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BreakingtheFourthWall:TheeffectsofMetareferenceandDirectAddressinFictional
Narrative
ByJordanSchroederAbstract
Thisstudylooksattheeffectsofbreakingthefourthwallontheengagement
andenjoymentofanarrative.Fourversionsofashortstorywerecreated,with
varyinglevelsandinstancesofbreakingthefourthwall,andpresentedto
participants.Theseparticipantsthenfilledoutanattentioncheck,andthenashort
surveyaskingthemseveralquestionsabouttheirexperiencewiththenarrative.In
total,107participantswererun,and29wereexcludeddueeithertofailingtofinish
thesurveyorfailingtoreceiveatleast80%ontheattentioncheck.Noneofthe
regressionsrunreachedstatisticalsignificance,althoughtherewasanoticeable
trendthatparticipantsintheHighcondition(theconditionwiththemostbreaking
ofthefourthwall)showedmorelikingforthecharacterthatdidso(Death)thanthe
characterthatdidn’t(theman).Thisresearchexploresanewwayofapproaching
thestudyofnarrativebyattemptingtobringthefieldsofthehumanitiestogether
withthescientificapplicationofCognitiveScience,usingknowledgefrombothfields
tobetterunderstandnarrativeinthemind.
Preface
Hellothere,readers.BecausethisisnotatypicalCognitiveSciencetopic,this
willnotbeatypicalCognitiveSciencepaper.Ohsure,there’sanexperiment,and
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downbelowItalkallaboutthemethodsandtheresults,whattheirimplicationsare,
etc.ButhopefullyyouandIcanalsohavealittlefunwiththis.
WhatI’vejustdoneisbreakthefourthwallbydirectlyaddressingyou,the
audience,aswellasbyreferencingthemediumthatI,thevoiceinyourhead,am
speakingtoyouthrough(i.e.,aseniorthesisarticle).Forthoseofyouwhodon’t
know,thefourthwallistheimaginarybarrierbetweenanarrativewithitsown
charactersandmovingalongitsownnarrativetimeline,andtheaudience.I’ll
provideabetterexplanationdownbelow,butfornow,that’sallyouneedtoknow.
I’llbeginthispaperbyintroducingmyoverarchingthesis,talkingaboutthe
universalityofnarrative–howwe’reconstantlyseekingitout,creatingit,and
immersingourselvesinit,evenwhenwedon’trealizeit.ThenI’llgiveabrief
overviewoftheevolutionarybasisoffiction,orsometheoriesonwhywecreateand
revelinstoriesthatweknowaren’treal.I’llexplainthefourthwallinmoredetail,
andI’llgiveyouplentyofexamplesofhowitcanbebrokenusingliterature,theater,
film,andtelevision,aswellaswhybreakingitissuchaninterestingphenomenon.
ThenI’llmoveintodetailingmyexperiment,explainingmymethods,theprocessof
creatingmystimuli,runningtheexperiment,andsoon.You’llgettofindoutthe
resultsoftheexperimentindetail,andthenlastly,I’llcreatesomenarrativesofmy
own,andtheorizewhywegottheresultswedid.Butenoughofthis–letsgettoit.
Introduction Narrativeisahumanuniversal–afundamentalwayinwhichweorganize
andperceivetheworldaroundus,aswellasourowninnermentalworlds.Weall
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tellandexperiencestories,andhavedonesosincetheverybeginningsofour
species.Infact,wetellandseekoutstoriessofrequentlythatitmightbecalledan
addiction.Therearetheobviousexamples:studiesconductedinthe1990’sshow
thatwespendthelargestportionofourleisuretimeinthefictionalworldsofbooks,
movies,theater,videogames,andtelevisionshows(Gleick,1999).Withthe
increasingaccessibilityofthesemediumsofstoryovertheinternet,thesenumbers
mayhaveevenincreasedsincethestudieswereconducted.Beyondtheobvious,
therearestillhundredsofotherexamples:histories,religiousstories,communal
stories,nationalstories,ourpersonalnarratives,music,personalcommunications-
wecanseeitinunexpectedplaceslikebusiness(especiallysales),politics,courtsof
law,andeveninscience.Asanexample,sportscastingisalmostentirelynarrative
creation–willthestartightendcontinuehissuccess?Willateam’sheartbreaklast
yearspurthemontowinthisyear?Sportscasterscreatenarrativesaroundthestats
thatmanylovetoengagewith,andarguefororagainst.We’reimmersedinstoryall
thetime,inallsortsofways,becauseourmindsarebuilttoorganizeinformation
narratively.Whentheseexternaltypesofnarrativesaren’tavailable,weevencreate
ourownintheformofdaydreamsorfantasies.Studiesfoundthatparticipantshad
abouttwothousanddaydreamsaday,atanaverageof14secondseach–thetotalof
thisimaginativeplayaddeduptoabouthalftheparticipants’wakinghours,ora
thirdofourlivesintotal(Klinger,2009;Killingsworthetal.,2010).Weeven
continueournarrativecreationintoourunconscious,dreamingupplotswhilewe
sleep.Granted,theydon’talwaysmakesensenarrativelythesamewayabook
might,butitisundeniablethatourbrainsareplayingwithandfittingtogether
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narrativeelementswhilewelayunconscious.Researcherssuspectthatweeven
dreamthroughoutthenight,constitutinganotherthirdofourlives(Flanagan,
2000).AsMurialRukseyerputit,“Theworldismadeupofstories,notatoms.”
(Rukeyser,1968).Wedevoteanenormousamountoftimeandmentalactivityto
experiencingandcreatingstories,manyofthemfictional.
Inaddition,wealltellthesamekindsofstories.ChristopherBooker,inhis
booktitledTheSevenBasicPlots:WhyWeTellStories,details7basicplotsinto
whichallstoriesfall(thoughreallyit’s9,asheaddsontwomoreattheend).
JonathanGotschall,authorofTheStorytellingAnimal:HowStoriesMakeUsHuman
goesevenfurther,andnarrowsdownthetypesofstoriestojustoneina
conversationwithEdge;
Wethinkofstoriesasawildlycreativeartform,butwithinthatcreativityandthatdiversitythereisalotofconformity.Storiesareverypredictable.Nomatterwhereyougointheworld,nomatterhowdifferentpeopleseem,nomatterhowhardtheirlivesare,peopletellstories,universally,anduniversallythestoriesaremoreorlesslikeours:thesamebasichumanobsessions,andthesamebasicstructure.Thestructurecomesdownto:storieshaveacharacter,thecharacterhasapredicamentoraproblem—they'realwaysproblem-focused—andthecharactertriestosolvetheproblem.Initsmostbasicterms,that'swhatastoryis—aproblemsolutionnarrative.(Gotschall,2014)
Notonlydowegenerallyfindthesameformsofnarrative,butwefindsimilar
themes.PaulBloom,authorofHowPleasureWorks:TheNewScienceofWhyWeLike
WhatWeLikecommentsonthisphenomenon,claiming:
Goodstorieshaveuniversalappeal.WhiletheparticularsofTheSopranoswouldbeimpossibletofollowbyanyonefromasufficientlydifferentculture…thethemes–worriesaboutchildren,conflictswithone’sfriends,theconsequencesofbetrayal–areuniversal.(Bloom,2010,pg.164)
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Hegoesontosaythatthisisn’taneffectofthestories,butratheraneffectofour
evolutionaryhumannature:
Thepopularityofthemeshavingtodowithsexandfamilyandbetrayal,forinstance,isnotduetosomespecialfeatureoftheimagination,butratherbecausepeopleareobsessed,intherealworld,withsexandfamilyandbetrayal.(Bloom,2010,pg.165)Thewidespreadpresenceofstoriesbothintheworldandinourminds,along
withthesimilaritiesseeninthecontentofthestories,seemstoargueforan
evolutionarybasisforourloveofstories.Additionally,itsuggeststhattheloveof
storiesseemstobebasedoninnateandhabitualprocessesinthemind.Another
pieceofevidencecomesfromthephenomenonofspontaneousplayintoddlers.
Aroundtheageof2andonwards,childrenbeginplayinggamesofpretendand
make-believe.(Singer&Singer,1990)Childrendon’thavetobetaughttoplay,and
they’regoodatrecognizingitandparticipating(SkolnickandBloom,2006a;Onishi,
Baillargeon,andLeslie,2007).Interestinglyenough,dogsalsoexhibitthisbehavior,
withspecializedsignalssuchas“playbows”thatindicateasortof“make-believe”
fight(Bekoff,1974).Thepresenceofthiskindofimaginarybehaviorinananimalso
geneticallydistantfromhumansseemstosuggestthatthebeginningsofthis
storytellingaddictionareevolutionarilyancient,thoughmuchmoreresearchneeds
tobedoneintothisphenomenon,aswellasintoourmoregeneticallysimilar
relatives’understandingofnarrativebeforeadefinitiveclaimcanbemade.Itis,
however,interestingtonotethatthemodernCanisfamiliarisoftengrowsupina
homewithhumans,andhavebeenshowntounderstandcertainsocialcuesvery
well,bettereventhanprimates(Hare&Tomasello,2005).It’sclear,however,that
humanshaveamuchmoredevelopedperceptionandunderstandingofstories.It
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hasbeenshownthatevensmallchildrenhaveahealthyfolkknowledgeofmany
differentaspectsofnarrativesandfiction.Childrenarenotonlyabletoconsciously
andreliablydistinguishbetweenrealityandfiction(Skolnick&Bloom,2006),they
distinguishbetweentheimprobableandimpossibleinfiction(Weisberg&Sobel,
2012),theytellstoriesinrecognizablepatternsandforms(Stone,1992),andthey
havehighlysophisticatedandsubtlerulesfornotonlydistinguishingbetween
realityandfiction,butbetweenseparatefictionalworldsaswell(Weisberg&
Bloom,2009;Skolnick&Bloom2006a;Skolnick&Bloom,2006b).Thequestionis,
howdoweexplainthisseemingevolutionarybasis?
ABriefReviewoftheEvolutionaryBasisforFiction
Theevolutionaryoriginsoffictionhavelongbeenatopicdebatedby
researchers;whywouldananimal,otherwisestreamlinedforsurvivaland
reproduction,spendsomuchtimeandenergycontemplatingandexploringworlds
thatdonotexist?Sometheorizethatfictionworksasanescapistpleasure–lifeis
difficultanddull,filledwithallsortsofconfusingandunhappyevents,butfiction
allowsustoleaveourownlivesforawhileandexperiencethingswemightnever
gettoinreallife.Thissameaccounthasbeenoffereduptoattempttoexplain
religion,andthecriticismisthesameforboth–iffictionisescapist,whydoyoufind
somanysituationsthatyouwouldneverwanttoexperienceinreallife,suchas
kidnapping,ormurder?Weriderollercoastersandwatchhorrormoviesbecause
it’sthrillingandterrifying,butwe’dneverwanttotrulybefreefallingfrom
dangerousheights,ortrappedinahousewithakiller.Thereisnodoubtthatpeople
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usefictiontoescapefromtheirlives,andgainimmensepleasurefromit,butthis
cannotbetheevolutionarybasisforit.
Therearecertainlymanyotherexaptiveusesforfictiontodaythatmayhave
beenadaptive–Gotschallcomparesstorytothehand;amulti-purposetool,ableto
helpusinmanydifferentways(Gotschall,2012).Heillustratesafewpossibilities;
fictionmayhaveactedasasexuallyselectedtrait,displayingmentalacuityand
creativitytopotentialmates,oritmayhavebeenawaytobringcommunities
together,tocreatebondsbetweenpeople.However,theseclaimsareoften
regardedas“just-sostories”,fortheyareunfalsifiableandyoucouldargueagreat
manynumberofreasonsthatstorytellingmayhaveevolved.Thesearecertainly
thingsthatstorytellingcando,butthere’snoevidencethattheyarethe
evolutionaryreasonthatnarrativeinthemindevolved.
Manyresearchersnowsuggestfictionwasadaptiveforvariationsof
simulatormodelfunctions,wherefictionallowsustoengageincounterfactual
reasoninginorderto“testdrive”hypotheticalactionsandsituations.Our
hypotheses“dieforus”asweplanahead,creatingmentalsimulationsandsending
themintoimaginarysituationstoattempttopredicttheoutcome.Thereissome
neuralevidenceforthistheory–inthe1990s,atypeofneuronswasdiscovered
whichwasdubbedthe“mirror”neuron.Theseneurons,whenstimulatedby
watchingsomeoneperformanaction,activatethesamepathwaysthatwouldbe
usedifwewerealsodoingtheaction.Itistheorizedthatthesemirrorneuronsdo
thesamewhenweexperiencefiction,givingusthesameexperiencesthereallife
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stimuliwouldevoke(Iacoboni,2008).Therearedisagreementswhatexactlywe
evolvedtosimulate,however.
StephenPinker,authorofHowtheMindWorks,andDenisDutton,authorof
TheArtInstinct:Beauty,Pleasure,&HumanEvolution,bothsupporttheoriesthat
claimthatfictionisawayforustosimulateandprepareourselvesfortheproblems
oftherealworld(Pinker,1997;Dutton,2009)–andthereissomeevidenceforthis.
Stories,asDuttonnotes,areaboutthehumanexperience,andmorespecifically,
they’reabouthumanconflict.Children’splayisfilledwithdarkerthemes,suchas
theft,gettinglost,gettingbitten,andevenmurder(Gotschall,2012).Childrenare
alsomorelikelytopickmorerealisticnarratives,whichmightindicatethatthey’re
moreconcernedwithreal-worldproblemsinnarratives(Weisbergetal.,2013;
Barnesetal.,2015).Thesechildrenmaybeattemptingtopreparethemselvesfora
timewhentheymighthavetodealwiththesesituationsinreallife.
Similarly,JanetBurrowayarguesthatfictionmayactasasimulatormodel
notspecificallyforreal-worldproblems,butforreal-worldemotions(Burroway,
2011).Fictionallowsustoexperienceallkindsofemotionalreactionsinasafer
space–thinkagainofwhypeoplemightgotothehorrormovies,orridethe
rollercoastersImentionedabove.Wewanttoexperiencethoseemotions,thefear
andtheadrenaline,butwedon’twanttoputourselvesinasituationwherewe
couldactuallygethurt,ortrulyfearforourlives.Thesameexplanationcanbeused
forsadmovies.Peopleoftenlovemoviesthatmakethemcry;theygetthe
emotionalexperiencewithouthavingtodealwiththeconsequencesofanysortof
real-worldeventthatwould’veevokedthesameemotions.Fictionallowsusto
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experiencetheseemotionsandpracticedealingwithandreactingtotheminthereal
world.
Or,asLisaZunshineposits,theworldoffictioncouldhaveactedasatraining
groundforourcognitiveprocesses,aplacetostrengthenandpracticeallkindsof
mentalskillspertainingtoimportantbehaviors,likesocialinteraction(Zunshine,
2006).Thereareafewstudiesthatsupportthisidea–peoplewhoengagemore
withfictionhavebettersocialskills,asmeasuredbyempathyandsocialitytests
(Oatley&Mar,2008).Inaddition,pretenseplayhasbeenlinkedtohigherlevelsof
cognitioninchildren,andheightenedperspective-takingabilities(Bergen,2002).
Childrenalsopreferstorieswithmorepeopleinthem,andmorecharacterswith
mentalstates,whichmayindicatethatthesechildrenenjoypracticingtheirsocial
skillsandtheoryofmindthroughfiction(Barnes&Bloom,2014).
However,otherssuchasPaulBloomandTamarGendlerarguethatourlove
offictionisanaccident,aby-productofothermentalprocesses.Thistheorystems
fromtheideathatmanyoftheprocessesourbrainsevolvedtokeepusaliveand
interactsuccessfullywiththeworldaroundusarealsoactivatedbyfiction,andwe
wouldn’thavebeenabletoeliminateourreactionstothefictionalwithoutentirely
eliminatingthoseessentialprocessesneededforsurvival.Gendlertheorizesthat
thiscausesaninabilitytofullyseparatefictionandreality,regardlessofwhatwe
mightbelieveorevenknowaboutthe“reality”ofthestimuliwe’reexperiencing.
Distinctandunaffectedbyourconsciousbeliefs,shecallsthisphenomenon“alief”–
anunconscious,associativereaction(Gendler,2008;Gendler,2009).Accordingto
Gendler,imaginationgivesrisetobehaviorthroughalief–imaginingsomething
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affectsourbehaviorbecausewerespondtocertaincuesinourimaginings
unconsciously,treatingthemasiftheywerereal,andthenactingaccordingly–
despitewhetherweconsciouslybelieveourimaginingsaren’treality.ItwasHume
whofirstnoticedthisdiscordancebetweenbeliefandassociativereactionsto
stimuli–henotes:
Toillustratethisbyafamiliarinstance,letusconsiderthecaseofaman,who,beinghungoutfromahightowerinacageofironcannotforbeartrembling,whenhesurveystheprecipicebelowhim,thoughheknowshimselftobeperfectlysecurefromfalling,byhisexperienceofthesolidityoftheiron,whichsupportshim;andthoughtheideasoffallanddescent,andharmanddeath,bederivedsolelyfromcustomandexperience.(Hume,1874)
Togiveamoremodernexample,aswellastheonethatGendlerusestoillustrate
herconceptsowonderfully:theGrandCanyonskywalk,whichisahorseshoe-
shapedbridgewithglassfloors,allowstouriststoseestraightdowntothecanyon
floor2,000feetbelowthem.Thousandsoftouriststravelhereeveryyearto
experiencethethrillofthewindingwhippingaroundthemastheyseemtofloat
abovethisnaturalwonder–onlytofindthattheycan’tdoit.Theybelieveit’ssafe,
astheywatchothersventureout,andreadalltheengineeringandsafetyfactsabout
itinthebrochures,buttheyremaintooscaredtosetasinglefootontheglassfloor.
Thisunconscious,belief-discordantreactionisaliefatwork,andwhyweoftenreact
tofictionasthoughitwerereal.Justasthetourist’saliefisreactingtotheheightof
theskywalkandsaying“Danger!Don’tgooutthere!”inspiteoftheirbeliefsabout
itssafety,ouraliefreactstofictioninthesameway,despitewhateverbeliefswe
mayhaveaboutitsfictionalnature.Andso,referringbacktotheconceptpresented
inPaulBloom’squoteintheintroduction,storiesaren’tproblem-solutionbasedor
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fullofsocialcharactersoraboutsimilarthemesbecausethey’reforpracticingthese
things;theyhavethesefeaturesbecausewehaveothermentalmechanismsthat
makeusfocusedoncertainthemes,seekoutsocialpeople,andworktosolve
problemsintherealworld,andouraliefsmakeusreacttobothequally.
Whetherourfictionprocessesareby-productsfromprocessesdesignedto
workintherealworld,oradaptiveprocessesthatareimportantinfictionforthe
samereasonsthatthey’reimportantinreallife,it’sclearthatperceptionofthe
fictionalistightlyintertwinedwiththeprocessesweusetoperceivereality.The
possiblebasesfortheseprocessesarealsonotnecessarilyexclusive–itmaybethat
manyofthesedifferenttheoriesarepartiallyright.Theseprocesses,whether
adaptiveoraccidental,haveshownthatfictionalexperiencescanaffectourreal-
worldexperience,anddosoonadailybasis.Whathappens,however,when
fictionalnarrativescrosstheboundariesintorealityonpurpose?
BreakingtheFourthWall:ExamplesfromDiverseMedia
“Breakingthefourthwall”isactuallyamorecolloquialtermfora
metareference,whichisdefinedonWikipediaas“asituationinaworkoffiction
wherebycharactersdisplayanawarenessthattheyareinsuchawork,suchasa
film,televisionshoworbook,andpossiblythattheyarebeingobservedbyan
audience.”Thecolloquialtermcomesfromtheideathatespeciallyinthenaturalist
theaterofthe19thcentury,thefourthwallwas“theinvisiblewallwhichisimagined
toexistacrossthefrontofthestageinproscenium-archstaging,whichseparatesthe
audiencefromtheactorsandthroughwhichtheaudiencecanseebuttheactors
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cannot.”Itwasatrendinthistimetoadherestrictlytothisseparationbetween
audienceandactors,butastheatermovedintothe20thcentury,thetrendreversed
anditbecamecommontobreakthisbarrier,playingwithandsubvertingthespace
betweenaudienceandperformers(Mangan,2013).Thiswasnotanewtechnique,
however–examplesofbreakingthefourthwallgoallthewaybacktotheancient
Greeks,whosechorusesandcharactersmightoftenaddresstheaudience.
TheBardhimself,WilliamShakespeare,dabbledinbreakingthefourthwall
aswell.Thoughhe’sfamousforhismanydifferentbeautifulsoliloquiesandasides,
whicharetheatricaldevicesusedtoconveythethoughtsofcharacters,oneofhis
mostfamousspeechesservestobreakthefourthwallbetweenperformersand
audience:
Ifweshadowshaveoffended,Thinkbutthis,andallismended,Thatyouhavebutslumber'dhereWhilethesevisionsdidappear.Andthisweakandidletheme,Nomoreyieldingbutadream,Gentles,donotreprehend:Ifyoupardon,wewillmend:And,asIamanhonestPuck,IfwehaveunearnedluckNowto'scapetheserpent'stongue,Wewillmakeamendserelong;ElsethePuckaliarcall;So,goodnightuntoyouall.Givemeyourhands,ifwebefriends,AndRobinshallrestoreamends.(Shakespeare,1894,ActV,Sc.I,Lines440-455)AttheveryendofAMidsummerNight’sDream,Puckaddressestheaudience
directly,suggestingthatifthey’vebeenoffendedbywhatthey’veseen,theymerely
pretendthattheyweredreaming.Whilethismayseemlikeconciliationbya
playwrightnervousabouthiswork’sreception,he’salsousingthetechniqueof
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breakingthefourthwalltocastdoubtupontheeventsoftheplay.Weretheya
dream?Doestheirsignificancechangeiftheywere?What’stheconnectionbetween
enteringatheaterandsuspendingone’sdisbeliefforafewhoursandlayingdownin
bedanddreamingforafewhours?Howdoesadreamwork?Breakingthefourth
walladdsacomplexityandnuancetothework,andmayservetoincrease
engagementwiththenarrativenotonlywhileit’soccurring,butafterpatronshave
leftthetheater.Itmayevenallowustocreatemoreofapersonalconnectionto
Puck,whowe’veseencaperingaboutthroughouttheplay,butwhowearenow
havingadirectinteractionwithforthefirsttime.
AnotherexampleofthistypeofmetareferencecanbeseeninBertholt
Brecht’swork.Brechtencouragedhisactorstousewhathedubbed“alienation”
techniques–separatingoneselffromthecharacter,andaddressingtheaudience.In
theepilogueofhisworkTheGoodPersonofSzechwan,heevenleavesthemain
tensionandclimaxoftheplayunresolved,andinstead,aplayeremergesontostage
andaddressestheaudience:
Ladiesandgentlemen,don’tfeelletdown:Weknowthisendingmakessomepeoplefrown.WehadinmindasortofgoldenmythThenfoundthefinishhadbeentamperedwith.Indeeditisacuriouswayofcoping:Toclosetheplay,leavingtheissueopen.Especiallysincewelivebyyourenjoyment.Frustratedaudiencesmeanunemployment.WhateveroptimistsmayhavepretendedOurplaywillfailifyoucan’trecommendit.Wasitstagefrightmadeusforgettherest?Suchthingsoccur.Butwhatwouldyousuggest?Whatisyouranswer?Nothing’sbeenarranged.Shouldmenbebetter?Shouldtheworldbechanged?Orjustthegods?Oroughttheretobenone?Weforourpartfeelwellandtrulydone.
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There’sonlyonesolutionthatweknow:ThatyoushouldnowconsiderasyougoWhatsortofmeasuresyouwouldrecommendTohelpgoodpeopletoahappyend.Ladiesandgentlemen,inyouwetrust:Theremustbehappyendings,must,must,must!(Brecht,1965,pg.109)
Thisepilogueencouragedtheaudiencetotackletheissuespresentedintheplay
beyondthetheater,withoutprovidingananswer.Brecht,writingduringthetimeof
Hitler’sascenttopowerinGermany,seemstobeattempting(similarlyto
Shakespeare,butevenmoreobviously)tousethetechniqueofbreakingthefourth
walltomorefullyengageaudiencesinthenarrativeandquestionsraisedbythe
work.However,wemustalsoquestionwhetherthistypeoftechnique,insteadof
morefullyengagingtheaudienceintheissuesofthework,actuallyhastheopposite
effectofstartlingtheaudienceandbreakingofftheirimmersioninthenarrativeand
itsthemes.Whenacharacterthat,upuntilthatpoint,hasbeenconfinedtothe
fictionalworldsuddenlybreaksintoreality,oralludestothefactthatit’sthere,it
maybeincrediblyjarringforaudiences.EspeciallywhenyouconsiderthatBrechtis
refusingtogiveusanyclosure,whichmayhaveupsetaudiencesfurther.
Asnewmediumsofnarrativeemerged,methodsofbreakingthefourthwall
evolvedaswell,especiallyforcomedy.Asfilmbecamepopular,writersand
directorsbeganexperimentingwiththistechnique.Thoughnotthefirst,theMarx
brothersuseddirectaddressaswellasothersubtlermethodsofmetareferenceto
greatcomiceffect.Forexample,GrouchoMarxwasfamousforturningtothecamera
andwinking,lettingtheaudienceinonthejoke.JimAbrahams,DavidZucker,and
JerryZucker,thewritersofclassicspoofssuchasAirplane!andTopSecret!also
breakthefourthwallindifferentways–forexample,atonepointinTopSecret!,a
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charactersaystheline,“Iknow.Itallsoundslikesomebadmovie.”atwhichpoint
bothcharactersonscreenstopandslowlyturntowardsthecamera.(TopSecret,
1984).MelBrooksdidn’tsomuchasbreakthefourthwallassmashitdownand
trampleontheremainsinhisfilmsSpaceballs,BlazingSaddles,andRobinHood:Men
inTights.InBlazingSaddles,thecharacterHedleyLamarrsaysduringaspeech,"You
willonlyberiskingyourlives,whileIwillberiskinganalmostcertainAcademy
AwardnominationforBestSupportingActor,"referencing,ofcourse,theveryfact
thatHedleyLamarrisacharacterbeingplayedbyanactor.Attheendofthemovie,
thebigfightsceneevenbreaksoutoftheset–housesarerevealedtobeflatset
pieces,fallingoverinthechaos,andthenthemaincharactersgotoseethepremiere
ofBlazingSaddles–withinthemovieBlazingSaddles.(BlazingSaddles,1974)In
RobinHood:MeninTights,duringthefamousarcheryscene,everyoneonscreen
pullsouttheirscriptstomakesurethatthey’refollowingitcorrectly.Brookseven
managestoreferencehisownworksattheendofRobinHood:MeninTights,when
RobinnamesAchooSheriffofRottingham.Everyoneyells,“Ablacksheriff?!”to
whichAchoorespondsbylookingatthecameraandsaying,“Whynot?Itworkedin
BlazingSaddles.”(RobinHood:MeninTights,1993).Therearedozens,ifnot
hundredsofotherfamousexamplesfrommovieslikeFerrisBueller’sDayOff,the
Muppetsmovies,WoodyAllen’smovies,andtheAustinPowersseries,justtonamea
few.
Breakingthefourthwallisatraditionthatcontinuedoninothermediumsas
well,however–thoughlesscommon,manydifferenttypesofliteraturemakeuseof
directaddressandotherformsoffourthwallbreakage.Forexample,theshortstory
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TheEggbyAndyWeiriswrittenalmostentirelyindirectaddress.Youngadult
bookslikeRickRiordan’sPercyJacksonandtheOlympiansseries,orJonathan
Stroud’sBartimaeusTrilogycontaininstancesofdirectaddress:Percywarns
readersatthebeginningofeachbookofthedangersofreadingfurther,while
Bartimaeusquipsandjokeswiththereaderthroughout,bywayoffootnotes
insertedintothetext.BelowisPercy’sopeningaddresstotheaudienceinThe
LightningThief:
Look,Ididn'twanttobeahalf-blood.Ifyou'rereadingthisbecauseyouthinkyoumightbeone,myadviceis:closethisbookrightnow.Believewhateverlieyourmomordadtoldyouaboutyourbirth,andtrytoleadanormallife.Beingahalf-bloodisdangerous.It'sscary.Mostofthetime,itgetsyoukilledinpainful,nastyways.Ifyou'reanormalkid,readingthisbecauseyouthinkit'sfiction,great.Readon.Ienvyyouforbeingabletobelievethatnoneofthiseverhappened.Butifyourecognizeyourselfinthesepages-ifyoufeelsomethingstirringinside-stopreadingimmediately.Youmightbeoneofus.Andonceyouknowthat,it'sonlyamatteroftimebeforetheysenseittoo,andthey'llcomeforyou.Don'tsayIdidn'twarnyou.(Riordan,2005,pg.2)
Andthenthestoryunfolds,withPercyactingasafirstpersonnarrator.Eachof
theseserieswaswildlysuccessful,sellingmillionsofbooks.MarkusZusak’s
criticallyacclaimednovelTheBookThiefalsocontainsanarratorwhoaddressesthe
audienceandspentover230weeksontheNewYorkTimesBestSellerlist.The
narratorinTheBookThiefisDeath,who’sexhaustedbyhisjobyetunabletoleave.
Hedrawstheaudienceintothestorywiththreesimplesentences:“Ifyoufeellikeit,
comewithme.Iwilltellyouastory.I’llshowyousomething.”(Zusak,2006,pg.9)
Televisionhasalsomadegreatuseofthesetechniquesinrecentyears.Shows
suchasScrubs,TheOffice,andmostrecentlyHouseofCardsallbreakthefourthwall
invariousways,tovaryingeffect.InScrubs,themaincharacter,John“JD”Dorian
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functionsasanintra-digeticnarrator,definedinNarrativeTheoryandtheEarly
Novelas:
Onewhoexistswithinthestoryworldofaparticulartextandtransmitsastorythatisframedbytheextradiegeticnarrativelevel.Here,oneoftheprimarynarrative’scharactersisthenarratorofastorywithinthatnarrative,andhisorheraudienceisanothercharacter.
ThisfunctionsasamorenuancedformofwallbreakagethanthetypeusedbyMel
Brooksorothercomedicfilmsandtelevisionshows.JDnarrateshisownstory,but
thenarrationoftentimesmergeswiththedialogueoftheshow,orisaffected
throughdirectaddresstothecamera.Sometimestheyevenplaywiththe
expectationsthatcreates,however–intheepisode“MyNewSuit”,JDrepeatedly
addressesthecamera,asifattemptingtobreakthefourthwallandaddressthe
audience,butateachturnthemontagerevealsthepresenceofanothercharacter
whoislistening,effectivelyfromthesameplacethattheaudienceis.This,whilenot
trulydirectaddress,isametareferencetothetechniqueofdirectaddressfourth
wallbreaking,andplaysonandsubvertstheexpectationsoftheaudienceto
comediceffect.(Savorelli,2010)
The“mockumentary”televisionshowTheOfficemakesuseofsimilar
techniques–thecharacterofJimisfamousforturningtothecameraandgivingita
bewilderedorexasperatedlookwhenhiscoworkersdosomethingparticularly
absurd.TheOfficealsoincludesdocumentarystyleinterviewswithcharacters,who
arespeakingtoanaudience.Thesebreakagesofthefourthwallbecamenotonly
commonthroughouttheshow’srun,butamarkoftheshow’sstyleandhumor.
Lateronintheseries,thecameracrewevenbecomeactivecharacterswithinthe
narrative.Thesetechniquesaremorenuancedthantheyfirstseem,however,asthe
18
audiencetheyarespeakingtoandlookingatisnottrulyus,buttheaudienceofthe
documentarythatisbeingmadewithintheirfictionalworld.Thus,whiletheseare
fourthwallbreakingtechniques,andsituationsoftenarisebecauseoforforthe
benefitofthecamera,itcanbearguedastowhetherthecharactersaretruly
breakingthefourthwall,asthepresenceofthedocumentarycrewaddsanextra
layerbetweentheactorsandusastheaudience.Thisisanotherexampleofplaying
withtheboundariesbetweenaudienceandactors.
Thisambiguitydoesn’texistintheshowHouseofCards,wheretheruthless
politicianFrankUnderwoodoftenturnstothecameraanddirectlyaddressesthe
audience,usuallytogivepower-hungryadvice.Whethersittingorwalking,helooks
directlyintothecameratoexplainor(morefrustratinglyforaudiences)notexplain
hisactions.Thisis,interestingly,alsoararerexampleinfilmandtelevisionwhere
breakingthefourthwallisusednotforcomedy,butfordrama.Anotherexampleof
breakingthefourthwallbeingadramatictechniqueratherthanacomedicone
occursinthefilmFightClub,whereTylerDurdenseveraltimesaddressesthe
audience.Atonemoment,the“film”ofthemovieevencatchesfireandbeginsto
burn,referencingitsownmedium.
Mostrecently,theblockbusterhitDeadpoolstarringRyanReynoldsdebuted
toenthusiasticaudiences,andbrokethefourthwallinmany,manyways–asthe
characterofDeadpool(orhissecretidentityWadeWilson)isinfamousfordoing.
Hiscomicsandgraphicnovelsarefullofreferencestothefactthatheknowshe’sa
comicbookcharacter,thatheknowshe’sbeingwatchedbyanaudience,references
tohiswriters,hisillustrators,andsoon.Thefilmcontinuedthistraditionby
19
comicallybreakingthefourthwallinmanydifferentways,perhapsmostnotably
whenDeadpoolsarcasticallyremarks,“DoyoureallythinkRyanReynoldsgotthis
faronhissuperioractingability?!”Themoviealsofeaturesseveralmomentswhere
Deadpooladdressestheaudiencedirectly,explainingpartsofthenarrativeor
crackingjokes.Atonepoint,Deadpooladdressestheaudiencetoexplaina
flashback,andthenwithintheflashbackaddressestheaudienceagain.Hegasps,
thensays,“Fourthwallbreakinsideafourthwallbreak!That’slike…sixteenwalls!”
notonlybreakingthefourthwalltwice,butmetareferencingthetechniqueaswell.
Thefilmbreaksthefourthwallinotherwaysthough–atonepoint,Deadpoolis
seekinghelpfromtheX-men,andringsthedoorbelloftheirhouse(previouslyseen
inX-menmoviesfilledwithfamiliarcharacterssuchasWolverine,ProfessorX,
Storm,JeanGrey,andsoon).WhenthedoorisansweredbyNegasonicTeenage
WarheadandColossus,DeadpooljokesabouttheconspicuouslymissingX-men,
remarking,“It’sabighouse.It’sfunnythatIonlyeverseetwoofyou.It’salmost
like…thestudiocouldn’taffordanotherX-man.”HereDeadpoolisn’tdirectly
addressingtheaudience,buthe’srevealingknowledgeaboutthefilmhe’sin,and
casuallypokingfunatthelimitationstheexecutiveshadwhenmakingthefilm.The
filmevenreferencesRyanReynolds’earlierGreenLanternboxofficeflopwhenhis
characterremarks,“Pleasejustdon’tmakethesuitgreen!”Deadpoolisn’ttheonly
charactertobreakthefourthwall,however–hisbestfriendWeasel,inreferenceto
amanwhohaswalkedintothebarandisaskingtospeaktoWade,says,“Thatguy
overtherecameinlookingforyou.RealGrimReapertype.Idon’tknow,maybeit’ll
20
advancetheplot,”directlyreferencingthenarrativestructureofthefilm.(Deadpool,
2016).
TheCurrentResearch
It’sclearthatthisisatechniquethathasbeenusedtogreateffect,andto
differenteffect,overalonghistoryspanningmanydifferentmediumsofnarrative.
Fromraisingcomplexissuesandquestions,andforcingaudiencestoconsiderthem,
tothelaughoutloudcomedyofMelBrooksorgleefulrule-breakingofDeadpool,to
therisingtensionanddramaofFightCluborHouseofCards,breakingthefourth
wall(andinparticularbreakingthefourthwallthroughdirectaddress)hasbeen
usedtoinfluenceandaffecttheaudienceinmanydifferentways.Thequestion
remains,however,whetherthistechniqueisonethataudiencesenjoy,orwhetherit
increasestheirengagementwiththenarrative.Thebreakingofthefourthwall(and
forthepurposeofthisstudy,wewillbefocusingondirectaddressasthemainform
ofbreakingthefourthwall)canbestartling–manyfinditjarring,tosuddenlyfeel
liketheymusttransitionfrompassiveobserver,unseenandunnoticedbythe
characters,toactiveparticipant,obligedtocontributeinsomeway.Afterall,itis
called“breaking”thefourthwall–whichdoesn’texactlyevokeagentleimage.It
maymakepeopleuncomfortabletosuddenlyfeellikethey’repartofthestory,that
they’reacharacterinthestoryorevenviceversa,thatthecharactershaveintruded
intoreality.Thereisalsoanargumentthatbreakingthefourthwallbreaksthe
illusion,andruinsthesuspensionofdisbelief.Bybreakingthefourthwall,the
21
charactersareacknowledgingthatthenarrativethey’reenactingisn’treality,which
somemayfindsourstheexperience,orruiningthemagic,onemightsay.
Ontheotherhand,somefinditincrediblywhimsicalandentertaining–
there’sareasonthattheexamplesgivenaboveareallfromincrediblypopular
stories.Deadpoolhasearnedover$759millionworldwide,andisstillintheaters
earningmoreasofthedateofwriting.Breakingthewall,insteadofbeingastartling,
uncomfortableexperience,mightallowaudiencestoconnectmorefullyboth
emotionallyandintellectuallywiththecharacters.Directaddressmightallow
audiencestomorefullydevelopanemotionalconnectionwiththecharacter,for
theyfeellikethey’remoredirectlyengagingwiththecharacterssomehow.By
breakingthatwall,itmightactuallybothinviteaudiencesfurtherintotheworldof
thenarrative,aswellasinvitingthecharactersandissuespresentedinthenarrative
outintotherealworldtobeinteractedwithandexamined.Breakingthefourthwall
maycreateanopportunityforadialoguetoexistbetweenrealityandfiction,
allowingthepassageofideasandemotiontoflowmorefreelybetweentheworldof
thenarrativeandtheworldoftheaudience.
AsIbegantoexplainabovewiththetelevisionshowsandthroughthemany
differentwaysitispossibletobreakthefourthwall,itisanincrediblynuanced
technique.There’snoblackandwhiteforwhatisbreakingthefourthwallandwhat
isn’t,becausethespacebetweenaudienceandcharacterscanbeplayedwithand
subvertedandbuiltupagaininsomanyways.Inthisstudy,wefocussolelyon
directaddressasamethodofbreakingthefourthwall,andadmitthatthathasmany
limits.Wehavenopredictionforwhateffectstryingtocontrolthevariableoffourth
22
wallbreakageswillhaveonparticipantsreadingourstory–thoughwe’reanxiousto
see.Wealsoactivelyacknowledgethattryingtocontrolaliterarydevicelikethis
whilestillpresentingacoherent,rich,andentertainingstoryisdifficult–thereare
manydifferentsemanticsandsubjectiveassessmentsthatgointojudgingastory,
andyetwe’restillhopefulthatwemaybeabletofindinteresting,validresults.
Thoughbreakingthefourthwallisaphenomenonthatiswelldocumented
throughoutitsuseintheater,film,television,andwriting,itisaphenomenonthat
hasbeenneglectedbyscientificstudy.Almostnoscholarlyresearchexistson
breakingthefourthwall.Ouraimwiththisstudyistobeginthescientific
explorationintotheeffectsofbreakingthefourthwall.Wehopethatbybringing
ourknowledgefromtheartsandhumanities,andusingourcognitivescience
methodologytoscientificallytestit,wecanbetterunderstandhownarrativeworks
inthemind,andevenbebetterequippedtocreatebetter,moreentertainingstories.
MethodsCreationofStimuli
Inordertotestthishypothesis,wesetaboutdesigninganexperimentbased
aroundseveralversionsofashortstory.Theshortstory,aboutfourpagesinlength,
wasacreativeprojectwrittenwithDeathasthemaincharacter,whooftendirectly
addressestheaudienceduringthesceneasadiegeticnarrator.Takingthispiece,we
thensetaboutcreatingfourdifferentconditions–onewhereDeathaddressesthe
audienceeighttimes(High),onewhereDeathaddressestheaudiencefourtimes
(Medium),onewhereDeathaddressestheaudiencetwice(Low),andonewhere
23
Deathneverdirectlyaddressestheaudience(None).Thisgradientwascreatednot
onlytomakesurethattherewasaconditionwithnofourthwallbreakagesanda
conditionwiththem,buttotestwhetherbreakingthefourthwallmorewouldlead
tostrongerorweakereffects.
Thiswasdonekeepingthesemanticandliterarymaterialineachversionas
constantaspossible.Mostdirectaddresseswerechangedbysimplytakingoutthe
word“you”inthesentence,orchangingittothecorrespondingindirectaddress,
suchas“they”or“he”.Seethetableintheappendicesforthecompletelistof
changes.Thiswasnotalwaysentirelypossible,however,asthewordingorcontent
ofcertainsentencesmadeitimpossibletochangeitbymerelydroppingthe“you.”
Inthesecases,weattemptedtokeepthesemanticinformationasconstantas
possible.
Additionally,itisofnotethatmanyofthesefourthwallbreakagesareof
different,varyinglengths.Inordertooperationalizeanddefinewhatconstitutesa
singlebreakingofthefourthwall,weoptedforamorenuanceddefinition,rather
thansimplycountingthenumberof2ndpersonpronouns.Wedefinedabreakingof
thefourthwallas“beginningwithadirectaddresstotheaudiencewhichbreaksout
ofthenarrativetimelineoftheplot,whichmaypossiblybefollowedbymoredirect
addresses,butendedbyareturntotheoriginalnarrativetimeline,asevidencedby
anactionoccurringoranothercharacterspeaking.”Thisallowedustomakeuseof
andpresentacomplexandinterestingtexttoparticipants,ratherthanmerelythe
equivalentofachildren’spicturebook.
24
Inordertocontrolforthesevaryinglengthsoffourthwallbreakages,wealso
definedandgroupedthemintoLongandShortcategories,Shortbeingonlya
sentence(Examples1,2,7,and8inthetableabove),andLongbeinganythingover
twosentencesinarowwithdirectaddresses(Examples3,4,5,and6inthetable
above).Whilewesuspectthatdurationofthesebreakagesisanimportantfactor
whenlookingattheeffectsofbreakingthefourthwall,thepurposeofthisstudyis
moreexploratoryinnature,lookingmorebroadlyattheeffectsofthewholerather
thanattemptingtonarrowlyparseouteachaspectofacomplexliterarytechnique.
It’sunclearwhateffectlongerdurationsoffourthwallbreakagesmighthaveon
enjoymentandengagementwiththestory,butweerredasmuchonthesideof
cautionaswecould.Futurestudiescould(andshould)bestructuredtolookmore
closelyattheeffectofthedurationofeachfourthwallbreakage,butforthe
purposesofthisstudy,eachversionwascreatedbychanginganequalnumberof
LongandShortbreakageseachtime.
Toexplainitmorethoroughly,theHighconditionwascreatedfirst,withall
eightfourthwallbreakagesinplace.Next,theMediumconditionwascreatedby
changingtwoshortbreakagesandtwolongbreakagesfromdirectaddressesinto
indirectsentences,leavingitwithfourfourthwallbreakages.TheLowcondition
wascreatedbychangingtwomorebreakages,alongandashort,whilekeepingthe
alreadychangedbreakagesconstant,leavingtwofourthwallbreakagesunchanged.
Andfinally,thelasttwofourthwallbreakageswerechanged,tocreatetheNone
condition,wheretherearenodirectaddressestotheaudience.SeeFigure1for
moredetail.
25
Process
Thestimuliwerepresentedto107participantsthroughMechanicalTurk,
Amazon’scrowdsourcinginternetmarketplace.Participantswerepresentedwith
instructionsaskingthemtoreadthefollowingstory,payattention,andcomplete
somesurveysaboutwhattheyreadafterwards.Theywerethenpresentedwitha
randomversionofthestory,oneofthefourconditions.Afterreading,theywere
thenpresentedwithasurveyaskingvariousquestionsabouttheirengagementwith
thenarrative,andtheirlikingofthecharacters(SeeFigure3formoredetail).They
werethenpresentedwithanattentionchecksurvey,whichaskedthemfivefairly
easymultiple-choicequestionsaboutvariousdetailsfromthestory,tomakesure
thattheyhadtrulyreadthestoryandattemptedtoengagewithit(seeFigure4for
moredetail).Participantswhodidnotachieveabovean80%onthisattention
checkwerediscountedfromthestudy.8participantswereexcludedduetofailure
tocompletethesurvey,andafurther21wereexcludedbecausetheyreceivedless
than80%ontheirattentioncheck,leaving78validparticipants,roughlyequally
spreadbetweenconditions(17intheHighcondition,21intheMediumcondition,
19intheLowcondition,and19intheNonecondition).Thedatawereanalyzed
usingSPSS.
26
Results
Figure1:Bargraphofalltheaveragesofresponses,questionbycondition.
AlinearregressionwasconductedusingSPSSforeachquestionbasedonthe
versionsofthestory,andnosignificantresultswerefound.
Asimplelinearregressionwascalculatedtopredicthowmuchparticipants
enjoyedthestorybasedonthecondition.Anon-significantregressionequationwas
foundF(1,76)=.474,p=.493,withan!"of.006.
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Howmuchdidyouenjoythe
story?
Howengagedwiththe
narrativedidyoufeel?
HowmuchdidyoulikethemaincharacterofDeath?
Howimmersedinthestorydid
youfeel?
Howinterestedareyoutofindoutwhat
happensnext?
Howmuchdidyoulikethe
characteroftheman?
LikertScale
Questions
Averages
High Medium Low None
27
Asimplelinearregressionwascalculatedtopredicthowengagedwiththe
narrativeparticipantswerebasedonthecondition.Anon-significantregression
equationwasfoundF(1,76)=.014,p=.905,withan!"of.000.
Asimplelinearregressionwascalculatedtopredicthowmuchparticipants
likedthemaincharacterofDeathbasedonthecondition.Anon-significant
regressionequationwasfoundF(1,76)=1.394,p=.241,withan!"of.018.
Asimplelinearregressionwascalculatedtopredicthowimmersedinthe
storyparticipantswerebasedonthecondition.Anon-significantregression
equationwasfoundF(1,76)=.921,p=.34,withan!"of.012.
Asimplelinearregressionwascalculatedtopredicthowmuchparticipants
wereinterestedtoknowwhathappensnextbasedonthecondition.Anon-
significantregressionequationwasfoundF(1,76)=.015,p=.903,withan!"of
.014.
Asimplelinearregressionwascalculatedtopredicthowmuchparticipants
likedthecharacterofthemanbasedonthecondition.Anon-significantregression
equationwasfoundF(1,76)=.352,p=.555,withan!"of.005.
Wealsoconductedaregressiontoattempttoinvestigatetheparticipants’
perceptionsandlikingofthecharacterofDeathasopposedtothecharacterofthe
man.Todoso,wefirsthadtocreateanewvariablebysubtractingtheparticipants’
scoresforQuestion3(HowmuchdidyoulikethemaincharacterofDeath)from
theirscoresforQuestion6(Howmuchdidyoulikethecharacteroftheman),to
createavariablewelabeled“Difference”.Wethencalculatedasimplelinear
28
regressiontopredictDifferencebasedonthecondition.Anon-significantregression
equationwasfoundF(1,76)=2.851,p=.095,withan!"of.036.
Thisfinding,thoughnon-significant,seemedworthyoffurtherinvestigation,
andsoweconductedpost-hoct-teststoexploretherelationshipbetweenthesetwo
variables,andfoundthattherewasasignificantdifferencebetweenthescoresfor
howmuchparticipantslikedthecharacterofDeath(M=5.24,SD=1.88)versusthe
characteroftheman(M=3.71,SD=1.64)intheHighcondition;t(32)=2.621,p=
.013.Inallotherconditionsforthesevariables,thefindingswerenon-significant.
Discussion
Thoughthefindingsofthisstudyarenon-significant,therearestillplentyof
conclusionstobedrawnfromit.Theonesignificantfinding,thatintheHigh
conditionpeoplelikedDeathsignificantlymorethantheman,seemstosuggestthat
breakingthefourthwallmakesacharactermorelikeable.Weacknowledgethatthis
isaseeminglylargeclaimtomakefromsuchasmallconnection,butlookingatthe
averagesinFigure1,theaveragelikingofDeathincreasedwitheachadditionof
fourthwallbreakages,seemingtoimplythesame.Additionally,thoughthe
regressionlookingatthedifferencebetweenpeople’slikingsofDeathandofthe
manwasnon-significant,itwasnearlysignificant.Perhapsifrunwithmore
participants,thiseffectwouldhavebecomeclearerandbecomesignificant.Ifthis
weretrue,itwouldseemtosuggestthatwhilefourthwallbreakagesdon’t
necessarilyguaranteemoreenjoymentorengagement,wetendtolikecharacters
whobreakthefourthwallbetterthanthosewhodon’twhentheyexistinthesame
29
narrative.Itmaybethatthisimbalanceiscausedbythefactthatwearemore
readilyabletoconnectemotionallyandintellectuallywithacharacterthat
acknowledgesusandthatseemstoknowmoreaboutwhat’sgoingonthana
characterwhodoesn’t.Thiswouldsuggestthatbreakingthefourthwallismoreofa
charactertraitthananelementofanentirenarrative.Andwhenwelookbackatthe
examplespresentedabove,weseemtofindsomeinformal,anecdotalevidencefor
this.AsInoted,Deadpoolisinfamousforbreakingthefourthwall–it’sverymucha
partofthecharacter,andbecauseofthathisstoriesarefilledwithmetareferences.
ThesamecouldbesaidforJiminTheOffice–whileeveryoneisinterviewed,Jimis
particularlynotoriousforhislookstothecameraandinteractingwiththe
“audience”incomedicways,andit’sverymuchanexpressionofhischaracter.
Anexplanationforwhythischaractertraitmayleadtoincreasedlikingin
comparisontoothercharacterswithinthenarrativeisthatbreakingthefourthwall
manytimesseemstoconveyacompetency,oraknowledgeorwisdomofsomekind.
WecanseethisbothinShakespeare’sexampleaswellasinthePercyJackson
excerpt,whobothseemtodisplayasuperiorknowledge.EvenDeadpoolandMel
Brooks’characters,thoughtheyplayverydifferentroles,displaysurprising
knowledge,subvertingourexpectationsandrevealingafargreaterunderstanding
oftheirownworldanditsconnectiontotheaudience’sthanwefirstmightsuppose.
Supportingthis,competencyisatraitthatpeoplelookforwhenmakingsocial
judgments,andthoughtheinteractionsarecomplex,competencyisoftenan
attractivetrait(Judd,2005;Fiske,2007).Whencreatingcharacters,authorsand
playwrightsandotherartistsmaybeabletousethisknowledgetogreatereffect,
30
betterunderstandinghowtocreatelikeablecharacters.Theymayevenbeableto
usethetechniqueofbreakingthefourthwallbetter,astheymaybeableto
understanditseffectsonaudience’sperceptionsofthecharactersbecauseofit.
Futurestudiesinthisfieldshouldseektosolvetheproblemsassociatedwith
thisstudy,whilealsocontinuingtopushattheimplicationswe’vepresented.For
example,duetotheattentioncheck,wewereonlyabletorun~20participantsin
eachcondition.Runningmoreparticipantsmayhavegivenusmorerobustresults,
andstrengthenedtherelationshipsbetweenvariables,aswellasallowedustomake
strongerclaimsaboutthoserelationships.
Futurestudiesshouldalsoseektoexploredifferentwaysofpresenting
narratives.Whilewemadeaconsciousdecisiontopresentafullyformednarrative,
acceptingallofthesemanticandliterarydifficultiesthatmightarisefrom
attemptingtocontroljustonevariableinsuchacomplexwork,thismaynotbethe
onlyoreventhebestwaytostudynarrative.Forexample,it’sdifficulttopinthe
resultsdowntoonespecificelement,nomatterhowcloselyyouattempttokeep
everythingelseconstant,becauseexperiencingstoryis,bynature,incredibly
subjectiveandpersonal.Youcanneverguesswhatsortsofconnotationsand
associationsaparticipantmaybringtothetable,andpresentingafullyformed
complexstoryintermsoflanguage,content,andthememakestheprobabilitythat
thosepersonalfactorswillplayintotheparticipant’sassessmentmuchhigher.
However,presentingasimplernarrative,whetherintermsoflanguage,structure,or
content,seemstoshortchangethecomplexityofexperiencinganarrative,andyou
runtheriskthatwhatyou’retestingisn’tactuallyapplicabletomorecomplex
31
narratives.However,webelievethatit’simportanttoexploreallsortsofmethodsin
ordertobetterunderstandnarrativeinthemind.
Futurestudiesmightalsoseektotestdifferentmediumsofnarrative–for
example,film.MuchoftheworkI’vecitedasexamplesofbreakingthefourthwall
comefromfilmandtelevision,andit’sunclearhowthismightdifferfrombreaking
thefourthwallinwritingoronstage.Additionally,whilethisstudyfocusedondirect
addressfourthwallbreaking,thereare,asmentionedabove,manydifferentwaysto
breakthefourthwall.Differentwaysofbreakingthefourthwallmayhavevery
differenteffectsonaudiences–forexample,simplyreferencingthemediumthe
characterisinmaybeagentlerwaytobreakthefourthwallthandirectaddress,
andsoaudiencesmayfinditlessjarring.
It’sclearthere’sstillalotofworktobedoneinexploringnotonlybreaking
thefourthwall,butintonarrativeinthemindingeneral,butwehopethatthisstudy
willpavethewayforotherstobringtogetherthehumanitiesandcognitivescience,
sothatwemayusebothtofurtherunderstandourstorytellingnature.
32
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Appendices
DirectAddress ChangedVersion1.“Iliketothinkthatafterallthistime,I’maprettygoodjudgeofyouhumans.”
“Iliketothinkthatafterallthistime,I’maprettygoodjudgeofhumans.”
2.“What,youthinkjustcauseI’mDeathdoesn’tmeanIcan’ttrytohavealittlefun?”
“JustbecauseI’mDeathdoesn’tmeanIcan’ttrytohavealittlefun.”
3.“Ishouldexplain;Icanchoosehowtopresentmyselftoyouhumans,butwhenIreverttomynaturalform,you’llinevitablyprojectyourownfearsandimagesontome.Youallassociatefearwiththecessationoflife,andvery,veryfewcanbeartoacknowledgemedirectly.Completelyunwarranted,ofcourse,andalittlebithurtful,truthbetold,buthey!that’shumanityforyou.”
“Icanchoosehowtopresentmyselftohumans,butwhenIreverttomynaturalform,they’llinevitablyprojecttheirownfearsandimagesontome.Theyallassociatefearwiththecessationoflife,andvery,veryfewcanbeartoacknowledgemedirectly.Completelyunwarranted,ofcourse,andalittlebithurtful,truthbetold,buthey!that’shumanityinanutshell.”
4.“Iknowwhatyou’rethinking–‘Ifhumanswilljustprojectwhattheyfearontoyournaturalform,whybotherpresentinganythingelse?’Well,firstofall,don’tfeelbadaboutyourignorance–you’reonlyhuman,afterall.Secondofall,overtheeonsI’velearnedthatappearinginwhatevermythologicalformyouhumansaremostlikelytounderstandleadstofewerquestions,andalotlesswastedtime.Thirdofall,andmostimportantly,it’swaymorefun–hencethewhole“scythe-wieldingskeletoncoveredbyapitch-blackcloak”shtickforthisguy.Forawhilethough,I’dregularlyappearedasCharon,theGreekferrymanacrosstheriverStyx,andbeforethat,thejackalheadedAnubishadmadeeventhepharaohspeetheirtunics,justtonameafewoftheclassics.Hey,letsstickyouinadead-endjobforafewbillionyearsandseehowyougoaboutentertainingyourself.”
“I’veoftenaskedmyself,ifhumanswilljustprojectwhattheyfearontomynaturalform,whybotherpresentinganythingelse?Firstofall,overtheeonsI’velearnedthatappearinginwhatevermythologicalformhumansaremostlikelytounderstandleadstofewerquestions,andalotlesswastedtime.Secondofall,andmostimportantly,it’swaymorefun–hencethewhole“scythe-wieldingskeletoncoveredbyapitch-blackcloak”shtickforthisguy.Forawhilethough,I’dregularlyappearedasCharon,theGreekferrymanacrosstheriverStyx,andbeforethat,thejackalheadedAnubishadmadeeventhepharaohspeetheirtunics,justtonameafewoftheclassics.Whenyou’vebeeninadead-endjobforafewbillionyears,you’vegottafindwaystoentertainyourself.”
5.“Lately,I’vebeenfindingthatwhenIdropmyguises,oneofthemorecommonimagesyouhumansprojectontomeissomekindofblandlawyerortaxcollector,whichisundoubtedlywhatthisguywasseeingnow.Makesmewonderaboutwhatexactlyisgoingoninyourworldthesedays.”
“Lately,I’vebeenfindingthatwhenIdropmyguises,oneofthemorecommonimageshumansprojectontomeissomekindofblandlawyerortaxcollector,whichisundoubtedlywhatthisguywasseeingnow.Makesmewonderaboutwhatexactlyisgoingoninthemortalworldthesedays.”
6.“Yousee,youhumanshadgottenitwrong “Humanshavegottenitwrongformillennia.
37
formillennia.Itisn’tpreciousmetalsorgemsburiedwiththedeceasedthatbuyyourwaythroughtotheafterlife,orwhateveryoucaretobelievecomesnext.It’stheirstories,yourstories.WhatusecouldIpossiblyhaveforearthlytrinkets?Yourexperiences,yourmemories,arewhatIcollect.”
Itisn’tpreciousmetalsorgemsburiedwiththedeceasedthatbuytheirwaythroughtotheafterlife,orwhatevertheycaretobelievecomesnext.It’stheirstories.WhatusecouldIpossiblyhaveforearthlytrinkets?Theirexperiences,theirmemories,arewhatIcollect.”
7.“Youhumansareallthesame–norespectforthejob.”
“Humansareallthesame–norespectforthejob.”
8.“Youhumansneverlearn.” “Humansneverlearn.”Figure2:Addressesinthestory,inchronologicalorder.Changesbetweenthevariousversionshavebeenbolded.
Figure3:Thesurveyquestionsparticipantswerepresentedwithandaskedtofillout.
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Figure4:Theattentioncheckadministeredafterthesurveyquestions.
39
Theshortstory,Highcondition:
Death
Ifeltthefamiliartuggingsensationthatsignaledanappointmenttakehold.Iresistedforamoment,relishingthesharppainthatflashedacrossmyconsciousness,beforegivinginandallowingmyselftobedrawnintothemortalworld.InthesplitsecondbeforeImaterializedfully,IgotalookattheguyIwascomingtoaccompany.Iliketothinkthatafterallthistime,I’maprettygoodjudgeofyouhumans.
Hecarriedthelookofamanpasthisprime,amanwhohadoncebeen
relativelyhandsomebutnowwasweigheddownbyadullofficejobandafamilythatconstantlyneededattending;amanwithdreamslongsinceputasideandforgotten.Hewasstartingtobald,andhisgutbulgedunderhisshirt.HestruggledfearfullytohisfeetasIapproached,takingshape. “What….what’re…who’reyou?”
IwaffledbetweenthedifferentspeechesIcouldgive,butIdecidedtogowithaclassic.BythistimeI’dgiventhesamespielsomanytimesIbarelyevenhadtothinkaboutit,buthonestly,Ishouldbeawardedformyperformances.I’dgonewiththeGrimReapertoday.Myvoiceboomed,andImademyselfgrowalittletaller,thoughItoweredoverhimalready.AgrinningskullemergedfromthecloudofdarknessI’dcreated,andacloaksettledaroundit.Arazorsharpscytheappearedinmybonyhands,andthoughIspoke,theskulldidn’tmove.
“AcrossthemillenniaIhavebeenworshippedasagod;Ihavebeenknownbythousandsofnames,fromAnkouoftheancientBretons,toMictlantecuhtlioftheAztecs,totheunspokennamesgiventomebyeverycreaturesincethebeginningoftime;inyourlanguage,IamknownsimplyasDeath–“Ipausedfordramaticeffect-“thereaperofsouls.”Andnowclosewithathunderclap.Nice.Thatshoulddoit.
Hejumpedaboutamile,andhisruddyfacedrainedofwhatlittlecolortherehadbeen.Theaircrackledaroundusasthethunderfaded.What,youthinkjustcauseI’mDeathdoesn’tmeanIcan’ttrytohavealittlefun?
“I–I’m….dead?”
Thehorrorshowedonhisfaceashelookedupatme.Geez,thisguywasasap.Atleasthe’dgraspedtheconceptprettyquickly.Someofthemdidn’trealizetheyweredeadfordays,orevenweeks.Sometookyearstocometotermswithit.
Iclappedmyhandstogether,affectingamuchbriskertone.
40
“That’sright!YourtimeonEarthhasended,andnowyoumustcomewithme.”
“Ican’tbedead.There’snoway!Ihaveadinnerdatewith–Jeanine!Ohcrap,she’sgonnakillmeifIbailagain!”Hebeganfranticallycheckinghispockets,undoubtedlylookingforhisphone.
Theironyofthisstatementmadeaslightwhistlingsoundasitflewrightoverhishead,butIdecidedtoletitslide.IslowlyletthefrighteningappearanceI’dtakenonfadeaway,thedarknesscontractingintoanewform.
“Youdon’tevenlooklikeDeathanymore!Whathappenedtothewholegrinningskull,blackcloakedguyholdingascythe?”
Ishouldexplain;Icanchoosehowtopresentmyselftoyouhumans,butwhenIreverttomynaturalform,you’llinevitablyprojectyourownfearsandimagesontome.Youallassociatefearwiththecessationoflife,andvery,veryfewcanbeartoacknowledgemedirectly.Completelyunwarranted,ofcourse,andalittlebithurtful,truthbetold,buthey!that’shumanityforyou.
Helookedalmostindignantnow,asifIwasn’tprovidingthedeath
experiencehe’dalwaysdreamedofasachild.Iwonderedifherealizedhowsillyhesounded.Idoubtedit.
Iknowwhatyou’rethinking–“Ifhumanswilljustprojectwhattheyfear
ontoyournaturalform,whybotherpresentinganythingelse?”Well,firstofall,don’tfeelbadaboutyourignorance–you’reonlyhuman,afterall.Secondofall,overtheeonsI’velearnedthatappearinginwhatevermythologicalformyouhumansaremostlikelytounderstandleadstofewerquestions,andalotlesswastedtime.Thirdofall,andmostimportantly,it’swaymorefun–hencethewhole“scythe-wieldingskeletoncoveredbyapitch-blackcloak”shtickforthisguy.Forawhilethough,I’dregularlyappearedasCharon,theGreekferrymanacrosstheriverStyx,andbeforethat,thejackalheadedAnubishadmadeeventhepharaohspeetheirtunics,justtonameafewoftheclassics.Hey,letsstickyouinadead-endjobforafewbillionyearsandseehowyougoaboutentertainingyourself.
Ilookeddownatmyself,butIcouldn’tseewhathewasseeing.Whateverhe
wasprojecting,itwasbasedonhispersonalfears,andhedidn’tevenrealizehewasdoingit.Itwaseasyenoughtoguessatthough.
Lately,I’vebeenfindingthatwhenIdropmyguises,oneofthemore
commonimagesyouhumansprojectontomeissomekindofblandlawyerortaxcollector,whichisundoubtedlywhatthisguywasseeingnow.Makesmewonderaboutwhatexactlyisgoingoninyourworldthesedays.
41
“Thatwastheoldmodel;wejustupgradedrecently,andupuntilnowweweregettinggreatreviewsfromourcustomers.”
Ismiledniceandwide,buthejuststaredatme,strugglingtocomprehend.
“Alright,look,”Isaid,droppingthesmile,“What’sthelastthingyourememberdoing?”
“Um…Igotup,wenttoworklikenormalthismorning–wentouttolunchwithsomecoworkers–Ihadtoworklate,butIwashoppinginthecartoheadhome,andthen…Idon’tremember.ButIfeelfine!”
“Haveyoulookedaround?”
ForthefirsttimesinceIhadappeared,hetookhiseyesoffofmeandglancedaround.
“Mycar!”
Nottwentyyardsawayfromtheroadwas,presumably,hisSubaru,sittingcrumpledandforlorn.Itappearedtohaverolledseveraltimesbeforeslammingintoalargeevergreen.Thedeployedwhiteairbagwasvisiblefromwherewestood.
“What…whathappened?”
“Could’vebeenanothercar,butthere’snooneelsehere.”
Itwastrue.Thereweren’tevenanycarsontheroad.
“Somekindofdeercould’vejumpedoutandspookedyou.”Ishrugged.“Maybeyoufellasleepatthewheel.Could’vebeenanynumberofthings,really.I’devensayyoumighthavedoneitonpurpose,ifnotforthedumbasslookonyourface.”Iinspectedmynails.
Heslowlytrampedthroughthegrassdowntothewreck.Ifollowedatadistance.Hestoppedatthedriver’ssidewindowandstareddownathisstillbody.Blooddrippedquietlyfromawoundinhishead.
“I…”Heclearedhisthroat.“Igotthiscarin,uh,’04.TradedintheDodge,anddroveoffinthis.Igotitforthekids,y’know?Thewifewantedsafety,anditwassupposedtobeoneofthesafestcarsontheroad.”
Thereitwas.Thatlittletidbitwasjustenoughtogivemeaglimpseintohislife,andtopayhiswaythrough.Yousee,youhumanshadgottenitwrongformillennia.Itisn’tpreciousmetalsorgemsburiedwiththedeceasedthatbuyyourwaythroughtotheafterlife,orwhateveryoucaretobelievecomesnext.It’stheir
42
stories,yourstories.WhatusecouldIpossiblyhaveforearthlytrinkets?Yourexperiences,yourmemories,arewhatIcollect.
Thatsmallsharedstorywasenoughformetogetmyfootinthedoor,soto
speak,andallowedhismemoriestosurgeoutofhim.Theyseemedtoseepoutofhispores,multicoloredwispsofsmokethatwereconstantlyshiftinginbothcolorandshape.Touchingthemwouldsendmeintoawhirlwindofallhismemories,emotions,dreams,thoughts,fears,andexperiences,allinthespaceoftimeitwouldtakethisguytoblink.Icarefullycollectedandstoredeachandeverywispwithoutindulgingmyself,thoughtheguyremainedignorantofit.It’sthedealwemademillenniaago;Hewouldbethetellerofstories,andIwouldbethekeeper.Isometimeswonderifthedealwastrulyasfairasithadseemed.ButthenmaybeHewonderedthesame.
Thesilencestretchedashetookinthesceneofhisdeath.
“How‘boutnow?Believemeyet?”
“Yeah.YeahIbelieveyou.”Hewassignificantlyquieternow.
“Well,comeonthen.Timetogo.”Youhumansareallthesame–norespectforthejob.Iwashopinghe’dbealittlemorecompliantnowthathe’dseenhisowncorpse,butnosuchluck.
“Go…where?”
“DisneyWorld.”
Completelynonplussed,hestaredatmeasIkeptastraightface.
Isighed,niceandloud,tolethimknowthatmakingfunofhimwasgettingold.
“Onwards.You’regoingon.”
He’dalreadyopenedhismouthtoaskthenextquestion,butIcuthimoff.
“Anddon’tbotherasking,‘causeIcan’ttellyou.”
Heshuthismouth,thenopeneditagain,andpleadedinachildlikevoice,“But…Idon’twannago.”Youhumansneverlearn.“Listenpal,everybodydies.”
43
Ipausedtoletthatsinkin.“Anyotherpointlessthoughts?Questions?No?Excellent!Let’sgo.”
Iturnedandwalkedaway.Afteramoment,hefollowed,andour
surroundingsbegantomeltaway.It’sabouttime.Afterall,I’vegotascheduletokeep.