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8/6/2019 Burma's Environment: People, Problems, Policies-report engl
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BURMASENVIRONMENT:
PEOPLE,PROBLEMS,POLICIES
The Burma Environmental Working Group (BEWG)
8/6/2019 Burma's Environment: People, Problems, Policies-report engl
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BURMAS ENVIRONMENT:PEOPLE, PROBLEMS, POLICIES
ISBN: 978-974-350-515-7
Copyright June 2011
Published by:
The Burma Environmental Working Group (BEWG)Website: www.bewg.org
Printed by:
Wanida Press, Chiang Mai, Thailand.
Tel. 66 53 110503-4
Made in Thailand
Copyright is reserved by The Burma Environmental Working Group (BEWG)
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................. 08
RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................... 10
1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 13
2. COUNTRY FACTS ...................................................................................... 14
2.1 DEMOGRAPHY ...................................................................................... 14
2.2 NATURAL RESOURCES .......................................................................... 15
3. ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS AND POLICIES IN BURMA................................... 17
3.1 NaonalCommissionforEnvironmentalAairs .................................. 18
3.2 EnvironmentalPoliciesandLaws ......................................................... 19
3.3 ImpactAssessmentsinBurma ............................................................. 19
3.4 EnvironmentalProvisionsinthe2008Constuon............................. 20
3.5 NaonalSustainableDevelopmentStrategy........................................ 21
3.6 InternaonalCommitments................................................................. 22
3.7 EnvironmentalisminBurma................................................................. 26
4. LAW AND POLICY ON FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURAL LAND .................... 33
4.1 ForestryLawsandPolicies.................................................................... 33
4.2 LandLawsandPolicies ......................................................................... 36
4.3 EconomicdevelopmentandnaturalresourcesinBurma .................... 42
5. THREATS TO ENVIRONMENT AND LIVELIHOODS ........................................ 51
5.1 LargeDams........................................................................................... 53 5.2 OilandGasExtracon .......................................................................... 58
5.3 Mining .................................................................................................. 61
5.4 Deforestaon ....................................................................................... 65
5.5 LargeScaleAgriculturalConcessions ................................................... 70
5.6 IllegalWildlifeTrade ............................................................................. 80
5.7 ClimateChange .................................................................................... 81
6. CONCLUSION ........................................................................................... 83
Contents
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TheBurmaEnvironmentalWorkingGroup(BEWG) would like toacknowledge the
contribuonsofthefollowingorganizaonsandindividualsfortheirsupportforthe
produconofthereport.
AnotherDevelopmentforBurma
InformaonContribuon:
ArakanRiverNetwork
BurmaRiversNetwork
EthnicCommunityDevelopmentForum
KarenEnvironmentCommiee
KarenniEvergreen
YukiAkimotoMartyBergoen
ClydeFawkes
JeremyMak
ZaoNoam
ShweMyoThant
SteveThompson
NickVeidelis
KatrinaWinters
Donors:DagHammarskjldFoundaon
KarenEnvironmentalandSocialAconNetwork
Manyotherindividualswhocannotbenamedgavewelcomeinputtothedras.
BEWGalsoappreciatestheeortsoftheForestResourceEnvironmentDevelopmentand
ConservaonAssociaon,EcosystemConservaonandCommunityDevelopmentIniave,
andotherlocal,naonalandinternaonalorganizaonsthatareworkingtoconserve
Burmasecosystems.
About the Burma Environmental Working Group
TheBurmaEnvironmentalWorkingGroup(BEWG)bringstogetherBurmafocusedethnic
environmentalandsocialorganizaons.MemberorganizaonsmonitorBurmadevelopment
policyandadvocatesforalternavedevelopmentpoliciesmeengtheirspecictradional
andcomprehensiveunderstandingoflocalsustainability.BEWGprovidesaforumformember
organizaonstocombinethesuccesses,knowledge,experseandvoicesofethnicpeoples
inpursuitofnotjustlocallivelihoods,butsustainableandpeacefulnaonal,regionaland
internaonaldevelopmentpolicy.Memberscollaborateonresearch,reporng,advocacycampaigns,capacity-buildinginiavesandpolicyformulaon.BEWGalsonetworkswith
non-memberorganizaonstoencourageharmonyanddiversityinitsownacviesaswell
The Burma Environmental Working Group (BEWG)
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asstrengthendemocracyandcivilsocietyinBurma.
MembersoftheBEWGrstcametogetherin 2005throughaseminarorganizedbythe
AnotherDevelopmentforBurmainiave(ADfB).TheADfBprojectprovidesaplaorm
forpolical,communityandissuebasedgroupswithintheBurmademocracymovementtoconsiderlong-termchallengesanddevelopmentalternavesforthefutureofBurma.
Unlnow,mostBEWGacvieshavebeenorganizedwithsupportfromtheADfBplaorm.
ThefollowingorganizaonsaremembersoftheBurmaEnvironmentalWorkingGroup.
Arakan Oil Watch (AOW),foundedin2006,isanindependentnon-governmentalorganizaon
thataimstoprotecthumanrightsandtheenvironmentfromextracveindustriesinArakan
StateandinBurma.AOWeducatesaectedpeoplesontheseissues,developsandpromotes
oilandgasrevenuetransparencystandards,andconductsinternaonaladvocacy.AOWis
anacvecorememberoftheShweGasMovementandamemberofSouthEastAsiaOilWatch.EachmonthAOWpublishesTheShweGasBulleninEnglishandBurmese,a
newsleercoveringthelatestdevelopmentsinBurmasoilandnaturalgasindustry.Website:
www.arakanoilwatch.org
Bridging Rural Integrated Development and Grassroots Empowerment (BRIDGE) works
togetherwithruralcommuniesimpactedbypolicalandsocio-economicchangeinKachin
statetostrengthentheircapaciestomanagetheirownnaturalresources.BRIDGEsupports
theircommunity-baseddevelopmentacviesandbuildscollaboraonsandpartnerships
thatadvocateforsustainabledevelopmentandfosteracultureofpeace.
EarthRights Internaonal (ERI)isagroupofacvists,organizers,andlawyerswithexperse
inhumanrights, theenvironment,andcorporateandgovernmentaccountability.Since
1995,ERIhasworkedinBurmatomonitortheimpactsofthemilitaryregimespoliciesand
acviesonlocalpopulaonsandecosystems.Throughtheirtrainingprogram,ERItrains
youngenvironmentalacvistsfromdiverseethnicbackgroundsinBurmatoempoweryoung
leaderswithskillsandknowledgetoworkonearthrightsissuesintheircommunies.In
addion,ERIworksalongsideaectedcommunitygroupstopreventhumanrightsand
environmentalabusesassociatedwithlarge-scalenaturalresourceprojectsinBurma.
Website:www.earthrights.org
Kachin Development Networking Group (KDNG), foundedin2004,isanetworkofcivil
societygroupsanddevelopmentorganizaonsinKachinState.KDNGspurposeisto
eecvelyworkforsustainabledevelopmentbasedonindigenousknowledgeandculturally-
appropriateenvironmentalmanagementandconservaonmethods.KDNGworksto
maintaintheintegrityof landandforest,andempowerindigenouspeoplebyproviding
awarenessonenvironmentissues,especiallyrelangtohumanrights,environmentalrights
andindigenousrights.Itachievesthesegoalsthroughtrainings,workshops,research,
documentaon,andadvocacy.Website: www.aksyu.com
The Karen Environmental and Social Acon Network (KESAN)wasestablishedin2001as
therst local community-based organizaonto raise environmentalawareness amongKarenpeople.KESANworkstoempowerandeducatecommuniesandlocalinstuons
torevitalizeexisngindigenousknowledgeandpraccesforincreasedlivelihoodsecurity
BURMAS ENVIRONMENT: PEOPLE, PROBLEMS, POLICIES
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inKarenandKachinStatesandinareasalongtheThai-Burmeseborder.KESANstrivesto
build uplocal capacitiesin forest andnaturalresource management, raisepublic
environmentalawareness,and support community-baseddevelopmentiniaves. In
addiontoplayingaleadingroleinenvironmentallawandpolicyformulaon,KESAN
advocatesforenvironmentalpoliciesanddevelopmentprioriesthatensuresustainableecological,social,cultural,andeconomicbenetsandpromotegenderequity.Website:
www.kesan.asia
The Lahu Naonal Development Organizaon (LNDO)wassetupbyleadingLahudemocracy
acvistsinMarch1997toadvocateforthewelfareandwell-beingoftheLahupeople,
includingthepromoonofalternavestodestrucvedevelopmentprojectsandopium
culvaon.LNDOseekstoprotectthelivelihoodsandlandsofLahuandAkhapeoplesand
toincreaseunderstandingamongthelocalethnicnaonaliesabouthumanrights,
democracy,federalism,communitydevelopment, andhealthissues.LNDOalso aimsto
developunityandcooperaonamongtheLahuandotherhighlandersfromShanStateandtoprovideopportuniesfordevelopmentofcivicleadershipskillsamonglocalgroups.
Network for Environmental and Economic Development (NEED)wasfoundedinMarch
2006.NEEDisanonprotNGOworkingtostrengthenBurmesecivilsocietysothatallthe
peopleof Burmamaybenetfromthepracceof indigenousandholiscdevelopment
strategies,basedoneconomically,environmentally,andsociallysustainableideas.NEED
concentrateson thepromoon ofenvironmentalconservaon,sustainable agriculture,
andeconomicdevelopmentinBurma.Website:www.need-burma.org
The Pa-Oh Youth Organizaon (PYO)wassetupin1998strivingforpeaceandjuscethroughempoweringyouth.PYOpublishedthereportRobbing the Future inJune2009
aertwoyearsofresearchatthesiteofBurmaslargestironmineandthePangpetNo.5
SteelMillinShanState.PYOconnuestomonitorthesituaonandeducatecommunies
oftheenvironmentalandsocialimpactsofthisandotherminingprojects.Website: www.
pyo-org.blogspot.com
Shan Sapawa Environmental Organizaon (Sapawa)worksalongtheThai-Burmeseborder
andinsideBurmatopromoteenvironmentalproteconandhumanrightsinShanState,
Burma.Sapawawasestablishedin2003byShanalumniofEarthRightsSchoolandtheShan
StateSchoolforNaonaliesYouthwhohadbecomeincreasinglyconcernedatthe
environmentalsituaoninShanState.SapawasvisionisajustandpeacefulShanStatefreeofenvironmentaldestruconandexploitaon.ThemissionofSapawaistoempower
Shancommuniestoprotecttheirrightsandlivelihoods,andpreservetheirnatural
resources,andtoexposethedestruconoftheenvironmentandhumanrightsviolaons
occurringinShanStatetolocalpeoplesaswellastheinternaonalcommunity,inorderto
ndwaystopreventsuchviolaons.Website:shansapawa.org
The Shwe Gas Movement (SGM) isanon-governmentalorganizaoncampaigningagainst
theShweGasProjectandChinasTrans-BurmaPipelines,forHumanRights,Environment
Jusceandrevenuetransparencyinoilandgassector.SGMspecializesinfact-nding,
traininggrassrootsandcommunityleadersandadvocacycampaign.ItsmembersincludetheAllArakanStudentsandYouthsCongress,ArakanOilWatchandShweGasMovement
(India)anddedicatedacvistsinBurma.
The Burma Environmental Working Group (BEWG)
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http://www.kesan.asia/http://www.need-burma.org/http://www.pyo-org.blogspot.com/http://www.pyo-org.blogspot.com/http://shansapawa.org/http://shansapawa.org/http://www.pyo-org.blogspot.com/http://www.pyo-org.blogspot.com/http://www.need-burma.org/http://www.kesan.asia/8/6/2019 Burma's Environment: People, Problems, Policies-report engl
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Notes to the reader
In1989,thegovernmentinBurmachangedtheocialnameofthecountryfromtheUnion
ofBurmatotheUnionofMyanmari,alongwithnamesofcies,districts,andstates,including
thenamesofplacesmenonedinthisreport. Inrespectandrecognionofethnicand
indigenous peoples names forancestral lands, however, thisreportuses thehistorical
nameswiththeexceponofdirectquotes.
Footnotesareclaricaonpointstogivethereadermorebackgroundinformaonnecessary
tounderstandaseconscontext.Endnoteslistreferencesused.
InBurma,severaldierentmeasurementsystemsareused,includingthemetricsystem,
theinternaonalsystem,andothernaonalandlocalizedmeasurements.Thisreport
utilizesvariousmeasurementsystems,althoughthereisapreferenceformetric
measurements.Conversionsforthemostcommonmeasurementsinthereportarelistedbelow.Numbershavebeenroundedtothethreesignicantdigits.
1acre=0.405hectares
1hectare=2.47acres
1kilometer=0.621miles
1mile=1.61kilometers
1squarekilometer=100hectares=0.386squaremiles=247acres
1kilogram=2.21pounds
1pound=0.454kilograms
1ton=2,000pounds=907kilograms1 cal=0.0163kilograms=0.0360pounds
1 viss=100cals=1.63kilogram
Burmasnaonalcurrencyisthekyat(MMK).Forreference,equivalentsinAmericandollars
($USD)areoenshown.Althoughtheocialexchangerateissetat6.31MMKper$1
USD,thereportusestheunocialmarketratewhereeconomictransaconsarecarried
outandisthereforemoremeaningful.
$1USD=30THB=approximately880MMK
i In2010intheleaduptotheelecons,thenamewasociallychangedtotheRepublicoftheUnionof
Myanmar.
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Acronyms
AAC AnnualAllowableCut
ADB AsianDevelopmentBank
ADfB AnotherDevelopmentforBurma
AOW ArakanOilWatch
ASEAN AssociaonofSoutheastAsianNaons
BANCA BiodiversityandNatureConservaonAssociaon
BEWG BurmaEnvironmentalWorkingGroup
BRIDGE BridgingRuralIntegratedDevelopmentandGrassrootsEmpowerment
BSS BurmaSeleconSystemCBO CommunityBasedOrganizaon
CDB ConvenononBiologicalDiversity
CPB CommunistPartyofBurma
DAP DepartmentofAgricultureandPlanning
DG DirectorGeneral
DHF DagHammarskjldFoundaon
DKBA DemocracKarenBuddhistArmy
DZGD DryZoneGreeningDepartment
ECODEV EconomicallyProgressiveEcosystemDevelopment
EIA EnvironmentalImpactAssessment
ERI EarthRightsInternaonal
FD ForestDepartment
FREDA ForestResourceEnvironmentDevelopmentandConservaonAssociaon
GA GeneralAssembly
GEF UnitedNaonsGlobalEnvironmentFacilityGMS GreaterMekongSubregion(denedbytheADBasBurma,Thailand,Lao,
Cambodia,Vietnam,andYunnanProvince,China)
ILO InternaonalLaborOrganizaon
INGO InternaonalNongovernmentalOrganizaon
IUCN WorldConservaonUnion(InternaonalUnionfortheConservaonof
Nature)
KDNG KachinDevelopmentNetworkingGroup
KEG KarenniEvergreenKESAN KarenEnvironmentalandSocialAconNetwork
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KHRG KarenHumanRightsGroup
KIA KachinIndependenceArmy
KIO KachinIndependenceOrganizaon
KNLA KarenNaonalLiberaonArmy
KNU KarenNaonalUnion
KORD KarenOrganizaonofReliefandDevelopment
KTWG KarenTeacherWorkingGroup
LMC LandManagementCommiee
LNDO LahuNaonalDevelopmentOrganizaon
PYO Pa-OhYouthOrganizaon
MoAI MinistryofAgricultureandIrrigaon
MOGE MyanmarOilandGasEnterprise
MPCE MyanmarPerennialCropsEnterprise
MTE MyanmarTimberEnterprise
NBSAP NaonalBiodiversityStrategyandAconPlan
NCEA NaonalCommissiononEnvironmentalAairs
NDAA NaonalDemocracAllianceArmy
NDAK NewDemocracArmyKachinNEED NetworkforEnvironmentalandEconomicDevelopment
NGO NongovermentalOrganizaon
REDD ReducingEmissionsfromDeforestaonandForestDegradaon
ROAP UNEPsRegionalOceforAsiaandthePacic
SLRD SelementandLandRecordsDepartment
SPDC StatePeaceandDevelopmentCouncil
SLORC StateLawandOrderRestoraonCouncil
SSA-S ShanStateArmySouth
TPDC TownshipPeaceandDevelopmentCouncil
UNDP UnitedNaonsDevelopmentProgram
UNEP UnitedNaonsEnvironmentProgram
UN-REDD UnitedNaonsCollaboraveProgramonReducingEmissionsfrom
DeforestaonandForestDegradaoninDevelopingCountries
UWSA UnitedWaStateArmy
WCS WorldConservaonSociety
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Burmahasextensivebiodiversityandabundantnaturalresources,whichhaveinrecent
yearsbeenthreatenedbymilitarizaon,large-scaleresourceextracon,andinfrastructure
development.Burmahassomelawsandpoliciesrelatedtoprotecngpeopleandthe
environment,butthecountrylacksthenecessaryadministraveandlegalstructures,
standards,safeguardsandpolicalwilltoenforcesuchprovisions.Thecountryis alsoa
partytoseveralinternaonaltreaesrelangtotheenvironment,includingthoseon
proteconofbiodiversityandindigenouspeoples,wildlife,andcounteringclimatechange.
Itisunclear,however,howthecontentsofthosetreaesthathavebeenraedhavebeen
incorporatedintodomesclaw.
ManyorganizaonsareacveinBurmaonprojectsandprogramsrelatedtoenvironmental
proteconandsustainabledevelopment.Thisincludesabroadrangeofcommunity-based
organizaons,grassrootsorganizaons,naonalandinternaonalNGOs,UNagencies,andchurchgroupsbothbasedingovernment-controlledareasofBurma(inside)andthose
basedintheThaiandChineseborderregions(bordergroups).Manyorganizaonstake
thetradionalconservaonapproachortherights-basedapproachorboth.Organizaons
thatareusingarights-basedapproachworkfromaperspecveofsustainabledevelopment
andlivelihoodsandsubsequentlyfocusonissuessuchasfoodsecurity,landtenureand
rights,andcommunitydevelopmentandorganizing.Conservaonorganizaonstendto
focusspecicallyonenvironmentalprotecon,althoughwithvaryingstrategiestoachieve
their commongoal.Organizations workingon environmental issuesalso focuson
environmentalawareness,educaonandtraining,policydevelopment,advocacyand
networking.
Communiesconnuetobeexcludedfromprotectedforestareas,threateningtheirforest-
basedlivelihoods.The1990sand2000switnessedseverelogging,rstalongtheThai-Burma
borderandthenalongtheChinaborderinnorthernBurma.Althoughtheloggingrushhas
somewhatsubsidedalongtheseborders,thegovernmentandmilitaryconnuetoallocate
loggingconcessionstoChineseandBurmesebusinesspeople,irrespecveofnaonaland
locallawsregulangsustainableforestrypracces.Timber,however,contributesmuchless
toGDPasotherresourcesectorsboom.Communityforestryisposionedtochallengethe
mannerin whichmberresourcesaremanaged,providingsomepromisingdevoluonii
trends.
LandtenureremainsveryweakinBurma.Thestateownsallthelandandresourcesin
Burma,withmostvillagershavingnoformallandtlefortheircustomaryagriculturalland.
Newpolicieshavebeenputinplaceallocanglandconcessionstoprivateeneswhich
donotrespectcustomarylandrightsorinformallandholdings.Therearenosafeguardsto
protectfarmersfromtheonslaughtofcapitalismormechanismstohelpthembenet.
Controlovernaturalresourcesisamajorcauseofconictinethnicareas,wherethemajority
ofBurmasnaturalresourcesremain.ForeigndirectinvestmentinBurmaisconcentrated
inenergyandextracvesectorsandoenresultsinmilitarizaonanddisplacement.Recently
ii adelegaonofauthoritybyacentralgovernmenttolocalgoverningunits
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therehasbeenheightenedinterestfromcountriesintheregionformoreinvestment
opportunies.Giventhelackofsoundeconomicpolicyandunwillingnessofthestateto
reconcilewithethnicarmedgroups,anincreaseinforeigninvestmentcouldhaveamajor
impactontheenvironmentandcommunieslivingintheseareas.
Whiletheydonotprovideloans,internaonalnancialinstuonssuchastheWorldBank
andInternaonalMonetaryFundremainengagedinBurma.TheAsianDevelopmentBank
inparcularprovidesassistancethroughvariouschannelsandfacilitatesprivateinvestment.
Burma iscurrently facingmanythreatsto thenaturalenvironment andsustainable
livelihoods,suchasconstruconoflargedams,oilandgasextracon,mining,deforestaon,
large-scaleagriculturalconcessions,illegalwildlifetradeandclimatechange.Themajority
ofBurmasincomecomesfromsellingonaturalresources,includingbillionsofdollars
fromgasandhydropowerdevelopment. Investmentcomesfromcountrieswithinthe
regionmostsignicantlyChina,IndiaandThailand.Malaysia,Singapore,Japan,VietnamandKoreaarealsokeyinvestorslookingtoincreaseinvestmentsaertheelecons.These
resourceextracveinvestmentsdamagetheenvironmentandthreatenlocalresource-based
livelihoods,parcularlyinethnicareas.
InordertotakestepstowardsecologicallyandsociallyresponsibledevelopmentinBurma,
Burmamusthaveasoundpolicyframeworkforenvironmentalproteconandsustainable
developmentthatenablescizenstotakepartindecisionmakingabouttheirown
development,andensuresresponsibleprivatesectorinvestment.Unlthen,newforeign
investorsinvesnginenergy,extracveandplantaonsectorsshouldrefrainfrominvesng.
Exisnginvestorsshouldimmediatelyceaseallproject-relatedwork-parcularlyinsensiveareasthroughoutBurma-unladequatesafeguardsareinplacetoensureinvestmentdoes
notleadtounnecessarydestruconofthenaturalenvironmentandlocallivelihoods.At
thesameme,InternaonalNGOsandUNagenciesshouldensurepeoplearerecognized
askeyactorsintheirowndevelopment,ratherthanpassiverecipientsofcommodiesand
services;andcivilsocietyorganizaonsshouldempowercommuniesthroughoutBurma
tounderstandtheirrights.
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RECOMMENDATIONS
To Burmas Government
Environmentalpolicyandlawmustbebasedoninternaonallawsandstandards,including
standardsforEnvironmentalImpactAssessments(EIA)andSocialImpactAssessments(SIA).
ThedevelopmentprocessmustalsoincorporatetheprincipleofandFree,PriorandInformed
Consent(FPIC).
Holdopenconsultaonswithabroadspectrumofstakeholdersindevelopingenvironment
lawsand policiesbeforetheyareapproved,includingestablishingadraingcommiee
withrepresentavesfromdierentsectorsandethnicgroups.
EIAsandSIAsshouldbedraedinconsultaonwithcivilsociety(includingethnicgroups)
thatareinaccordancewithinternaonalbestpracce.Theseassessmentsmustbe
conductedbyindependentthirdpares,throughaprocessthatensuresaccesstorelevant
informaon,adequateparcipaonofaectedcommuniesandpublichearingstomigate
theimpactofdevelopmentprojectsonlocalcommuniesandtheenvironment.
Developanequitablebenet-sharingsysteminallinfrastructure,extracve,energyand
developmentprojects.
Developlaws,policiesandinstuonsthatprotectcommuniesandindividualfarmers
livelihoodsandlandsfromtheimpactsofopeningnewmarkets,especiallyfromdomesc
andinternaonalagribusinesses.
Enactlandlawsandpoliciesthatrecognizeandrespectcustomarylandrights,entlement
andtenurerights.Forexample,rotaonalfarmingshouldberecognizedasonetypeof
tradionalagriculturesysteminuplandareas.
Abolishthe1953LandNaonalizaonActandupholdthesllexisng1963LawSafeguarding
PeasantsRightstoensurefarmerslandsandlivelihoodsareprotectedfromconscaon
bylaw.
Ratify core human andenvironmental rightstreaties.Developmandatorylaws andregulaonsinaccordancewiththeseinternaonallawsandstandardstoregulateand
monitorplantaon,energyandextracveindustries,includingnaonalprivatecompanies,
stateownedenterprises,andforeignprivateandstateownedcompaniesoperangin
Burma.
Respectindividualandcommunityrightsintheprocessofcompulsoryacquisionofland
inaccordancewithinternaonalbestpracce.Thisincludestheprovisionofadequate
informaon,consultaon,andfairandjustcompensaonoradequatealternavehousing
andlivelihoodpriortoeviconfromtheland.Duringtheevicon,theremustbenouseof
violenceordisproporonateforce.
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EstablishindependentbodiessuchasaNaonalEnvironmentalCommission,Naonal
HumanRightsCommissionandAn-corruponunitwithadequatebudgetanddecision-
makingpowertoensuresocialandenvironmentaljusce.
Enactpoliciesthatarerights-based,people-centered,andpro-poor.Thisensurestherightsoflocalpeopletothesustainableuseandmanagementoftheirresources,suchascommunity
forestryandpaymentsforecologicalservices.
Applytheprinciplesofsustainableandequitabledevelopmenttoeconomicdevelopment
tomakesurepoliciesandpraccesareecologicallysound,sociallyequitable,economically
viableandculturallyappropriate.
To the Private sector and state owned enterprises
Exisngforeigninvestors,aswellasprivatecompanies,stateownedenterprisesandjointventureswithinthecountrymust:
Applyinternaonalsustainabledevelopmentprinciplesandpracces(suchasFPIC,nancial
disclosure,benetsharing,conducngEIAandSIAs).
ConductinclusiveandmeaningfulEIAandSIAsinaccordancewithinternaonalbestpracce
throughaprocessthatensuresaccesstorelevantinformaon,adequateparcipaonof
aectedcommuniesandpublichearingstomigatetheimpactofdevelopmentprojects
onlocalcommuniesandtheenvironment.
Abidebyinternaonalsustainabledevelopmentiniavesandmechanisms,suchas
guidelinesonsustainableoilpalmdevelopmentandForestLawEnforcement,Governance
andTrade(FLEGT).
Makeeveryeorttoavoidinvoluntaryreselement.Incaseswherereselementis
inevitable,thereshouldbeaclearplanforreselementandcompensaonprocessesfor
relocaon,landconscaonor propertydamagetoaectedpeopleas aresultof large
scaledevelopmentprojectsimplementedbyprivatecompanies,stateenterprisesand
government.ForeigninvestorsshouldfollowthereselementpoliciesoftheInternaonal
FinanceCorporaon.
Immediatelyceaseallproject-relatedworkunladequatesafeguardsareinplace,parcularly
insensiveareasthroughoutBurma.
Foreigninvestorsshouldrefrainfromanyformofnewengagementintheplantaon,energy
andextracvesectorsinBurmaunlthepeopleofBurmacanmeaningfullyparcipatein
developmentdecisions,precondionsforresponsibleinvestmentareinplace,andadverse
impactscanbemigated.
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To Civil Society Organizaons
CSOsworkingbothinsideBurmaandonthebordersshouldrepresentpeoplesviewsin
advocangforenvironmentallawandpolicydevelopment,andmonitorthestateand
privatecompaniesbusinessestobeinaccordwithsociallyjustandenvironmentally
sustainabledevelopmentgoals.
To Internaonal NGOs
InternaonalNGOsworkingontheenvironmentmustunderstandthelocalpolicaland
socialcontext(includingthehumanrightssituaon),conductneedsassessmentsinclusively;
donoharmtolocalpeoplesrightsandlivelihoods;andfocusonbothpolicyandpracce
changetowardsenvironmentalproteconandsustainablelivelihoods.
To UN agencies
UNagenciesshouldfacilitaterealpolicyandpraccechangewithmeaningfulparcipaon
ofallstakeholders,andoperateaccordingtotheUNrightsbasedapproachstatementof
CommonUnderstanding,underwhichpeoplearerecognizedaskeyactorsintheirown
development,ratherthanpassiverecipientsofcommodiesandservices.
TheUNshouldensurethattheUNDeclaraonoftheRightsofIndigenousPeoples
(parcularlytheconceptofFreePriorInformedConsent)isrearmedinanyREDD+
agreement,andensuredintheimplementaonandmonitoringonREDD+.
To Internaonal Financial Instuons
UntilthepeopleofBurmacanmeaningfullyparticipateindevelopmentdecisions,
precondionsforresponsibleinvestmentareinplace,andadverseimpactscanbemigated,
thenIFIsshouldrefrainfromanyformofnewengagementwithBurma.
Iftheydoengage,Internaonalnancialinstuons(IFIs)mustapplytheirownenvironmental
andsocialsafeguardpolicies,followInternaonalFinanceCorporaonstandardsandUN
Frameworks(ie.oncommunityengagementandFPIC).
IFIsmustmakesurethatanyfuturenaonaldevelopmentplanforBurmaisbasedonproper
needsassessmentsandaparcipatoryconsultaonprocesswhichensurethatitmeetsthe
interestsofthepeople.
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1. INTRODUCTION
ThisreportbytheBurmaEnvironmentalWorkingGroupaimstoachievethefollowingmain
objecves:i)toreviewthecurrentstateofenvironmentalproteconinBurma(including
domescandinternaonalpoliciesandmechanisms,andtheroleoflocalandinternaonal
NGOsandUNagencies),ii)tohighlightkeyenvironmentalproblemsandtheimpactson
local peopleand theenvironmentand toiii) provide analysis onconict over natural
resourcesinethnicareasbeforeandaertheeleconsin2010.
Thereportbegins by reviewing international commitments,domestic mechanisms,
governmentpoliciesonland,forestandeconomy(relatedtotheresourcesector),andthe
role oflocaland internaonal NGOs basedinsideand outside thecountry working in
environmentalconservaonandlivelihoodimprovement.Itthenhighlightsthethreatsto
local peopleandtheenvironment.It alsoprovidesrecommendaonsforpolicies,laws,
instuonsandmechanismsthatmeetinternaonalstandardsinprotecngtheenvironmentandcommunitylivelihoods.Recommendaonsareaimedatpolicyandlawmakersinpost
eleconBurma,domescandforeigninvestors,stateownedcompanies,internaonal
nancialinstuons,UNagencies,internaonalNGOsandcivilsocietyorganizaons.
TheideaforthisreportoriginatedatanAnotherDevelopmentforBurmathemacseminar
inearly2006inChiangMai,Environment Seminar on Burma.Itwasiniallyaresponseto
areportentledInvestmentOpportuniesforBiodiversityConservaoninMyanmar,
publishedin2005byBirdlifeInternaonal,UNDP-BurmaandCricalEcosystemsPartnership
Fund(CEPF).Thereportoutlineskeybiodiversityareas,alistofthreatenedspecies,and
conservaoncorridors,as wellas idenespriories for conservaoninvestment.It is,however,enrelybasedonthebiophysicalsciencesandtechnicalexpersewithoutany
menonofethnicareasandtheconictrootedinBurma,mega-developmentprojectsthat
resultinmilitarizaon,displacement,widespreadhumanrightsabusesandenvironmental
degradaon,andtheroleofethniccommuniesinmaintainingtradionalnaturalresource
managementsystemswhichprotecttheenvironment.
Itwasdiscussedattheseminarhowconservaonplanningconnuestoexcludethepeoples
whoforcenturieshavelivedintheareastobeprotected,andthatinBurmalargescale
conservationinitiativesinvolveengagementwiththegovernment.Theapproachof
internaonalconservaonorganizaonsisoenlargelyanecologically-centredconservaon
approachpraccedbythemainattheexpenseofanysocialorpeople-focusedconcerns,
andincertaincaseslinkedtohumanrightsabusesandincreasedaccesstocontestedethnic
territory.Thisbringsintoquesontherealmovaonsofthegovernmentin sengup
large-scaleconservaonprojects.Large-scaleenvironmentalprojects,parcularlyinethnic
areas,mightalsomaskeconomicormilitaryobjecvesfortheregime.
Anideaemergedforareportonthestateofenvironmentfromethnicperspecvesthat
wouldput together thesituaonin ethnic areasand demonstratewhatethnicbased
environmentalorganizaonsbasedinThailandaredoingfromarightsbasedapproach.It
wasalsodecidedthatthereportwouldincludetheinternaonalcommitmentsthatthe
governmenthasrelatedtotheenvironment,aswellaslegislaonanddomescmechanismsrelatedtoprotecngtheenvironmentinlivelihoods.Thereportwasthensplitintotwo
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parts,withthefirstpartpublishedin2009calledAccessibleAlternatives:Ethnic
CommuniesContribuontoSocialDevelopmentandEnvironmentalConservaonin
Burma,whichspecificallyfocusesontheactivitiesofethnicbasedenvironmental
organizaonsbasedinThailand.
Withthe2010eleconloomingandtheeconomyopeningitbecameimportanttohighlight
bilateralresourceextraconagreementsbetweentheBurmeseleadersandforeign
governmentsandcorporaonswhicharehaving,andwillconnuetohave,anegave
impactoncommuniesandtheenvironmentparcularlyinethnicareas.Atthesameme
abroaderdiscussionwasaddedofdomescprocessesthatsupportprivateinvestmentand
thelackofadequatesafeguardsforfarmersthroughoutthecountry.
TheBEWGhopesthatthereportwillprovidepolicyandpraccerecommendaonsfor
policymakers,investors,internaonalcommunityandcivilsocietygroupsworkinginside
andoutsidethecountrysothattheyarewellinformed,andthatwhentheyimplementaprojectinBurma,theyhavefullawarenessofthecomplicaons,impacts,andrightsof
aectedcommunies.
Thereportisrelevanttotheenrecountry.Manyseconsfocusmorenarrowlyonethnic
areasofthecountry,whileseveralseconsgivemoregeneraloverviewsofemergingtrends
relevanttothewholecountry.Finally,noaenonisgiventourban-basedenvironmental
issues.
2. COUNTRY FACTS
Burmaisaresource-richnaonandyetitremainsoneoftheleastdevelopednaonson
earth.ThelatestUNDPsHumanDevelopmentReportrankedBurma132outof169onthe
HumanDevelopmentIndex.iii1Atapproximately$435USD,percapitaGDPinBurmaranks
amongstthelowestintheworldandrecentresearchshowsthatremovenetexportsfrom
theequaonandthedomesceconomyhasbeengrowingataratethatfallsshortof
populaongrowthimplyingthatpercapitaGDPhasbeendeclininginrecentyears.2
2.1 DEMOGRAPHY
Theabsenceofdependabledataandthecomplexiesinethnicidentyandclassicaon
andrendersitdiculttoesmatethetotalpopulaonofBurmaandvirtuallyimpossible
togaugetheexactmakeupofthenaon. 3Thelastreliablecensuswasconductedin1931
(the1983censuswasonlyparal,asnumbersfromconictareaswerenotrecorded).4Using
reproducveandferlityhealthsurveys,theWorldHealthOrganizaonesmatesthatin
2003,thereweremorethan52millionpeopleinBurma,whichhadatthemea2%
populaongrowthrate.5Burmaisamul-ethniccountry.Thelargestethnicgroup,Burmans,
accountforapproximatedtwo-thirdsofthepopulace.Otherethnicandindigenouspeoples
reportedlycompriseatleast40%ofthepopulaonandliveson60%oftheavailableland. 6
iii TheHumanDevelopmentIndexmeasuresdevelopmentcombiningindicatorsofeducaon,lifeexpectancy
andincomehp://hdr.undp.org/en/stascs/hdi/.
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Accordingtothe2006EnvironmentalPerformanceAssessment(EPA)report,39%ofBurmas
forestsaremixeddeciduous,26%hillforests,16%evergreen,and10%drythornyforests.15
Dipterocarpforestsaccountfor5%,withtheremaining4%belongtomangroves,beach
anddune,andswampforests.
2.2.3 Coastal Areas
Burmahasa2,832kilometer-longcoastlineextendingfromthecountryswesttosoutheast
fromtheBayofBengaltotheAndamanSea.Alongthisstretch,alluvialatsandsheltered
muddyareasarehometomangrovetreesandshrubs,keystonespeciesthatnotonlyserve
ashabitattocrawsh,shrimp,crabs,andnumerousotheraquacanimals,butalsoprotect
coastalregionsfromtheimpactsofstormsandcyclones.Besidesshandotheraquac
foods,communiescollectnon-mberforestproductslikewildfruitsandvegetablesfrom
mangrovesaswell.Oshoreliebiodiversecoralreefandseagrassbedmarineecosystems,
providingcoastalvillageswithanabundantsupplyoffood.16
2.2.4 Watersheds and Freshwater Sources
Burmahasvemainrivers:theIrrawaddy,theChindwin,theSalween,theSiaung,and
theTenasserim.EndangeredspeciessuchastheIrrawaddydolphinandBlythsriverfrog
canbefoundinsomeofthesewaterways. 17OthernotableriversaretheKaladan,which
runsfromMizoram,India,throughChinlandandArakan;18andtheMekong,whichforms
theborderbetweenShanStateandLaoPDR.19Regionalandinternaonalinvestorshave
takennoceofBurmasplenfulwatersources,bothforhydropowerpotenalaswellas
irrigatedagriculture.
2.2.5 Oil and Gas
Therstforeigninvestmentprojectaer1988whenthegovernmentbegantoparally
liberalizetheeconomywasthedevelopmentoftheYadanagaseldintheAndamanSea
andtheconstruconofagaspipelinethroughceasereandconictareasinMonState
andTenasserimDivisionineasternBurma.Sincetheendof2004,theBurmeseregime
intensiedtheopeningofoilandgasblockstoforeigncompanies.Todaythereare49
onshoreblocksand26oshorebeingexploredand/ordevelopedinBurma.Burmasoil
andgassectorisassociatedwithmassivescalehumanrightsabusesandenvironmental
degradaon.
In2007,SoeMyint,theDirector-GeneralofPlanningforBurmasEnergyMinistry,stated
thatthecountryhadmorethan500millionbarrelsofonshoreoilreserves,withanother
100millionoshore.20Thatsameyearnineforeignoilcompanieswereexploringfornew
oildeposits,increasingoutputfromolderelds,andaempngtorestartextraconon
previouslyshutdowneldson16onshoreblocks. 21AccordingtotheCIAFactbook,Burma
has50millionbarrelsofprovencrudeoilreservesasofthestartof2010,makingitthe
countrywiththe50thlargestreservesintheworld.22
Inregardstonaturalgas,accordingtoBrishPetroleums2010StascalReviewofWorldEnergy,attheendof2009,Burmasprovengasreservesstoodat20.1trillioncubicfeet,or
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0.57trillioncubicmeters,roughly0.3percentoftheworldstotalgasreserves.23TheCIA
WorldFactbookcitesBurmasgasreservesatonly283.2billioncubicmetersasofthe
beginningof2010,buttheactualprovenreservesarelikelyhigherthancitedbyboth
sourcesduetorecentonshoregasdiscoveries.24SINOPECsBurma-basedjointventurewith
theBurmamilitaryjuntaBurmaPetroleumCo.,Ltd.reportedthediscoveryof909billioncubicfeetofonshorenaturalgasinPahtoloneldinCentralBurma.25 26Extensiveexploraon
acviesarecurrentlytakingplacebothonshoreandoshore,andtheseundiscovered
reserves,suchastheesmated13trillioncubicfeetofgasintheoshoreA-2block,are
settopushBurmasgasreservelevelsevenhigher. 27In2009-10naturalgasaccountedfor
38%ofBurmasexportearnings,withallofthegasgoingtoThailand.28
2.2.6 Minerals
Burmahasrichmineralresourcedepositsincludingtungsten,n,zinc,silver,copper,lead,
coal,goal,andindustrialminerals.29
Anmony,limestone,andmarbledepositsalsodotthelandscape.30Gemstonesincludingdiamonds,rubies,jade,andsapphirescanalsobefound
inBurma.Burmaismostfamousforitshighqualityrubiesandjadeite(themostexpensive
formofjade).Itishardtotracksmallscalegembusinessesandesmatethevalueofgem
tradeinBurma,however,accordingtoindustryesmates,Burmaaccountsformorethan
90percentofglobaltradeofrubiesbyvalue.31
3. ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS AND POLICIES IN BURMA
OVERVIEW
ThoughBurmadoeshavesomelegislaonrelatedtoprotecngpeopleandtheenvironment,
thecountrylacksthenecessaryadequateadministraveandlegalstructures,standards,
safeguardsandpolicalwilltoenforcesuchprovisions.Inaddion,whileBurmaisparty
toseveralinternaonaltreaessuchastheConvenononBiologicalDiversity(CBD), vBurma
hasnotincorporatedtheprovisionscontainedintheseagreementsintodomesclaw.For
example,naonallawsdonotcurrentlyrequireenvironmentalimpactassessments(EIA)
orpublicparcipaonbylocalcommuniesinthedecision-makingprocessesoflarge-scale
developmentprojects.Therearenolawsthatcomprehensivelyregulatepolluon,no
standards to adequately protect biodiversity, develop reselement plans, or providecompensaon.Thelackofenvironmentalproteconlegislaonhasleroomforunabated
ecologicaldegradaon.32Thereare,however,the1995CommunityForestInstrucons(CFI),
adraedEnvironmentalLaw,andtheLandAcquisionActthat,ifsystemacallyenforced,
wouldimproveenvironmentalproteconandtheland-basedrightsoflocalpopulaons.
Thisseconreviewstheadministraveandlegalstructuressetuptoprotecttheenvironment,
aswellasongoingacviesbythegovernmentandcivilsocietyorganizaonsbasedinside
andoutsideBurmathatareintendedtopromotesustainabledevelopmentandenvironmental
protecon.
v BurmabecameapartytotheCBDin1994.Arcle14(1)(a)oftheConvenonrequiresanEIAandArcle
8(j)mandatesindigenousparcipaonwherethereisasignicantimpactonbiodiversity.
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3.1 National Commission for Environmental Affairs
EnvironmentalproteconinBurmagenerallycomesundertheauthorityoftheNaonal
CommissionforEnvironmentalAairs(NCEA),formedin1990.viUnl2005,theMinisterof
ForeignAairswasthechairofNCEAwhichwasastrongindicaonthattheBurmese
governmentcreatedtheNCEAmerelyasatooltowininternaonalapproval. 33In2005,
however,theNCEAwastransferredundertheMinistryofForestry(MoF),andtheMinister
ofForestryassumedtheroleoftheNCEAchairperson.
ThestatedobjecvesoftheNCEAaretosetenvironmentalstandards,createenvironmental
policiesforusingnaturalresources,issuerulesandregulaonstocontrolpolluon,and
tocreateshort-andlong-termenvironmentalpolicieswhichbalanceenvironmentalneeds
anddevelopmentrequirements.34However,seriousbudget,staconstraintsandlackof
legislavemandatehavecompromisedtheeecvenessoftheNCEAinmeengthose
objecves.35Thebudgetisminuscule:inthescalyear2004-2005,theNCEAhadabudgetofonlyabout$12,000USD(12millionKyat36),andmostofitwasusedtopaysalaries.
TheNCEAhasdraedtwoenvironmentallaws:theEnvironmentalProteconLawandthe
EnvironmentalImpactAssessmentRules,bothofwhicharependingapprovalbythe
government.37
TheNCEAwasalsothefocalpointfortheMyanmarNaonalEnvironmentalPerformance
Assessment(EPA),areportdoneincollaboraonwithseveralinternaonalorganizaons
suchas theAsianDevelopmentBank(ADB),UnitedNaonsEnvironmentalProgramme
(UNEP),Instituteof Global Environmental Strategies, andthe National Institute forEnvironmentalStudiesofJapan.In2006theMyanmarEPAwaspublishedaspartofa
broaderprogramcalledtheNaonalPerformanceAssessmentandStrategicEnvironment
Framework of GreaterMekong Subregion (GMS), which aims topromote sustainable
developmentintheGMSthroughthecreaonofnaonalandsub-regionalenvironmental
performanceassessmentsystemsanddevelopmentofnaonalandsub-regionalcapacies
forimplemenngsuchassessments.TheMyanmarEPAprovidessomeusefulbaselinedata
coveringsevenkeyenvironmentalconcerns,includingforestresources,biodiversity,land
degradaon,managementofwaterresources,wastemanagement,airpolluonfrom
mobilesourceandclimatechange.38However,intheEPAthereisnomenonofthemany
environmentalconcernsinBurmasuchasproblemsassociatedwithminetailingsdisposal,
construconoflargedams,large-scalecommercialagriculture,gas-elddevelopment,or
pipelineandroadconstrucon.Thereportalsodoesnotmenonthetradionalnatural
resourcemanagementsystemspraccedbyethnicpeoplethroughoutthecountry.
vi However,respecvedepartmentsthatarestatutorilyseparatefromtheNCEAareresponsibleforacute
environmentalissuesincludingforestdegradaon,waterresourcemanagementandsustainabilityof
agriculture.TunMyint,EnvironmentalGovernanceintheSPDCsMyanmarinMyanmar:Thestate,communityandtheenvironment,TrevorWilsonandMoniqueSkidmore(eds),AustralianNaonalUniversity,ANUEPress
andAsiaPacicPress,2007.
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3.2 Environmental Policies and Laws
AnaonalenvironmentalpolicywasdraedbytheNCEAin1994.TheNaonalEnvironment
Policyisasfollows:
Toestablishsoundenvironmentpolicies,ulisaonofwater,land,forests,
mineral,marineresourcesandothernaturalresourcesinordertoconserve
theenvironmentandpreventitsdegradaon,theGovernmentoftheUnion
ofMyanmarherebyadoptsthefollowingpolicy:Thewealthofthenaonis
itspeople,itsculturalheritage,itsenvironmentanditsnaturalresources.
Theobjecve ofMyanmars environmental policy isaimedat achieving
harmonyandbalancebetweenthesethroughtheintegraonofenvironmental
consideraonsintothedevelopmentprocesstoenhancethequalityofthe
lifeofallitscizens.Everynaonhasthesovereignrighttouliseitsnatural
resourcesinaccordancewithitsenvironmentalpolices;butgreatcaremustbetakennottoexceeditsjurisdiconorinfringeupontheinterestsofother
naons.ItistheresponsibilityoftheStateandeverycizentopreserveits
naturalresourcesintheinterestsofpresentandfuturegenerations.
Environmentalproteconshouldalwaysbetheprimaryobjecveinseeking
development39.
Thereis,however,noformalenvironmentallaworaninstuonalframeworkforthe
implementaonofthispolicy.Asetofprovisionsaboutenvironmentalproteconwas
draedandre-draedbetween1997and2000bythegovernmentwithtechnicalinput
fromanenvironmentallawexpertfundedbyUNEP,40
butithasnotbeenmadeintolawyet.Ifthelawisapproved,therewillbemoreinstuonalspacetoregulateenvironmental
qualityandconductEIAsandSIAsforinfrastructureandinvestmentprojectsfundedby
thegovernmentandprivatesector.However,lackofpolicalwill,limitedhumanresources,
andlowlevelsofbudgetallocaonforenvironmentalproteconandconservaonare
majorchallengeseveniftheenvironmentallawisinplacetoimplement.
ThedevelopmentoftheenvironmentalpolicywasfollowedbythedraingofMyanmar
Agenda21in1997,whichfollowsaUNframeworkforamul-prongedapproachto
sustainabledevelopment.TheMyanmarAgenda21recognizestheneedforEnvironmental
ImpactAssessments.41MyanmarAgenda21 callsforintegratedmanagementofnatural
resourcesandprovidesablueprintforachievingsustainabledevelopment.
3.3 Impact Assessments in Burma
Oneofthemostimportantinternaonally-acceptedenvironmentalproteconmethodsis
toconductanenvironmentalimpactassessment(EIA)priortoimplemenngdevelopment
projects.Whendoneproperly,anEIAidenes,predicts,evaluates,andmigatesthe
biophysical,social,andotherrelevanteectsofdevelopmentproposalspriortomajor
decisionsbeingtakenandcommitmentsmade. 42TheEIAissupposedtoprovideappropriate
opportuniestoinformandinvolvestakeholdersinaproject.vii
vii TheInternaonalAssociaonforImpactAssessmenthasguidelinesontheobjecvesandprinciplesofan
EIAseehp://www.iaia.org/publicdocuments/special-publicaons/Principles%20of%20IA_web.pdf
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InBurma,nolawrequiresanEIAorSocialImpactAssessment(SIA)viiibeforeadevelopment
projectisimplemented.Publicaccesstogovernmentinformaonisrestricted,andprior
approvalfromagenciesisrequiredtoreleaseinformaonaboutdevelopmentprojects.43
OngoingdevelopmentprojectsinBurmasuchasconstruconofroadsanddams,mining,
logging,aswellascoal,oil,andgasextracondonothaveanystandardizedmeasureofnegaveimpactstotheenvironmentandthelocalpeople,andtheimplemenngagencies
arenotrequiredbythelawsofBurmatomakeeortstomigatetheseimpacts.
AnecdotalevidenceshowsthatevenonrareoccasionswhenanEIAisconductedinBurma,
itisnotdonetomeetthesubstanveobjecvesofaproperEIA.ArecentEIA,supported
byaforeigncompany,wasconductedbyaBurmeseconservaonNGOabouttheconstrucon
ofahydropowerdaminBurma,buttheNGOrefusedtoincludeanysocialfactorsas
accordingtoBurmesegovernmentorders.44TheEIAdidnotimpactthedesignofthedam
orstemthedeofhydropowerprojectsinthecountry.
Inarecentarcle,anocialwiththeMinistryofMinesproposedanEIAprocessforBurma.45
Theproposedprocesshasseveralshortcomings.First,theprocessallowstheMinisterfor
theEnvironment(currentlyatheorecalposionasyetthereisnosuchministry)to
determineatthestart,withoutanysupporngevidence,thataprojectwillhavenoimpact.
Whensucha decision istaken, anEIAis not required. This wouldprovide anobvious
loopholeinanyrigorousassessmentofthepotenalenvironmentalandsocialimpactfrom
aproject.Furthermore,whereastheinternaonalgoodpracceisforathirdpartyto
conducttheassessmentstudy,underthisproposal,theprojectproponenthasthe
responsibilityforpreparingtheEIA,whichprovidesaneasymechanismtohideorignore
signicantimpacts.Finally,publicparcipaonisnotmandatory,andoccurstoolateintheprocess.Itisuptothegovernmenttodetermineifpublicparcipaonisrequired,allowing
thegovernmenttoavoidpublicparcipaonforcontroversialprojects.
Anothertooladvocatedbyhumanrightsandothercivilsociety organizaonsis human
rightsimpactassessments(HRIAs)toassesstheimpactofgovernmentandotherpolicies
onhumanrights,i.e.health.46
3.4 Environmental Provisions in the 2008 Constitution
Underthenew2008Constuon,thegovernmentshallprotectandconservethenatural
environment(Chapter1,Secon45). 47Thenaonallegislaturecan,butdoesnotneed
to,enactlawstoprotecttheenvironmentandhelprestoreareasdegradedordamagedby
miningandforestryacviesorthosethathaveexperienceddestruconofplants,wildlife,
andhabitat(Chapter4,Secon96).48StateandDivisionLegislaturesalsohavethepower
toregulateenvironmentalprotecon,butwithintheboundariesoflegislaonpassedby
theNaonalLegislature(Chapter4,Secon196).49Inaddion,everycizenhastheduty
viii SIAsshouldcoverallsocialandculturalconsequencestohumanpopulaonsofanypublicor private
aconsthatalterthewaysinwhichpeoplelive,work,play,relatetooneanother,organizetomeettheir
needs,andgenerallycopeasmembersofsocietyandculturalimpactsinvolvechangestothenorms,values,
andbeliefsofindividualsthatguideandraonalizetheircognionofthemselvesandtheirsocieesR.J.BurdgeandF.Vanclay,F.,Socialimpactassessment:acontribuon
tothestateoftheartseries,ImpactAssessment,1996.
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toassistthegovernmentincarryingoutenvironmentalconservaon(Chapter8,Secon
390).50
Withregardtoenvironmentalprotecon,the2008Constuondoesnotguaranteetothe
people theright toa clean andhealthy environment although many other naonalconstuonsprovidesucharight.ixTheconstuondoesnothaveanyclearlanguageon
sustainabledevelopmentandrecognionoftherightsofcivilsocietysuchasfreedomof
informaon,parcipaoninnaturalresourcemanagement,customarylandownership,
informaoninlocallanguages,andequitablebenetsharing.
3.5 National Sustainable Development Strategy
TheNaonalSustainableDevelopmentStrategy(NSDS)ispartofabroaderprogramofthe
UNSustainableDevelopmentCommissionsetupaertheWorldSummitonSustainable
Developmentin2002.EverycountryincludingBurmathatsignedAgenda21xattheEarthSummit inRioDe Janerioin1992,agreedto developan NSDSby 2010 inline withthe
MillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDGs).UNEPprovidedfundingforBurmatodevelopan
NSDS.The main aim ofthe processwas todevelop anNSDSin line with internaonal
standardsbymeengtheMDGsandensurethatenvironmentalandsocialimpactsare
migatedwhenimplemenngdevelopmentprojects. 51TheNCEAinBurmatookaleadin
developingthestrategyinconsultaonwiththegovernmentandasmallnumberofNGOs.
BurmasNSDSwaspublishedinAugust2009.Thethreegoalsaresustainablemanagement
ofnaturalresources,integratedeconomicdevelopmentandsustainablesocialdevelopment.
Specicstrategiesareoutlinedundereachgoal.Forexample,thegoalforSustainable
ManagementofNaturalResourcessuggestsstrategiesforforestresourcemanagement,sustainable energy producon andconsumpon,biodiversityconservaon,sustainable
freshwaterresourcesmanagement,sustainablemanagementoflandresources,sustainable
managementformineralresourcesulizaon,andsoon.52
TheNSDSwasociallyacceptedbytheMinistryofPlanning.Intheory,itisaguiding
documentforgovernmentministries,departmentsandlocalauthories,UNorganizaons,
andinternaonalandlocalNGOs.Themainlimitaon,however,isthatBurmalacks
comprehensivenaonalpoliciesonlanduse,energyandenvironment,whichmakesit
diculttoimplementthestrategiescontainedintheNSDS.Thereisalsoaneedtoconsult
moreNGOsintheprocess.TheUnitedNaonsEnvironmentProgramhasstatedthatthere
areopportuniestoreviewandfurtherdevelopthestrategyinthefuture.53
ix ForexamplethePhilippinesConstuonprovides:TheStateshallprotectandadvancetherightofthe
peopletoabalancedandhealthfulecologyinaccordwiththerhythmandharmonyofnaturehp://www.
tanggol.org/environmental_laws/conex.html.x Agenda21isacomprehensiveplanofacontobetakenglobally,naonallyandlocallybyorganizaons
oftheUnitedNaonsSystem,Governments,andMajorGroupsineveryareainwhichhumanimpactsonthe
environment.Agenda21..wasadoptedbymorethan178GovernmentsattheUnitedNaonsConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopment(UNCED)heldinRiodeJanerio,Brazil,3to14June1992. hp://www.
un.org/esa/dsd/agenda21/
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3.6 International Commitments
Burmahassigned31internaonaltreaesrelatedtotheenvironment(seeTable1).Itis
unclear,however,howthecontentsofthosetreaeshavebeenincorporatedintodomesc
law.Belowisamorein-depthdiscussionofthemostsignicantconvenonsinthecontext
ofenvironmentalproteconinBurmatoday.
Table 1InternaonalandregionaltreaesconcerningtheenvironmenttowhichBurma
isaparty(inchronologicalorder)
Name
1 PlantProteconAgreementfortheSoutheastAsiaandPacicRegion
2 TreatyBanningNuclearWeaponsTestsintheAtmosphereinOuterSpaceand
UnderWater3 OuterSpaceTreaty:TreatyonPrinciplesGoverningtheAcviesofStates
intheExploitaonandUseofOuterSpaceincludingtheMoonandother
CelesalBodies
4 TreatyontheProhibionoftheEmplacementofNuclearWeaponsandother
WeaponsofMassDestruconontheSea-BedandOceanFloorandinthe
Subsoilthereof(SeabedTreaty)
5 ConvenonontheProhibionoftheDevelopment,Produconand
StockpilingofBacteriologicalandToxinWeapons,andtheirDestrucon
6ViennaConvenonfortheProteconoftheOzoneLayer
7 MontrealProtocolonSubstancesthatDepletetheOzoneLayer
8 MARPOL:InternaonalConvenonforthePrevenonofPolluonfromShips
9 MARPOL:InternaonalConvenonforthePrevenonofPolluonfromShips
asamended1978
10 AgreementontheNetworksofAquacultureCentersinAsiaandthePacicRegion
11 LondonAmendmenttotheMontrealProtocolonSubstancesthatDepletethe
OzoneLayer
12 UnitedNaonsFrameworkConvenononClimateChange(UNFCCC)
13 TreatyontheNon-ProliferaonofNuclearWeapons
14 ICAO:ANNEX16AnnextotheConvenononInternaonalCivilAviaon
EnvironmentalProteconVol.I,II,AircraNoise
15 UnitedNaonsConvenontoCombatDesercaon
16 ViennaConvenonfortheProteconofOzoneLayer
17 MontrealProtocolonSubstancesthatDepletetheOzoneLayer
18 LondonAmendmenttotheMontrealProtocol
19 ConvenonConcerningtheProteconoftheWorldCulturalandNaturalHeritage
20 ConvenononBiologicalDiversity(CBD)
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AconsultaonworkshoptostarttheNBSAPprocesswasorganizedbytheForestDepartment
inJune2006inRangoon.InperhapsthelargestgatheringinBurmaeverregardingan
environmental issue, outof 149invitees, there were 119parcipants from over 44
organizaons,governmentministriesanddepartments,universiesandinstutesaswell
asrepresentavesofinternaonalandnaonalNGOsandtheprivatesector. 57
AtthemeengitwasdeclaredthatthereportInvestmentOpportuniesforBiodiversity
ConservaoninMyanmar,publishedin2005byBirdlifeInternaonal,UNDP-Burmaand
CricalEcosystemsPartnershipFund(CEPF),wouldbeusedasabaselinedocumentforthe
NBSAPprocess.Thereportoutlineskeybiodiversityareas,alistofthreatenedspecies,and
conservaoncorridors,aswellasidenesprioriesforconservaoninvestmentforthe
nextveyears.Thereport,however,isenrelybasedonthebiophysicalsciencesand
technicalexpersewithoutanyregardforsocialandculturalvalue,indigenousterritories,
orthepolicalethnicconictrootedinBurma.58
BurmahasreceivedfundingforthestocktakingprocessintheformulaonoftheNBSAP
fromtheGlobalEnvironmentFund(GEF),butduetopersonnelchangesin theForestry
Departmentandthelackofaqualiedresourceperson,theprocessisnotgoingasfastas
GEFandUNEPhoped. 59AconsultantfortheNBSAPhashoweverbeenappointedfromthe
naonalNGOECODEV(seesecon3.7.1).
Moreover, Burmas NBSAP process itself thusfar hasmarginalizedindigenous peoples
contribuontobiodiversityconservaon.Noindigenouspeoplesorenvironmentalgroups
withindigenousrepresentaoninsideorbasedoutsideofBurmahavebeenconsultedin
theprocessofdevelopingtheNBSAP.ThisisindirectcontradicontotheprinciplesoftheCBD,theNBSAPguidelinesandGEFmandates.60
United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples
Burmawasoneof144statesthatendorsedtheUnitedNaonsDeclaraonontheRights
ofIndigenousPeoplesinSeptember2007.Eecveimplementaonofthishumanrights
instrumentwouldsignicantlyimprovethesituaonforindigenouspeopleinBurmaand
throughouttheworld.61 Arcle32 isabout Indigenous Peoples rightto Free and Prior
InformedConsent(FPIC):Statesshallconsultandcooperateingoodfaithwiththe
IndigenousPeoplesconcernedthroughtheirownrepresentaveinstuonsinorderto
obtainFreeandPriorInformedConsentpriortoapprovalofanyprojectaecngtheirland
orterritories.Arcle10aboutforciblerelocaonofindigenouspeople,andtheneedfor
FPICandArcle26aboutlandrightsarealsorelevantarclesforindigenouspeoplesin
Burma.xiiiWhileitisapplaudedthattheBurmesegovernmentsignedthistreaty,itisme
adaptforthispurposeexisngstrategies,plansorprogrammeswhichshallreect,interalia,themeasures
setoutinthisConvenonrelevanttotheContracngPartyconcernedandintegrate,asfaraspossibleand
asappropriate,theconservaonandsustainableuseofbiologicaldiversityintorelevantsectoralorcross-
sectoralplans,programmesandpolicies.Arcles26and10(a)arealsorelevantcallingforregularnaonal
reportsandtheintegraonofconservaonandbiologicalresourcesintonaonaldecisionmaking.xiii
Indigenouspeoplesshallnotbeforciblyremovedfromtheirlandsorterritories.Norelocaonshalltake
placewithoutthefree,priorandinformedconsentoftheindigenouspeoplesconcernedandaeragreementonjustandfaircompensaonand,wherepossible,withtheoponofreturn(Arcle10),1.Indigenous
peopleshavetherighttothelands,territoriesandresourceswhichtheyhavetradionallyowned,occupied
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thatrespondtotheirurgentandimmediateneedstoadapttoclimatechangethosefor
whichfurtherdelaywouldincreasevulnerabilityand/orcostsatalaterstage. 66TheNAPA
projectinBurmaisfocusingonpreparingnaonalsectoralandmulsectoralacviesto
buildadapvecapaciesatnaonalandlocallevelforfacingclimatechangerisks.Burma
isearmarkedforfundingofapproximately$US16millionunderGEFs2010to2014programcycle(namelyGEF5sSystemofTransparentAllocaonofResources(STAR)).However,
BurmasaccesstofundsfromGEF5isconnedbytheneedinco-fundingupto40to60%
ofthetotalbudgetwhichislimitedbyWesternsanconspolicies.Nevertheless,aempts
havebeenmadeinsideBurmaforformaonofnewauthorityfocusingonclimatechange
andenvironmentalmaers,includingenvironmentalacvieslinkedwithglobalmovements
andiniaves.Atpresent,ECODEVisalsoservingasteamleaderoftheGEFfundedproject
fornaonalcommunicaonunderUnitedNaonsFrameworkConvenononClimateChange
inordertoimplementtheArcle6oftheconvenonwhichistopromoteeducaon,training
andpublicawarenessonclimatechange,andtheexecuvedirectoristhenaonalconsultant
fortheNaonalStrategyandAconPlanonBiodiversityconservaon(NBSAP).
In2010theBurmesegovernmentexpressedinterestinaUNcollaboraveiniaveon
ReducingEmissionsfromDeforestaonandForestDegradaon(REDD),nowreferredtoas
REDD+.xvi67However,itwasmutuallyagreedthatduetoconcernsoverthepossibilityof
opposionfromsomemembersof theUN-REDDPolicyBoard,theywouldnotformally
proceed with anapplicationto join atthistime. UN-REDDis currentlysupporting
representavesfromcivilsocietyorganizaonsfromBurmatoaendtrainingsin REDD
ReadinesssuchasatraininginfreeandpriorinformedconsentinVietnam.InNovember
2010,twoMinistryofForestryocialsandaUNDPocialaendedaworkshopforregional
actorsinBangkok.TheworkshopservedtoexchangelessonslearnedandexperiencesinpreparingforREDD+.
3.7 Environmentalism in Burma
Note: Many groups and individuals inside are acvely working on a range of environmental
and livelihood-based issues inside Burma. Their work and safety could be jeopardized by
being idened, so only groups with a high public prole or websites will be menoned. For
others, their work will be discussed without idenfying their organizaon.
Indiscussingtheacviesoforganizaonsworkingonenvironmentalandlivelihood-based
issuesbothbasedingovernment-controlledareasofBurma(inside)andthosebasedin
theThaiandChineseborderregions(bordergroups),therearetwoapproaches:the
tradionalconservaonapproachandtherights-basedapproach.Organizaonsthatare
usingarights-basedapproachworkfromaperspecveofsustainabledevelopmentand
livelihoodsandsubsequentlyfocusonissuessuchasfoodsecurity,landtenureandrights,
andcommunity development andorganizing. Conservaonorganizaons tend tofocus
specicallyonenvironmentalprotecon,althoughwithvaryingapproachestoachievetheir
xvi ReducingEmissionsfromDeforestaonandForestDegradaon(REDD)isaneorttocreateanancial
valueforthecarbonstoredinforests,oeringincenvesfordevelopingcountriestoreduceemissionsfrom
forestedlandsandinvestinlow-carbonpathstosustainabledevelopment.REDD+goesbeyonddeforestaonandforestdegradaon,andincludestheroleofconservaon,sustainablemanagementofforestsand
enhancementofforestcarbonstocks.Seehp://www.un-redd.org/AboutREDD/tabid/582/Default.aspx
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ECODEVwhichstandsforeconomicallyprogressiveecosystemdevelopmentisagroup
ofMyanmardevelopmentprofessionals,intellectualsandsocialentrepreneurs.70Itis
registeredundertheMyanmarPartnershipActandtheMyanmarCompanyAct.Themission
ofECODEVistonetworkforprivatepublicpartnershipsinordertorealizeitsvisionof
PrivateSectorLedSustainableDevelopmentinBurmaandbeyond.Allofitsdevelopmentprogramsfocuson nurturing HealthierEnvironment bya Stronger Society with
ResponsibleBusinessInvestmentthroughStrategicPartnershipDevelopment.Aspart
ofitsaempttopromoteenvironmentalgovernanceinMyanmar,ECODEVhasundertaken
numberofiniaveswhichincludethedevelopmentoftheprocessoftheEnvironmental
PerformanceAssessmentareportcommissionedbyUNEPtheADB,publishedin2006(see
secon3.1),the empowerment ofgrassrootscommunies tosecure land tenure and
resource-userightsofcommuniesthroughcommunityforestry,andevidencebased
researchforeecveadvocacy.ECODEVtakeskeyposionsincivilsocietynetworksincluding
theFoodSecurityWorkingGroup,MangroveEnvironmentandRehabilitaonNetworkand
KachinStateConservaonGroup.Atpresent,ECODEVisalsoservingasteamleaderfortheINCproject(seesecon3.6.3),andtheexecuvedirectoristhenaonalconsultantforthe
NBSAP(seesecon3.6.1).
TheMettaDevelopmentFoundation(Metta)isanNGOestablishedin1998to
assistcommunitiesrecoveringfromthedevastatingconsequencesofconflictand
humanitarianemergency.Meaworksin10statesandregionsonawiderangeofprojects
aimedtoenhancelandtenureandfoodsecurity,facilitatefarmer-to-farmer eldschools,
encouragetheestablishmentofcommunityforests,andothersustainablecommunity-based
projects.Meabasesitsworkonacommunityempowermentmodelbyworkingclosely
withcommuniesoveralongterm,gainingthemrespectfromtheircolleagues.
ShalomFoundaon(Nyein)wasestablishedin2000iniatedbyKachinreligiousleaderand
involvedbyreligiousandcivilsocietyleadersfromvariousethnicstatesandthewider
Burmesecommunity.ItaimstoworkonpeaceanddevelopmentiniavesinKachinState
aerthecease-reprocess,whichhasnowevolvedintofacilitanglivelihooddevelopment
projectssuchascommunityforestry,community-basedresearch,peace-buildingtrainings,
andconstrucvedialogueamongstdierentpares.ShalomworkscloselywithKachin
communies,andthewidercommunityonissuespertainingtopeace,conict,and
sustainabledevelopment.
BesidesBurmeseconservaonandlivelihooddevelopmentNGOs,therearealsomany
internaonalNGOsworkingonsimilarissues,withheadocesinRangoonandinsome
casesbranchocesinprovincialcapitalsinstates/divisionswheretheyoperateprojects.
Mostoftheseorganizaonsworkfromarights-basedapproach.Someofthemoreacve
organizaonsincludeWorldConcern,GRET,DeutscheWelthungerHilfe(DWHH,formerly
GermanAgroAconorGAA),AdvenstDevelopmentandReliefAgency(ADRA),SwissAid,
SavetheChildren,Oxfam(GB),CARE,MercyCorps,DanishChurchAid(DCA),Consorum
ofDutchNGOs(CDN),Aconcontralafaim(ACF)andAconAid.Whiletheyoperate
dierentlyandinvesttheirresourcesindierentprojectsacrossthecountry(although
mostlyinethnicareasandtheIrrawaddydeltaaerCycloneNargis),theyallseemtoshare
acommongoal:improvinglocallivelihoods.
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3.7.2 UN Interventions on Environmental Protection
UNDPhasbeenworkinginBurmasince1994.Theycurrentlyworkin60townshipsacross
thecountry.UNDPsiniavestargetthemostvulnerablecommuniesandworktoimproveopportunies forsustainablelivelihoods71inareasoffoodsecurity,primary
healthcare,environment,HIV/AIDS,andtrainingandeducaon. 72
AlthoughUNEPdoesnothaveanoceinRangoon,theydocollaborateonvariousUN-
Burmaprojectsthatfallwithinitsmandate.Theyarealsobecomingmoreacveinthe
country and are looking toemploy a part-me stabased at the UNHABITAT oce in
Rangoonin2011.73Asmenoned,itsacviesinthepastincludeinvolvementinthe
EnvironmentalPerformanceAssessment,NaonalBiodiversityStrategyAconPlan(NBSAP),
providing fundingfor anenvironmental lawexpert todraft theEnvironmental Law,
parcipanginformulangtheNaonalSustainableDevelopmentStrategyandtheInleLakeIniave(withFREDA).Inaddion,UNEPisworkingwiththeWorldHealthOrganizaon
(WHO)onanOzoneDepleonProjectinRangoonwhichassessesthelevelofcontaminants
intheairtoidenfysourcesandtakemeasurestopreventairpolluonsuchasencouraging
thedecreaseintheamountofleadedpetrolusedincars.7475
BurmasgovernmenthasalsoexpressedinterestintheUnitedNaonsCollaborave
ProgrammeonReducingEmissionsfromDeforestaonandForestDegradaoninDeveloping
Countries(UNREDD)program,menonedabove.xvii76
3.7.3 Ethnic Environmental Organizations based in Thailand
EnvironmentalgroupsbasedontheThailand-Burmaborderworkinalltheethnicstates.
Amajorfocusistoincreasetherecognionofrightsoflocalandindigenouspeoplestouse
andmanagetheirnaturalresourcesforsustainabledevelopment,topromoteenvironmental
proteconandhumanrightsthroughadvocacyaboutlarge-scaledevelopmentandnatural
resourceextraconprojects,andcorporateandgovernmentaccountability.Thesegroups
workprimarilyinareasundercontrolofethnicarmiesandinceasereareas.Notallgroups
workoneveryaspect,asummaryofacviesisexplainedbelow.Shortbriefsaboutindividual
BEWGmembersareincludedatthebeginningofthereport.
ThisseconincludestheworkofArakanOilWatch(AOW),ArakanRiversNetwork(ARN),
BridgingRuralIntegratedDevelopmentandGrassrootsEmpowerment(BRIDGE),Burma
Rivers Network (BRN), Ethnic Community Development Forum (ECDF),EarthRights
Internaonal (ERI), KachinDevelopmentNetworking Group(KDNG),KarenniEvergreen,
KarenEnvironmentCommiee(KEC),KarenEnvironmentalandSocialAconNetwork
(KESAN),LahuNaonalDevelopmentOrganizaon(LNDO),NetworkforEnvironmentaland
EconomicDevelopment(NEED),PaOhYouthOrganizaon(PYO),ShanSapawaEnvironmental
Organizaon andthe Shwe Gas Movement.Thosewhichare members ofBEWGhave
organizationaldescriptionsatthebeginningofthereportunderAbouttheBurma
EnvironmentalWorkingGroup.
xvii Seefootnotexv.
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Community Development
EmpowermentofcommuniesinsideBurmatoconservenaturalresourcesandimprove
livelihoodsecurityandsustainabilityforcurrentandfuturegeneraonsisthecentralfocus
inanumberofborder-basedgroupsacvies.Arightsbasedapproachisusedtoempowercommuniesandlocalleadersonenvironmentconservaonandsocialdevelopment.
Projectsincludetheestablishmentandproteconofcommunityforests,supportforlocally-
producedtradionalmedicines,community-basedfoodandwatersecurityiniavesthat
supportlocalfoodproduconandclimatechangeadaptaonmechanisms,formaland
informalenvironmentaleducaon,andHIV-AIDSeducaonandsurveys.Youthdevelopment
isseenasespeciallyimportantbymanygroupsandispursuedthroughinternshipand
educaonopportuniesin within these organizaons,youth forumsexploringsubjects
suchastheresourcecurse,andnetwork-buildingacrossethnicies,issuesandregions.
Groupsareincreasinglydesigningcommunitydevelopmentiniavesthataddressgender
inequalityandamplifywomensvoicesandroles.
Figure 1 Community forest awareness training, Khoe Kay, Salween River, Karen state.
Karen youth learning indigenous knowledge on community forest conservaon. KESAN
2009.
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Environmental Education
Environmental groups based on theThailand-Burma border provideeducation and
communityawarenessandcapacityonarangeofenvironmentalissues.Educaonthemes
includebiodiversity,landtenure,environmentalconservaon,climatechange,tradionalagriculture andmedicines, alternaveenergies, organicfarming, environmental impact
assessment,goodenvironmentalgovernance,resourcedocumentaon,informedconsent,
revenuetransparencyandsustainabledevelopment.Educaonmethodsincludetraining
throughyouthforums,workshops,internshipsandestablishedenvironmentalschoolsboth
withinandoutsideBurmasborders.Moreinformalinformaondisseminaonoccurs
throughtradionalcommunitynetworking,travelingstorytellersandvideo,audioand
printedmediaproducedinlocallanguages.Somegroupsacvelyfosterlocalethniclanguages
whichhavebeenbannedintheBurmeseeducaonalsystem,asacentralmeanstoachieving
environmentaleducaon.
Policy Development
Policydevelopmentisnotjustataskforthecurrentgovernmentorthegovernmentofa
futuredemocracBurma,butforregionalandinternaonalframeworks,internaonal
nancialinstuonsandgovernments,andbusinessesandcorporaonsoperanginside
Burma.Groups work with local andregionalcivil societyorganizaonsto arculate
environmentalandsocialandeconomicdevelopmentconcernsandformulateenvironmental
policiesforpolicymakersinexile,thecurrentgovernment,companies,andnon-stateactors.
Border-basedenvironmentalgroupswidelyrecognizetheneedtostrengthencommunity
iniavesthroughdevelopmentofpolicyandidencaonofdevelopmentpriorieswithlocalstakeholdersinethnicareas.
Advocacy
ThereisnofreedomofspeechinBurma,makingitdicultfororganizaonsbasedinside
Burmato publicly expose negave environmental andsocial impactsof largescale-
developmentacviessuchastheconstruconoflarge-scaledams,mining,resource
concessions,andoilandgasextracon.Border-basedenvironmentalgroupstherefore
conductresearchanddoadvocacyontheseissuesbecausetheyareabletoworkinasafer
environment.Inaddiontolarge-scaleinfrastructuredevelopmentprojects,theyadvocate
aboutcommunitydevelopment,environmentaleducaonandpolicydevelopmentiniavesinlocal,regional,naonalandinternaonalarenas,buildingalliancesandworkingwith
othercivilsocietyorganizaons.Theypublicizetheirresearchandadvocacythroughmany
reportsdocumenngsuchabuses.Groupsnetworkwithnaonal,regionalandinternaonal
organizaonsonissuesrangingfromrevenuetransparencytoindigenouspeoplesrights,
riversandbiodiversity,mega-developmentprojects,andInternaonalFinancialInstuons.
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4. LAW AND POLICY ON FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURAL
LAND
4.1 Forestry Laws and Policies
4.1.1 Ministry of Forestry
TheMinistryofForestry(MoF)isresponsibleforforestlandmanagement,environmental
protecon,mberextraconandforestpolicyinBurmafollowingtheForestPolicy1995.
Thetopposions,includingtheministerandnowoenmedirectorgenerals(DGs),are
staedbymilitaryocialswithnotechnicaltrainingorknowledge,whilethedepartments
undertheministryaremadeupoftrainedforestersandotherprofessionals.Fivedepartments
comeunderthecontroloftheMoF:theForestDepartment(FD)withitsNatureandWildlife
ConservaonDivision; theMyanmarTimberEnterprise(MTE), theloggingandincome-earningarm;theDryZoneGreeningDepartment(DZGD)forreforestaonincentralBurma;
thePlanningandStascsDepartment;andtheNaonalCommissionforEnvironmental
Aairs(NCEA).In2007-08scalyeartheforestrysectorearnedthegovernment83.5billon
Kyat,butwhichonlyrepresentsapercentofthecountrystotalGDP,accordingtonaonal
stascs.77Thegovernment-controlledexportofteaklogsreacheditsmaximumvolume
andvaluein2006-07atnearly300,000tonsworthjustover$200millionUSD.Thetotalvalue
ofgovernment-exportedteaklogsfrom2003-04to2007-08reachedover$1billionUSD.
WithintheMoFthereexiststensionbetweenthedivergingagendasoftechnicalexperse
andcommunity-managedforests,aswellasbetweentheseparategoalsofconservaon
andmberextracon.Forestconservaonandcommercialmberextraconaremanaged
bydierentdepartments(FDandMTE,respecvely,)whichcarriesobviousproblemsand
conicts.
TheprivatesectorisnowallowedtoworkincooperaonwiththeMyanmarTimber
Enterprise(MTE)undertheMoFforexporngvalue-added,semi-processedwoodproducts
only.ButtheprivatesectorhasbeencooperangwithMTEforloggingandarranging
businessdealswithforeignbuyers,eventhoughitisthenexportedviaMTE.Andsince2005
thegovernmentallowsBurmeseprivateinvestorstoestablishtreeplantaons,including
teakbutonlywithspecialpermissionsinceitissllastate-ownedtree.Itappearsthat
privatetreeplantaonsarebecomingamorepopularformofinvestmentbyBurmeseforesters,althoughasofyetisnotapopulartrendcomparedtoagribusiness.
MyanmarTimberEnterprise(MTE)generatestheincomenecessaryfortheMoFtofuncon,
butasaresultcarriesmorepolicalinuenceandresourcescomparedtoForestDepartment
aswellasappliesloggingpressureontheveryforestresourcestherestoftheministry
protects.MTEiswellknowntonotfollowthemeasuressetoutintheBurmaSelecon
System(BSS)andAnnualAllowableCut(AAC). 78MTE,duetoseverelyliminghuman,
nancecapital,andtechnicalresource,oensubcontractoutconcessionstotheprivate
sectorto carryoutloggingoperaons.Howeverthesubcontractors(e.g.,HtooTrading,
amongmanyothers)thenmustselltheirsetvolumeofmbertotheMTEatagivenprice,evenifitisforexporttoprivateforeigncompanies.However,thestatehasamonopolyon
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teaktrees.Ineect,then,MTEcontrolstheloggingandmbertrade,butitisinfactcarried
outbytheBurmeseprivatesector,wherebothenesprot.
AnnualAllowableCutswerebasedonparalsurveysdoneintheearly1960s,whichwere
thenextrapolatedtothewholecountry,despitemuchofthecountrythenmiredincivilwar.ThisisamajorawoftheestablishedAACguresevenifpreciselyfollowed.79Based
ontheforeignexchangeearningsexpectaon,atargetvolumeiscalculatedwhichisthen
translateddownwardsintologgingquotasforeachloggingdistrict.Thesehavelilebearing
oncapacityoftheforest,thecalculatedAAC,andthereforethesustainabilityofforestry
operaons.TheAACoccasionallychangesbytheregimetomaintainannualrevenuebut
notactuallyameasureofchangingmberstock.AccordingtotheFDsPlanningandStascs
Division,the2010AACforteakissetat147,300trees(176,760tons)andforotherhardwoods
1,131,461trees(1.584milliontons).xviiiOverall,since1970teakproduconhasexceeded
theAACbyatleastanaverageof15percent,accordingtoevenocialgures,80whichis
assumedtoactuallybemuchhigher.
4.1.2 Forest Law and Policy
The1992 Forest Lawsupports conservaon,sustainable forestry andsocio-economic
benetswhilealsoparallydecentralizingandencouragingtheprivatesectorandcommunity
parcipaoninforestmanagement.The1995MyanmarForestPolicyandtheupdated
1996ForestWorkingPlansareresponsibleforimplemenngthe1992ForestLaw.Specically,
thelawandpolicyadvocateforaparcipatoryapproachtoforestmanagement,including
communityforestryforsupplemennglivelihoods.The30-yearNaonalForestryAcon
Planfor2001onlyseekstostrengthenconservaongoalsandenforcementoflawsagainstillegalextraconofforestproducts,withoutanymenonoftheneedtoincludevillagers
asstakeholdersinthenaonsforests.Nospeciclegallandrightsareavailabletolocal
peoplesclaimtouseoraccessforestresources,severelyimpingingoncommuniesfood
andforestlandtenuresecurity.
ForestReserve andProtectedPublic Foresttogetherform thePermanentForest Estate
(PFE),whichaccordingtotheForestPolicy1995itisbeingtargetedfor30percentofthe
countrystotallandwhichisthusolimitsforlocallivelihoods.Inaddiontheprotected
areasystem(PAS)issloedtocover10percentofthecountrystotalterritory.However,
asof2003,onlyabout22percentoftotallandareahasbeengivenfulllegalprotecon
undertheForestReserveSystem,whichisonlyabouthalfoftheexisngforestareaaccording
togovernmentdata.
InaddiontoPFE,averycrucialaddionthathasthepotenaltogreatlyenhancelocal
forestresourcesecurityisanaddional10percentofthecountrystotallandistobe
managedformulplelandusemixing,includingagroforestryandcommunityforests.
4.1.3 Community Forestry
Followingthe1992ForestLawand1995ForestPolicy,thegovernmentlegallyrecognizes
peoplesco-managementinforestrywiththecreaonofthe1995CommunityForestry
xviii TheFDcalculatesthevolumeasonaverage1.2tonsperteaktree,and1.4tonsperhardwoodtree.
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thecentralgovernmentarefullledontheground.AlsoofsignicanceistheBurmaPerennial
CropsEnterprise(MPCE),whichisresponsibleforsugarcaneandperennialcrops,suchas
rubberandpalmoil.
TheGeneralAssembly(GA),undertheMinistryofHomeAairs,isthehighestlevelofauthorityin the districtthatcollects land revenue asassessedby theSLRD. TheLand
Management Commiee(LMC)isacrucialagencyforgovernmentlandmanagementin
Burma,fromthevillageuptothecentrallevel.TheCentralLMCisheadedbytheMinister
oftheMoAI,withothermembersincludingMoF,theSecretaryoftheSLRD,andDGsfrom
relevantdepartmentswithintheseministries.However,itappearsthatmilitaryocials
havesucientlypenetratedtheLMCwhichhaslenttowardscorruponandservingthe
interestsofinuenalpeople.
DuringthepastdecadetheMoAIhasgainedinprominenceastheministrywithjurisdicon
overhugelandareasofthecountry,andindeedthewaterthatirrigatesit.ThemarketliberalizaonpoliciesBurmabeganin1988seemstobebenengMoAImuchmorethan
MoFasnowprivateagriculturalconcessionscanbegrantedtowell-placedagribusinessmen.
4.2.2 Customary Land Rights
Bothstatutory(naonalstatelaws)andcustomarylaws(local,tradional,non-statesocial
systems)arefollowedinBurma,somemessimultaneouslyinthesameplace.Overall,it
canbegeneralizedthatintheuplandsofethnicareascustomarylandpraccesprevail,and
thelowlandsfollowstatutorylaws.However,thereareofcoursemanyexcepons;forone
theethnicuplandshavebeenterrorizedbywarandconictforgeneraons,whichhasledtoeeing,internallydisplacedpersons,militarizaonandcompromisedtradionalpracces
allofwhichhaveweakenedtradionalsocialsystemsandtheirlandmanagementpracces.
Thesituaonnowisthatcustomarylandpraccesappeartobeonthewane.Inceasere
areasthestateisextendingtheircontroloverlandandpopulaons,withtheiraendant
landcategories(e.g.,forestandagricultureratherthanagro-forestrysystems).Andinacve
warzoneslocalethnicpopulaonsarekeptfrompraccingtheirtradionalswidden
culvaonduetotheconstantthreatofwarfareandfear.
Uplandethnicpopulaonsnowndthemselvesstuckinthecrossreoftheroughtransion
toan openingmarketcapitalismwherelandistransferred from smallholderfarmersto
largeprivatecompanies,bothBurmeseandforeign.Aspreviouslycustomarylawswere
honoredandthestatehadnotreachedtheuplandsinmostethnicstates,mosthouseholds
intheruraluplandsdonothaveanylandregistraontles.DuringtheBrishcolonialmes
afewformalizedcustomaryruleswereenactedandinsomesmallwaysrecognizedfor
certainareasoftheuplandsofnorthernandwesternBurma.Forexample,the Kachin Hills
Manual(specicallyChapters3and7)respectedcustomaryauthorityofKachinheadmen,
andfortheChinspeciclawswerecreatedtoaddresstheircustoms,calledtheChin Hills
Regulaon 1896,andtheChin Special Division (Extension of Laws) Act,1948.
TheSPDCdoesnotlegallyhonorcustomaryrightsandlaws,withinadequateprovisionsin
thenewconstuontoupholdcustomarytradions.Inpracce,however,thereisamessyinformaloverlapbetweencustomaryandstatutorylawsandpracces,whereSLRDocers
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recordcustomaryagriculturallandplotsfortheirsurveysandmaps,butatthesameme
isnothonoredwhendesiredbyaninuenaldeveloperbackedbythestate.Itisthisgrey
areawithrespecttothecustomary-statutoryspectrumthatcauseslandtenureinsecurity
formillionsoffarmersinBurma,especiallyintheethnicuplands.
Land tenure remains very weak inBurma, especiallyin theuplands where customary
praccesareslloenfollowedinsteadofstatutorylaw. 84Afundamentalproblemisthat
nolawformallyrecognizestradionaluplandlanduse.Thismeansthatifafarmerwants
topraccecustomaryshiingculvaon,thenthatpraccewillnotbeformallyrecognized
bythe government,and thus there isno way tolegallyprotectthistradional land
managementpracce.TheCommunityForestryInstrucons,whileagoodopportunity,are
oennotimplementedasatradionallandmanagementstrategyandthuschangethe
waylocalpeopleuse,accessandmanageland.TheyarejointlymanagedwiththeForestry
Departmentandoenpromotegrowingmberratherthanfood.
4.2.3 Statutory Land Laws
TheLand Acquision Act, whichissllineecttoday,legallygivesthegovernmenttheright
totake over any land,butwithcompensaon toitsoriginal owners. The1953Land
Naonalizaon Actandthe1963Tenancy Lawgavelegalpowertothestatetoseizeallland
(andthereforealllandownedbythestate,asissllthecasetoday)andredistributeaccording
tosocialistprinciples.LegalpracceinBurmatodaygenerallyrevertstothe 1953Land
Naonalizaon Act,whichrecognizessomeprivateownershipofagriculturalland(secon
38),althoughitrestrictssaleortransfer(secons9-12).However,insecons9-12,thesame
ActprovidesfortheStatetoconscatefallowland(alsoatypeofabsenteeownership),amajorproblemforsmallholderfarmersandcompaniesalike.Thelawdoesnotpermit
outrightprivateownershipofland,andsoalllandmustbeleasedfromthestate,asissll
thesituaon.Inpracce,however,thelandiseitherallocatedbythecustomaryownerto
arelaveortoapayingfarmer.Thesepost-coloniallawsrelyuponcolonialtradionswhere
rightstolandremainconngentonthelandbeingconnuouslyusedinaproducveway
orelsethestatehastherighttoconscateit(unlessafallowtaxispaidbymorewealthy
farmers)andputittomoreecientuseasituaonweseetodaywithlarge-scale
concessionsgrantedtotheprivatesector.Thisisinspiteofthesllacve 1963 Law
Safeguarding Peasant Rightswhichforbidsfarmerslandbeingconscated,harkingback
tothesocialisterawhichadvocatedforpeasantrightstoland.
In1988aertheinfamousprotestsandthebreakdownofthesocialisteconomy,theSLORC
(thenameofthegovernmentatthatme)begantoopenuptheeconomyinsuchaway
wecouldcallitamilitarycommandeconomywheretheemergingprivatesectorcould
begintooperatebutonlyfavoredcompaniesingoodrelaonwiththemilitaryleaders,and
undertheircarefulconscripon.Followingthisnewtrend,SLORCenactedthePrescribing
Dues and Rights of the Central Commiee for the Management of Culvable Land, Fallow
Land and Waste Land,1991(orManagement of Culvable Land, Fallow Land and Waste
Land, ormoresimplytheWastelands Law).Thislawsoughttoencouragethedevelopment
ofso-calledwastelands,orbasicallylandwithnolandtle,throughenlisngtheprivate
sector.xixTooverseetheimplementaonofthislawthe governmentformedtheCentral
xix Registeringtoculvatevirginlandisthesameprocessasforwasteland.Butvirginlandiscontrolled
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Commiee for the Management of Culvable Land, Fallow Land and Waste Landthesame
year(hereincalledtheLandManagementCommiee,orLMC).Theduesofthiscentral
commieeistosystemacallyscrunizeallapplicaonssubmiedtogranttherightto
culvatewastelandandfallowlandbystate-ownedeconomicenterprises,jointventures,
andcorporaonsandprivateindividualsforcommercialreasons.
TheLMCmayassignprivateagriculturalblocksofupto5,000acresforselectedperennial
industrialcropssuchassugarcane,oilpalmandrubber,and1,000toamaximumof3,000
acresfororchardcrops.Ifthislandisdeveloped,morelandcanbegranted,uptoapossible
50,000acreswithamaximumleaseperiodof30years.Thecompanymust,within4to5
yearsfromthedateofbeinggrantedtheland,fullyculvatethewholeareaoftheirland
concession,orelseitcanbetakenbackbythegovernment(al