rabbuh, al-Aqd al farid V:200-02; Abu al-Faraj al-Asfahani, al-AghaniFirst Edition 7:6ff (Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, 1407 AH). Concerning the Umayyids' frivolous use of wealth, see Sayyid Qutb, al-Adalah al  ijtima'iyah fi al-Islam. 

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[161] A1-Hurr al- Amili, Wasa'il al-Shiah, Fifth Edition, ed. `Abd al-Karim al-Shirazi XII:39 (Tehran: al-Maktabah al-Islamiyah 1401 - Imam. See the edited version, Mu'assasah Al al-Bayt (Qum) XV:54 ("Kitab al jihad") [162] Cf Ibn Idris, al-Sara'ir III:569 (Qum: Mu'assasah al-Nashr al-Islami), for `Abd Allah al-Sayyari's narration of words by someone from the Companions. 

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Al-Ghazali on Intention, Sincerity and Truthfulness 

Book XXXVII of the Revival of the Religious Sciences (Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din) 

Translated by: ASAAD F. SHAKER 

Al-Ghazali on Intention, Sincerity and Truthfulness is a translation of the thirty-seventh chapter of The Revival of the Religious Sciences (Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din). Like Al-Ghazali on Patience and Thankfulness, this chapter falls in the last of the four sections of the Ihya’, the section dealing the virtues or what is conducive to salvation. Here Ghazali deals with the very important subject of intention, which is of crucial importance in Islam. Ghazali asks: ‘How can someone ignorant of the meaning of intention verify his own intention; or how can someone ignorant of the meaning of sincerity verify his own sincerity; or how can someone sincerely claim truthfulness if he has not verified its meaning?’ Al-Ghazali on Intention, Sincerity and Truthfulness includes an introduction that places the topic in the context of Islamic ethics. 

Dr Asaad F. Shaker holds a PhD from McGill University and works on classical Islam. 

FEATURES pages: 112 circa size: 234 x 156mm Published: Forthcoming OTHER: Bibliography. Indexes. ISBN: 978-0946621-910 

Al-Ghazali on the Remembrance of Death & the Afterlife 

Books XL of the Revival of the Religious Sciences (Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din) 

Translated by: T.J.Winter 

This is the first English translation of the last chapter of Al-Ghazali’s Revival of the Religious Sciences (Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din), widely regarded as the greatest work of Muslim spirituality. After expounding his Sufi philosophy of death and showing the importance of the contemplation of human mortality to the mystical way of self-purification, Ghazali takes his readers through the stages of the future life: the vision of the Angels of the Grave, the Resurrection, the Intercession of the Prophet, and finally, the torments of Hell, the delights of Paradise and - for the elect - the beatific vision of God’s Countenance. 

‘I warmly recommend Winter’s translation to everyone interested in Islamic eschatology and Islamic thought.’ Annemarie Schimmel 

‘This book is an excellent translation of a very important work...This translation and the series as a whole, are significant contributions to our understanding of this key figure in Islamic intellectual thought.’ Oliver Leaman (BRISMES Bulletin) 

‘Winter’s rendering combines exactness with fluency and dignity of style. The introduction, notes, appendix, bibliography, index - all make this an exemplary publication, produced to the highest standards.’ Christian Troll (CSIC) 

‘Of considerable value and solace to many who will buy it for reasons both religious and academic.’ H.T. Norris (BSOAS) 

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FEATURES pages: 378 size: 234 x 156mm Published: 1989 OTHER: Reprints Bibliography. Indexes. 

ISBN: 978-0946621-132 

The Glorious Qur’an

The presentation of this Arabic edition of the Holy Qur’an is of the highest technical and aesthetic standards. The text was prepared under the supervision of Al-Azhar University in Cairo.

 Al-Ghazali Letter to a DiscipleTranslated by: T O B I A S M A Y E R

An old disciple of Ghazali had studied the Islamic sciences, including the many works of his master, for most of his life. Faced with the proximity of death, he turns again to his master this time asking for a summary of all his teachings. Letter to a Disciple is Ghazali’s response.

 Al-Ghazali on Disciplining the Soul & on Breaking the Two Desires   Books XXII and XXIII of the Revival of the Religious Sciences(Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din) Translated by: T . J . W I N T E R

This is a translation of the twenty-second and twenty-third chapters from The Revival of the Religious Sciences. Ghazali explains how to acquire good character traits, and describes how the sickness of the heart may be cured. He then continues to discuss the question of gluttony and sexual desire, concluding, in the words of the Prophet, that ‘the best of all matters is the middle way’.

 Al-Ghazali on Intention, Sincerity and TruthfulnessBook XXXVII of the Revival of the Religious Sciences (Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din)Translated by: A S A A D F . S H A K E R

The Book of Intention, Sincerity and Truthfulness is a translation of the thirty-seventh chapter of The Revival of the Religious Sciences. Here Ghazali deals with the very important subject of intention which is of crucial importance in Islam and then goes on to discuss sincerity and truthfulness.

 Al-Ghazali on Invocations and SupplicationsBook IX of the Revival of the Religious Sciences (Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din)Translated by: K O J I R O N A K A M U R A

A translation of Book IX of The Revival of the Religious Sciences. The present volume is probably the most widely read compendium of prayers. Ghazali

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explores the psychological and spiritual effects of prayer and the celebration of God’s name.

 Al-Ghazali on the Manners Relating to Eating   Book XI of the Revival of the Religious Sciences (Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din)Translated by: D E N Y S J O H N S O N - D A V I E S

A translation of the eleventh chapter of The Revival of the Religious Sciences. Ghazali expounds the manners relating to eating, and the virtues of hospitality and generosity. He also discusses abstention from food, fasting, and general health

Al-Ghazali on the Ninety-nine Beautiful Names of GodAl-Maqsad al-Asna fi Sharh Asma’ Allah al-HusnaTranslated by: D . B U R R E L L & N . D A H E R

This book is one of the perennial classics of Muslim thought. Taking up the Prophet’s teaching that ‘Ninety-nine Beautiful Names’ are truly predicated of God, the author explores the meaning and resonance of each of these divine names, and reveals the functions they perform both in the cosmos and in the soul of the spiritual adept.

 Al-Ghazali on Patience and ThankfulnessBook XXXII of the Revival of the Religious Sciences (Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din)Translated by: H E N R Y T . L I T T L E J O H N

This is a translation of the thirty-second chapter of The Revival of the Religious Sciences. Ghazali here defines patience and its different forms; the need for patience; the degrees of patience; and why patience is considered to be half of faith. The second part of this chapter deals with thankfulness, its nature and its blessings.

 Al-Ghazali on Poverty and AbstinenceBook XXXIV of the Revival of the Religious Sciences (Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din)Translated by: A S A A D F . S H A K E R

The Book of Poverty and Abstinence is the thirty-fourth chapter of The Revival of the Religious Sciences. Ghazali gives definitions of what real poverty and abstinence should be and describes their closeness to patience, contentment, lack of worldliness, asceticism, trust and surrender to God.

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 Al-Ghazali on the Remembrance of Death & the AfterlifeBook XL of the Revival of the Religious Sciences (Ihya’ ‘Ulum al-Din)Translated by: T . J . W I N T E R

This is a translation of the last chapter of Ghazali’s Revival of the Religious Sciences. After expounding his Sufi philosophy of death and showing the importance of the contemplation of human mortality to the mystical way of self-purification, Ghazali takes his readers through the stages of the future life.

 Al-Shafi'i’s Risala   Treatise on the Foundations of Islamic JurisprudenceTranslated by: M A J I D K H A D D U R I

Written in the second Islamic century by al-Imam al-Shafi'i (d. 204AH/ 820AD), the founder of one of the four Sunni schools of law, this important work gives the fundamental principles of Islamic jurisprudence, and its influence continues to the present day.

 Al-Nawawi’s Manual of IslamTranslated by: N U H H A M I M K E L L E R

Imam Nawawi (d. 676AH/1277AD) composed al-Maqasid as a synopsis of the practical requirements of Islam - faith, purification, the prayer, charity, fasting, and pilgrimage - for students to memorise. The handbook’s clear and concise style will help anyone seeking to learn the essentials of Islamic practice and spirituality from a reliable, traditional source.

Al-Nawawi’s Manual of IslamTranslated by: N U H H A M I M K E L L E R

Imam Nawawi’s classic manual of Islam, al-Maqasid, was first composed as a fiqh matn, or synopsis of the practical requirements of Islam—faith, purification, the prayer, charity, fasting, and pilgrimage—for students to memorise. The handbook’s clear and concise style will help anyone seeking to learn the essentials of Islamic practice and spirituality from a reliable, traditional source. Although best known for his work on hadith, Yahya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi (d. 676AH/1277AD) was also the Imam of the later Shafi’i school of jurisprudence, and widely acknowledged as the intellectual heir of Imam Shafi’i. He was a great scholar and jurist who dedicated his life to the pursuit of Islamic learning.

Nuh Ha Mim Keller read philosophy at the University of Chicago and Arabic at UCLA. Since 1980, he has lived in the Middle East and studied Shafi’i and Hanafi jurisprudence,hadith, Sufism, and the tenets of faith under traditional shaykhs in Syria and Jordan.

An-Nawawi’s Forty HadithTranslated by: E Z Z E D D I N I B R A H I M & D E N Y S J O H N S O N - D A V I E S

This collection of forty hadith by one of the most famous compilers of hadith is generally regarded as the most popular anthology and the best introduction to the study of the

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Prophet’s sayings. The Arabic original has been printed alongside the English translation.

 Arabic Through the Qur’anA L A N J O N E S

Written by a professor of Arabic at Oxford University, this work aims at teaching Arabic using only the vocabulary in the Qur’an. The whole of Arabic grammar is covered in forty lessons. Each lesson is followed by exercises and a key to the exercises is available at the end of the book.

 The Book of Certainty   The Sufi Doctrine of Faith, Vision & GnosisA B U B A K R S I R A J A D - D I N

The author was asked by a friend to set down in writing what he considered to be the most important things that a human being can know and was also asked to make it very easy. This small book discusses the profoundest truths with remarkable simplicity and clarity.

 Classification of Knowledge in IslamA Study in Islamic Philosophies of ScienceO S M A N B A K A R -   Foreword by Seyyed Hossein Nasr

The classification of knowledge is a recurring theme in Islamic scholarship. The work focuses on the lives and ideas of three major intellectuals: al-Farabi, al-Ghazali and Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi. This is the first work of its kind in the English language.

 A Collection of Sufi Rules of ConductAuthor: A B U A B D A L - R A H M A N A L - S U L A M I  

A Collection of Sufi Rules of Conduct (Jawami Adab al-Sufiyya) was written by one of the foremost early masters of Sufism and is considered as the first work devoted to the description of the way of life and the customs of the Sufis. It represents an early attempt to illustrate the conformity of Sufi beliefs and manners with the Qur’an and the example of the Prophet (Sunna). A Collection of Sufi Rules of Conduct is therefore not only a pioneering work of ethics and mysticism, it is also a summary of the views of Sufis up till the eleventh century. It was a major influence on the development of Sufism from the eleventh century onwards. The translation by Dr Elena Biagi includes an introduction that places the author in his historical, literary and religious context, and a general glossary of Sufi technical terms.

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 The Dignity of Man: An Islamic PerspectiveM O H A M M A D H A S H I M K A M A L I

The Dignity of Man: An Islamic Perspective provides the most detailed study to date on the subject of the dignity of man in Islam. This book goes a long way towards exploring an alternative to Western concepts of human rights. The Dignity of Man: An Islamic Perspective is part of a series of studies on fundamental rights and liberties in Islam.

Sufi PoemsA Mediaeval AnthologyCompiled and Translated by: M A R T I N L I N G S

Sufi Poems is a selection of poems from the golden period of Sufism especially chosen and translated from the Arabic by the distinguished scholar Dr Martin Lings. Bi-lingual Arabic-English edition.

 A Sufi Saint of the Twentieth CenturyShaikh Ahmad al-AlawiM A R T I N L I N G S

This work concentrates on the life and writings of Shaikh Ahmad al-Alawi (d. 1934). It is an excellent introduction to the intellectual and practical sides of Sufism and has been considered as one of the most thorough studies on the subject produced by a Western scholar.

 Unveiling IslamR O G E R D U P A S Q U I E R

This book provides a thorough introduction to Muslim belief, history, art and literature. It includes topics such as ‘fundamentalism’ and the status of women in Islam.

 The Way of Abu MadyanTranslated by: V I N C E N T J . C O R N E L L

This is the first English translation of works attributed to Abu Madyan (1115-1198AD), a seminal figure of Sufism in Muslim Spain and North Africa. The variety of Abu Madyan’s oeuvre, which includes doctrinal treatises, aphorisms, and poetical works, provides a unique opportunity for students of Arabic and Sufism to experience several of the most important genres of religious writing in Islamic Middle Period. The Arabic text accompanies the English translation.

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 What is Sufism?M A R T I N L I N G S  

What do Sufis believe? What do they aim at? What do they do? Unlike other writers on the subject, Martin Lings treats all the three questions with equal justice. This classic work on Sufism has been used as set book in colleges worldwide and has been translated into five languages.

 A Young Muslim’s Guide to the Modern WorldS E Y Y E D H O S S E I N N A S R

This work was written specifically for Muslims, and in particular young Muslims, urging them to become familiar with their religion and to gain an understanding of the modern world from the Islamic point of view in order to respond positively to its challenges.

What is Sufism?M A R T I N L I N G S

Martin Lings provides an excellent and authoritative introduction to the mystical movement of the Sufis based on his lifelong interest in Islamic culture. His explanation derives from a profound understanding of Sufism, and extends to many aspects which are usually neglected. His illuminating answer to ‘What is Sufism?’ gives a taste of the very subject matter itself. What do Sufis believe? What do they aim at? What do they do? Unlike other writers on the subject, Martin Lings treats all the three questions with equal justice. He is thus able to give a wealth of answers to the main question ‘What is Sufism?’, each answer being from a different angle but all going to the root of the matter. A reviewer wrote ‘Should the book appear in paperback, I would use it for undergraduate and graduate courses on Islamic civilization’, and in fact What is Sufism? has become a set book in colleges and universities on both sides of the Atlantic. It is now accepted as the authoritative statement on the subject of Sufism and it has been translated into French, German, Italian and Spanish. It has also been published in Sarajevo in Bosnian, and is available in Braille.

Martin Lings, formerly Keeper of Oriental Manuscript in the British Museum and the British Library, is the author of two works on Islamic mysticism, The Book of Certaintyand A Sufi Saint of the Twentieth Century, both published by the Islamic Texts Society. HisMuhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources, also published by the Islamic Texts Society, has been internationally acclaimed as a masterpiece.

‘The discussion of Sufi aims, psychology, doctrine and method is original (many previously untranslated texts are cited), sensitive and readable. The mood of Sufism is conveyed here with a clarity that is rare, even unique, yet is done in a responsible, non-proselytizing manner.’ Review of Books and Religion

‘It is an invaluable contribution to the study of the subject and may well become a standard textbook…Highly recommended.’ Choice

‘He has treated all the most important features of Sufism with a degree of profundity and understanding rarely to be found among modern writers.’ Religion

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 The Right to Life, Security, Privacy and Ownership in IslamM O H A M M A D H K A M A L I

A person’s right to life, personal security, privacy, and ownership are the most basic of all the fundamental rights and liberties and are of concern to all legal systems and traditions. To address them side by side with one another, as is attempted in the present volume, is reflective of their natural priority and significance. These rights are simultaneously the most vulnerable to aggression and abuse.

 Science & Civilization in IslamS E Y Y E D H O S S E I N N A S R

This work, written by the foremost authority on the subject, includes an in-depth survey of the individual Islamic sciences from cosmology, philosophy, theology to alchemy, physics, mathematics, astronomy and medicine, concluding with a chapter on the gnostic tradition.

 The Seal of the Saints   Prophethood and Sainthood in the Doctrine of Ibn ArabiM I C H E L C H O D K I E W I C Z

Founded on a careful textual analysis, Seal of the Saints examines this essential aspect of Ibn Arabi’s doctrine of sainthood, defining the nature and function of sainthood, while also specifying the criteria for a typology of saints based on the notion of prophetic inheritance.

 The Secret of SecretsAbd Al-Qadir Al-Jilani Translated by: T O S U N B A Y R A K

This is a translation of Sirr al-Asrar by Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani (1077-1166AD), considered by many to be one of the greatest saints of Islam and the eponymous founder of the Qadiriyya order. This book contains the very essence of Sufism, giving a Sufi explanation of prayer, fasting, almsgiving and pilgrimage.

 The Speech of the BirdsMantiqu’t-Tair - Faridu'd-din 'AttarPresented and translated by: P E T E R A V E R Y

Mantiqu’t-Tair is one of the masterpieces of Persian literature. In The Speech of the Birds, Peter Avery has not only given us a precise and moving translation, but also ample annotation providing much information to fill in what Attar would have expected his readers to know.

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 Sufi Metaphysics and Qur’anic ProphetsIbn Arabi’s Thought and Method in the Fusus al-Hikam R O N A L D L N E T T L E R

The Fusus al-Hikam is acknowledged to be a summary statement of the sufi metaphysics of the ‘Greatest Master’, Ibn Arabi (1165-1240AD). Ronald Nettler examines ten chapters from the Fusus which exemplify the ideas, method and perspective of the entire work. Sufi Metaphysics and Qur’anic Prophets serves not only as an explication of Ibn Arabi’s thought in the Fusus, but is also a great aid in the overall understanding of Ibn Arabi’s thought.

Sufi Metaphysics and Qur’anic ProphetsIbn Arabi’s Thought and Method in the Fusus al-HikamR O N A L D L . N E T T L E R

The Fusus al-Hikam is acknowledged to be a summary statement of the sufi metaphysics of the “Greatest Master”, Ibn ‘Arabi (d.1240). It is also recognised that the Fusus is a work of great complexity both in its ideas and its style; and, over the centuries, numerous commentaries have been written on it. Each of the chapters of the Fusas is dedicated to a Qur’an prophet with whom a particular “wisdom” is associated. In Sufi Metaphysics and Quranic Prophets: Ibn’ Arabi’s Thought and Method in the Fusus al-Hikam, Ronald Nettler examines ten chapters from the Fusus which exemplify the ideas, method and perspective of the entire work. Concentrating on a detailed analysis of the text, the author brings out the profound connection and integration of scripture and metaphysics in the world-view of Ibn Arabi. Sufi Metaphysics and Qur’anic Prophets serves not only as an explication of Ibn Arabi’s thought in the Fusus, but is also a great aid in the overall understanding of Ibn Arabi’s thought.

Ronald L. Nettler is university research lecturer in Oriental Studies, Oxford University, and fellow and tutor in Oriental Studies at Mansfield College, Oxford.

Chapter One: Ibn Arabi: The Man and His ideas and methods

Chapter Two: The Wisdom of Divineness in the Word of Adam

Chapter Three: The Wisdom of Exaltedness in the Word of Musa

Chapter Four: The Wisdom of leadership in the Word of Harun

Chapter Five: The Wisdom of Ecstatic Love in the Word of Ibrahim

Chapter Six: The Wisdom of Unity in the Word of Hud

Chapter Seven: The Wisdom of the Heart in the Word of Shu’ayb

Chapter Eight: The Wisdom of Divine Decree in the Word of Uzayr

Chapter Nine: The Wisdom of Divine Sovereignty in the Word of Zakariyya

Chapter Ten: The Wisdom of Singularity in the Word of Muhammad

Chapter Eleven:A Lutian Epilogue

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Ibn 'Arabi, His Sufi Thought and the Fusus al-Hikam

The Man Muhammad b. 'Ali al-'Arabi al-Hatimi al-Ta-i, commonly known and referred to as Ibn 'Arabi, was a major figure of Islamic religious thought and of sufism, the mystical tradition of Islam. Ibn 'Arabi was born in Murcia in al-Andalus, Islamic Spain, on 27 July 1165 (17 Ramadan 560). He grew up in a privileged position, as a result of his father's various posts of political importance. Inclining in his later teen years toward a quest for intellectual, religious and spiritual truth, Ibn 'Arabi spent the rest of his life on this path. From his late twenties, he began his physical journeys outward from Spain, first to the Maghrib several times and, in following years, to various points in the East. In 1223, Ibn 'Arabi finally settled in Damascus where, now finished with his wanderings, he lived out his remaining years, working assiduously and producing a number of important works; among these was the Fusus al-Hikam, which Ibn 'Arabi claimed to have received in a vision from the Prophet Muhammad in that city.

The long period of travel was for Ibn 'Arabi the physical correlative and the context of his concomitant intellectual and religious journey. Learning from others, as well as himself teaching them during his wanderings, Ibn 'Arabi achieved an impressive literary productivity closely linked with his physical movements. Each place, it seems, provided the human and creative resources which made possible the development and refinement of his outlook. The 'arc' of Ibn 'Arabi's life, as Henri Corbin called it, was in this sense truly integrative. The result was an original perspective that in later Islam served to reorientate religious thought, whether sufi or other, in most profound ways.

Ibn 'Arabi's Sufi ThoughtIbn 'Arabi’s sufi thought is highly complex and subtle. In both its method and content, Ibn 'Arabi's thought resists any simple and straightforward understanding; it yields itself only to the most strenuous interpretative efforts and then only partially, often leaving unresolved problems and some degree of ambiguity. This is particularly true in the case of the Fusus al-Hikam, but it holds also for Ibn 'Arabi's other works which propound his characteristic sufi metaphysics. The difficulties derive mainly from conceptual and linguistic ambiguity, and complex, overlapping and multilevelled ideas in an esoteric formulation. Additionally, there is a linguistic complexity borne out of literary richness and nuance, as well as the obfuscation generally associated with esoteric ideas. Then, as with much of the literature of medieval Islamic religious thought, there is here also an oral factor. The texts derived to some extent from an interweaving of discussion and writing. The discussion would be absorbed within the texts and the texts in their final forms would thus reflect and contain the discussion. As in most cases the history of this process obviously cannot be reconstructed, for this reason certain ambiguities will remain in the writings. These cannot easily (if at all) be resolved, because they originally arose in discussion and they remain there. In Ibn 'Arabi's work, however, the complexity of his thought and the subtlety of his expression remain the greater problem.

Despite these barriers, modern scholarship, greatly aided by traditional sources, has achieved a certain comprehension of Ibn 'Arabi's outlook. However provisional and sometimes obviously uncertain, our present understanding does constitute a firm foundation for going forward. I should like now, however briefly, to provide some overview of Ibn 'Arabi's thought, in particular as this is relevant to his Fusus al-Hikam. While the understanding and explication below are my own, they will inevitably reflect also some views of other modern scholars who have contributed to our common base of knowledge. As my purpose here is more general than specific, I may not in all instances cite them, but I remain grateful for their various contributions.

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Sufi MetaphysicsThe main term I use to describe Ibn 'Arabi's mystical thought is that of sufi metaphysics. This term, in my view, incorporates the experiential, personal element and its profound intellectualisation with Ibn 'Arabi in his metaphysics. By metaphysics here I do not mean a full philosophical doctrine, as more narrowly and precisely formulated in the true philosophical traditions; this is rather a far-reaching intellectual expression of intertwined experience and ideas which addresses ultimate transcendent issues of cosmogony and cosmology, God and man, this world and the next. There is here much that may be drawn from traditional Islamic philosophical and theological thought—especially the problem of the One and the many with its components of classical and post-classical ideas; there are also many elements of the other Islamic religious and secular, intellectual and scientific traditions. Ibn 'Arabi, like many other great medieval Muslim intellectuals, was very much a polymath who brought all he possessed to bear on the issues of his concern. Indeed, it is quite clear even that he saw in his sufi metaphysics a basis for the resolution of the major outstanding problems of Islamic religious thought in his time from a new perspective.

Though sometimes, then, redolent of aspects of philosophical metaphysics, Ibn 'Arabi's outlook goes beyond and differs from the other tradition in its formulations, expressions and content. It is also different in its very reason for being, as an intellectualisation of the earlier tradition of sufism—thus, again, the name 'sufi metaphysics'. For though it would be wrong to deny sufism prior to Ibn 'Arabi, whether 'Western' or 'Eastern', any intellectual attributes or systematisation, the core and focal point of the tradition usually remained decidedly on the side of personal religious experience and its expression. These basic 'mystical' features understandably still remain critical for Ibn 'Arabi and, by his own claim, they define and direct his sufi career; but his sufism must in great part be understood as an intellectualisation of that prior tradition, if it is to be understood at all, and if its significance is to be appreciated. Annemarie Schimmel has put it well:

But whatever the Spanish-born mystic who soon became known as ash-shaikh al-akbar(Magister Magnus) might have intended, there is a world of difference between his approach to religion and the dynamic, personal religion of Hallaj. With Ibn 'Arabi, Islamic mysticism comes close to the mysticism of infinity, and his approach is theosophical or gnostic rather than voluntaristic, for his goal is to lift the veils of ignorance which hide the basic identity of man and the Divine, while in early Sufism the element of personal love between man and God was predominant.

Ibn 'Arabi's sufi metaphysics is vast and vastly complex. Its main ideas, style and method, as said above, render it difficult to penetrate. A focused survey of the main ideas, as these are formulated and appear especially in the Fusus, will give more substance to this general characterisation of the metaphysics; it will also provide a necessary conceptual background for the Qur'anic analyses of the Fusus made in the following chapters. Preliminary to this survey, let us briefly consider Ibn 'Arabi's own view of the origin of theFusus.

 The Secret of SecretsAbd al-Qadir al-JilaniInterpreted by: T O S U N B A Y R A K

An interpretative translation by Shaykh Tosun Bayrak of Sirr al-Asrar by Hadrat Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani (1077-1166AD), considered by many to be one of the greatest saints of Islam and the eponymous founder of the Qadiriyya order. This book, appearing in English for the first time, contains the very essence of Sufism, giving a Sufi explanation of how the outward practises of Islam - prayer, fasting, almsgiving and pilgrimage - contain a wealth of inner dimension which must be discovered and enjoyed if external actions are to be

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performed in a manner pleasing to God. When this is achieved the soul finds true peace and the spiritual life becomes complete.

Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani, born near the Caspian Sea, was the son of the great saint Fatima bint Abdullah al-Sawma’i. After a period of intense intellectual and mystical training he received the khirqa (robe of initiation) and was soon recognised as a saint and scholar, consulted, loved and revered by caliph and pauper alike. As one of the most venerated figures in Sufism his burial place in Baghdad still attracts numerous visitors from many countries.

‘This work, which contains a biographical introduction to one of the author’s least-known works, represents a valuable contribution to the field...The translator’s introduction provides an insight into the various personal qualities and divine graces which are recognised in combination as a proof of sainthood...It is clearly and elegantly presented, accessible, and has the merit of combining metaphysical doctrine with devotional ethics as encapsulated in the life and work of one of the most endearingly popular Sufis of all time.’ Journal of Islamic Studies

‘A book of great importance to Sufism...Sheikh Tosun has done an admirable job in presenting not only a translation but a lucid interpretation of one of Jilani’s most important works.’Gnosis

Table of Contents

1. The Places of the Souls within the Body

2. On Knowledge

3. On Repentance

4. On Remembrance

5. On the Vision of God

6. The Veils of Light and Darkness

7. On the Purification of the Self

8. On the Meaning of Ritual Worship and Inner Worship

9. On Charity

10. On Fasting Prescribed by the Religion and on Spiritual Fasting

11. On the Pilgrimage to Mecca and the Inner Pilgrimage of the Heart

12. On Withdrawing from the World

13. On Dreams

On the Vision of Allah: Arriving at the Level of Seeing the Manifestation of the Divine Essence

The vision of Allah is of two kinds: one is seeing the manifestation of Allah’s attribute of Perfect Beauty directly in the hereafter, and the other is seeing the manifestation of the divine attributes reflected upon the clear mirror of the pure heart, in this life, in this world. In such a case the vision appears as the manifestation of light emanating from thePerfect Beauty of Allah and is seen by the eye of the essence of the heart.

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Allah describes the vision seen by the eye of the heart: The heart did not deny what it saw.(Sura Najm, 11)

On seeing the manifestation of the divine through an intermediary the Prophet says, ‘The faithful is the mirror of the faithful’. What is meant by the first ‘faithful’, the mirror in this phrase, is the pure heart of the believer, while the second ‘faithful’ Who sees His reflection in that mirror is Allah Most High. Whoever arrives at the level of seeing the manifestations of Allah’s attributes in the world will certainly see the Essence of Allah in the hereafter without shape or form.

The reality of this has been confirmed by many of the beloved and the lovers of Allah. Hadrat Umar, may Allah be pleased with him, said, ‘My heart saw my Lord by the light of my Lord’. And Hadrat Ali, may Allah be pleased with him, said, ‘I will not pray to Allah unless I see Him’. They both must have seen the manifestation of divine attributes. If someone sees sunlight coming through the windows and says, ‘I see the sun!’ he is telling the truth.

Allah gives the most beautiful example of the manifestation of His attributes.

Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. The parable of His light is as if there were a niche and within it a lamp, the lamp enclosed in glass, the glass as it were a brilliant star lit from a blessed tree, an olive neither of the East nor of the West, whose oil is wellnigh luminous, though fire scarce touches it; light upon light! Allah doth guide whom He will to His light. (Sura Nur, 35)

The meaning of the niche is the faithful heart of the believer. The lamp enlightening the niche of the heart is the essence of the heart, while the light that it sheds is the divine secret, the sultansoul. The glass is transparent and does not keep the light within, but protects it and allows it to spread, which is why it is likened to a star. The source of the light is a divine tree. That tree is the state of unity reaching out with its branches and its roots, inculcating the principles of faith, communicating without any intermediary in the language of purity.

It is directly in this language of purity that our Master the Prophet received the Qur’anic revelations. In reality, the angel Gabriel brought the divine messages only after they had already been received—this for our benefit, so that we might hear in human language. This also made clear who were the hypocrites and non-believers by giving them the occasion to deny, as they would not believe in angels.

The proof that the Holy Qur’an was revealed directly to the Prophet is in the Qur’an itself.

And thou art surely made to receive the Qur’an from the AllWise, the AllKnowing. (Sura Naml, 6)

Since the Prophet received revelation before the angel Gabriel brought it to him, each time Gabriel delivered the holy verses, the Prophet found them in his heart and recited them before they were given. That is the reason for the verse:

And make not haste with the Qur’an before its revelation is made complete to thee ... (Sura Ta Ha, 114)

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This situation is made clear by the fact that when Gabriel accompanied the Prophet on the night of his ascension, he could not go any further than the seventh heaven, and saying, ‘If I take another step I will burn to ashes’, he left our Master to continue on his own.

Allah describes the blessed olive tree, the tree of unity, as being neither of the East nor of the West. In other words, it has neither a beginning nor an end, and the light of which it is the source has no rising or setting. It is eternal in the past and neverending in the future. Both Allah’s Essence and His attributes are ever-existent, because His attributes are light generated from His Essence. Both the manifestation of His Essence and the manifestation of His attributes are dependent on His Essence.

True worship can only be performed when the veils hiding the heart are lifted so that that eternal light shines upon it. It is only then that the heart is enlightened by the divine light. It is only then that the soul sees the truth through that celestial niche.

The purpose of the creation of this universe is to discover, to see that hidden treasure. Allah says through His Prophet, ‘I was a hidden treasure, I willed to be known. I created the creation so that I would be known.’ That is to say, that He would be known in this material world through His attributes manifested in His creation. But to see His very Essence is left to the hereafter. There, the vision of Allah will be direct, as He wills, and it will be the eye of the child of the heart that sees Him.

On that day some faces will beam (with joy and beauty), looking at their Lord. (Sura Qiyama, 223)

Our Master the Prophet says, ‘I have seen my Lord in the shape of a beautiful youth.’ Perhaps this is the manifestation of the child of the heart. The image is the mirror. It becomes a means, rendering visible that which is invisible. The truth of Allah Most High is exempt from and free of any kind of description or any kind of image or form. The image is the mirror, though what is seen is neither the mirror nor the one who is looking into the mirror. Ponder on that and try to understand, because that is the essence of the realm of secrets.

Yet all this is happening in this world of attributes. In the realm of the Essence all means disappear, burn into thin air. The ones in that realm of Essence themselves do not exist, but they feel the Essence and nothing else. How well the Prophet explains this when he says, ‘I knew my Lord by my Lord’. In His Light, by His Light! The truth of man is the secret of that light, as Allah says through His Prophet: ‘Man is My secret and I am his secret’.

The place of the Prophet Muhammad, whose light is the first of Allah’s creation, is described in his own words, ‘I am from Allah and the believers are from me’. And Allah, speaking through His Prophet, says: ‘I have created the light of Muhammad from the light of My own existence’. The meaning of Allah’s own existence is His divine Essence manifested in His attribute of the Most Compassionate. This He declares through His Prophet, saying: ‘My compassion far surpasses My punishment’. The beloved Messenger of Allah is the light of the Truth, for Allah says, We sent thee not but as a mercy to the whole creation. (Sura Anbiya’, 107) and

Indeed Our Messenger has come to you, making clear to you much of that which you concealed of the Book and passing over much. Indeed, there has come to you from Allah a light ... (Sura Ma’ida, 15)

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The importance of the beloved Prophet of Allah is made clear when Allah speaks to him and says: ‘But for you, I would not have created creation’.

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