Brain for Web

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The Brains Inner Workings

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Complexity of the BrainImaging the Brain

NIMH Research on the Brain and Mental Illness


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Brain TriviaBrain Trivia

The adult

brain

weighs

about 3

pounds.

The average

number of

neurons in

the brain =

100 billion.

The average number of glial cells in the

brain = 10-50 times the number of neurons.

A newborn

babys brain isas soft and gooey

as tapioca

pudding!


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one hundred trillion synapses

in a single human brain

organized into exquisitely complex circuits

responding to experience, drugs,

disease, and injury

Complexity of the Brain


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As befits the 3-pound organ of the

mind, the human brain is the most

complex structure ever investigated

by our science.


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The brain contains approximately 100 billion nerve cells, or

neurons, and 10 50 times more supporting cells, or glia.


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The workings of the brain depend on the

ability of nerve cells to communicate witheach other. Communication occurs at

small, specialized structures called

synapses.


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Nerve CellNerve Cell

CommunicationCommunication

Synapse


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The synapse typically has two parts:

A presynaptic

structure containing

packets of signalingchemicals, or

neurotransmitters

and a

postsynaptic

structure on the

dendrites of the

receiving neuron

that has receptorsfor the

neurotransmitter

molecules.



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One of the most awe-inspiring

mysteries of brain science is howneuronal activity within circuits

gives rise to behavior, and even

consciousness

Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General



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The Cerebral HemispheresThe brain consists of two hemispheres.

The Left Hemisphere of the Brain:

The left hemisphere processes information sequentially and is

described as analytical because it specializes in recognizingparts which make a whole. Although it is most efficient at

processing verbal information, language should not be

considered as being 'in' the left hemisphere. This hemisphere

is able to recognize that one stimulus comes before another

and verbal perception and generation depends on theawareness of the sequence in which sounds occur.


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The Cerebral HemispheresThe brain consists of two hemispheres.

The Right Hemisphere:

While the left hemisphere separates out parts that make a

whole, the right hemisphere specializes in combining theparts to produce a whole. Unlike the left, the right

hemisphere organizes simultaneously. It specializes in a

method that perceives and constructs patterns. It is most

efficient at visual and spatial processing and it is thought

that non verbal stimuli are processed primarily in the right

hemisphere. Research into the operation of the right and

left hemispheres shows that the effective processing of

information requires access to both as they complement

each other.


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It is useful to think of the brain as containing six or

seven component parts. The largest and most advanced

part consists of the left and right cerebral hemispheres,

which appear to be more or less symmetrical. They are

covered with a layer of gray matter called the cerebralcortex. Each of the cerebral hemispheres has

traditionally been divided into four "lobes," which are

named after the bones of the skull that surround them:

frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal.


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The entire outer surface of the brain is called the cortex, with the forebrainarea called the frontal cortex. Those brain structures lying underneath the

cortex are termed subcortical.

Two sites of great interest in current brain research are the left frontal

cortex and the left temporal subcortical areas, both of which are linkedto key parts of the basal ganglia and the limbic system within the brain.

In research language, these are the cortico-limbic and tempero-limbic

circuits in the brain.


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The frontal lobe is the largest and least understood, beginning at

the front of the brain and reaching back to the central sulcus. The

area between the central and precentral sulci helps control body

movements and is called the "motor area," while the remainder ofthe frontal lobe probably modulates various aspects of thinking,

feeling, imagining, and making decisions.


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The Frontal Cortex is the highest and most complex integration center

in the human brain; the essential function area for "volition," i.e.,planning and carrying out meaningful, goal directed activities. Lesions

in the left frontal cortex create deficits in attention, abstract thinking,

foresight, mature judgment, integration of thought and perception,

reality testing, initiative, and perseverance and induce a state of

pseudo-depression characterized by apathy, lack of motivation,withdrawal, and loss of sexual interest. Lesions in the right lobe have a

disinhibiting effect, revealed in wide mood swings, immature behavior,

irresponsibility, inappropriate sexual behavior and/or hypersexuality.


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The parietal lobe is the region behind the central sulcus. Part of it

is called the "somatosensory area," since it receives information

about various bodily sensations; the parietal lobe also modulates

such activities as spatial orientation. The occipital lobe recieves

and sends out visual information. The temporal lobetemporal lobe is perhaps the

most conspicuous lobe of the brain since it juts out from the rest

and is demarcated by the very deep Sylvan fissure. The temporal

lobe receives auditory information and controls memory and

language.


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The specific connectivity of circuits is, to

some degree, set in expected patterns within

the brain, leading to the notion that certainplaces in the brain are specialized for

certain functions.



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Occipital Lobe:Visual Processing

Parietal Lobe: Processing of Tactile InformationFrontal Lobe:

Motor Behavior

Prefrontal

Cortex: Ability

o plan &integrate

cognitive and

emotional

information


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Mapping the Mind

Personality traits from shyness to impulsiveness,

scientists believe, are produced by particular

brain molecules acting on specific brain structures.Through brain mapping and biochemistry,

researchers have identified some of them.


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Subcortical Structures of the

Limbic System

These brain areas are closely connected in

structure and function. Pathology in

schizophrenia and other major mental illnesses

is thought to lie somewhere in the complex

interconnections in the limbic system.


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Mental DisordersMental Disorders

Mental disorders are characterized by abnormalities in

cognition, emotion (or mood), or behavior, such as social

interactions or planning of future activities. Symptoms

related to behavior or our mental lives clearly reflect

abnormalities in brain function.


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One of the major areas in which

molecular genetics will play an

important role in the future is in

complex disorders like schizophrenia

and depression. The figure showsareas of increased blood flow (red

hotspots) in the left amygdala and

the medial orbital cortex of a person

with familial (inherited tendencies to)

major depressive disorder.

Viewing Disorders in ActionViewing Disorders in Action


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Magnetic resonance imaging

provides a high resolution

image of the brain's internal

structure. The scanner contains

a large magnet that induces

different chemical elements to

emit distinctive radio signals.The signal data is translated into 2-D pictures of the brain,

slice by slice. These data can also be combined to create 3-D

views. MRI is an important tool in studies of mental illnesses

that may involve structural changes, such as schizophreniaand ADHD.

MRI

Functional Magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) is a powerful tool for

studying the ever-changing activity of the brain on a moment to

moment basis. Once limited to visualizing structures, MRI has

become the leading technology for examining the living brain atwork.


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PETPositron Emission Tomography is a

brain imaging technique that uses aradioactive tracer to show chemical

activity of the brain. The PET scanner

pinpoints the destination of radioactively

tagged glucose, oxygen, or drugs to

reveal the parts of the brain involved in

performing an experimental task.

PET allows us to look at brain functions by measuring levels

of energy - or activity - in specific areas of the brain. PET

scans generate pictures of the working brain, providing maps

of emotions, learning, vision, and memory. Identifying thesebrain functions is key in developing new ways to diagnose

and treat schizophrenia and other mental disorders.


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The scan on the left was taken when shewas on no medications and very

depressed. The scan on the right was

taken several months later when she was

well, after medication had treated her

depression. Note that her entire brain ismore active when well, particularly the

left prefrontal cortex.

This image shows different PET scans of a forty-five-year-

old woman with recurrent depression.

Identifying brain activity associated with depression andthe changes that result from treatment and the patient's

improved mood will help to destigmatize the illness, a

disease of the brain.


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DepressionDepressionOne man in ten and one woman in five will have a serious depression

in their lives, usually before they are 40 years old.

Bipolar disorder (manic-depression) occurs in 1.2% of thepopulation. The majority of individuals with this illness report having

symptoms during their adolescence.

Suicide is a very high risk for this population. Tragically, 15% ofthose individuals suffering from recurrent depressive disorders kill

themselves. This is a suicide rate 30 times greater than that of the

general population.

Most people with depression can be helped with treatment. But a

majority of depressed people never get the help they need. And

when depression isnt treated, it can get worse, last longer, and

prevent you from getting the most out of life.

The Invisible Disease


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Depression is

believed to

result from a

chemical

imbalance in the

brain.

Antidepressant

drug therapy

may help

restore that

chemicalbalance and

relieve

depression .

DepressionDepression


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You should get evaluated by a

professional if youve had five or more

of the following symptoms for more

than 2 weeks or if any of thesesymptoms cause such a big change that

you cant keep up your usual routine

1. You feel sad or cry a lot and it doesnt go away.

2. You feel guilty for no reason; you feel like youre no good; youve lost

your confidence.

3. Life seems meaningless or like nothing good is ever going to

happen again. You have a negative attitude a lot of the time,

or it seems like you have no feelings.

4. You dont feel like doing a lot of the things you used

to enjoy - and you want to be left alone most of the time.

5. Its hard to make up your mind. You forget lots

of things, and its hard to concentrate.


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You should get evaluated by a

professional if youve had five or more

of the following symptoms for more

than 2 weeks or if any of thesesymptoms cause such a big change that

you cant keep up your usual routine

6. You get irritated often. Little things make you lose your temper; you over-react.

7. Your sleep pattern changes; you start sleeping a lot more or you have

trouble falling asleep at night. Or you wake up really early most mornings

and cant get back to sleep.

8. Your eating pattern changes; youve lost your appetite or you eat

a lot more.

9. You feel restless and tired most of the time.

10. You think about death, or feel like youre dying, or have

thoughts about committing suicide.


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If Youre Manic

1. Youre rebellious or irritable and cant get along at home, school, work,

or with your friends.

2. You feel high as a kitelike youre on top of the world.

3. You get unreal ideas about the great things you can do.

4. Thoughts go racing through your head, you jump from one

subject to another, and you talk a lot.

5. Youre a non-stop party, constantly running around.6. You do too many wild or risky things; with

driving, with spending money, with sex, etc.

7. Youre so up that you dont need much sleep.

Some of these sound like you -


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SchizophreniaSchizophrenia

These are MRI scans of identical twins. The twin on the right has

schizophrenia; the twin on the left is healthy. Even to theunprofessional eye, there are obvious differences, a systematic

and consistent variation between the affected and the unaffected

twin in the gross anatomy of the brain. (Note enlarged ventricles

in the twin affected with schizophrenia)

Source: E. Fuller Torrey, M.D., Daniel R. Weinberger, M.D.


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Schizophrenia, in many ways, is the most severe of the

mental illnesses. One in every one hundred Americans has

schizophrenia. This disease, once thought to be

psychological, is clearly a brain disease. Throughout theworld, whether in Washington or New York City or in

rural Kenya, the rate of schizophrenia is still the same: one

percent of the population. Schizophrenia is a brain disease

in which vulnerability is caused by genes; something

happens during brain development that converts this

genetic vulnerability into disease. Exactly what happens is

the subject of neuroscientific research.


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In some ways, schizophrenia is like other diseases.

People who develop diabetes or heart disease have

a genetic vulnerability, and then external

circumstances convert this vulnerability intodisease. Rather than being unusual and mysterious

entities, mental illnesses are real diseases of an

organ - in this case, the brain.


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Schizophrenia is particularly tragic because its

onset usually occurs in the late teens or early 20s,

just when families, society, and educational

institutions have already put their full effort into

launching a person into the world. Tragically,

then, we lose them, often to chronic and persistent

hallucinations and delusions, fixed false beliefsabout the world, and an inability to live up to

their potential; often they withdraw from society

and lose their ability to cope with everyday life.


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Many of the symptoms of

schizophrenia are believed to be

caused by excess dopamine. Reduced

glutamate transmission which blocks

the NMDA restraining action causing

limbic structures to release more and

more dopamine could be the ultimate

cause.

Step On A Crack-


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About 2.3% of the U.S. population ages 18-54

(approximately 3.3 million) has obsessive-compulsive

disorder in a given year.

People with OCD suffer intensely from recurrent, unwanted thoughts

(obsessions) or rituals (compulsions), which they feel they cannot control.

Rituals, such as handwashing, counting, checking, or cleaning are often

performed in hope of preventing obsessive thoughts or making them go away.

Performing these rituals, however, provides only temporary relief, and notperforming them markedly increases anxiety. Left untreated, obsessions and

the need to perform rituals can take over a persons life. OCD is often a chronic,

relapsing illness.

OCD affects men and women equally.

OCD typically begins during adolescence or early childhood;

at least one-third of the cases of adult OCD began in childhood.

OCD cost the U.S. $8.4 billion in 1990 in social and economic

losses, nearly 6% of the total mental health bill of $148 billion.

OCDOCD

Step On A Crack


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Persons with OCD use

different brain circuitry in

performing a cognitive task

than people without the

disorder.

Rauch SL, et al. J Neuropsychiatry

Clin Neurosci, 1997: 9:568-573.

There is growing evidence that OCD has a neurobiological basis. Thesearch for causes now focuses on the interaction of neurobiological

factors and environmental influences. Brain imaging studies using PET

scans have compared people with and without OCD. Those with OCD

have patterns of brain activity that differ from people with other

mental illnesses or people with no mental illness at all. PET scans alsoshow that both behavioral therapy and medication produce changes in

the caudate nucleus.

This is graphic evidence that both psychotherapy and medication affect

the brain.


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This presentation produced by

Velma Beale, Ohio NIMH Outreach Coordinator, NAMI Ohio,

with materials from:

Mental Health: A Report of the Surgeon General;

the NIMH websiteand publications;and the

NAMI Family-to-Family education course.

For FurtherFor Further


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Visit these websites:

http://www.nami.org

http://www.nimh.nih.gov http://www.namiohio.com

E-mail

Ohio NIMH Outreach Coordinator: [email protected]

NAMI Ohio: [email protected]

NIMH: [email protected]

Or call

the Ohio NIMH Outreach Coordinator: 740-599-5266

NAMI Ohio: 614-444-AMIO

NAMI Ohio hotline (in Ohio): 1-800-686-AMIO

For FurtherFor Further

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