Book: Transnational Research on Decentralization in West ... · Réseau Ouest et Centre Africain de Recherche en Education Educational Research Network for West And Central Africa

Réseau Ouest et Centre Africain de Recherche en Education

Educational Research Network for West And Central Africa

TransnaTional research DecenTralizaTion in WesT anD cenTral africa: learning from

local anD inTersecTor lessons --eDucaTion, WaTer, healTh--

RecheRche tRansnationale

DéCENtRAlisAtioN EN AfRiquE DE l’ouEst Et Du CENtRE : AppRENDRE DEs ExpéRiENCEs loCAlEs Et

iNtERsECtoRiEllEs --EDuCAtioN, EAu, sANté--

Summary Report of Case Studies : Dr Laouli MALAM MOUSSA Dr Ernest K. ILBOUDO

November 2012

ROCARE / ERNWACA • Tel: (223) 221 16 12 • Fax: (223) 221 21 15 • BP E 1854, Bamako, MALI

Benin • Burkina Faso • Cameroon • Côte d’Ivoire • Gambia • Ghana • Guinea • Mali • Mauritania • Nigeria • Niger • Senegal • Sierra Leone • Togo

www.rocare.org

TransnaTional research DecenTralizaTion in WesT anD cenTral africa: learning from

local anD inTersecTor lessons --eDucaTion, WaTer, healTh--


DéCENtRAlisAtioN EN AfRiquE DE l’ouEst Et Du CENtRE : AppRENDRE DEs ExpéRiENCEs loCAlEs Et

iNtERsECtoRiEllEs --EDuCAtioN, EAu, sANté--

Summary Report of Case Studies : Dr Laouli MALAM MOUSSA Dr Ernest K. ILBOUDO

November 2012

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TransnaTional research DecenTralizaTion in WesT anD cenTral africa: learning from local anD inTersecTor lessons

--eDucaTion, WaTer, healTh--


DéCENtRAlisAtioN EN AfRiquE DE l’ouEst Et Du CENtRE : AppRENDRE DEs ExpéRiENCEs loCAlEs Et iNtERsECtoRiEllEs

--EDuCAtioN, EAu, sANté--

Mise en page : Editions Universitaires de Côte d’Ivoire (EDUCI)Université de Cocody-Abidjan. www.univ-cocody.ci/educi. BP V 34 Abidjan 01

Version françaiseDépot Légal N° 10045 du 14 juin 2012, 2è trimestre 2012ISBN : 978-2-35565-026-0 EAN : 9782355650260

Version anglaiseDépot Légal N° 10307 du 07 décembre 2012, 4è trimestre 2012

ISBN : 978-2-35565-029-1 EAN : 9782355650291

© ROCARE/EDUCI Tout droit de reproduction réservé pour tous les pays

pay attention, photocopy is not good for books and authors. Avoid it!

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conTenTs

Acronyms and Abbreviations.............................................7 Lists of Tables and Graphs..............................................10 Executive Summary.........................................................13 I. INTRODUCTION..........................................................19

1.1. The Problem........................................................20 1.2. Research Purpose, Objectives, and Questions...21 1.3. Justification.........................................................241.4. Expected Results................................................26

II. CONTEXT....................................................................26 2.1. Geographic and Human Context of the Study.....28 2.2. Economic Data on the Countries........................282.3. Political Context..................................................30

III. LITERATURE REVIEW..............................................33 3.1. Definition of Concepts.........................................33 3.2. Intervention Philosophy and Motivations.............37 3.3. Decentralization Plans and Powers Transferred.423.4. Legal Frameworks of Decentralization................45 3.5. Sector Policies....................................................493.6. Summary.............................................................53

IV. METHODOLOGY.......................................................554.1. Methodological Framework.................................554.2. Operationalization of the Methodological

Approach............................................................584.3. Methodological Difficulties...................................61

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V. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE STUDY RESULTS...............................................61

5.1. Ghana................................................................615.2. Cameroon...........................................................685.3. Niger....................................................................53 5.4. Mali......................................................................845.5. Senegal.............................................................1035.6. Burkina Faso.....................................................108

VI. FUTURE DEVELOPMENT AND PROSPECTS.......1186.1. Future developments........................................1186.2. Prospects...........................................................119

VII. GENERAL CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS..................................120

7.1. General Conclusion............................................120 7.2. Recommendations.............................................122

BIBLIOGRAPHY...........................................................123REPORT : THE CASE OF GHANA..............................125

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acronyms anD abbreviaTions ADEA : Association for the Development of Education in AfricaAME : Associations des Mères ÉducatricesANICT : National Local Authorities Investment AgencyAOF : French West AfricaASACO: Community Health AssociationAUE : Water Users’ AssociationCAC : Council Additional TaxCC : Council COGESCECI : Centre for International Studies and CooperationCED : Development Education CentreCFA : African Franc CommunityCGE : Water Management CommitteeCIDA : Canadian International Development Agency CNEA : National Water and Sanitation Committee COFO : Land CommitteeCOGES/ES : Secondary School Management CommitteeCOGES : School Management CommitteeCOSAN : Health Committee CSCOM: Community Health Centre CSI : Integrated Health Centre CSO: Civil Society OrganizationDRSP : Regional Directorate of Public HealthDWS : Drinking Water SupplyERNWACA : Educational Research Network for West

and Central AfricaFAO : Food and Agriculture OrganizationFEICOM : Special Council Support Fund for Mutual AssistanceFPDCT : Permanent Local Authorities Development FundGDP : Gross Domestic ProductGIRE : Integrated Water Management in Niger

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HCCT : High Council for Local AuthoritiesHCME : High Commission for State ModernizationHCRA/D: High Commission for Administrative Reform

and DecentralizationHDI : Human Development IndexIDRC : International Development Research CentreIGA : Income Generating ActivitiesJICA : Japanese International Cooperation Agency LOSEN : Education System Framework Law of Niger MDG : Millennium Development GoalMEB/A : Ministry of Basic Education and LiteracyMEF : Ministry of the Economy and FinanceMEN : Ministry of National EducationMHE : Ministry of Water Resources and the EnvironmentNA : National AssemblyNC : National CoordinationNGO : Non-Governmental OrganizationPADENF : Support Project for the Development

of Non-Formal Education PADLOS : Support Programme for Local Development in the Sahel PCDHRU : Council Plan for Rural and Urban Water DevelopmentPDDE : Ten-Year Education Development Programme PDECOM : Community Economic Development Plan PDS : Health Development PlanPDSC : Council Health Development PlanPNE-Niger : National Water Partnership in NigerPRM : Presidency of the Republic of Mali PRN : Presidency of the Republic of Niger PRS : Poverty Reduction StrategyPSPV : Special Food Production Programme

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PTA : Parent Teacher AssociationRC : Regional CoordinationRGP/H : General Population and Housing Census SEEN : Niger Water Supply Corporation SOUTEBA : Basic Education SupportSPEN : Niger Water Resources Corporation SPSS : Statistical Package for Social Sciences SR : No ResponseTFP : Technical and Financial PartnerUGE : Water Management UnitUNDP : United Nations Development ProgrammeUNICEF : United Nations Children’s FundUS : United States

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lisT of Tables

Table 1: Population and Administrative Systems of the Countries ....................................................28

Table 2: Key Economic Indicators........................................30

Table 3: Level of Decentralization in nine ERNWACA Member Countries.................................................32

Table 4: Methodological Framework at a Glance.................56

Table 5: Decentralization Status and Selection of Survey Sites ......................................................60

Table 6: Answers to the Eight Questions in Ghana..............62

Table 7: Answers to the Eight Questions in Cameroon........68

Table 8: 2008 Budget of Councils visited in Niger................81

Table 9: Actors met in Mali ..................................................84

Table 10: Motivations of Actors Surveyed in Mali.................86

Table 11: Participation Methods in Mali................................88

Table 12: Powers Exercised by Municipal Councils in Mali.................................................................. 93

Table 13: Level of Achievement of Sector Indicators in Mali...................................................................98

Table 14: Answers to the Eight Questions in Senegal........103

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lisT of graphs

Graph 1: Structure of Local Governments in Ghana...............................................................48

Graph 2: Existence of Management Committees in Niger.................................................................74

Graph 3: Participation of the Population in Sites in Niger ................................................................75

Graph 4: Education Profile of Municipal Councilors in Niger .................................................................76

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execuTive summary

Since the collapse of the Berlin Wall in November 1989

and the subsequent ending of the cold war, African countries seem to have rediscovered democracy and rejected the single party system. This democratization goes beyond the multi-party system, takes on a new perspective of governance based on a profound reform of the administration and gives local actors, including civil society, more power in the management of public affairs. The advent of decentralization, to name this new governance, even though announced for decades, became a reality only after the populations revolted, as was the case in Mali with the events of 26 March 1991 or the series of sovereign national conferences, as was the case in Niger from 29 July to mid-October 1991. Out of the five francophone countries covered by the study, only Cameroon and Senegal did not wait for this civil unrest to begin the process of sharing power with local elected officials. Ghana, the only English-speaking country in the group, underwent a specific experience. It showed more rapid and deeper commitment to decentralization.

The purpose of this study conducted by the Educational Research Network for West and Central Africa is to analyze not only administrative decentralization experiences, but also, sector policies for basic social services, in particular water, education and health. The objective is to assess

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the impacts of grassroots democracy on the transfer of powers and resources, and management of social services by community structures. The study focuses on questions concerning social changes brought about by the decentralization process, and the level of synergy of actions generated for more equitable access to basic social services in the sectors concerned.

To that end, the researchers explored the motives of Governments and the effectiveness of transfer of the related powers and resources, especially from the point of view of local actors, and the relations between them and with the central administration. In this connection, special attention was paid to gender and promotion of the emergence of new community leaders, including women.

An eclectic approach has been adopted in this research, combining quantitative and qualitative methods, and including a literature review conducted prior to preparation of survey tools for which an outline was provided to the teams following the workshop organised in January 2009 in Niamey. In each country, the survey was conducted in six municipal councils in two phases, namely data collection and feedback. The second phase was also an opportunity for supplying, where necessary, the data lacking after analysis of the first set. It should be noted that the data collection tools – document analysis grid, observation sheet, questionnaire and interview guides - were tested during pilot surveys to ensure that the interviewers understood the procedure for using the instruments and that they are appropriate.

All the teams used information technology experts and/or statisticians to design the quantitative data entry frameworks, and the data were processed and analyzed using Excel and SPSS software. In some cases, the qualitative data was

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also analyzed with content analysis software. Some of the data was also processed manually, particularly documentary data. The various sets of data were triangulated to compare the opinions of the actors surveyed and verify the reliability of data collected, and this guarantees the quality of the final information. The launching workshop for the study – in Niamey from 13th to 16th January 2009 - and the follow-up workshop in Ouagadougou from 15th to 17th June 2010 - defined the analysis criteria and indicators. All these meetings were preceded by exchanges and discussions between the two lead researchers, who are co-authors of the research project, concerning all the tools, and plans for writing the various reports.

Admittedly, decentralization is not a new initiative in the administrative landscape of the countries covered in this study, since there were experiences of local governance with elected officials during the colonial period, although in only a few urban centres. More particularly, several pre-colonial political entities had administrative systems consisting of a central authority in charge of security and unity of the country, which delegated certain responsibilities to regional authorities. The great empires of the current territories of Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso are well-established historical examples.

However, decentralization in its current form, particularly as regards the delivery of basic social services, is a relatively recent phenomenon, which started in the early 1990s, especially after the La Baule Conference. The wave of demonstrations against totalitarian State systems established at the end of the Cold War and the collapse of single party systems following the sovereign national conferences - Mali, Niger - or armed rebellions - Mali, Niger and Senegal - are the starting points of administrative and statutory

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reforms that have marked the landscape. Elsewhere, governments anticipated the events and made efforts to contain or prevent violent demonstrations. Accordingly, the Constitutions were revised, and implementing texts - laws and decrees – were adopted to establish supervisory organs for the emerging communities – High Council for Local Authorities, National Decentralization Committee, or Commissions for State Modernization.

However, it should be noted that adopting texts does not always mean effective transfer of powers, much less assuming them by elected organs in the community. The main obstacles are the retention of financial and human resources at central level, as well as inadequate training of local actors. Indeed, local actors do not have the appropriate skills or experience to plan, implement and evaluate local development actions. Over time, improvements have been recorded, particularly in Ghana, which is an atypical example when compared to the other five countries. Out of these countries, Mali and Senegal seem to have made the greatest efforts to finance the decentralized authorities.

In addition to the difficulties created by the Government systems, mention should be made of the flaws inherent in the context within which the process emerged. Indeed, in almost all cases, the demonstrations that forced decentralization into the agendas of political leaders were due to the frustration of citizens, who were tired of paying taxes without receiving anything in return. The result was tax evasion due to skepticism about the credibility of national, and even local, politicians. Against this backdrop, it is easy to understand the low execution rates of municipal budgets - 35.02% in Mali in 2008.

However, case studies indicate that the actors are committed to decentralization. The studies account for the

reluctance noted in some cases in terms of the prevailing poverty, especially in rural areas. The percentage of surveyed persons satisfied with the process is 98.10% in Mali and 95% in Niger, which reflects their feeling of involvement in the preparation of development plans for their communities and management of basic social services, in particular, education. The management committees are deemed functional on the whole, even though some of their members are not familiar with the texts governing them, their cooperation with each other, and their relationships with municipal councils. This ignorance is abusively exploited by the decentralized authorities who are expected to ensure, a posteriori, compliance of actions by elected officials with the regulations. To complicate matters, citizen control is almost non-existent, apart from the urban councils where it takes on a political dimension.

Despite social and cultural pressures that limit women’s participation in political activities, the case studies show that decentralization in general, and the delivery of basic social services in particular, have encouraged the emergence of women leaders in decision-making organs, where they assume 75% of responsibilities.

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i. inTroDucTion

The Educational Research Network for West and Central Africa (ERNWACA) has conducted a transnational research p r o j e c t on the decentralization of basic social services - water, education and health - in six of its member countries, following a pilot study conducted in Ghana and Mali, and a literature review on the same theme. The results of the pilot study served as basis for:

(i) a brainstorming meeting on the theme in February 2007 in Bamako, and

(ii) formulation of the research project by two researchers of the Network. This document was widely disseminated internally and externally to non-African researchers and partner institutions such as the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), which funded the study. The field phase of the research was initiated at a methodology workshop held in Niamey, Niger from 13th to 16th January 2009. Following conclusion of the six case studies, the country

reports validated by the national scientific committees were sent by the National Coordinating Offices (NC) to the Regional Coordinating Office (RC) of the Network, which forwarded them to the principal researchers for the production of this summary report. It should be noted that the changes made by the RC at the request of some of

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the NCs seriously affected the work plan and resulted in significant delays in producing the outputs required for preparing the overall summary.

1.1. The Problem The PADLOS-education study highlighted the importance

of training as a factor in building the capacity of community actors to ensure sustainability of local management initiatives for basic social services, irrespective of whether the initiatives come from the bottom or from the top. It is clear that the building of grassroots democracy, which is the ultimate goal of decentralization, is possible only with the availability of trained human resources in terms of quantity and quality. This is all the more true because the local authorities need specialists in all fields to:

(i) design development plans and programmes for their areas, (ii) monitor implementation of all types of activities and works, and (iii) ensure that the daily needs of the people are met.

It goes without saying that centralized management in various countries over the past decades has not done much to develop these skills. The adoption of decentralization as a way of governance should be accompanied by human resources so as to generate wealth with which the newly installed organs are supposed to work. Unfortunately, the experiences in the sub-region, as reported in the pilot studies and contributions to the preparatory workshop in 2007, indicate that governments have accepted the transfer of responsibilities more as a result of pressure than because of political will, hence their reluctance to transfer the funds.

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Against this backdrop, it is legitimate to reflect on the viability and effectiveness of decentralization and the level of empowerment of the local stakeholders.

The January 2009 workshop in Niamey identified the problem of this study in terms of the following questions:

Have the various stakeholders in the decentralization • process assumed ownership of the patterns adopted? To answer this question, it is necessary to establish a link between the model used and the administrative tradition of the country, on the one hand, and the level of involvement of the traditional system, on the other. Are motivations for opening up the African political • organization based on the desire to take into account sociological realities so as to do better, or the desire to use them to maintain the status quo?

1.2. Research Purpose, Objectives and Questions

1.2.1. purpose of the study The purpose of this study is to consider the above issues

in a comprehensive manner, by going beyond legal texts and Anglo-Saxon or Latin approaches to decentralization, to understand their ownership and implementation by local actors themselves, as well as how the approaches vary from one country to another. Measures and support actions will be proposed to consolidate gains and further strengthen local capacities for community empowerment and enhance the quality of local governance so as to better meet the needs of the population.

Furthermore, we need to understand what we believe to be the central idea of decentralization, namely the nature

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of relations between the central and local actors. To do this, it is necessary to identify, through the related regulations and statements of rationale, the underlying reasons for initiation of the process of decentralization in each country. Reflection will cover several aspects that are not always easy to tackle head on.

That is why the study protocol underscores the need to focus on exploring control of implementation and is looking for explanations of the philosophy and operating principles of the decentralization policy in each country, and in general.

The dimensions to be considered are the roles played by the central political level and the grassroots communities, including civil society and partners. More specifically, the aim is to determine whether the initiative comes from Government leaders or whether these leaders were compelled by the demands of the communities or requirements of international agendas. It goes without saying that if the Government sees decentralization as an escape mechanism, the implementation will be laborious. On the other hand, if it sees decentralization as a way of mobilizing the nation for development, we can expect that resources will be more readily made available to those involved at the operational level.

1.2.2. objectives The overall goal of this research is to assess the contribution

made by decentralization to development of equitable and coherent basic social services through integration of actors and actions.

Specifically, the study will attempt to: assess the effectiveness of decentralization policies 1. from the point of view of the actors and in terms of the local power play;

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assess the levels of transfer of powers and resources; 2. determine whether or not the powers transferred are 3. effectively exercised; assess the implementation of water, health and 4. education sector policies in terms of the integration of local structures; determine the degree to which decentralization policies 5. have promoted local community access to water, education and health; assess the contribution of decentralization of basic 6. social services to the emergence of local leadership in favor of reducing gender disparities and promoting women leaders; assess the various Government motivations for adopting 7. decentralization in general, and decentralization of basic social services, in particular.

1.2.3. Research questions In light of the foregoing, the main research question is

formulated as follows: How does the ongoing decentralization process facilitate

the integration of actors and actions so as to promote equitable and coherent development of basic social services?

This question is divided into seven specific questions, namely:

Is the decentralization policy effective in terms of actors • and local power play? Are the powers and resources transferred? • Are the transferred powers effectively exercised? • Does the level of local integration of organs allow for • successful implementation of sector policies promoted

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by the central administration, particularly in basic social services (water, health and education)? What are the links between sector policies on access • and distribution of resources, and the development of a local political élite favorable to reduction of gender disparities in general, and promotion of women leaders, in particular? Is there synergy of action between community • organs so as to ensure better distribution of basic social services and reduce inequalities? What are the motivations for decentralization, in • general, and decentralization of basic social services, in particular?

1.3. Justification In order to better understand the decentralization process

and assess the results achieved so far, ERNWACA conducted two case studies on the theme in Mali and Ghana in 2006, and organized a workshop to validate the related reports in February 2007 with the participation of members of both teams, representatives from five national coordinating offices, staff of the regional coordinating office, and several partners of the Network in Mali and elsewhere, including an IDRC representative.

ERNWACA has conducted this transnational study on the same theme to:

deepen reflection on all the issues underlying the pilot • study; verify the results obtained, using a larger body of • experiences, and further clarify difficulties that account for the shortcomings • observed.

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Given the available budget and in accordance with selection criteria proposed by the Bamako workshop (February 2007), particularly effective existence of decentralization, geographical diversity and the transfer of powers in the three sectors, the following six countries -Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ghana, Mali, Niger and Senegal - were selected as sites for the case studies.

The countries were selected to broaden the corpus of experience and further benefit from a variety of situations. Indeed, Table 1 below suggests diversity in the paths taken by the countries, despite the more or less identical legacy. Furthermore, the preparatory workshops and exchanges between the various stakeholders during finalization of the financing request underscored the need for a deep understanding of the following points:

clarification of the issue of project management 1. and partnership between the various stakeholders at municipal level; the various stakeholders’ perception of decentralization 2. and its relationship with deconcentration, as well as transfer of powers, including those relating to: (i) mobilization of internal resources for councils; (ii) implementation of plans and programmes, and (iii) mechanisms for monitoring and correcting the actions of local elected officials, including mechanisms for democratic communication which presupposes the use of national languages in deliberations; democratization of public life; 3. The need to strengthen ties between the various 4. committees (education, health, and water) in municipalities, so as to create synergies and maximize public participation in municipal development;

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training of elected officials so as to integrate the 5. dynamics of change in the municipalities and promote local leadership favorable to innovations and changes in management practices.

1.4. Expected Results Beyond the declarations and other professions of faith, the

study aims to establish facts based on indicators such as: consistency between the stated goals and the allocated • human, material and financial resources; synergy of action between stakeholders at all levels; • effective transfer of powers from the central • administration to the local authorities in all sectors; limitations and opportunities of the current process; and • support measures adopted by governments.

Another research area is the analysis of relations between grassroots stakeholders and the communities’ use of the powers transferred to them in the new democratic landscape.

Do they use the powers to monitor implementation of investment plans and programmes and, if necessary, to sanction decentralized authorities based on their performance? Does the election of municipal officials result in better use of financial resources? Is programming of health, education and water investments more participatory?

Do cost recovery policies take into account the purchasing power of the less fortunate households?

ii. conTexT

Five of the six countries covered by the case studies inherited the centralized administrative system of France - Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Mali, Niger and Senegal - even

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though Cameroon has an English-speaking zone that was governed by the British administrative system until 1974. Ghana, the only entirely English-speaking country, has, since the colonial period, worked with a more or less decentralized administration.

Indeed, right from the start, the British colonial administration maintained the power of traditional authorities as regards law and order. These powers were reinforced by the Ordinance of 1859 upgrading coastal towns to councils. The provisions of this Ordinance were supplemented by the Ordinance of 1943 authorizing the election of municipal councils in Accra, Kumasi, Secondi-Tarkoradi and Cape Coast. After independence in 1957, the policy of decentralization continued with the adoption of the 1961 Law, which instituted a local authority alongside the central government. The difficulties of cohabitation of the two systems, of which one (local government) does not have the resources to fulfill its mission, led to the reforms of 1971 and 1974. The provisions of the last amendments in 1988 lay the bases for effective initiation of decentralization in Ghana.

In the French-speaking countries, apart from the experiences of four Senegalese councils created by the Decree of 10 August 1854 - St. Louis, Rufisque, Gorée and Dakar -, decentralization was initiated on the eve of independence (1958 for Niger). Let us mention that, even in France, the premises of decentralization were defined by the Imperial Decree of 25 March 1852 which stated: «We can govern from a distance, but we can administer only when we are close to the population.»

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2.1. Geographic and Human Context of the Study

Four of the six countries covered by the case studies are located in the West African Sahel strip - Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger and Senegal - an area with an arid climate. The other two countries are better endowed by nature, with climates ranging from savannah woodland to dense forest. All these countries are experiencing high population growth, with the rapid growth putting more pressure on forest resources. The population growth rate ranges from 2.19% in Cameroon to 3.3% in Niger and 3.6% in Mali. Consequently, the proportion of youth is very high everywhere. Table 1 below shows the area, population and administrative system of each of the six countries. Table 1: Population and Administrative Systems of the Countries

Burkina Faso Cameroun Ghana Mali Niger Sénégal

Superficie km2 274 000 475 442 238 540 1 241 238 1 267 000 196 722

Population1 16 241 211 (2010)

19 294 149(2010)

23 160 000 (2008)

14 517 176 (2009)

15 878 271 (2010)

14 086 103 (2010)

Organisation administrative

13 regions, 45provinces,352 councils

10 regions, 14UrbanCouncils, 360Councils

6 CU2, 10urbancouncilsand 124districtcouncils

8 regions, 1district, 49“cercles”districts,703 councils(incl. 37urbancouncils)

8 regions, 4towns, 15urbandistricts,255 councilsi n c l u d i n g 41urbancouncils

14 regions,104 councils,46 districtcouncils and370 ruralcommunities

2.2 Economic Data on the Countries Apart from Senegal, whose economy is driven by the

services sector (63% as against 13.3% for agriculture in 2008), the other five countries in our corpus are primarily

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agricultural. In 2008, Ghana, for example, obtained 37% of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) from agriculture which, at that time, used 60% of the workforce. It is interesting to note that the economic policies of all these countries fit into the guidelines provided by the World Bank. After the Structural Adjustment Programmes, which they implemented from the early 1990s on, all the countries are engaged in poverty reduction programmes, and Poverty Reduction Strategy Frameworks serve as the reference for all sector policies.

Natural resources, minerals, timber and oil come in second place in the countries’ revenue generation. Here again, Senegal stands out in that industry is the second contributor to GDP, to the tune of 25.3%. The exploitation of oil, which began in 2007, significantly boosted the Ghanaian economy as is evident in the increase in GDP from USD 14 billion in 2008 to USD 71.216 billion in 2011. With a GDP of USD 42.76 billion in 2009 Cameroon has one of the strongest economies in Central Africa. Niger is the weak link in the group in economic terms, with a GDP of USD 10.45 billion in 2009. However, the situation of the ordinary citizen is almost identical in all these countries in light of their human development indices (see Table 2 below).

1 Data obtained from the Internet. Some situations have changed meanwhile.2 CU : Urban Council

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Table 2: Key Economic Indicators3

Burkina Faso Cameroun Ghana Mali Niger Senegal

GDP (billions US $)

7,136 (2007)

42,76 (2009)

71,216 3 344billion

CFA franc(2007)

10,45 (2009)

23,16 (2009)

HDI 0,389 (Low) (2007)

0,460 (Low) (2010)

0,533 (average)

2010

0,371 (Low) (2007)

(2010)Average (2010)

Populationbelow poverty level (%)

46,2 (2007)

35,6 (2004)

28,5 (2011)

58,1 (2009)

60 (2008)

54 (2008)

2.3 Political Context The overall context of the countries covered by this study

is marked by the fact that after independence (early 1960s), almost all African States had highly centralized administrative and political systems managed by authoritarian regimes, with the exception of Ghana, to some extent. The pretexts to justify denial of freedom and other democratic rights violations are the need to build unity in the countries, the demands of nation building and the pooling of financial resources to support planned economic and social development of all sectors, including education, health and water. Since these authoritarian regimes did not allow open debate, civil society, and even less so the political opposition, were not given any space.

Hilhorst and Baltissen (2004) point out that Mali inherited the experiences of the great empires of the 11th to the 17th century - Ghana, Mali and Songhai - that were actually federations of political entities headed by emperors and

3 Sources : Case Study Reports and Internet

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whose large territories made decentralization imperative4. This resulted in an administrative culture based on decentralization, which could not accommodate deconcentration, and much less, centralization instituted by the State system established by French colonization.

The term is used here with the same meaning as given in ENCARTA Dictionary: a form of administrative organization which recognizes the legal status and decision-making authority of interested communities (region, municipality) in certain matters. Thus defined, decentralization is a possible response to the issue of distribution of administrative functions between the State and other public authorities.

We can therefore consider that decentralization is effective when the law grants decision-making power over local affairs to bodies elected by a legal authority. Within this meaning of the term, it is clear from the literature that Senegal has had a decentralized administrative system for over 155 years with the full-fledged councils of St. Louis (1872), Gorée (1872), Rufisque (1878) and Dakar (1887) created pursuant to the Decree of 10 August 1854. Hilhorst and Baltissen, cited above, argue that in Mali, decentralization became operational in 1999 following local elections and the effective establishment of deliberative organs in 703 councils, 49 “cercles” and 8 regions, and Bamako District. Table 3 below provides the decentralization status in the six countries covered by the study.

4 See the Charter of the Mandinka peoples prepared under the supervision of Soundjata Keita in the 13t h Century (Kurukanfuga).

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Table 3: Decentralization Status in the Six Countries

Mile stonesCountry

First Experiences

Trigger Events

Establishment of Elected Councils

Number of Councils

Burkina Faso

Law 55-1489 of 18/11/55 created two full fledged councils

Decentra-lization appears in political discourses in 1990.

First municipal elections held in 1995

33 urban councils. Rural areas not concerned.

Cameroon

Two full-fledged urban councils and local councils by the colonial administration.

The process continuedafter indepen-dence

Progressive since the first experiences.

338 councils in 1996.Transfer of powers not yet effective

GhanaSet up of local councils by the British administration

The process resumed when Jerry Rawling came back to office in 1981

District became the basis of local government

170 councils since 2008 including 32 new ones.

Mali

Establishment of two mixed councils in 1919 followed by two others in 1954. Generalization from 1958

Democratic transition of 1991

From the 1999 elections

Establishment of 703 including 689 created in 99 and 14 former ones.

NigerElection of the municipal council of Niamey in 1957

Written in the different Constitutions. Launching with the democra-tization.

January 2005 following the July 2004 elections.

4 city councils; 255 municipalities including 41 urban ones.

Senegal

Establishment of 4 municipalities in 1872 and 1887 following the Decree of 10 august 1854.

Political will Progressive

534 councils (14 regions, 104 urban municipalities, 46 district councils and 370 rural districts)

sources: Research Project and case study Reports

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iii. liTeraTure revieW

This chapter provides a summary of the literature reviews in the research project and case studies. Indeed, a literature review was conducted in preparation for the workshop to validate the pilot study; this review continued during the preparation of the proposal of this transnational study. Furthermore, the research protocol requires each team to produce, first, a specific report on the analysis of national documents on the theme. This means that a large bank of reference material was created by ERNWACA for the work.

Given the abundance of material, it was necessary to select references so as to obtain the most important, and the interested reader can always refer to national reports for more information. This review will first define the concepts, before considering the philosophical and political motivations that underlie the implementation of decentralization.

Subsequently, attention will focus on: (i) decentralization plans adopted by the countries, (ii) the legal frameworks instituted by the countries, the powers transferred, and the policies specific to the three sectors considered in our analysis. A summary of the key information from the literature review concludes the chapter.

3.1. Definition of Concepts Administrative vocabulary uses several concepts

alongside that of decentralization, such as centralization and deconcentration. The nuances between these terms depend on the degree of delegation of powers. To facilitate discussion, we will define these various concepts. Above all, it is important to understand the concept of governance,

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which the World Bank places at the core of development problems in Africa and which justifies the interest of several actors in the problem.

Governance The term “governance” was used for the first time in French

in the 15th century to mean the centre of management of an authority. At that time, the concept had a meaning similar to that of government (Ouattara, 2007). Recently, financial institutions have subjected the concept to a semantic shift and made it mean «the way in which political power is exercised in the management of the economy and social resources of a country for development» (World Bank, 1992).

Centralization Centralization is a specific form of organization or

public administration that comprises a single legal entity in which all internal organs, with their respective powers and resources, are (for the reporting relationships) under the direct and imperative control of the central level. As a result, the political entity comprises a single unit or legal entity (State) and the entire administration, from the legal point of view, has to do with the same entity (single centre of the exercise of power).

Local Authority The local authority is a portion of the country with a

legal status and financial autonomy. This notion is important since decentralization can involve

several administrative entities such as region, department, district and council. While the existence of the council is normally associated with decentralization, such is not always the case for the other levels which, according to the adopted

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patterns, may be local authorities or simple decentralized administrative entities.

Decentralization In the French administrative tradition, the term “decentra-

lization” refers to the transfer, by the central authority, of some of its prerogatives to lower entities. In this sense, the concept refers to:

(i) a method of institutional organization, and (ii) an administrative management technique by which the central government transfers, to a legally recognized entity, the authority to independently manage its own affairs5. However, it is important to note that the concept of

decentralization is difficult to define because of the elasticity of its definition depending on the fields of investigation - economics, politics, administration, education – of the authors. Indeed, each person uses the concept of «decentralization» to describe varied situations, models and processes depending on the theoretical bases of their specialty and the ideological motivations that guide the social and political actors using it.

The Decentralization Mission of Mali (2000) defines decentralization as a system by which the State grants financial and management autonomy to other legally recognized entities under conditions prescribed by law. Maurice Hauriou is of the opinion that: «the reasons for decentralization are not administrative, but constitutional,» because «modern countries need not only a good administration, but also political freedom.»6 He reiterates Tocqueville7 who believes

5 MARTHE, Mamadou Daouda and MALAM MOUSSA, Laouali (2007). 6 Toure, Cheikhou (2011), Decentralization of basic social services – water, education and health: a Case Study of Senegal. 7 Tocqueville, Democracy in America, cited b y TOURE, Cheikou (see supra).

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that a municipal council is the embodiment of «the strength of free peoples.» Rondinelli (1981) proposes a definition which considers decentralization as the transfer of authority or distribution of public power in planning, management and decision-making from the national to infranational levels, in other words, from the central government to lower-level officials. More generally, decentralization can be political, administrative, fiscal or market-oriented. As privatization or deregulation, the latter is the terminal form of decentralization (see Owusu et al, 2005).

Deconcentration The High Commission for Administrative Reform and

Decentralization (HCRA/D) of Niger offers this definition of deconcentration: «an administrative organization technique by which the central authorities delegate some of their powers to subordinate local authorities in the administrative districts.» (HCRA/D, 2003, page 14.) According to Atchison (2005), the concept means granting, usually by an administrative decree, certain powers to make decisions and manage staff and the budget in accordance with the laws and directives of higher authorities. This restrictive clause implies that in deconcentration, the delegation of powers is not complete, unlike the similar notion of devolution.

Devolution Devolution is the full, legal and permanent transfer

of decision-making powers in various areas from a higher administrative authority to a lower authority.

Powers For the Decentralization Mission of Mali (2000), the uni-

versally accepted legal meaning of power is the legal capacity to act. It is a series of prerogatives recognized by law for a person (natural or legal), an authority, a service or an

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agency (public or private) to take valid decisions. The Local Authorities now share some powers with the Government. They have become responsible for their development. The Government transfers to them economic and social powers which directly affect the population and which they can manage at their level. This recognition of powers for the municipality to schedule and manage its own development marks the end of Government monopoly in local develo-pment and administration.

Delegation The delegation of authority is an internal process

that can occur at all levels of government or administrative action depending on the constitutional or legal provisions. It consists of provisional transfer of authority from an organ to an official or another subordinate organ.

3.2 Intervention Philosophy and Motivations Decentralization usually results from a political decision

taken by the Government to share power with local stakeholders. However, it may also be imposed on central government officials by grassroots communities through initiatives for autonomous management of some responsibilities, or through political demands. Nevertheless, decentralization creates the need for powers, which in turn require training for members of the local organs. This is where the issue is of interest to ERNWACA.

This legal framework is different from that of centralization, which ‘disempowers’ citizens as a result of their non-involvement in the identification of activities to be carried out, thus reducing them to being mere spectators of government interventions supposedly meant to improve their living conditions.

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Another consequence of the lack of consultation and community participation in decision-making and implementation of development activities is the absence of quality control. Government employees and their service providers misuse the work resources made available to them, in some cases with the complicity of the community elite who are unaware of the harm done to them. So it is no surprise that when the financial and economic crisis of the 1980s imposed another form of governance, the grassroots communities were suspicious of the Central Government invitation to cost sharing. In general, this was seen as the refusal of the political and administrative actors to meet the aspirations of the disadvantaged population. Worse, some people interpreted the withdrawal by the Government as the result of misappropriation of their taxes. With such suspicions, it goes without saying that decentralization was undermined right from the start.

Atchison (op. cit, p. 2.) tells us that decentralization is generally motivated by a variety of ideological, political and fiscal agendas, based on the assumption that it would strengthen accountability, service delivery, access to services and rapid satisfaction of local needs.

Another assumption is that members of the local communities want to participate and improve the quality of services at their level, all of which increase interest in and support for change. In supporting decentralization policies in developing countries, proponents of this view believe that:

“Decentralization is necessary to accelerate and • distribute the benefits of growth, integrate the various regions of heterogeneous countries, and more efficiently use scarce resources;

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It brings the government closer to the people by • involving beneficiaries in planning and decision-making at local level, which should improve the quality of services offered.»

This philosophy of decentralization draws on the American concept of freedom portrayed by Tocqueville (op. cit.) who presents the municipal council as «the strength of free peoples,» and adds that «without municipal council institutions, a nation can have a free government, without the spirit of freedom,» and good governance, which requires that political, administrative and technical officials should be accountable for their actions, particularly in the management of public resources. This economy-based perspective of the issue has evolved considerably since the end of the Cold War to include:

(i) respect for human rights and democracy, (ii) strengthening of civil society, and (iii) good government management and efficiency. The second perception of decentralization is essentially

of Latin origin and is sustained by reflections on the relations between the centre and the periphery. It seeks to be a building process for the local political level, by giving it planning and decision-making powers, which were formerly the purview of central administration officials. The authors of PADLOS-Education study add to the French perception of the concept which they call top-down decentralization, the autonomous management of services by local actors to provide their communities with new services and/or continue existing services, thereby avoiding inadequacy or lack of services traditionally provided by the central administration.

This form of decentralization is described as ascending (bottom to top). Thus, decentralization is also a phenomenon

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that goes from the village to the nation, through clusters of villages.

Rondinelli (1981) associates decentralization with four values of governance, namely:

(i) closer convergence of public preferences and policies, (ii) diversification of policy innovations due to the multiplication of actors and experiences, (iii) increasing civic participation and leadership, and (iv) adjustment of political decisions to the specific contexts of citizens. Oulaï, quoted by Fozing (2007), distinguishes functional decentralization from geographical decentralization. The general principles of decentralization in Burkina

Faso, as defined in Law No. 040/98/AN of 6 August 1998 on the orientation of decentralization, are based on these two concepts of decentralization. It reads :

Decentralization is adopted as a fundamental aspect • of development and democracy; Respect for the unity of the State: decentralization • occurs within the framework of the unitary State; Decentralization is accompanied by deconcentration; • Progressiveness; • Subsidiarity; • Concurrent transfer of powers and resources; • Duty of government assistance.•

In education, the functional approach consists in sharing the functions of education among several administrative units, while the geographical approach is based on the transfer of funding and management responsibilities to the

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regions. The transfer can also be from a State institution to local institutions, the private sector or Non-Governmental Organizations. Atchison (op. cit.) notes that the process, as described above, has greatly influenced African education systems. Several countries have seen it as a response to the numerous challenges related to education management, whereas organizations such as the Association for the Development of Education in Africa (ADEA) see it as a strategy for educational reform.

In either case, decentralization is effective only if it goes beyond the administrative and institutional aspects, and includes political and financial aspects. Access to cooperation financing often presupposes these adjustments. This means that henceforth, the redistribution of powers will no longer be a mere alternative, but a necessity that central political and administrative officers need in order to do away with their failures in development. In doing so, the central administration officials are seeking an escape option to reduce the pressures that come from all angles.

Boisier (2004) identifies five reasons for decentralization, namely:

(i) the transformation of production methods introduced by the scientific and technological revolution and the development of communication and transport, (ii) gradual democratization in the world since the end of the Cold War, (iii) the development of civil society supported by the desire for autonomy increasingly expressed by the people, (iv) gradual reduction of the role of the State in service delivery, and

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(v) globalization of the economy. Kassibo (1997) discusses the longevity of the concept

of decentralization in Mali and its ambiguity due to its use by different protagonists. After tracing the history of decentralization in Mali, which dates back to the pre-colonial period, the author outlines its implementation and analyzes its objectives – to deepen multiparty democracy and promote local and regional development - and its challenges - stabilizing the political and administrative system, boosting local economies, and preserving socio-cultural achievements.

3.3. Decentralization Plans and Powers Transferred

Several patterns, ranging from decentralization of the management of urban centres to the entire country, through intermediate options, are possible. Table 1 above depicts a gradual process initially concerning big towns before being extended to rural areas. Some countries have coupled decentralization with administrative division, which underlies deconcentration, while others have opted for a sociological division, which ensures that the new councils coincide with customary units. Elsewhere, economic and/or geographical considerations have guided the council-creating pattern.

Presenting the process followed in Niger, the office of the Prime Minister in (2003) indicated that five principles were followed in creating councils in Niger:

creation of councils within the territorial boundaries of 1. customary entities; implementation of three (3) levels of decentralization, 2. namely the region, the department and the municipality;

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coupling of decentralization and deconcentration; 3. choice of election as a method of designating 4. governing organs; and option of control of legality exercised a posteriori. 5. (Prime Minister’s Office, 2003, page 5)

However, of the three levels provided by Law N° 2002-12 of 11 June 2002, only the municipality and region levels are operational. The Department level is currently on hold.

Article 55 of the Cameroonian Constitution of 1996 entrusts local authorities with the “mission of promoting economic, social, health, educational, cultural and sports development” with each mission under the level closest to the operational ground.

In the 1960s, in parallel with representations of central government, Ghana created local government responsible for providing services and goods to the population, but without the resources required for the mission. Learning from the ineffectiveness of this system, reforms were made in 1971 and 1974. The latter established a single hierarchy model with a district council entrusted with all responsibilities of government actions at local level. The difficulties increased, and an assessment in 1988 concluded that the model was ineffective and proposed the system of district assemblies whose texts combine the positive aspects of the two previous models. It is from this reorganization that decentralization acquired its full significance.

The 1992 Constitution of Ghana recognizes the need to decentralize the government system, and stipulates as follows:

The functions, powers, responsibilities and 1. resources should be transferred from the Central Government to Local Government Units;

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Measures should be taken to enhance the capacity 2. of local government authorities to plan, coordinate, manage and execute policies in respect of all matters affecting the people within their areas; Local government units should have a sound 3. financial base with adequate and reliable sources of revenue; Local government staff will be subject to the effective 4. control of local authorities; The population should participate in decision-making 5. at local level.

The Ghana case study8 points out that district assemblies made significant achievements - rural electrification, construction of markets, classrooms, health centers and rural roads - in improving the living conditions of the population. However, the authors note that all this was funded by the State or partners because the councils could not implement their budget estimates, and the limited internal resources mobilized are often poorly managed due to lack of qualified staff for management. This means that decentralization has not resulted in full local development by the grassroots communities.

In any case, decentralization cannot succeed without combined synergies for community development, including managerial and leadership capacity building to enable local elected officials to introduce changes to their community. The Ghana case study suggests that the country’s leaders have understood this and built their decentralization programme on that basis. The programme seeks to accelerate equitable and effective growth of the rural economy and development of grassroots communities, in accordance with their aspirations 8- Opare, J.A. and Egbenya, G.R.K., (2007).

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and priorities, in order to get them to participate effectively in decisions on planning the development of their community (Ghana, Republic of, 1993).

A diagnostic study conducted in 2004 in Mali, on the initiative of the Ministry of Territorial Administration and Local Government, identified the obstacles to effective transfer of powers to the decentralized entities. The main obstacles are: (i) inadequacy or lack of political will on the part of the central administration, resulting in incoherent management and a diversity of approaches, (ii) reluctance of technical and financial partners to transfer the financial resources of sector programmes to local governments for fear of compromising the good performance of this support in the field, (iii) the wait-and-see attitude of government services at all levels, (iv) inadequate legal supervision of the process of transfer of powers, and (v) lack of communication with the various stakeholders, particularly those at the operational level.

3.4. Legal Frameworks of Decentralization Legal frameworks have often preceded the establishment

of decentralized entities by several years, due to the reluctance of central governments to delegate powers, especially in financial matters. After independence, Senegal adopted its first texts on decentralization in 1960 as part of administrative reform. Amendments were made in 1964, 1972 and 1996. The latter marked the start of creation of councils throughout the country. This was also the case in Niger, which adopted decentralization in 1962 (Law N°. 62-023 of July 1962) and organized the first municipal elections only in February 1999, without completing the process. The first elected municipal councils were established in 2005 following local elections in July 2004. Burkina Faso had a more erratic experience because of the many changes of regimes. While Law No.

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21-60 of 2 February 1960 created rural communities and the administrative divisions determined by Ordinance No. 83-21 of 4 November 1983 established the legal birth of 101 councils, the first municipal councils were elected in 1995 with 33 fully-fledged councils.

Cameroon, the only country in Central Africa in our corpus, stands out as having inherited the British colonial tradition and that of France. The legacy of the British administration, as in Ghana, introduced, decentralization in 1922 with the recognition of traditional authority - Native Authorities-. French-speaking Cameroon benefitted from it in 1941 when the colonial administration created the mixed urban councils of Douala and Yaounde, whose councilors were elected, but the mayors were appointed. These are the first experiences in mixed rural councils set up in 1952 and 1955, and a law creating fully-fledged councils and medium-fledged councils entered into force until the constitutional reform of 1974 to unify the country. Under it, the council system was harmonized. Urban councils could now elect their mayors from the executive bureau, while the officials of rural councils (government delegates) were appointed.

Section 55 of Law No. 96/06 of 18 January 1996 defines two main decentralized authorities in Cameroon, namely the regions and the councils. These decentralized authorities are defined as public law corporate bodies,that enjoy administrative and financial autonomy in the management of regional and local interests. Law No. 2004/017 on the orientation of decentralization, and Laws Nos. 2004/018 and 2004/019 which lay down rules applicable to councils and regions, resolve the problems of precision and visibility that previously veiled the process of decentralization forcefully announced by the Constitution of 18 January 1996.

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Vollenhoven, the Governor General of AOF, wrote in 1917 that at district level the delegation of decision-making authority should be «rigorously applied because only this entity reconciles the interests of the dominating power with those of the population.» This directive sets the stage for decentralization, which became a reality with the creation of the first-degree mixed councils in 1919 in Soudan - Bamako and Kayes - and the mixed councils of Mopti and Segou in 1954, and finally the establishment of councils in Gao, Kati, Kita, Koulikoro, Koutiala, Nioro, San, Sikasso and Tombouctou in 1958. The law of 18 November 1955, as amended by the Law of 10 November 1955, granted the status of fully-fledged councils to the towns of Bamako, Kayes, Segou and Mopti. In the same vein, the first Constitution of independent Mali stipulated in Article 41 that «all local authorities in the Republic of Mali shall be administered freely by elected organs.» It must be said that this profession of faith did not work in practice.

However, since the resumption of decentralization, all local authorities are managed by elected councils that vote the budget on the basis of certain taxes and levies such as patents and licenses, local and regional development tax, cattle tax - see Laws N° 96-058 of 16 October 1996 and No 00-44 of 7 July 2000 for Mali. Nevertheless, most of the resources mobilized by the councils still come from decentralized cooperation and other support from Technical and Financial Partners.

Unlike the French-speaking countries, the Government of Ghana included in the Constitution of 1992 a provision creating a common fund (5% of national income) for the development of councils. The fund is distributed to councils based on the following criteria: need (35%), ensuring balance (30%), prompt response (20%), pressure of

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services (15%) and contingencies (5%). The following graph shows the current organization chart of councils in Ghana according to their type: large urban centres, towns or rural areas (see point 2.1, page 17 for more details). The large urban centre (metropolitan) assemblies are divided into district assemblies, which contain town councils and unit committees. The town (municipal) councils are divided into zonal councils and unit committees, while district assemblies in small towns or rural areas are made up of area, town or urban councils as the case may be, with unit committees at the grassroots. Graph 1: Structure of the New Local Government System of Ghana

Metropolitan

Sub Metropolitan Disctrict councils

Town Councils

Unit Committees

Zonal Councils

Municipal Disctrict Assemblies

Urban/Town/Area Councils

In addition to these legal arrangements, governments also created decentralization support organs such as the High Council for Local Authorities (HCCT) in Mali and Niger. Council officials have also established frameworks for dialogue and mutual support. Administrative services responsible for supervising decentralized authorities have

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also established technical and financial support mechanisms to ensure effective transfer of powers and the corresponding resources from the Government to the local authorities.

3.5. Sector Policies The literature on decentralization, in general, and on

the delivery of basic social services, in particular, has grown significantly since the advent of democracy in 1991 in all the French-speaking countries covered by this study. In Mali, while automatic transfer of powers as regards civil status, census, administrative police, health and sanitation, archives and documentation took place simultaneously with the creation of councils, such was not the case as regards management of voter cards and polling stations, which were maintained by the Government. The water sector was the first to benefit from decentralization arrangements, followed by education and then health. The delay in the health sector is due to the fact that decentralization was not included in the procedures manual of the social and health development programme and its planning process.

In general, the decentralization of social services, particularly those covered by this study, was accompanied by regulations that specify the powers transferred to the organs created for that purpose. All types of support that the implementation structures can receive - technical advice, as well as financial, human and material resources - are also specified.

3.5.1. Education Atchison’s study (2005) on educational decentralization

shows that issues related to recurrent operations, construction of infrastructure and procurement of supplies

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are often transferred to the local level, as well as those related to financing of the system, curriculum development, teacher training and certification. Accordingly, the decentralized units are assigned the functions of operational organization of teaching, while the central administration maintains those relating to formulation of policies and guidelines, and quality control.

Talking about decentralization of education in Cameroon, Fozing reiterated the generally accepted advantages and outlined major disadvantages such as reinforcement of regional disparities if appropriate measures are not taken to support councils. Indeed, the responsibilities entrusted to the local authorities in Cameroon by Law No. 2004-019 of 22 July 2004 are many and require considerable resources: economic, health, social, education, sports and cultural development.

3.5.2. Health In health, decentralization is limited to establishment

of management committees of community health centers. These joint bodies comprise the technical staff and community delegates, including at least one woman. Their role is to support cost recovery on the basis of an overall framework defined by the Bamako Initiative. They are expected to make decisions on the allocation of revenues, in general, and the purchase of drugs, in particular.

The flexibility of management committees is limited by under-equipment of health centres and inadequate human resources, in terms of both quantity and quality. For this reason, and also because of the organizational culture of health services, officials of the central services jealously guard the prerogatives of planning and financing health development programmes. Indeed, the organizational culture

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has become an obstacle to the transfer of powers, despite the adoption of texts that give several responsibilities to the local authorities.

3.5.3. Water The preparation of the current legislation on

decentralization of water supply is based on four fundamental principles defined by the Dublin Conference (1992) on water and the environment. Thus, the overall approach reconciles socio-economic development with the protection of natural resources, and makes involvement of all stakeholders, including women, in the decision-making process a prerequisite. The basic premise is the respect for the fundamental human right to safe water and adequate hygiene at an affordable price.

The decentralization of water supply started with the establishment of management committees of pastoral wells and mini water supply systems (DWS), of which the composition and operation vary depending on the environment: they range from actual involvement of users to private management by one or more people, or management by a quarter head or a notable personnality proposed by local leaders and «co-opted» by the community. Notwithstanding this diversity of situations and the constraints they face, users of several countries are satisfied with the operation of the mini-water supply structures.

The water management decentralization plan that was adopted in Mali grants responsibility for project management to local authorities. Thus, in theory, the local authorities are responsible for planning, design, implementation and monitoring/control of the management and operation of all water infrastructure on their territory. In practice, the regulations are silent on the key issue of transfer of project

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management to the communities. While the communities are not ready to assume all the associated expenses, it should also be noted that the limitations imposed by the regulations are not likely to facilitate skills development and acquisition of experience.

The national village water supply policy document of Niger defines a rural centre as any built-up area with a population of less than 2,000 inhabitants. It should also be noted that centres not taken into account by the urban water supply sub-sector are considered as rural centres. Water infrastructure in pastoral areas or equipped with specific superstructures in agricultural areas belong to pastoral water areas. Overall, the theoretical coverage of drinking water needs in rural areas is 56%, but taking into account only the functional wells, the rate is about 40%. This means that much of the population concerned consume unclean water, hence the high prevalence of water-borne diseases. Particular mention should be made of progress in this area in Senegal with a coverage rate of about 90%.

The strategy for implementing these guidelines seeks to clarify the role and responsibilities of the various stakeholders, namely the Government, local authorities, users’ associations, and the private sector. The Government defines policy and is responsible for project management, which it delegates to local authorities that can, in turn, transfer it to the users’ associations. These associations are responsible for project management which they can transfer, under certain conditions, to private operators. A study conducted in Benin, Guinea and Niger by BURGEAP (1996) indicates that «the issues most frequently raised concern the lack of transparency in financial management,

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training of managers, legitimacy of the structure representing users, on one hand, as well as unclear distribution of replacement responsibilities and the users’ resources for total replacement, on the other.»

3.2. Summary The literature suggests that the decentralization plans

adopted in African countries draw on Anglo-Saxon or Latin administrative traditions, depending on the political history of each State. In some places, efforts were made to create a space for endogenous political systems. The issue here is whether this openness reflects willingness to take sociological realities into account so as to be more successful, or to use it to maintain the status quo.

This issue is important, since the political reasons for States to embark on decentralization vary from one country to another - decision by the central administration to involve citizens in decision-making and policy-making, pressure from technical and financial partners in view of failures of previous governments, as well as political demands of some communities through the national civil society and political and identity movements.

The foregoing raises a number of research questions that require clear answers if we want to help improve the ongoing experiences. The key question concerns the power relations underlying the implementation of decentralization. Three others relate to it: Is it the central political authorities who took the initiative and are therefore pulling the strings?

Is it an empowerment process that reflects grassroots total dissatisfaction, so that central administration is forced to address the issue and thereby retain what it feels is

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essential? Did external pressure convince the political actors of the need to open up to democratic forces, or did the leaders simply adapt to this demand? The literature review suggests that external pressures carried some weight.

It is also interesting to reflect on the philosophical arguments developed by the proponents of decentralization. Is decentralization perceived as a mere transfer of powers from the center to the periphery, a strategy of governance reform and delivery of services, a more efficient way of distributing the benefits of growth, or a mechanism for improving governance? Is the objective to bring policy makers closer to the citizens so as to enhance their participation in public life? The study is expected to identify the objectives, and assess their validity and viability. Indeed, the process could be adopted so as to: (i) ensure that policies and programmes are more relevant, (ii) take initiatives and build on experiences, (iii) strengthen political consciousness and democracy at the grassroots, and (iv) contextualize political decisions. Here, discourse is more or less the same with regard to the role of external partners and political demands.

The literature also shows that the countries have adopted various decentralization plans on paper, but have implemented others. The choices range from the functional to the geographical approach, from a partial to a full model. Why are there differences? In view of the reluctance noted in some cases, is it legitimate to wonder whether decentralization was freely introduced or it was imposed? The underlying issues of the two previous questions concern the limitations and prospects of the current process, as well as the support measures envisaged by the country and the obstacles to their effective implementation. Is there a desire to go beyond

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institutional adjustment and achieve political and financial decentralization?

The case studies suggest that, in most Francophone countries, the main obstacle to decentralization is the desire to continue centralizing Government finances. In certain cases, the main obstacle is inadequate deconcentration of technical services. The consequence is that the decentralized authorities do not have high-level human reso u r c e s t o design and execute certain works properly. Ghana’s experience in allocation of human and financial resources to decentralized authorities is a good example.

iv. meThoDology

4.1. Methodological Framework The comparative nature of this study and the desire

to facilitate data summary and comparison of results made it necessary to adopt a consensual methodological framework.

The lead researchers drew on discussions during the validation workshop for the pilot study to outline the research project methodology. They subsequently refined the approach and developed tools in preparation for the launching workshop held in Niamey in January 2009. Participants in this last meeting - the national coordinators of the six countries accompanied by the team leaders, two representatives of ERNWACA regional coordination and a representative of IDRC – widely discussed the various focus areas of the proposed approach for collecting and analyzing data. The results of their deliberations are summarized in Table 4 below.

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Table N°4: Methodological Framework at a Glance

Specific Objectives

Research Questions

Data CollectionTechniques

ToolsData Sources (Stakeholders andDocuments)

1. Assess the effectiveness of decentralization policies from the point of view of the actors and the local situation

Is the decentralization policy effective from the point of view of the actors and local situation?

Documentary review

Document analysis grid Documents

Survey by questionnaire Questionnaire

Administrative and Sector Officials (Central, regional and local)

Individual interviews Interview Guides

Members of management committees and beneficiaries

2. Assess the level of transfer of powers and resources

What levels of transfer of powers and resources are required to exercise them?

Individual interviews Interview Guides

Administrative and sector officials (Central, regional and local)

Group interviews Interview Guides Members of management committees

Documentary review


3. Verify the level of exercise of powers transferred

Are the transferred powers exercised? If so, to what level of satisfaction?

Review of working documents of local management organs


Individual and group interviews Interview Guides

Local elected officers, Sector officials and member of management committees

4. Assess the level of synergy between the community structures for implementing sector policies

What is the level of synergy between policy implementation structures at community level?

Individual and group interviews with sector and institutional stakeholders

Interview Guides

Community and village leadersMembers of management committees

5. Assess performance in the implementation of water, health and education policies in conjunction with the integration of local structures.

Does the level of integration of local structures help to ensure efficient conduct of sector policies on water, health and education?

Survey through questionnaire

Questionnaire

Officials of decentralized services;

Officials of central services and local elected officers.

Interviews Interview GuideCommunity and village leaders, members of management committees

Review of management documents


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6. Determine the decentralization policy details that promote access by local communities to water, education and health services

Is there synergy of action between the management organs to promote access to all basic services so as to reduce inequalities?

Review of management documentsInterviews

Document analysis gridInterview Guide

Documents Community and village leaders, members of management committees and beneficiaries

7. Assess the contribution of social services decentralization policies to the emergence of local leaders favorable to reducing gender disparities and promoting women leaders

How did sector services delivery policies help to reduce gender disparities, in general, and promote women leaders, in particular?

Interviews Interview Guide

Members of management committees,

Heads of decentralized services

Women’s Associations

Documentary review

Document analysis grid

Management documents

Composition and operation of community management organs

8. Identify the various reasons that made the States adopt decentralization, in general, and those for basic social services, in particular

What motivated the States to embark on the decentralizationprocess?

Documentary review

Document analysis grid

Policy documents and technical reports

Interviews Interview Guide

Administrative and sector officials (central and regional), independent experts and beneficiaries

The workshop participants felt that a coherent methodological approach for this kind of research should be divided into four stages: (i) observation of decentralization as applied, (ii) analysis of power play, (iii) identification of inconsistencies to be corrected, and (iv) formulation of proposals for areas of decentralization as desired. Lastly, the methodological approach should also contain a historical dimension on the implementation of decentralization for comparative analysis. The work should analyze experiences and not simply describe the implementation of decentralization. To complete the statement of methodological principles, the workshop adopted a combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches and a multidisciplinary dimension in the composition of research

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teams, with the goal of producing publishable results for use in academic circles and by decision makers.

The literature review, which is the initial data collection activity, should cover the different types of documents available, namely: laws and regulations, study and evaluation reports, the working papers of organs responsible for decentralization issues, and general works. Special attention should be paid to writing on all relevant areas, in other words, decentralization in general, water, education and health. Preliminary data from this phase of the work should provide information for the selection of survey sites. In fact, each national team should preselect fifty councils with the desired characteristics so as to identify six which meet the following criteria: urban versus rural, close versus distant, rich versus poor, landlocked versus accessible, central versus peripheral, and old versus new.

For purposes of the research, it was decided that the field techniques and tools should be adapted, and the questions should be made explicit, if necessary.

4.2. Operationalization of the Methodological Approach

In accordance with the general methodological guidelines, the teams sought to include in their samples the main features of the council landscape. Thus, the Senegalese team opted for a sampling technique that combines the random and the reasoned to have in its corpus urban, semi-urban and rural councils, as well as complying with the geographical criterion.

Cameroon’s report indicates that the specific characteristics that guided the choice are official bilingualism (English and French), ecology (forest, Sahel, highlands), religion

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(Christianity and Islam), housing (rural and urban), and finally culture (organized and leaderless traditional society). The primary concern of researchers in Mali was to ensure representation of the three generations of councils in the country’s decentralization process. The first generation of councils were created before independence (between 1919 and 1958), the councils of the second generation emerged from the reform of 1977, after which the Bamako District was divided into six councils, and lastly, the third generation of councils that were created by Law No. 96-059 of November 1996. The same considerations guided the teams in Ghana, Burkina Faso and Niger.

The choice of actors to be interviewed in councils is easy since the methodological framework has already set targets and information to be sought from each group. All the mayors and chairpersons of regional councils were interviewed, while discussions were held with only one quarter of the members of each of the other groups. The table below shows the survey sites by country. It should be noted that initially the choice was not easy considering the number of councils in each country and the parameters to be considered to obtain the six councils.

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Tab

le 5

: Dec

entr

aliz

atio

n St

atus

and

Sel

ectio

n of

Sur

vey

Site

s

Burk

ina

Faso

Cam

erou

nG

hana

Mal

iN

iger

Sene

gal

Cou

ncils

sele

ctio

n cr

iteri

a

Reas

oned

sele

ctio

n, 4

ur

ban

and

2 ru

ral

Sele

ctio

nof

reg

ions

(6 o

ut o

f10

)

and

co

unci

ls

Age

,ge

ogra

phy

(Sou

th,

Nor

th

an

d C

entr

e)

and

habi

tat

Age

(th

e 3

gene

ratio

ns)

habi

tat,

geog

raph

y an

dpo

tent

ial

Clim

atic

zone

, hab

itat,

geog

raph

ic a

l lo

catio

n, a

ge

Reas

oned

sele

ctio

n

(hav

e ur

ban,

sem

i- ur

ban,

ru

ral a

nd

diffe

rent

ca

tego

ries

of c

ounc

ils).

Site

s

Urb

anA

reas

Bobo

-D

ioul

asso

,K

oudo

ugou

, K

aya

an

d Zo

rgho

Baga

ngté

, Fo

umbo

t, N

goum

ou,

Ako

no,

Mel

ong;

Ba

ré-

Baka

m,

Nga

ound

al,

Mei

gang

a,

Kum

bo,

Ndo

p,

Muy

uka

and

Buea

.

Tolo

n-K

anbu

gu,

Nan

umba

, K

wab

re,

Atw

ima-

Nw

abia

gya,

D

angm

e W

est,

Ga

Wes

t

Kay

es,

Sika

sso,

Mun

icip

al C

ounc

il 3

of B

amak

o

Mar

adi,

Gur

e an

d Ti

llabé

ryPi

kine

(d

akar

), Lo

uga,

Ru

fisqu

e,

Fatic

k

Rura

l

Are

as

Bagr

é

an

dA

rbol

é

Mou

ntou

goul

a,Pé

leng

ana

and

Kor

o

Toro

di,

Kan

tche

, and

C

hada

kori

Lam

baye

, Ye

nne

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4.3. Methodological Difficulties The initial survey protocol was modified even before

the start of the research at the request of some national coordinators. The two lead researchers could not monitor the preparation of the case studies, which led to differences in the final presentation of results tools and plans, as well as delays in the product delivery. At the operational level, the collection of field data was not always easy and in some cases (Niger, Senegal, and Mali) the researchers encountered many difficulties in obtaining information, especially in the health sector. The managers of health facilities demanded authorizations given by their ministries for them to release the requested data.

v. presenTaTion anD analysis of resulTs

In June 2010, the Study Coordination organized a workshop to take stock of the research work done. The meeting defined a format for presentation of the results based on eight research questions. The teams had to provide answers for each point so as to facilitate preparation of the summary. For purposes of exhaustive presentation, the results by country are detailed herewith.

5.1. Ghana The Ghana team submitted a summary of their results

in a table, as well as in prose. We have opted for the table so as to save time in translation.

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Table 6: Results of Ghana Case Study

QUESTION 1: Is decentralization effective from the point of view of the actors and local power play?

Sub-Questions Results

Existence of laws and Regulations

Decentralization is instituted with texts to guide its implementation

Actor’s views on the Implementation

Decisions in the three sectors (education, water and health) are taken at the national, departmental and even local levels

Evidence of effective Decentralization

(1) As regards health, decentralization has improved monitoring-evaluation ;(2) Budget allocations have been made for all the sectors, even though the amounts are often inadequate;(3) The municipal councils issue orders to monitor performance in education-learning, particularly through parent-teacher associations and school management committees.

Powers of the actors

The national authorities often maintain the powers that should be exercised by the decentralized structures. Consequently, local officials do not always have the required powers to implement their programmes.

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QUESTION 2: What levels of transfer of powers and resources are required to exercise them?

Staff transfer

The central government appoints 1. 30% of the councilors to strengthen the capacities of the municipal councils. Experts (teachers, nurses, doctors and technicians) are transferred to the departments to fill vacant positions.The departmental education 2. officials transfer new teachers as well as the old teachers who want to change their positions

Resources

(a) 5% to 7% of the national budget is paid into a joint local Authorities’ support fund.

(b) Equipment and other goods are transferred to the councils.

Challenges

(a) The lack of social services in rural areas often discourages staff from going to remote areas and demotivates those who are there. (b) Delays in disbursement of funds by the Government.

(c) Low qualifications of some municipal councilors

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Question 3: Are the transferred powers exercised? If so, to what level of satisfaction?

H o w a r e t h e y exercised?

Councilors assigned to committees 1. in line with their skillsThe competent councilors prepare 2. the budgets in consultation with the technical staffThe staff transferred from the 3. national level are transferred according to their specializations and needs of the council.Government programmes are 4. implemented in councils by experts provided by the Government.

Level of satisfactionOn the whole, the experts work well despite problems of retention of information in rural areas.

Question 4: What is the level of synergy between policy implementation structures at community level?

Level of synergy b e t w e e n s e c t o r structures at local level

The decentralized authorities 1. face social issues through the management committees of the sectors concerned which plan in accordance with available resources. Implementation of the activities is entrusted to experts.The sector committees take into 2. account national policies in their work.

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Level of synergy between local and national structures

The provisions of municipal council texts ensure that there is synergy between the national and local organs responsible for development.

Question 5: Does the level of integration of local structures help to ensure efficient conduct of sector policies on water, health and education?

O p e r a t i o n a l framework

Section 113 of the Law of 2007 establishes a regional council in charge of coordinating the proper implementation of education, water and health policies in compliance with national plans and programmes.

Evidence of good integration

Municipal plans and programmes 1. are based on national plans and programmes.

The disbursement of State financial 2. support takes into account the priorities of the district, which is the basic planning level.

Local community needs are 3. transmitted to councils through their representatives in the said councils.

Data show that implementation of 4. government policies in the three sectors is largely successful.

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Question 6: Is there synergy of action between the management organs to promote access to all basic social services (so as to reduce inequalities)?

Evidence

Evidence of synergy between the different organs is as follows:

Automatic membership of all 1. officials in the municipal council and its social affairs committee;Regular accountability of all officials 2. to the Council and its social affairs committee.

Question 7: How have sector services delivery policies helped to reduce gender disparities in general and promote women leaders, in particular?

Examples of policy impacts

Poll tax subsidies make education 1. free for all; parents therefore do not pay school fees. As a result, more girls go to school, thereby reducing gender disparities.The school feeding programme 2. results in parents spending less for their children, thereby improving participation by boys and girls.The maternal health policy and 3. national health insurance help families to economize money and meet other needs. Gender disparities in access to health care have disappeared.

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Examples of policy impacts (to be continued)

Women’s interest and activism in 4. the water sector have motivated some of them to assume leadership positions in the sector structures.The availability of electricity has 5. enabled women to engage in economic activities that reinforce their economic independence and empowerment.In each district, an officer is assigned 6. to promote and monitor girls’ education. Once the obstacles have been identified, efforts are made at the appropriate decision-making level to eliminate them.

Question 8: What motivated the States to embark on the decentralization process?

History of theConstitution

The motivation for decentralization is based on historical and legal considerations:

1. The colonial heritage (Indirect Rule) ; 2. The provision of the constitution since independence which stipulates that decision-making powers are entrusted to the decentralized authorities.

3. Globalization calls for decentralization a s g u a r a n t e e f o r d e m o c r a t i c governance.

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3.1. Cameroon The Cameroon team presented its results in a table, but

we had to adapt its format to that of Ghana for purposes of concision. Indeed, Cameroon’s table was quite different from the format jointly adopted in Ouagadougou in June 2010. Table 7: Results of Cameroon Case Study


Sub-Questions Results

Existence of lawsand regulations

Decentralization draws its legitimacy from the Constitution of 1996 and the laws of July 2004, supplemented by the Law of November 2008. Despite adoption of the texts, it is not yet effective because the actors – local elected officials and the population—do not know the related texts.

Ways of participation in decentralization by actors and beneficiaries

Decentralization is far from being effective in Cameroun. Knowledge of texts on decentralization is low among the local elected officials and the beneficiary population.

What is their levelof involvement?

The level of involvement is therefore low.

Are there any consultation frameworks? If so, are they operating?

The various committees exist in the council organization. However, the illiteracy of most of the municipal councilors and their dispersal throughout the territory make them difficult to operate

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Are there disputesin the implemen-tation of decentralization?

There are disputes, particularly as regards regional development.

How are theyresolved?

The disputes are resolved by the supervisory administrative officer, who is the Prefect. Sensitization through local radios, public events, and political meetings also helps to resolve the disputes.


What powers aretransferred?

Education: Creation and manage-ment of primary and nursery schoolsWater: water supply to the population.Health: Management of council health centres (COSA, COGE).Management of skilled staff in all the sectors

Why are the othersnot transferred?

The civil servants are still managed by the central administration for reasons of security of their career profiles.

What resources areeffectively transferred?

Resources generated from taxes and levies collected by the councils.Resources collected by the central administration are not yet transferred. However, the texts were signed recently.

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Are the powerstotally or partially transferred?

Transfer is still partial because the central administration continues to have oversight on all council activities.


What is the level ofe x e r c i s e o f t h e powers transferred?

Exercise of the powers transferred is still low at all levels. The local organs implement the decisions of the central administration. The major decisions are taken by the central administration (management of human and financial resources).

Are members of local management organs trained to fulfill their mission?

Members of participation organs are trained on the job.Council staff are not trained either, except for the general secretaries who are trained at the council administration training centre.

Is there a citizencontrol organ? If so, which?

No.

What is the level ofactors’ satisfaction?

Satisfaction is partial.

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Question 4: What is the level of synergy between policy implementation structures at community level?

Are there any consultation frameworks?

There are consultation frameworks.

Do the consultation frameworks hold their ordinary sessions regularly?

Meetings are held, but irregularly.

Do most members participate in the sessions?

The geographic dispersal of the local elected officers is a major obstacle to participation in meetings.

Is there a councildevelopment plan?

Only a few councils have local development plans, despite the existence of the national participatory development programme and the Support Project for Decentralization and Local Development.

Question 5: Does the level of integration of local structures help to ensure efficient conduct of sector policies on water, health and education?9

Does the operationof consultation frameworks help to achieve the resultsof the sector policies (ESW)?

The frameworks are not operating because of dispersal of members of the various committees, who delay the holding of the various meetings.

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The level of resources transferred is low. Some analysts seethis as sabotage by government officials. What do you think?

The resistance by government officials in most cases is due to conflict of interest.

Question 6: Is there synergy of action between the management organs to promote access to all basic social services (so as to reduce inequalities)?

W h a t m e a s u r e s have been taken to facilitate access by beneficiaries to basic social services (ESW)?

No special measures taken. The beneficiaries do all they can to have access to basic social services

Question 7: How have sector resources delivery policies helped to reduce gender disparities, in general, and promote women leaders, in particular?

How many councilors are in the municipal council?

No specific number of seats are reserved for women. However, the law provides that the lists of municipal councilors must comply with the sociological composition of the society (women, young people, etc.)

Do they haver e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s within the councils?

Generally, one seat is reserved for women in the municipal executive bureau (mayors and deputy mayors)

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What responsibilitiesare held by women in COGES?

The responsibilities of women in COGES are not specific. They may, like men, occupy all the positions of responsibility depending on the trust given to them by the other members.

Question 8: What motivated the States to embark on the decentralization process?It is more the external pressure from international donors that has forced the Government to seek to satisfy a political interest and give more value to local chiefdoms.

5.3. Niger The Niger team answered the research questions

and presented their results in a text format. The study shows that there are management committees in the six councils visited. The opinions of the different actors, who are stakeholders of this process, can be summarized as follows:

5.3.1 satisfaction of the various Actors All those consulted were satisfied with the establishment

of management structures for basic social services. Indeed, 84.61% of the officials of the administration and decentralized government services are satisfied with the decentralization of basic social services, 80.77% with the functioning of school management committees (COGES), and 61.54% with the water, education and health infrastructure. This high satisfaction rate is also recorded among the beneficiaries with 94.63%, 94.63% and 63.75% respectively. Nearly all the actors are satisfied with:

The establishment of management committees (COGES): The COGES are well established in the survey

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zones, particularly in schools, followed by CSIs. The COGES of water points are relatively few because of the existence of private organizations working in this sector in some areas. The graph below shows the existence of COGES in the three sectors. Graph 2: Existence of Management Committees in Sites in Niger (N=149)

Involvement of the Population: The population is very involved in the management of basic social services. Thus, according to Graph 3 below, about sixty-seven percent (66.66%) of community members are involved in school management, more than fifty-two percent (52.17%) in the management of health centers, while less than fifty percent (46.37%) feel involved in water management. It is clear that participation is higher in education, and lower in water. As mentioned above, in town, water is supplied by a private company. In rural areas also, private structures are contracted by promoters, particularly mini-DWS for technical monitoring and infrastructure management. They establish committees to oversee the performance of vendors.

9 The report does not answer questions 5, 6 and 7. The expected results will be obtained from the data, and not from principles. The report is vague on this matter

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Graph 3 : Participation of the Population in Sites in Niger

IMPLICATION DE LA POPULATION66

,66

1,44

31,88

46,37

1,44

52,17

52,17

1,44

46,37

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

OUI NON NR

POUR

CENT

AGE Implication gestion

ECOLE Implication gestion EAU

Implication gestionSANTE

Participation by the population: The committee helps to solve the problems of the school, water points and health facilities because it symbolizes the physical, material and financial contribution of the population. For example, the management committees of the nine water points in Tillabéry have bank accounts in financial institutions within the municipality. The funds are used for routine maintenance and repair works.

Improving the management of basic social services: The community management organs have created awareness and mass participation (especially of women) in the delivery of social services, and infrastructure ownership by the communities.

The high rate of literate people in Management Committees: Graph 4 below shows that a high proportion of management committee members have an acceptable level of education to keep infrastructure management records.

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Graph 4: Education Profile of Municipal Councilors in Niger

Répartition des membres de comités par niveau d'instruction

11,60%

21,74%

13,04% 13,04%18,84%

8,70%13,04%

0,00%5,00%

10,00%15,00%20,00%25,00%

Alphab

étisé

s

Scolaris

és

Etudes c

oraniq

ues

Primair

e

Second

aire

Supéri

eur

NR

Niveau

Pour

cent

age

The COGES, AUE and CGE are an information framework for the grassroots population: The population are interested in COGES and CGE activities because meetings of the organs and general feedback assemblies organized by these committees are information frameworks for citizens on the issue of services offered by the basic social sectors. It is also on this occasion that specific problems related to management of these three (3) basic social services are discussed and debated.

Proximity of social services: From 2004 to 2009, several technical and financial partners constructed many infrastructures (schools, water points, and CSI) in the various villages of these councils in their support for decentralization. Decentralization has not only brought the basic social services close to the population, but also promoted the involvement and empowerment of beneficiaries in the planning and construction of infrastructure.

User satisfaction: All actors said they were somewhat satisfied with the functioning of the comittees because

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they have improved services offered in the basic social sectors, increased infrastructure, and provided free and/or low cost health care. The CGE or COGES function normally (87.24% of the responses) and report on their activities during statutory meetings.

Internal democracy: The committees have been established by the people themselves after public elections, or by consensus. Committee decisions are taken collegially because each member expresses their opinions freely. The sessions also serve as forums for resolving internal conflicts in the committees, or even those between the committees and the communities.

Behaviour change: Public participation in managing the delivery of services has created perceptible awareness of the need to improve the working conditions of teachers, school attendance and academic performance. Change is also evident in the health sector, in which all COGES say they contribute to the identification of needs, planning, assessment of activities, and management of drugs.

Development of synergy of actions: The study revealed synergy of actions not only between the councils themselves, but also among the various management committees.

Indeed, in Zinder region, inter-council activities enabled four rural councils, namely Kantché, Icharnawa, Garagoumsa and Droum, to jointly and optimally operate and manage the natural resources of Takéita forest reserve. This synergy of actions between the councils is also evident in staff management. Indeed, the three municipalities in Matameye department (Kantché, Icharnawa, and Daoutché) share two council officers: the Secretary- General and the Municipal Revenue Collector.

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Still in Zinder region, Goure and Guidigir councils share the services of a revenue collector. The same applies to Chadakori and Saye Sabuwa rural councils in Maradi region, which share a council secretary.

There is also synergy between the management committees for physical participation of the population in actions of common interest. The committees exchange experiences on how to manage their structures.

Involvement of other actors: In the field, several other actors help to improve basic social services. Technical and financial partners (TFP), including the United Nations system and bilateral cooperation, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs), are the key actors, who make considerable resources available to councils and communities.

The survey shows that the involvement of these actors has improved management, as well as ensured the massive participation of the population (particularly of women in health facilities) and infrastructure maintenance, and brought the people together around a common ideal for their well-being.

5.3.2 Constraints The satisfaction of the various stakeholders should not

conceal the difficulties that beset the decentralization of basic social services. Indeed, an analysis of data collected in the six councils shows several types of bottlenecks that hamper effectiveness of the process.

The bottlenecks can be classified into two categories: institutional difficulties and structural difficulties related to the functioning of structures put in place.

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5.3.2.1. institutional constraints Several institutional problems hamper the

decentralization of basic social services; they include: The application of laws and regulations governing the • three sectors is limited at all levels. One of the major causes is the ignorance of the committee members (only 42% of actors say they know them). This ignorance is due to limited synergy between the various committees. Incomplete decentralization of State services • deprives local authorities of the technical skills they need. Even in education and health, which are the most decentralized, the central administration decides on the use of human resources and the allocation of financial and material resources. Indeed, teachers, health employees, and supervision are still the responsibility of the State. The limited experience of the decentralization process • because the councilors are in their first term of office, thereby limiting any hasty conclusion on this experience and the underlying management model. The limited powers transferred to the local authorities, • with the State remaining the main political actor and confining the decentralized structures to the implementation of actions following decisions by the central administration with little room for maneuver for minor adjustments to local realities.

The study highlights the frustrations of the population with the declining quality of health care due to lack of devotion by employees and inadequate products as a result of non-reimbursement of expenses based on political decisions

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relating to cost recovery. In towns, the patients are obliged to go to private clinics for treatment to avoid bad reception by government officials. In education, the problems are absenteeism of contract employees, extremely big class sizes and inadequate classrooms.

5.3.2.2 structural constraints For the most part, these difficulties are related to the

operation of COGES and other management structures of basic social services. The field survey noted the following:

• The low financial capacity of councils, which limits their interventions in the social sectors, a situation worsened by the lack of government support despite the provisions of Law N° 2002-17 of 11th June 2002 which provides for the establishment of a Decentralization Support Fund and an Equalization Fund. From the creation of councils in 2005 to the present day, they have received no direct financial support from the State, even when budget allocations were made for 2005, 2006 and 2008.

In these circumstances, it is understandable that users and members of community participation organs are disappointed with the contribution of councils to the delivery of basic social services, and that local authority officials are reluctant to disclose the budgeted amounts for any particular sector. Table 8 below shows the low council budgets and low execution rates for 2008, including the recurring and capital budget.

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Table 8: 2008 Budget for the three sectors in the councils visited in Niger

Commune Council Budget

Allocations for the three

sectors

Percentage of the budget Execution Percentage

Tillabéry 188,404,289F 40,182,950F 21.32% 11,765,252F 29.27%

Kantché 207,220,000F 1,970,000F 9.50% 721,268F 36.61%

Maradi I 138,841,694F 12,369,201F 8.90% 5,948,940f 48.09%

Chadakori 37,574,800F 2,400,000F 6.38% 00F 00%

Gouré 143,271,268F 25,407,827F 17.73% 13,416,799F 52.40%

Torodi Not Available

Based on these figures, it could be said that the officials of the councils visited do not give priority to the social sectors. However, this statement could be nuanced by stressing that the root cause is low revenue collection.

• The inadequate qualifications of human resources are a major obstacle to the proper functioning of community participation structures. Management committees with skilled technicians are scarce. The situation is compounded by inadequate State support and/or supervision. The training sessions organized for committee officials are far from providing the skills required for smooth running of COGES.

Mention should also be made of the illiteracy of a rather significant number of local elected officials (1,376 out of 3,132 or 43.93% of councilors from the first local elections), which hampers not only council management but also smooth functioning of the management structures of basic social services. Furthermore, with the councilors’ low proficiency in French, which is the working language of Niger’s administration, the issue of training becomes very

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important. Admittedly, the national percentage of illiterate local elected officials conceals regional disparities - 66.23% in Diffa, 51.39% in Maradi, 44.95% in Dosso, and 42.50% in Tahoua. The Urban Council of Niamey, the capital city, recorded the lowest proportion of illiterates (18.85%), followed by Zinder region (37.70%) and Agadez region (39.78%).

The survey shows a strong presence of former workers in the various management committees of the councils visited under the study; however, the administrative officials noted that the workers do not use their literacy skills because of lack of opportunities to do so.

The poverty of the population on the sites visited, • like the entire population of Niger, especially those in rural areas, often makes it difficult to cover all education, health and water costs. Another challenge is the principle of volunteering. Indeed, members of management committees are not remunerated for the work they do, hence the lack of motivation or discouragement of many members. Despite these risks, the administrative officials think that, overall, the committee members are willing to continue working for the honor they derive from it. The functioning of the organs depends on: (i) their age (Tillabéry), (ii) heritage of technical services from departments (Maradi I and Goure Councils), and (iii) the experience of the mayors. However, in general, the reports of HCME exploratory missions, corroborated by the findings of missions from the Ministry of the Interior and Decentralization, show

83 eRnWaca / ROCARE

a strong tendency for politicization of council management. Partisanship usually takes precedence over • administrative and managerial considerations. The council is seen more as a political arena than a development forum, hence the non-sharing of ideas on issues of general interest. Within such a context, the production and delivery of public services depend on political considerations. An internal memorandum from the Ministry of the Interior and Decentralization indicates that about forty mayors (15%) had been suspended as at 20 September 2008 following two-thirds majority decisions taken by municipal councils. Inadequate synergy between community management • committees and municipal officials clearly shows the distrust between them. This weakness is evident in the inability of several councils to perform their administrative duties (initial installation and organization of services) and ensure day-to-day running of the council. Bias in the establishment of management structures • is also a cause of their poor performance, according to the actors and previous studies. This except from the 2005-2010 Health Development Programme (PDS) clearly illustrates this statement: «...community structures are often run by local elites, some of whom belong to aristocratic groups. Acting as interface between the village and the administrative system (the CSI, district, sub-prefecture, etc.), they are most often co-opted.” In a study on the operation of COGES, Bozari Consulting Firm notes that terms of

84 eRnWaca / ROCARE

office are not respected, with more than one-third of the council executive bureaux in office for several years after the end of their terms of office. • Mismanagement of cost-recovery funds, which are misappropriated due to weak internal control.

Auditors do their work in only 17% of the CSIs. Indeed, many of them are illiterate and are not trained for the task.

5.4. Mali Mali’s team made a very detailed presentation, which we

summarize below.

5.4.1. Characteristics of surveyed Actors Table 9 below presents the socio-demographic characteristics

of the 686 actors, divided into eight (8) categories. Table 9: Breakdown of Surveyed Actors by Category

CatégoriesActors met Including

WomenEnvironment

Number % Rural Urban

Beneficiaries 297 43.29 142 187 110Education actors 211 30.79 18 137 74Health actors 59 08.60 10 34 25Water actors 31 04.51 08 09 22Councilors 29 04.22 05 15 14NGO actors 24 03.49 00 14 10Central Officials 21 03.06 03 00 21Technical employees 14 02.04 00 11 03

Total 686 100 186 407 279

85 eRnWaca / ROCARE

The survey involved more women in Kayes and Bamako urban councils, with 40.50% and 38.46% respectively of those interviewed. Sikasso town (32.35%) is in between urban and rural councils. The proportions of women in the councils were 20% in Koro, 20.54% in Montougoula, and 27.58% in Péléngana. As regards age, the predominant age group is 36 to 45 years (27.98% of the entire sample), followed by the 46 to 55 years group (26.23%).

With respect to marital status, there are 566 married people (82.50%) as against only 120 single persons (17.50%). The demographic data also showed that 190 people (27.69%), including 52 women, underwent secondary education and that 159 others (23.17%), including 50 women, all rural, have not received any formal education. However, 131 actors (19.09%), including 14 women, were of higher education level. The others had low literacy levels.

5.4.2. presentation, Analysis and interpretation of Results

5.4.2.1. Motivations for Decentralization in Mali

The reasons for Mali opting for decentralization include recommendations of the National Conference (319 occurrences), demands by the population (313 occurrences), political will (230 occurrences), external influence (144 occurrences), the rebellion (142 occurrences) and return to the former system (cited 74 times). The table below shows the reasons given by the actors.

86 eRnWaca / ROCARE

Table 10: Frequency of reasons given by the actors in terms of gender, zone and council

Zone

Motivations

Council

Demands by theRebellion

Exigence de la rébellion

NationalConference

Political Will

R e t u r n toTradition

ExternalInfluence

T ♀ T ♀ T ♀ T ♀ T ♀ T ♀

Rural

Mountou-goula 60 10 40 6 37 0 41 18 15 3 30 8

Péléngana 44 8 13 4 55 8 38 20 10 0 26 1

Koro 40 12 15 3 46 8 31 4 13 0 7 0

Sous total 144 30 68 13 138 16 110 42 38 3 63 9

Urban

Kayes 39 9 27 7 42 4 34 13 6 0 22 12

Sikasso 30 8 11 5 42 10 24 13 8 0 15 3

Commune 3 80 23 21 6 76 27 47 23 12 0 25 5

Sous total 149 40 59 18 160 41 105 49 26 0 62 20

Centrale 20 3 15 1 21 3 15 2 10 1 19 3

Total 331 73 142 32 331 60 230 93 74 4 144 32

T : Total ♀: Women

5.4.2.2. effectiveness of Decentralization Policies among actors and local situation

Adoption of regulations governing the creation of councils and transfer of powers to councils is the main guarantee of effective decentralization. The number of actors aware of the existence of the texts (531 out of 686, or 77.40%) is an encouraging sign for the functioning of local assemblies. The second indicator of effective decentralization is the support of stakeholders at all levels and beneficiaries of basic social services (673 favorable opinions as against 4 unfavorable (0.58%) and 9 undecided actors (1.31%). The actors indicated that they participate in the life of their councils mainly through

87 eRnWaca / ROCARE

voting, involvement in the management of affairs and human investment, if necessary. The table below gives the methods of participation cited by the actors. Better still, the various actors point out that councils and local management structures were able to ensure continuity of services (625 out of 686 or 91.10%).

88 eRnWaca / ROCARE

Tabl

e 11

: Fre

quen

cy o

f par

ticip

atio

n m

etho

ds c

ited

by th

e ac

tors

in te

rms

of g

ende

r,

zon

e an

d co

unci

l

Zone

Supp

ort

Met

hod

Cou

ncil

Vot

ing

Man

agem

ent

Paym

ent o

f tax

esTe

chni

cal a

dvic

esSe

nsiti

zatio

nW

ork

♂♀

T ♂

♀T

♂♀

T♂

♀T

♂♀

T♂

♀T

Rura

l

Mun

tugu

la

125

2715

259

1574

138

3217

022

426

9518

113

8733

120

Pélé

ngan

a93

2111

445

1358

7720

9718

321

5917

7656

2480

Kor

o88

1199

467

5395

1911

415

520

7820

9857

2178

Sous

tota

l30

659

365

150

3518

531

071

381

5512

6723

255

287

200

7827

8

Urb

an

Kay

es65

2691

2517

4273

1386

242

2648

1058

3930

69

Sika

sso

4612

5823

730

5113

6413

417

4212

5435

1550

Com

mun

e 3

8728

115

2219

4165

3398

2518

4354

2781

2140

61

Sous

tota

l19

866

264

7043

113

189

5924

862

2486

144

4919

395

8518

0

Cen

tral

e17

320

152

1718

321

183

2116

218

00

0

Tota

l52

112

864

923

580

315

517

133

650

135

3917

439

210

649

829

516

345

8

H :

Men

♀

: Wom

en

T :

Tota

l

89 eRnWaca / ROCARE

5.4.2.3. transfer of Powers and ResourcesThe powers transferred to the local authorities in education

are the best known even though the number of actors who are well informed of them is low. The level of effectiveness of such transfers can be illustrated by the proportion of the 282 actors who know the powers in question (fair to average: 226 or 80.14% as against 56 or 19.86% who are well informed). The powers transferred in health are known by 7 out of 117 (5.98%) as against 110 stakeholders, who believe they know a little to average (94.02%). Out of 88 surveyed actors in the water sector, only three (3.42%) have a good knowledge of the powers transferred to their organs as against 15 whose knowledge is average (17.04%) and 70 with a little knowledge (79.54%). These local actors say that the transfer of water infrastructure is effective, but pointed out that there were no skilled human resources for its maintenance and management.

In the education and health sectors, the opinions of the actors are divided between partial and total transfer for the first sector as against partial transfer and no transfer for the second. With respect to transfer of human resources, the views of grassroots actors are different from those of the central actors. They converge more in terms of ineffective transfer of financial resources. The health sector is lagging behind at all levels, even though significant progress has been made in infrastructure.

5.4.2.4 exercise of the transferred powersTo know if the transferred powers are effectively exercised,

the research team focused on their effective exercise, the presence of competent staff by sector, the operation of management organs, legality control, and citizen control. The table below indicates that effectiveness of exercise of

90 eRnWaca / ROCARE

the transferred powers in education is more evident in the management of basic education, particularly the organization of examinations and construction of infrastructure. It should be noted that four transferred powers are not on the list: (i) specific curricula, (ii) local strategies for schooling, and (iii) the school map, and (iv) management of staff assigned to them.

In health, the powers exercised are limited to the preparation of health development plans and the signing of agreements with ASACOs, as well as monitoring their performance. The actors also mentioned maintenance of hygiene and sanitation in health facilities. The local actors did not mention some of their powers, such as (i) monitoring of actual transmission of health information, including financial data, (ii) preparation of the council health map, (iii) the fight against illicit sale of drugs, and (iv) control of epidemics and disasters.

In the water sector, the actors said that they participate in the preparation of the rural and urban council water supply development plan and the construction and equipment of drinking water infrastructure. They also control and monitor structures approved for infrastructure management. It should be noted that only the actors of Bamako Council III and Pelengana and Koro rural councils said they exercise all transferred powers in the water sector.

Transfer of powers does not necessarily mean that they are exercised. In order to verify if the powers are exercised, the researchers sought to ensure that the organs are operational. The data collected by the Mali team suggest that municipal councils and their executives, the work committees of the said councils, and the management committees of the three sectors covered by this study hold ordinary sessions, and even extraordinary sessions, and their deliberations are recorded as minutes. This was indicated by 461 out of 665

91 eRnWaca / ROCARE

surveyed actors (69.32%) as regards ordinary sessions and 223 actors for extraordinary sessions. The activities of municipal councils are regularly monitored by the supervisory authorities for compliance with the law. However, the actors complained about the lack of citizen control, which was mentioned by only 43 out of the 117 actors in Council III of Bamako District.

5.4.2.5 synergy between implementing community structures

For the communities to benefit from decentralization, it is important for the various actors to coordinate their activities so as to optimize the use of human, financial and material resources. The study protocol provided for assessment of the level of synergy between the community structures that implement sector policies. The related mechanisms provided for frameworks such as the municipal socio-economic and cultural development plan (PDSEC), the municipal education development plan (PDECOM), the municipal health development plan (CSDP), the municipal rural and urban water development plan (PCDHRU) and frameworks for dialog between the actors and the dispute arbitration, regulation and resolution organs.

Existence of various tools was noted by the researchers in all councils visited, with the exception of the rural and urban water development plan, which was certified only in Koro council. The establishment of consultation frameworks was mentioned by 600 out of the 686 actors (87.46%), while 61 people (8.89%) claimed the contrary. The working relations between councils and supervisory authorities and technical services, as well as between local councils and partners are satisfactory with 97.67% and 73.27% respectively. The relations between the councils and beneficiaries are

92 eRnWaca / ROCARE

less successful, in light of the number of actors who are satisfied (39.74%). The actors were also dissatisfied with collaboration between the community management organs for the three sectors with 190 out of 298 people who are a little satisfied or not at all (63.76%); on the other hand, the beneficiaries are satisfied with their relations with the management committees (428 favorable opinions against 166 unfavorable).

93 eRnWaca / ROCARE

Table 12: Frequency of powers exercised by the actors in M

ali (Education)

LevelR

uralU

rbanTotal

SectorPow

erSexe

Muntu-

gulaPélén-gana

Koro

TotalK

ayesSikasso

Bamako3

Total

Preparation of the education developm

ent plan

♂63

3042

13519

1635

70205

♀2

12

53

07

1015

T65

3144

14022

1632

80220

Construction,

equipment and

maintenance of

1st Cycle

♂70

3345

14820

1837

75223

♀3

23

84

09

1331

T73

3548

15624

1846

88254

Managem

ent of1st C

ycle

♂72

3547

15421

1937

77245

♀3

33

95

09

1425

T75

3850

16326

1946

91270

Construction and

managem

ent of C

EDs

♂34

1725

7612

1028

50126

♀1

21

42

05

711

T35

1926

8014

1033

57137

Education Sector

94 eRnWaca / ROCARE

Tabl

eau

12 (c

ontin

ued)

Leve

lR

ural

Urb

an

Tota

lSe

cteu

rC

ompé

tenc

esSe

xeM

untu

-gu

laPé

lén-

gana

Kor

oTo

tal

Kay

esSi

kas

soBa

mak

o3To

tal

Man

agem

ent

and

mo

nit

ori

ng

o

f Li

tera

cy C

entr

es

(CA

)

♂23

1214

4911

918

3887

♀0

11

23

04

79

T23

1315

5113

922

4596

Recr

uitm

ent

and

m

anag

emen

t

of1s

t Cyc

le te

ache

rs

♂69

3243

144

2018

3775

219

♀3

23

84

09

1321

T72

3446

152

2418

4688

240

Org

aniz

atio

n an

d m

anag

emen

t

of1st

cyc

leex

amin

atio

ns

♂72

3547

154

2119

3777

245

♀3

33

95

09

1425

T75

3850

163

2619

4691

270

Education sector

95 eRnWaca / ROCARE

Table 12 (continued)

LevelR

uralU

rbainTotal

SectorPow

erSexe

Muntu-

gulaPélén-gana

Koro

TotalK

ayesSikasso

Bamako3

Total

Participation in com

munity

school salaries

♂20

1015

459

713

2974

♀1

21

42

04

59

T21

1216

4911

717

3483

Production of school statistics1st C

ycle

♂0

00

06

520

3131

♀0

00

00

05

55

T0

00

06

525

3636

Creation,

opening, m

anagement

and monitoring

of pre-school institutions

♂0

00

03

617

2626

♀0

00

02

04

66

T0

00

05

621

3232

Education sector

96 eRnWaca / ROCARE

Education sector

Tabl

e 12

(co

ntin

ued

and

end)

Leve

lR

ural

Urb

ain

Tota

lSe

ctor

Pow

erSe

xeM

untu

-gu

laPé

lén-

gana

Kor

oTo

tal

Kay

esSi

kas-

soBa

mak

o3To

tal

Org

aniz

atio

n an

d op

erat

ion

of

scho

ol c

ante

ens

♂53

1720

900

00

090

♀3

22

70

00

07

T56

1922

970

00

097

97 eRnWaca / ROCARE

5.4.2.6. Performance of sector policies implementation

To what extent is the implementation of sector policies effective for the users? In answer to this question, the decentralization actors in Mali feel that integration promotes effective management of sector policies at local level as indicated by 264 actors out of 351 (17 very satisfied, 144 satisfied, and 103 fairly satisfied) as against 29 people who are not satisfied. The remaining 52 expressed no opinion.

As regards fiscal achievements, the surveyed actors were requested to assess the level of achievement of key indicators for each basis social sector. The table below shows that the most significant progress towards achievement of the indicators was made in the education sector. The levels of achievement in health are less satisfactory, even though they are higher than those of the water sector.

98 eRnWaca / ROCARE

Tabl

e 13

: Lev

el o

f ach

ieve

men

t of s

ecto

r ind

icat

ors

in M

ali

Sect

or

Leve

l of A

chie

vem

ent

Not

ach

ivie

dA

Litt

leA

chie

ved

+ or

–ac

hiev

edA

chie

ved

No

Opi

nion

Tota

l

Leve

lC

ounc

ils♂

♀T

♂♀

T♂

♀T

♂♀

T♂

♀T

♂♀

T

Educ

atio

n

Rura

l

Mou

ntou

goul

a8

08

291

3014

115

70

714

115

723

75

Pélé

ngan

a4

04

132

159

09

40

45

16

353

38

Kor

o5

05

182

2011

011

50

58

19

473

50

Sub-

tota

l17

017

605

6534

135

160

1627

330

154

916

3

Urb

an

Kay

es1

01

41

57

310

71

82

02

215

26

Sika

sso

00

02

02

100

105

05

20

219

019

Cou

ncils

III

00

02

13

133

1620

424

21

337

946

sub

tota

l1

01

82

1030

636

325

376

17

7714

91

Cen

tral

00

00

00

101

114

15

00

014

216

Tota

l18

018

687

7574

882

526

5833

437

245

2527

0

99 eRnWaca / ROCARE

Table 13 (continued)

Sector Level of A

chievement

Not achivied

Little achivied+ or – achivied

Achivied

no opinionTotal

LevelC

ouncils♂

♀T

♂♀

T♂

♀T

♂♀

T♂

♀T

♂♀

T

Health

Rural

Mountougoula

41

57

29

70

73

03

30

324

327

Péléngana2

13

61

73

03

10

12

02

142

16

Koro

20

25

16

50

52

02

20

216

117

Sous total8

210

184

2215

015

60

67

07

546

60

Urban

Kayes

00

04

15

21

33

14

10

110

313

Sikasso0

00

51

61

01

31

41

01

102

12

Council III

00

00

00

32

59

211

10

113

417

Sub total0

00

92

116

39

154

193

03

339

42

Central

00

010

212

30

30

00

00

013

215

Total8

210

378

4524

327

214

2510

010

10017

117

100 eRnWaca / ROCARE

Tabl

eau

13 (c

ontin

ued)

Sect

or

Leve

l of A

chie

vem

ent

Not

ach

ivie

dLi

ttle

achi

vied

+ or

– a

chiv

ied

Ach

ivie

dno

opi

nion

Tota

l

Leve

lC

ounc

ils♂

♀T

♂♀

T♂

♀T

♂♀

T♂

♀T

♂♀

T

Wat

er

Rura

l

Mou

ntou

goul

a4

04

20

20

00

00

03

03

90

9

Pélé

ngan

a8

08

20

20

00

00

03

14

131

14

Kor

o5

05

30

31

01

00

02

13

111

12

Sous

tota

l17

017

70

71

01

00

08

210

332

35

Urb

an

Kay

es3

25

41

51

01

00

02

13

104

14

Sika

sso

41

53

03

10

10

00

21

310

212

Cou

ncil

III

00

01

12

32

52

13

21

38

513

Sub

tota

l7

310

82

104

26

21

36

39

2811

39

Cen

tral

60

67

18

00

00

00

00

013

114

Tota

l30

333

223

255

27

21

314

519

7414

88


5.4.2.7. Decentralization and access to Basic social services

How has the decentralization policy facilitated people’s access to basic social services? The question was asked of members of management committees and beneficiaries. They indicated that the existence of committees for each sector in the council, and the training of elected officers and members of management committees give them the opportunity to participate in identifying the priorities included in the council development plans. The plans provide information for policy documents prepared by the Government. Indeed, the local actors argue that their representation in municipal executive bureau and management committees has helped to increase the number of schools and community health centres.

Better still, they feel they are important in the monitoring and evaluation of interventions in their communities, even though improvements are still needed for greater satisfaction. The highest level of dissatisfaction concerned inadequate involvement in monitoring, which corroborates the answers given for the almost total lack of citizen control.

This situation may be due to lack of technical skills at local level, although it could be argued that the solution for this deficit lies in community participation in monitoring and evaluation since it will create a demand for skills. Such communication will at least facilitate dialogue between the technicians and local leaders.

5.4.2.8. Decentralization policies and emergence of female leadership

Beyond the provisions in the texts (see Article 2 of the Constitution and Decree N°. 02-313/PRM of 4 June 2002), has the establishment of community participation


structures promoted the emergence of female leadership? An analysis of the municipal development plans shows that they contain specific aspects relating to coverage for women and vulnerable people. However, women’s representation in municipal councils is relatively low (30 out of 186, or 6.98%) and their presence in the executive bureau is even more insignificant, with two women in two rural council bureaux. It is interesting to note that the three urban councils with more female councilors (21 of 30) have not elected a single woman to their executive bureau. It is even more unusual to note that the school management committees have only 11 women out of 86 members (12.79%) in the six councils of the sample. There are 10 women out of 42 members (23.81%) of the management committees of health centres. Community water management structures are virtually non-existent, with only two rural councils that have a total of six members and with no woman.

The under-representation of women is due to socio-cultural constraints, discrimination and ignorance of their rights. Some actors argue that women withdraw because they are afraid of not keeping to their word. The aspects not mentioned in the list could be men’s struggle for direct or indirect benefits of the position of councilor or management committee member. It should be noted that the actors, both genders considered, agree that women demonstrate commitment to community activities.

5.4.3. Difficulties encountered in the decentralization process

Three main difficulties emerge from reading the documents consulted, as well as the results of interviews and questionnaires. The difficulties concern the legal framework, that is, the laws and regulations, as well as difficulties related


to material, human or financial resources, or those related to lack of information, a factor that hampers the involvement of the population in decision-making.

The texts are so many and are written at a level of French that is not accessible to all. The issue of resources, particularly human and financial resources, was widely discussed by the various actors, who deplored the ambivalent attitude of the central government that entrusts missions to local authorities without giving them the required resources. However, without qualified human resources in sufficient numbers, nothing solid can be achieved. To have the resources, a minimum amount of money is required, if only to enable technicians to work and generate more resources.

5.5. SenegalSenegal’s report presents the results by sector in much

detail. This summary is the outcome of our analysis of the data presented in the report.Table 14: Answers by the Senegalese team to the eight questions


Sub-Questions ResultsExistence of laws and regulations

The texts are adopted (see Laws of 22 May 1996 and their implementing decrees), but decentralization is not effectivebecause the human and financial resources required for implementing the provisions are not provided.


Methods of participation byactors and beneficiaries in decentralization.

The designation of mayors by the political coalition in power makes it difficult to mobilize opposition party supporters.

Existence of disputes andhow they are resolved.

Disputes are many because of the political power play. The majority vote law is used to resolve disputes.


What powers aretransferred?

Powers are transferred in education, health, environment and natural resource management, and housing and town planning.

W h y a r e t h e others nottransferred?

The population is less interested in the other sectors.

What resources are effectively transferred?

Funds for operating the organs.

Is the transfer partial or total?

Transfer is still partial because decentralization is still being experimented.



What is the level of exerciseof the transferred powers?

Local Authorities exercise the powers transferred to them.The Regional Council maintains colleges and high schools; The councils and communities maintain elementary schools.

Are the management organsoperational?

Parent-Teacher Associations pay the school security guards and ensure that the schools are clean.The health committees buy medical drugs and pay the community staff.Borehole management committees ensure the operation of the motor for the pump.

Have the members of localmanagement committeesbeen trained for their mission?

The members of participation organs are not trained systematically. They learn on the job.

Is there a citizen control organ? If so, which?

The general meeting of members and the State organs are responsible for monitoring.


What is the level of satisfaction of the actors?

The Borehole Management Committees, the Health Committees and the Parent-Teacher Associations perform their duties fairly well.

Question 4: What is the level of synergy between the policy implementation structures at community level?

Are there consultationframeworks?

The work committees serve as consultation frameworks

Do the consultationframeworks hold their ordinary sessions regularly?

The deliberative organs meet regularly.The committees do not.There are no consultation frameworks and citizen control in which all the actors concerned can meet and build a culture of decentralization together.

Do most of the membersparticipate in the sessions?

No factual data.

Is there a councildevelopment plan?

No.

Question 5: Does the level of integration of local structures help to ensure efficient conduct of sector policies on water, health and education?11


Question 6: Is there synergy of action between management organs to promote access to all basic social services (so as to reduce inequalities)?

Measures taken to facilitateaccess by beneficiaries to basic social services?

The case study does not answer this question.

Question 7: How have sector services delivery policies helped to reduce gender disparities, in general, and promote women leaders, in particular?How many female councilorsare there in the municipal council?

There are 19 female councilors in the Municipal Council of Mbour.They participate in the meetings.

Do they haveresponsibilities?

In Mbour three (03) women are deputy mayors out of twelve (12).

What responsibilities are handled by women inCOGES?

No factual data concerning community participation structures.

Question 8: What motivated the States to embark on the decentralization process?

This question was not answered in the report.


5.6. Burkina FasoAfter presenting the results, the Burkina Faso team

analyzed them from four perspectives as follows:1. Observation of decentralization as experienced;2. Analysis of power play;3. Identification of inconsistencies;4. Proposed areas of decentralization as desired.The analysis was based on the conceptual framework

of the study which combines: (i) the field theory of Pierre Bourdieu, and (ii) the theory of social change.

5.6.1. Decentralization as experiencedThe results of the field survey presented above and the

literature review will help us to analyze decentralization as experienced. The delicate question of the motivations that forced the State to embark on decentralization was not easy to tackle. However, the responses of the various stakeholders highlight the following motivations:

The willingness of the State, according to its officials, • to find solutions to development problems taking into account its responsibilities and the provisions of Articles 143 and 144 of the Constitution. These same sources went on to underscore the world context and pressure from donors.For the majority of representatives of decentralized • technical services, it is mainly pressure from donors (World Bank and International Monetary Fund) that accounts for the country’s commitment to the decentralization process. The commitment also meets the needs of the State, which has found an opportunity to transfer part of its responsibilities to the population.


Internal pressure is also mentioned by some actors, • because the State is copying the example of grassroots organizations and the demand for more democracy. However, it seems that central administration officials are not aware of the idea of organized pressure groups demanding decentralization.The example of projects and programmes that • have experimented decentralization with support for local initiatives.The acceptance of a decision made at the central level, • as indicated by the community leaders (traditional and religious leaders, COGES, APE, and AUE).

All said and done, is decentralization effective? One could say yes, in light of the laws and regulations to guide the process; for example the provisions of the Constitution of June 1991, the General Local Authorities Code of 2004, and the Law of 21 December 2009 to amend the Code. Furthermore, the implementation organs of decentralization were installed from the time of the municipal elections of 1995, 2000 and 2006. These organs are operational, and are trying as best they can to fulfill the missions assigned to them by the various texts in force, with the support of the supervisory authority, despite some difficulties.

The transfer of powers and resources dates back to March 2009 and covers four areas (water, education, health, sports and recreational activities) out of the eleven (11) provided by the texts. This means that its implementation is partial, and the State has opted for a phased out approach. Infrastructure and other works have been transferred as regards basic education, health and water. Human resources have also been partially transferred. With respect to financial resources, only the Ministry of Basic Education and Literacy


has allocated part of its budget to urban councils and some rural councils. It should be noted that there are serious difficulties, in particular inadequate resources and the weak capacity of local actors to take on the various aspects of management tasks.

What about the exercise of the powers transferred? Right from the start, it is has not been easy. Municipal councils are involved, but still to a limited extent, in delivery of basic social services. The intervention areas are purchase of school supplies, partial financing of examinations at the end of the year, rehabilitation of some premises and construction of new classes as regards education. Similarly, administrative management of staff (classroom teachers) is increasingly becoming the responsibility of councils. In health, the intervention areas include sensitization of the population on vaccination sessions and rehabilitation of infrastructure. Interventions in the water sector focus on the construction of boreholes.

What is the level of synergy between the community structures for implementing sector policies? There are formal consultation frameworks only in the provinces. The central actors believe that frameworks are created by texts at municipal level, but are not yet operational. Guides are being prepared to organize relations between the actors at municipal level. Some councils have initiated an informal framework in which community structures for implementing sector policies (COGES, APE, AME, and AUE) do not participate. Some mayors say they do not control these structures.

Integration of local structures and implementation of sector policies: We indicated in point 1.4 that the local structures are not yet integrated; so it is difficult to talk about


the performance of their integration. However, we could mention some informal initiatives in certain areas - Latou in Koudougou Province and Arbolle in Passoré Province - where COGES, AUE and PTA members and traditional and religious authorities meet from time to time to take certain measures to facilitate people’s access to basic social services.

The impact of decentralization policies on local communities’ access to basic social services can be measured in terms of the material, financial and intangible contribution (communication, sensitization) of councils towards improving delivery of the services. The contribution, albeit still low, by communities to construction of structures and their operation, also reinforces this momentum. The responses of decentralized technical officials such as the Head of the Basic Education District of Bobo-Dioulasso 6 shed light on the role of PTAs, AMEs, COGES and AUEs towards enhancing school performance.

To what extent do decentralization policies promote the emergence of local leaders in favor of reducing gender disparities and promoting women leaders? The data analysis indicates that women are represented in municipal councils (25% to 30%) and occupy senior positions in major cities - first or second deputy mayor, committee chairperson. Women are present in the executive bureau of community participation structures, sometimes equally with men. Finally, Burkina Faso recently adopted a law setting a 30% quota for women in local assemblies; this will help to reinforce their presence.

5.6.2. Analysis of power playThis is based on Pierre Bourdieu’s field theory and the

social change theory. Indeed, Bourdieu believes that today


the social world is compartmentalized into fields constructed on the basis «of differentiation of social activities. [...] These fields have relative autonomy to society as a whole. They are hierarchical and their dynamism comes from competitive struggles by social workers to occupy dominant positions. [Although, as do Marxists, he insists on the struggle between the different social actors], for Bourdieu, the conflicts are not limited to conflicts between social classes on which the Marxist analysis is focused» (Wikipedia).

Indeed, it is clear that decentralization poses a challenge to all players in that it calls for the redistribution of political and economic power. Each stakeholder perceives it in terms of their involvement based on their interests, and behaviours are modulated accordingly. For those who formerly held power, the goal will be to preserve their privileges, while new contenders aim at additional possibilities. The new situation will contribute to social change that will result in the possibility of taking up and exercising powers that were formerly far off. Before the new situation stabilizes, there will inevitably be conflicts, and the search for viable solutions for all will generate progress and another form of governance. What do we learn from the decentralization process in Burkina Faso?

5.6.2.1. conquest and exercise of local PowerSince decentralization is primarily a grassroots democracy

development process, it is implemented in a full multiparty system (there are over 130 political parties) which involves partisan struggles for the control of municipal councils. Because of their large numbers, the political parties are obliged to cluster around two major groups, namely the Presidential Majority and the Opposition, as for distribution of power at national level. Election campaigns have often


led to symbolic and even physical violence between the two camps.

The collected data show that at least 13 political parties are represented in the municipal councils of the six councils in the sample. However, all the local councils are controlled by the majority party, with some serious crises that have blocked some municipal councils to the point where they have been dissolved by the administrative regulation organs and new elections organized (as in Boulgou Province). The balance of power results in electoral arrangements that allow some parties to place their elected officials as deputies. In such cases, routine management of affairs often leads to open conflict between mayors and their deputies (see the case of Arbolle Council). One of the causes of these struggles for positions is the fact that the mayors often do not reside within the local authority and the deputies eventually refuse to act continually on their behalf.

5.6.2.2. Relations with the supervisory authorityAccording to the General Local Authorities Code, the

High Commission for Local Authorities exercises direct supervisory authority over the councils. This is not always understood or accepted by some mayors. The tendency is to go directly to the Regional Governor or to the Ministry. Similarly, some do not wait for the opinion of the supervisory authority before implementing their decisions, as stipulated by the texts. Mayors sometimes request outright abolition of the prefectures because they do not see their usefulness. Indeed, behind these ambitions, there is an issue of legitimacy between an organ established through election and another appointed by higher government authorities in a context where all claim the same sources of authority, namely the party.


5.6.2.3. Relations with decentralized technical services

The relations between municipal councilors and representatives of decentralized technical structures are not always cordial because of misunderstandings arising from abuse of power against each other. The inadequacy or lack of technical skills within the councils hampers communication between the two parties, each feeling that the other wants to impose its views. Technicians, who alone had the prerogative to make decisions, are struggling to cope with the new situation, which requires them to negotiate with non- specialists.

5.6.2.4. Relations between local elected officials and traditional chiefs

Relations between traditional leaders and local elected officials well illustrate the problem of social issues at the core of the field theory. Decentralization, by creating a new centre of power elected by universal suffrage, interferes with the authority of traditional authorities whose powers are acquired by birth. History and the exercise of power have allowed traditional chiefs, who do not normally have a special status in the Republic, to stand in the centre of the political arena and form a union as an Association to defend their interests.

Where texts prohibit them from being directly involved, they circumvent the texts and have members of their families elected - wives, children, nephews – whom they use to rule by proxy. In any case, their social, moral or political ascendancy on the population allows them to sabotage the operation of the council by proxy if initial strategies do not work. The case study report gives many examples of the destructive capacity of traditional leaders.


5.6.2.5. Conflicts of leadership at community level

There are silent or even open conflicts almost everywhere between municipal councilors and members of village councils and other participatory structures. The councilors tend to exercise their representational role to control the village councilors and members of management committees of basic social services.

Social ChangeRecent introduction of decentralization - fifteen years in

Burkina Faso- still places all the actors in a phase of learning to participate in management of social services. Since this learning of grassroots democracy takes place within a context of ignorance and inadequate information and qualifications, many actors are deceived by members of social groups who have an interest in maintaining the status quo. In return for modest gadgets or even shallow convivialities, citizens agree to waive their rights to support causes that are not theirs. However, all is not lost, because the practice of decentralization has started helping people to become aware of issues and of their roles. They are no longer indifferent to the management of local resources, which they have helped to mobilize, and require more accountability. Some municipalities have experienced popular uprisings that led to the dismissal of mayors for scandalous mismanagement of resources.

5.6.3. Identification of InconsistenciesThe practice of decentralization as described and

analyzed above shows inconsistencies that hamper proper operation.


5.6.3.1. supervisory authority over councilsThe administrative organization of the country makes

the department an administrative unit that comprises one or more councils. However, administrative supervisory authority over councils is exercised by the Provincial High Commissioner, and the prefect is his representative in the department. Mayors tend to deal directly with the High Commissioner, ignoring the prefecture. In addition, the High Commissions and departments lack both financial and human resources, and many employees have been transferred to the councils. In the special status councils of Bobo-Dioulasso and Ouagadougou, these decentralized organs are almost completely overshadowed by the central mayors or even some district mayors, who control the resources. In addition, the Regional Governor exercises financial supervisory authority over the council. This often creates confusion among some mayors, who prefer to deal directly with the Governor as regards administrative and financial supervision.

5.6.3.2. transfer of human ResourcesThe initial philosophy of decentralization was that the

grassroots communities should be responsible for the recruitment and salaries of employees of some services transferred to the councils. This was the experience with community teachers in Mali and Niger, whose teaching quality was deemed unsatisfactory. Burkina Faso did not adopt this procedure, because the social partners (workers’ unions) were fiercely opposed to it. Consequently, the staff are still recruited and paid by the Government. However, the Government has transferred part of their administrative management to the councils. As indicated above, this leads


to frustration, especially as some mayors sometimes have a peculiar interpretation of their prerogatives.

Mention was also made of discrimination between classroom teachers and those who work in offices with respect to their career paths.

5.6.3.3. Proliferation of community structuresBurkina Faso does not yet have operational school

management committees. The COGES are being experimented in Zorgho town. Parent-teacher associations and teaching mothers’ associations, which have a long tradition in management, are involved in school management, and the establishment of COGES could create a problem of cooperation with the organizations already place; this could lead to confusion that would be detrimental to the running of schools.

5.6.3.4. Failure to formalize some community structures

Water management, particularly in towns and increasingly in some major rural centres, is the prerogative of private companies. Is that why water users’ associations are not yet recognized? The representative of the Ministry of Agriculture, Water Supply and Fishery Resources says they are not recognized, but they are established and somehow carry out their activities everywhere.

5.6.4. RECoMMENDAtioNsIn view of the fifteen-year experience in decentralization

for most urban councils and three years for rural councils, the following proposals are being made for improvement of the process.


The High Commissions need more resources at all levels to enable them to perform their tasks more efficiently. It would also be useful to review the role and position of prefects in the command chain, so as avoid frustration among them and defiant attitudes towards them. It is necessary to review the General Local Authorities Code so as to define the role of each officer and correct errors made by mayors because of the double supervisory authority status.

The Government has opted for gradual creation of councils, but the impression is that its withdrawal is not progressive, whereas the development level of most councils remains very low. This means that the central administration still has to play its regulatory role by supporting local authorities with meager incomes.

Support for decentralization also means enhancing the training of grassroots actors - local elected officials and employees of decentralized services – to ensure better understanding of texts and strengthen their relations. Preparation of training programmes should take into account the limited general knowledge of many local elected officials.

vi. fuTure DevelopmenTs anD prospecTs

6.1. Future DevelopmentsThe validation workshop held on 21 and 22 November

2011 served as framework for supplementing information on the decentralization process in the different countries. Accordingly, the Cameroonian delegation indicated many changes made in 2010, a few months after the survey. The most significant measure is the entrenchment of


decentralization in the constitution, leading to an increase in the number of ministries (13) that have transferred powers and to the creation of FEICOM, a council bank, whose resources come from the additional council tax (CAC). However, it should be noted that despite the principle of transfer of appropriate resources to match the transfer of powers, the level of transfer remains low.

Mali has recorded a significant change in the level of transfer of powers, particularly in education, with 18 against 10 in health and only 5 in the water sector. At the financial level, the Malian delegation indicated that the Government paid CFAF 128 070 946 668 to councils between 2001 and 2009. The new significant event is the establishment of a local authorities’ public service cadre, which allows councils to reinforce their human resources.

In Burkina Faso, the financing level of the Permanent Fund for the Development of Local Authorities (five billion CFA francs) will increase the financial capacity of the decentralized structures, particularly with regard to the access criteria adopted and brought to the attention of those concerned.

In Niger, the decentralization plan underwent a significant change with the amendment, in 2010, of the status of urban councils comprising municipalities that are towns administered by elected councilors, with districts that have the status of decentralized entities.

6.2. ProspectsThe participants – particularly elected officials and

representatives of grassroots organizations – request that ERNWACA and IDRC should widely disseminate the results of this research and help to strengthen their capacities.


The six case studies have provided a snapshot of decentralization, and helped us to understand that despite its appeal, the process is limited by:

inadequate deconcentration of ministries in charge • of finance;high illiteracy rate of local elected officials and • limited attention paid to capacity building;recent introduction of the experience and the broad • objectives of the study.

It would be necessary to deepen the analysis by broadening the scope and focusing more on the impact of:

limited deconcentration of public finance;• lack of preparation of the local actors.•

ERNWACA and IDRC will benefit from responding to these concerns.

vii. general conclusion anD recommenDaTions

7.1. General ConclusionFor the overwhelming majority of the actors interviewed,

decentralization of basic social services is effective, but with some weaknesses due to the history, culture and even geography of the countries. Decentralization has led to the establishment of community organs, the people’s ownership of basic social services, and improvement of the quality of service offered. However, there are several institutional and structural problems that hamper full realization of its benefits. Some of the obstacles are inherent in assuming ownership of the process in which issues are somewhat unknown to the actors. Notwithstanding these difficulties due to the context of


this reform which is in its infancy, it can be said the future lies with the councils in view of changes coming into view, such as the emergence of an increasingly assertive female leadership and especially, democratic changes of heads of councils and other local organizations. These developments are often in contradiction to the situation at the helm of the State.

One of the remedies to this shortcoming is training of all stakeholders, since the level of democratic maturity and management of the beneficiary communities is central to the possibility of the population to: (1) exercise citizen control over local officials, and even over the central administration, (2) ensure that their rights are respected. Otherwise, decentralization could be a mere artifice for the benefit of the local elites and their clients or associates. Indeed, in many cases, the administrative authorities form part of the problem because many of them consider decentralization as loss of their privileges, since they have been made to believe that authority cannot be shared.

Effective decentralization is also hampered by distrust and reluctance of the central administration to allocate appropriate resources for the powers transferred. These challenges need to be addressed for the process to be viable.

There are also secondary issues, but which are important in the power struggle underlying some decisions concerning definition of roles. The synergy required for coordinated, effective and efficient actions is limited by in silo operation. In doing so, the principle of subsidiarity is actually being implemented, which is a strong guarantee for meeting the needs of grassroots communities. Mention should also be made of limited participation and openness of local leadership to all, including women, even while we talk about building democracy at the grassroots.


In all, it could be said that the ongoing decentralization process is yet to ensure satisfactory integration of the actors and synergy of actions sufficient to promote equitable access to basic social services for coherent development of the sectors, since decentralization is in its infancy. There may be the excuse of apprenticeship errors, which could be corrected to ensure better performance.

7.2 RecommendationsFor the Local Authorities:

focus on mobilizing local resources to finance their • activities;use results to support the preparation of action • plans.

For the States:lift constraints relating to texts and allocation of human

and financial resources.

For ERNWACA:prepare a brief summary of the national reports and

the summary report to disseminate the results to policy makers.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Aryee, J.R.A. (1995). Governance and decentralization in Ghana: Retrospect and prospects. Legon: University of Ghana.

BOISIER, Sergio (2004). “Desarrollo territorial y descentralización. El desarrollo en el lugar y en las manos de la gente.” in Revista Eure (Vol. XXX, Nº 90), pp. 27-40, Santiago de Chile.

BURGEAP, Ministry of Cooperation and Development (March 1996) “Analysis of drinking water supply systems in terms of individual water systems or public fountains: Case Study in Benin, Niger and Guinea”. Summary Report.

Prime Minister’s Office (2003). Note on decentralization. Nouvelle imprimerie du Niger: Niamey, Niger.

Sahel Club (June 1995). Report of the meeting on Post-Literacy and Effective Decentralization in West African Rural Areas: Paris, 24 and 25 March 1995.

Easton, Peter; Belloncle, Guy; Coulibaly, Chéibane; Fass, Simon and Malam Moussa, Laouali (1997). “Decentralization, Empowerment and Local Capacity Building in the Sahel: Results of the PADLOS-Education Study.” Unpublished Consultation Report.

Fozing, Innocent (2007). “Decentralization in Cameroon: Challenges for Public Financing of Education.” Paper presented at ERNWACA seminar on the transnational study on decentralization in West and Central Africa. Bamako, Mali, February 2007.

Ghana, Republic of (1993). From center to the grassroots. Vol. III. Accra: Venus publications.

HILHORST, Théa and BALTISSEN, Gérard (2004). “Decentralization in Mali: From Discourse to Practice.” Amsterdam: Edit. KIT, Bulletin 358 #2. 88 pages.

KASSIBO, Bréhima (ed., 1997), Decentralization in Mali; the Current Situation, APAD, Bulletin No. 14, 160 p.

KOURE, Alio (2006). “Water Supply Programme in Niger: Some references.” Unpublished consultation report.


MALAM MOUSSA, Laouali (1997). Decentralization, Empowerment and Capacity Building in the Sahel: Results of the PADLOS-Education Study

MARTHE, Mamadou Daouda and MALAM MOUSSA, Laouali (2007). “The Decentralization Policy in Niger: Background and Current Situation” Paper prepared for ERNWACA seminar on Decentralization organized in February 2007 in Bamako.

MATCL/SG/DNCT-CADIS (2004). « Diagnostic Study for the preparation of a national operational plan for the transfer of powers and resources from the central administration to local authorities. Study Report. » Bamako, Mali, 72 pages.

Opare, J.A. and Egbenya, G.R.K., (2007). Report on transnational research on decentralization in West and Central Africa: Learning from local and intersectoral experiences. The case of Ghana

Ouattara, Soungalo (2007). Governance and Local Freedom. Kartala

Owusu, L., Owusu Bonsu, K., Oppong, M.B. and Dogoli, W.Y. (2005). Local Governance and Poverty Alleviation in Africa: Lessons of Experience. The Case of Ghana. Tunis.

Rondinelli, D. A. (1981). “Government Decentralization in Comparative Perspective: Theory and practice in developing Countries” International review of Administrative Sciences, 47 (2) 133 – 145.

World Bank (1992). Governance and development. Washington, DC: World Bank


REPORT ON EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH NETWORK FOR WEST AND CENTRAL

AFRICA TRANSNATIONAL RESEARCH ON DECENTRA-

LIZATION IN WEST AND CENTRAL AFRICA: LEARNING FROM LOCAL AND INTERSECTORAL

EXPERIENCES -

THE CASE OF GHANA.

ByJames A. Opare (University of Cape Coast, Ghana) Godwin R. K. Egbenya (University of Cape Coast, Ghana)Margaret Kaba (Ministry of Education, Ghana)

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i- inTroDucTion

I.1- Background to the StudyThe concept, governance is referred to as the manner in

which political power is exercised in the management of a country’s economic and social resources for development (World Bank, 1992). Governance has gained much importance in the literature on Africa’s development due to the fact that the World Bank identifies it as the root of the African crisis.

Decentralization, on the other hand is referred to as the transfer of authority or the dispersal of power in public planning, management and decision-making from the national level to subnational or local levels -- from higher to lower levels of government (Rondinelli, 1981). It is also referred to as any act in which a central government formally cedes powers to actors and institutions at lower levels in a political-administrative and territorial hierarchy (Agrawal & Ribot, 2007). The two concepts, governance and decentralization, are closely related in that the latter is one of the very important ways of improving national and local governance.

Decentralization can be political, administrative, fiscal, or market focused. There are clear overlaps in defining these terms, so the precise definitions are not as important as the comprehensive approach in applying them in our countries.

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Political decentralization gives the citizens or their elected representatives more power in public decision-making and more influence in the formulation and implementation of policies (http://www.ciesin.org/decentralization. retrieved on 06/09/09).

Administrative decentralization deals with the transfer of responsibility for the planning, financing and management of certain public functions from the central government and its agencies to field units of government agencies, subordinate units or levels of government. The three major forms of administrative decentralization are deconcentration, delegation, and devolution. While deconcentration is the redistribution of decision making authority and financial management responsibilities among different levels of the central government, delegation, is a more extensive form of decentralization in which the central government transfers responsibility for decision-making and administration of public functions to semi-autonomous organizations not wholly controlled by the central government, but ultimately accountable to the government. Devolution is a situation in which the government transfers responsibilities for services to municipalities that elect their own mayors and councils, raise their own revenues, and have independent authority to make investment decisions (http://www.ciesin.org/decentralization. retrieved on 06/09/09) . Decentralization in reality involves the devolution of responsibilities and resources to independent and autonomous sub-national authorities that are accountable to both the central government and their communities (Rosenbaum, 2000).

It would be necessary at this point to mention the confusion within many countries, particularly African countries over the issues of decentralization, devolution and deconcentration.


Many efforts meant to encourage decentralization failed because efforts were focused on deconcentration rather than on decentralization i.e. the central governments devolved power not to independent, autonomous local governments; rather they created administrative structures through which they maintained control at the local level.

Fiscal decentralization is the situation in which decisions about expenditures of revenues raised locally or transferred from the central government are done by the local authority. In many developing countries local governments or administrative units possess the legal authority to impose taxes, but the tax base is so weak. Economic or Market Decentralization is the most complete form of decentralization from a government’s perspective as there is a shift of responsibility for functions from the public to the private sector. Its two main types are privatization and deregulation. Privatization is the provision of goods and services entirely to the free operation of the market to public-private partnerships in which government and the private sector cooperate to provide services or infrastructure. Deregulation, on the other hand allows competition among private suppliers for services that in the past had been provided by the government or by regulated monopolies. Ghana’s form of decentralization has the characteristics of all the types described (Owusu, Owusu-Bonsu, Oppong, & Dogoli, 2005).

Under appropriate conditions, all of these forms of decentralization can play important roles in broadening participation in political, economic and social activities in developing countries. Where it works effectively, decentralization helps alleviate the bottlenecks in decision making that are often caused by central government planning and control of important economic and social activities.


Decentralization may not always be efficient, especially for standardized, routine, network-based services. It can result in the loss of economies of scale and control over scarce financial resources by the central government. Weak administrative or technical capacity at local levels may result in services being delivered less efficiently and effectively in some areas of the country. Administrative responsibilities may be transferred to local levels without adequate financial resources and make equitable distribution or provision of services more difficult. Centralization and decentralization are not «either-or» conditions. In most countries an appropriate balance of centralization and decentralization is essential to the effective and efficient functioning of government. The success of decentralization frequently depends heavily on training for both national and local officials in decentralized administration. Technical assistance is often required for local governments, private enterprises and local non-governmental groups in the planning, financing, and management of decentralized functions (http://www.ciesin.org/decentralization. retrieved on 06/09/09).

For decentralization to be significant it is argued that it must entail a mixture of all three types: democratic/political, fiscal, and administrative. The three types must be implemented together (Manor, 1999). According to Agrawal & Ribot, (2007) the three distinct dimensions that underlie all acts of decentralization are the actors, powers and accountability. In their view the political and administrative domains of decentralization are characterized by the mix of these three underlying analytical dimensions - the actors, powers and accountability.

Actors are positioned at different levels of social action. Indeed, since decentralization is about changes in how


actors at different levels of political authority exercise their power, by definition the actors involved must be located at different levels of action.

The four broad powers of decision-making which are crucial to understanding decentralization are the power to create rules or modify old ones, the power to make decisions about how a particular resource or opportunity is to be used, the power to implement and ensure compliance to the new or altered rules, and the power to adjudicate disputes that arise in the effort to create rules and ensure compliance.

The effectiveness of decentralization hinges on a third dimension: accountability. It is downward accountability that broadens participation. Actors can be held downwardly accountable to local constituencies in numerous ways. So in analyzing decentralization in any country one needs to consider these three dimensions - the actors, powers and accountability.

Four governance values have often been associated with decentralization. First, by placing government closer to the people, decentralization results in a closer congruence between public preferences and public policy (Rondinelli, 1981). Second, decentralization promotes diversity in public policies. Policy diversity promotes innovation, since it provides opportunity for experimentation by subnational units.

Third, decentralization promotes political participation, education and leadership development. By devolving real decision making to local levels, higher levels of intersectoral participation in local government results from decentralization thus anchoring citizens in the political system and enhancing democracy (Cheema & Rondinelli, 1993)

Fourth, decentralization promotes policy diversity and therefore provides the necessary conditions for the public


choice mechanism since it ensures that the citizens have a tax and service packages to consider when deciding where to reside. So despite a common citizenship, individuals will receive differing levels of services depending on where they live.

In addition, decentralization creates numerous training grounds for the development of democratic skills and practices. Decentralization provides a stepping stone to higher offices.

In effect decentralization seeks to transfer functions, powers means and competence from the centre to the grassroots. District Assemblies are the pivots around which the decentralization programme revolves. Decentralized departments have been established to perform functions previously performed by Central Government and all communication must now be addressed to the District Chief Executive (Ministry of Local Government, 1994).

It is plausible from the foregoing that decentralization has the potential of contributing to improvement in governance as it:

Reduces the bureaucracy associated with planning • and coordination at the central level Fosters a greater ability of officials familiar with local-• level problems to tailor development plans to particular needsEnhances public accountability as it gets all political, • religious, ethnic and tribal groups involved in the formulation of development plans. In this case development is based on expressed need, rather than just felt need.

On the other and there are also some dangers inherent in decentralization. The actions of local political leaders


can either be supportive of or create major impediments to civil society development. The danger of irresponsibility is particularly great if local governments do not have the responsibility for raising their own revenue but rather depend on revenue passed on from a higher level (Rosenbaum, 2000).

Another danger in a decentralized system is the possibility of the various local units of government being captured by highly organized local elites. Efforts to implement public policy can be let down by the local government authorities when the policies are not in the interest of the local government. It is also on record that there is the tendency of the national government to devolve responsibilities to local governments without providing the necessary resources. (Rosenbaum, 2000).

I.2- Statement of the problemAny evaluation of the decentralization program must

be based on the objectives for which it was established. In this connection, one may ask about the extent to which the decentralization program did or has empowered people through popular participation, accountability, equity, effective and efficient provision of goods/services.

The program really did revive the support of voluntarism and community efforts. Projects such as rural electrification, construction of markets, provision of classroom blocks, construction of boreholes, clinics and feeder roads were all undertaken by various DAs. It must be pointed out however, that most of the local initiatives were undertaken with governmental and Non-governmental organization support (e.g. World Vision International, ADRA and PAMSCAD. This is because the majority of the DAs lacked the financial resources to undertake development of local infrastructures.


Most DAs were unable to realize their revenue targets. Lack of revenue thus meant that in practice expenditure decision were often made temporary or adhoc. Whatsmore, despite the modest gains in promoting socio economic development in rural areas it is doubtful whether it has been able to achieve its objectives of popular participation, accountability, efficiency, effectiveness and reduction in the rural-urban drift (Aryee 1994)

Apart from these most of the DAs did not have qualified accountants to handle the large sums of money involved, a situation, which could give rise to embezzlement and misappropriation. The The reports of the auditor General for 1992, 1993 and 1994 revealed widespread embezzlement and other financial improprieties and irregularities within the DAs.

The extent to which decentralization was able to reduce congestion and over concentration of power in the Nation’s capital is also debatable. Despite decentralization, most if not all Regional Ministers and DCEs visit the nation’s capital about twice a month to either run after funds or solicit for favours, which they cannot get if they stayed in their local areas.

If we go by the statement that the objectives of the decentralization policy are long-term oriented, then it is pertinent to find out what the situation is like after 19 yrs of its introduction. It will therefore be necessary to evaluate the formulation and implementation of the policy and relate them to the education, health and water sectors of the country.


I.3- Objectives of the studyThe objectives of the study are to find out

Whether there are manifestations or indications of 1. the effectiveness of decentralization in education, health, water and electricity sectors in the areas under study.The extent human and material resources were 2. transferred from the national level to the local levels. How effectively the human and material resources 3. transferred to the local levels are utilized; to what extent is their performance satisfactoryThe degree of synergy among the structures put in 4. place for the implementation of education, health, water and electricity policy at the community levelWhether the level of integration of local structures 5. allow for a successful implementation of policies in the education, health, water and electricity sectorsWhether there is any synergy of action between 6. management structures aimed at promoting equitable access to basic social servicesThe extent to which social services delivery policies 7. favour the reduction of gender disparities in general, and promotion of leadership among women in particular.The factors that led governments to adopt 8. decentralization

I.4- Research QuestionsBased on the above objectives the study was guided by

the following research questions.


What are the manifestations of the effectiveness of 1. decentralization in the education, health, water and electricity sectors?To what extent are human and material resources 2. transferred from the national level to the local levels?How effectively are the human and material resources 3. transferred to the local levels utilized; to what extent is their performance satisfactoryWhat is the degree of synergy among the structures 4. put in place for the implementation of education, health, water and electricity policy at the community level?Does the level of integration of local structures allow 5. for a successful implementation of policies in the education, health, water and electricity sectors?Is there any synergy of action between management 6. structures aimed at promoting equitable access to basic social services?To what extent do social services delivery policies 7. favour the reduction of gender disparities in general, and promotion of leadership among women in particular.Wha t fac to rs l ed governments to adop t 8. decentralization?

I.5- Significance of the studyThis research aims at presenting the current state of affairs

concerning decentralization in the country. The outcome of the study will enable actors at the national, district and local levels to have insight into the success or lack thereof of the decentralization programme. At the regional level the


information obtained will enable other African countries in similar circumstances to determine what is possible in their respective cases. Finally, it will add to the literature on decentralization in Africa.

I.6- Organization of the ReportThis report is presented under fiver chapters. Chapter one,

the introduction, is devoted to the background information of the study, the statement of the problem, objectives of the study, research questions, significance of the study and organization of the report. Chapter two covers the literature review on some case studies of decentralization in some developing countries, evolution of decentralization in some African countries, decentralization in Ghana and the structure of the new local government system (decentralization). Chapter three which deals with the methodology used covers the research design adopted for the study, the population from which the samples were selected, and the sampling method used, the data collection instruments, methods of data collection, as well as the key problems encountered in the course of undertaking the study. Chapter four is devoted to the presentation of the results and discussion of answers for the eight research questions. Finally the chapter five deals with the summary of the study, conclusions drawn from the findings, challenges and recommendations.

ii- liTeraTure revieW

This chapter covers the literature review on some case studies of decentralization in some developing countries, evolution of decentralization in some African countries, decentralization in Ghana and the structure of the new local government system (decentralization).


II.1- Some Case Studies of Decentralization in Some Developing Countries

According to Bardhan (2002), hard qualitative evidence of the impact of decentralization on governance of some developing countries is scarce though decentralization experiments are going on in many developing countries. The successful case of decentralization in Brazil seemed to indicate a substantial impact on the pattern of resource allocation across localities, particularly to the poor ones, and in the lessening of the misappropriation of resources compared to the past. Similarly in Bolivia in 1994 the share of tax revenue allocation to the municipalities doubled alongside with the devolution of administrative authority. According to Faguet (2001), there was massive shift of public resources to the smaller and poorer municipalities. Public investment in education, water and sanitation rose significantly and investments were made in local needs.

In the 1990’s, Nicaragua started transferring key management tasks in public schools to the local councils involving parents from the central authorities. This situation contributed to significant positive effect on student performance (Bardhan, 2002). In developing countries where road maintenance was decentralized it was found out that road backlogs were lower. Additionally an evaluation of completed rural water supply projects financed by various agencies showed that projects with high local participation in project selection and design were much more likely to have the water supply maintained in good condition than would be the case with more centralized decision-making. According to Bardhan (2002), the studies considered in this section of the review suggest generally positive effects of decentralization, but it is hard to draw conclusive lessons as


many of the studies are largely descriptive, not analytical, and often suggest correlations rather than causal processes.

In Senegal, the new dimension of decentralization in the forestry law is the inclusion of local government actors in forest exploitation to whom production permits may be allocated. The plans specify when, where and how much wood can be cut, along with methods to be used and reforestation measures that must follow. After the plan is drafted the rural council can assign individuals, cooperatives or corporations exploitation plots within their zones.

The rural council had the power to request permission to exploit, and to allocate the right to exploit to individuals or any legally recognized group. Local populations were given the right to engage in forest exploitation under the guidance of their rural councils. Before these laws were enacted, urban merchants with licenses and permits would come into a zone with their own migrant labourers and conduct the exploitation without engaging the local population.

The right to transport and sell wood products was not granted to local populations or rural councils. It is in this upstream part of forest-product marketing that most of the profits are made. There was no attempt to decentralize power to grant access to distribution or retail outlets. Therefore, local producers were still obligated to sell to urban merchants at very low producers’ prices (Agrawal & Ribot, 2007).

At the central level in Mali, the Mission of Decentralization determines the territorial extent of the forested domain of local governments. The Ministry for Forests, in conjunction with the Director of the Forest Service, is charged with the development of forestry laws that allocate powers to the local governments. Within the local arena, decentralization primarily involves the Forest Service from whom powers


are devolved, and the newly elected local governments are vested. According to the new laws, any individual or group wishing to engage in commercial wood fuel cutting will be required to form a Wood fuel Management Structure (WMS) which can be any kind of organization (cooperative, corporation, or association) recognized by the state. These are groups of private individuals interested in commercial exploitation.

In Mali powers of the elected council of the local government include the ability to reserve part or all of any forests in their domain for any purposes they see fit, the right to develop or to reject forest management plans presented by the Forest Service, and the right to a ‘portion’ of the forestry tax. The process of allocation of the forested domain is not accountable to local populations or any of their representatives. In addition the portion of the tax to be devolved and the mode by which disputes will be resolved are determined by ministerial decree (Agrawal & Ribot, 2007).

So in the cases of Senegal and Mali, decentralization in the forestry law allows the inclusion of local government actors in forest exploitation; it also gives them powers to exploit the forest. However, it does not make them accountable to their constituencies in that they do not have the right to transport and sell the wood products. Besides the portion of the tax to be devolved and the mode by which disputes will be resolved are determined by ministerial decree.

II.2- Evolution of Decentralization in Some African countries

In Africa, until the mid 1980s, there was not any clear cut distinction between the State (the various sectors that constitute it) and its political structure. The deterioration of public utilities especially in the areas of health, water,


education and transport exposed the limitations of the centralized form of government. The major beneficiaries of the paternalistic or the centralized state were the urban areas and especially civil servants in the capitals. The redistribution of public monies was done in the urban centers to the neglect of the rural areas which were deprived of the national resources and foreign support (Adamolekun, Olowu, & Laleye, 1988).

The 1990s saw the end of a centralized state model (a typical example is the case of Nigeria) which experienced numerous geo–political upheavals and was therefore incapable of transforming political speeches on development into real action and concrete results. The actions of social pressure groups expressing the aspirations of the urban populace for a better redistribution of resources and for more freedom led to political pluralism first in the francophone countries and later in the Anglophone and Luxophone zones (Adamolekun, et al., 1988).

Foreign donors therefore expressed their dissatisfaction with the inefficient implementation of sector– based policies and their implementation at the administrative level. International NGOs supported by national NGOs replaced the state in the provision of basic social services. Community participation approaches developed in the areas of health, water and education incited the creation of numerous civil associations which championed grassroots initiative. Villages began to constitute territorial and socio–economic labour units. External partners invested at the local level and the most popular discourse dwelt on direct development at the grassroots without passing through the State. A typical example is the rapid development of community schools with support from external partners (Bossert, 2002).


Social transformations of states bring into sharp focus the limitations of centralized government as the only tool for the implementation of sector – based policies. The monolithic and centralized western model of administration and its African reinterpretation characterized by paternalism seem impotent in meeting the development needs and in adapting itself to an extremely dynamic environment.

The proliferation of initiatives at the grassroots again calls for review of the position of the State and its role in ensuring inter and intra sector equilibrium at the national level. The state is forced to reduce its powers and transfer part of its functions to the local level because, with the presence of a civil society that is becoming autonomous, it can no longer claim monopoly of initiatives. The reforms that the autonomy of stakeholders initiates are in fact, the effect of policy failures at the central level and that of centralized administrative mechanisms that govern it.

Administrative decentralization appears not as an alternative but rather as a necessity in a context marked by a delegitimization of administration and a new central political system level as well as varied dynamics according to forms regarding the countries of denationalization. Today, the institution of local political government makes is possible for the leaders of central government, few of whom politically or individually suffered failures in the past, to lessen the pressure on the Centre and to ascribe to the local level, the political responsibility of its development.


II.3- Decentralization in Ghana

ii.3.1- Historical Development of local Government

Attempts at local administration in Ghana started during the colonial era with the native authorities. It was centered on a chief or some unit of local royalty. The native authorities were not democratic but were mere representatives as they were hand – picked. Their main interests were to help the British colonial government with limited involvement in local administration, to administer law and order (Ministry of Local Government, 1994).

Municipalities were established by the Municipal Ordinance of 1859 in the coastal towns of Ghana. In 1943, a new Ordinance set up elected town councils for Accra, Kumasi, Secondi–Tarkoradi and Cape Coast. In 1953, the Municipal Councils Ordinance as passed. This was followed, after independence in 1957, by the Local Government Act, 1961, Act 54. In all these pieces of legislation, the distinction between Central and Local government institutions was maintained. The Central government bodies had better qualified personnel in terms of management skills and professional expertise.

The Local Government bodies were set up and vested with authority especially for local matters. They grew side by side with Central Government agencies that operated at the local level. They were required to provide municipal services and amenities in their localities without regard to whether or not they had the resources to deliver. These bodies lacked personnel with the requisite skills and professional expertise. The local authorities were unable to raise funds to meet their obligations and attract able and competent officers (Ministry of Local Government, 1994).


Problems that developed as a result of this dual central and local administration included the encroachment on the rights and responsibilities of the weaker local government bodies because areas and limits of responsibility between the two had not been clearly defined. Hence resources were duplicated by local government agencies and central government bodies.

Against this background of duplication and confusion, of ineffectiveness and slow development at the local level, together with disorientation in the popular mind and the resulting dichotomy in the administrative system, an attempt was made in 1971 to introduce a new structure of local administration. In spite of the far reaching nature of the recommendations most of which were accepted, attempts at decentralization could not materialize until 1974.

The 1974 Local Government structure described as the “Single Hierarchy Model” sought to abolish the distinction between local and central government at the local level and create one common monolithic structure (District councils) to which was assigned the responsibilities of the totality of government at the local level.

So the shortcomings in the pre– and immediate post– independence local government systems led to a shift from the Dual Hierarchy Model of Administration to the Single Hierarchy Model in 1974. Between 1974 and 1988, practical experimentation with the Single Hierarchy Model revealed even more serious flaws than its predecessor Model. The reforms of 1988 aimed at combining the better of the two Models and also giving effective meaning to decentralization (Ministry of Local Government, 1994).


ii.3.1.1- structure of the new local Government system (Decentralization)

The new local government system is the four–tier Metropolitan and three–tier Municipal / District Assemblies structure as shown in Figure 1.Figure 1: Structure of the New Local Government System (Decentralization)

Metropolitain Municipal District Assemblies

Sub Metropolitan District Councils

Town Councils Zonal Councils Urban/Town/AreaCouncils

Unit Committees

The District Assemblies in Ghana are either Metropolitan (population over 250,000), Municipal (one–town Assemblies with population over 95,000) or District (Population 75,000 and over). There are three (3) Metropolitan Assemblies four (4) Municipal Assemblies and one Hundred and three (103) District Assemblies (1988). A metropolitan / municipal/ district assembly is created as the pivot of administrative and developmental decision–making in the District and the therefore the basic unit of government administration.


The Sub Metropolitan District Councils are immediately below the Metropolitan Assemblies. There are thirteen (13) of these structures established by Law (1988) as shown in Fig 2.Figure 2: Sub Metropolitan District Councils under Respective Metropolitan Assemblies

Accra Metropolitan Assembly

Kumasi Metropolitan

Assembly

ShamaAhanta East Metropolitan

Assembly1. Ablekuma 1. Asokwa 1. Sekondi2. AshieduKeteke 2. Bantama 2. Shama3. Ayawaso 3. Manhyia 3. Tarkoradi4. Okaikwei 4. Subin5. Kpeshie6. OsuClottey

The Urban Councils are peculiar to settlements of “ordinary” District Assemblies. They were created for settlements with population above 15,000 and which are cosmopolitan in character, with urbanization and management problems, though not of the scale associated with the metropolises. Thirty–four (34) of such councils were created/ established by Law (1988). All the 34 urban councils except Prestea, Madina, Akwatia, Anloga, Aflao, Agogo and Nkawkaw, are District capitals (Ministry of Local Government, 1994).

The Zonal Councils are in the “one– town” Municipal Assemblies of Cape Coast, New Juaben, Tamale and Tema, for which the establishment of Town/ Area Councils raise problems of parallel administrative structures. There are one hundred and eight (108) of such Councils for the four (4) Municipal Assemblies.


The Town/Area Councils are found in the Metropolitan and district Assemblies. In the District Assemblies, Town Councils are established for settlements with population between 5,000 and 15,000. They are essentially rallying points of local enthusiasm in support of the development objectives of the District Assembly.

The Unit Committees form the base structure of the new Local Government System. A unit is normally a settlement or a group of settlements with a population of between 500–1,000 in the rural areas, and higher a population (1,500) for the urban areas. Unit committees being in close touch with the people, have the important roles of education, organization of communal labour, revenue raising and ensuring environmental cleanliness, registration of births and deaths and implementation and monitoring of self – help projects to play.

The Regional Co–ordinating councils are established as part of the new arrangement for local government in Ghana (section 113 of PNDCL 207). There are ten (10) Regional co–ordinating councils. They are to co-ordinate and formulate the integrated plans and programmes of the District Assemblies in the Region and harmonize these plans and programmes with National development policies and priorities for approval by the government.

Realizing the importance of decentralization in governance, the government of Ghana in 1988 put in place a decentralization program based on such governance values as empowerment, equity, accountability, stability and checking of the rural-urban drift often associated with decentralization (Aryee, 1994). Specifically the decentralization program was designed to


accelerate growth in the rural economies and the 1. development of rural communitiesensure that development is equitably spread 2. throughout the country and is pursued in a cost-effective manner ensure that development reflects the felt and expressed 3. needs and priorities of the communities, and empower communities to effectively participate 4. in the decision-making that relates to the overall management of development of the district (Republic of Ghana, 1993)

The 1992 constitution recognized the need to decentralize the machinery of government by providing that

functions, powers, responsibilities and resources 1. should be transferred from the central government to local government units.measures are taken to enhance the capacity of local 2. government authorities to plan initiative, coordinate, manage and execute policies in respect of matters affecting the local people.local government units have sound financial bases 3. with reliable sources of revenuelocal government staff are controlled by local 4. authorities, and there is popular local participation in local decision 5. making.

The constitution also makes provision for the establishment of the District Assemblies Common Fund into which not less than 5% of the total national revenue is paid in quarterly installments to the District Assemblies (DAs) for their development. The moneys accruing from the Common


Fund are distributed among all the District Assemblies on a formula approved by Parliament based on (1) need 35% (2) equalisation 30% (3) responsiveness 20% (4) service pressure 15% and (5) contingency 5% (Aryee, 1994).

The structure of the Ghana local government system has been adjusted over the years As at 2008, there were six (6) metropolitan assemblies, forty (40) municipal assemblies and one hundred and twenty-four(124) district assemblies. This gave a grand total number of assemblies as one hundred and seventy (170) in the country. Fig.3 presents the distribution of the district assemblies (both new and old ones).Fig.3: The distribution of district assemblies

Region Number of Old Assemblies

Number of New Assemblies

Total Number of Assemblies

Greater Accra 6 4 10Volta 15 3 18Central 13 4 17Eastern 17 4 21Western 13 4 17Ashanti 21 6 27BrongAhafo 19 3 22Northern 18 2 20Upper West 8 1 9Upper East 8 1 9

Total 138 32 170

Source: The Structure of the Ghana Local Government System. (2008). AFS 01. Poster 2008 Edition.


iii- METHODOLOGY

In this section the research design adopted for the study, the population from which the samples were selected, and the sampling method are described. The data collection instruments, methods of data collection, as well as the key problems encountered in the data collection are also discussed.

III.1- Research DesignThe research design found most suitable and adopted

for this national case study was the descriptive or normative survey method. The scientist who adopts this method aims at gathering sufficient data that can be used to describe and interpret what exists at a particular time. The scientist attempts to investigate into the conditions that exist, practices that prevail, points of view that are held, processes that are going on, influences being felt, and trends that are developing. The purpose of such a social investigation is to gather relatively limited data from a relatively large number of cases at a particular time so that information about the status quo can be arrived at (Lamnek, 2005).

Descriptive surveys are not free from shortcomings. As pointed out by Seifert &Hoffnung, (1994), it is sometimes difficult to ensure the clarity of the questions to be answered, unless pains are taken to clearly word the questions. This shortcoming was addressed using feedback from the pilot study. Another shortcoming pointed out by the authors motioned above is that unless the respondents are people who can articulate their thoughts well and sometimes even put such thoughts in writing, the descriptive survey cannot be relied upon. This shortcoming was addressed by using the questionnaire to collect data exclusively from the very well educated samples.


In spite of the few problems inherent in the use of the descriptive survey method, it was found to be the most appropriate for this national case study. In the first place, it was adopted because our objective was to collect original data to describe a population too large to observe directly (Rubin & Babbie, 2001). Another reason, as pointed out by Creswell (2002), was that it has the potential to provide a lot of information from quite a large sample of individuals within a short period.

III.2- PopulationThe target population was all stake holders (policy

makers, policy implementors at all levels, and beneficiaries) of decentralization in the education, health and water sectors in the country. The accessible population comprised stakeholders selected from two districts in each of the three ecological zones of the country. The three ecological zones are the northern belt, made up of the Upper West Region, the Upper East Region, and the Northern Region, and the middle belt made up of the BrongAhafo Region, the Ashanti Region, the Western Region, the Central Region, the Eastern Region and parts of the Volta Region. The third is the southern belt made up of the Greater Accra Region and the southern parts of the Volta and Central Regions.

The division of the country into three belts is based on the fact that climatically, ecologically, culturally, linguistically, and in terms of vegetation, areas within each belt tend to exhibit similar characteristics that make them quite distinct from those of the other belts. Given the similarities within each of the belts, one region was purposively selected from each of them. The Northern Region was purposively selected to represent the northern belt because it is the most centrally placed in that belt. Besides, the language of widest


circulation in that region is mutually intelligible among many of the various linguistic groups in the northern belt.

The Ashanti Region was purposively selected to represent the middle belt because it appears to portray characteristics that represent those of the various ethnic groups within the belt. Finally Greater Accra Region was purposively selected to represent the southern belt because ecologically, culturally, linguistically and in terms of vegetation it is the most representative of the characteristics of all the other areas within that belt.

III.3- Sample and Sampling TechniqueTwo districts were selected from each of the three

regions. In the northern belt, represented by the Northern Region, the two districts purposively selected were the Tolon-Kumbungu district, and the Nanumba South district. In the middle belt represented by the Ashanti Region, the two districts purposively selected were the Kwabre and AtwimaNwabiagya districts. In the southern belt, Ga West and Dangme West districts were purposively selected.

Between 1998 and 1999 the country was divided into administrative districts in order to bring the task of governance down to the people through decentralization. Further to this in 2003/2004 some of the districts were split, while new ones were created. So since the time this study was conducted, there have been in existence, old districts, and new districts. The description of the districts and the rationale for their selection are presented below.

iii.3.1- tolon-Kumbungu DistrictThis is one of the Old Districts. It came into being when

the division of Dagbon in the Northern Region into Western Dagomba and Eastern Dagomba Districts was abolished.


The Tolon Kumbungu District then rose out of the ashes of the status quo prior to 1998.

The district shares borders with the West Mamprusi District to the north, the West Gonja District to the west and south, and the Savelugu-Nanton District and Tamale Metropolitan Area to the east. A lot of interventions have been made in the education, health and water sectors, and in local government and rural electrification in the district. This district was purposively selected first, because it is one of the earliest districts to be established (http:// tolonkumbungu.ghanadistricts. gov.gh/ retrieved 26/03/09), and second because of its proximity to Tamale, the capital of the region.

iii.3.2- the Nanumba south DistrictThis is a New district. It is one of the twenty eight new

districts created out of the original 110 Municipal and District Assemblies of the country. The creation of districts became necessary when it was realized that some of the then existing 110 Municipal and District Assemblies (MDSs) were too large for realistic decentralization and effective governance. Wulensi is the capital of this district (http: // nanumbasouth.ghanadistricts.gov,gh/retrieved 26/03/09).

iii.3.3- Kwabre DistrictThe Kwabre District, carved out of the former Kwabre-

Sekyere District in 1988, is located almost in the Central portion of the Ashanti Region. The district shares common boundaries with the Afigya-Sekyere District to the north, the Kumasi Metropolitan Area to the south, the Ejisu-Juaben Municipality to the southeast, the Atwima-Nwabiagya Municipality to the West, and Offinso Municipality to the northwest. The district capital Mamponten, is about 14.5


Kilometres northeast of Kumasi. The selection of this district was based, first, on its proximity to Kumasi, and second on the fact that it is an Old district (http: www.ghanadistricts.com/districts/? News & r=2&=23) retrieved 28/03/09.

iii.3.4- AtwimaNwabiagya DistrictAtwimaNwabiagya is one of the largest districts in the

Ashanti Region. It is one of the New districts carved out of the then Atwima District in 2003. It is situated in the Western part of the region and shares common boundaries with the AhafoAno and AtwimaMponua Districts to the west, Offinso Municipal to the north, Amansie West and Bosomtwe-Atwima-Kwanwoma Districts to the south, and the Kumasi Metropolis and Kwabre District to the east. The district was selected, first because it is close to the regional capital, Kumasi, and second because it is one of the newly established districts. (http:// www.ghanadistricts.com/news/?d=818) retrieved 26/03/09. The district capital is Nkawie.

iii.3.5- Dangme West DistrictThe Dangme West District is situated in the south-eastern

part of Ghana. It is an Old district which came into being when the then Dangme District was split into two as part of a national re-demarcation exercise carried out under the local government reforms of 1988. The district shares boundaries with the Yilo Krobo District to the north-west, North Tongu District to the north-east, Akuapem North District to the West, Tema District to the south west, and Dangme East District to the East. The selection of this district was based on it proximity to Accra, as well as the fact that it is one of the earliest-established districts (http://dangmewest.ghanadistricts.gov.gh/) retrieved on 26/03/09. The capital of the Dangme West District is Dodowa.


iii.3.6- Ga West DistrictThe capital of the Ga West District is Amasaman. The

district is a New one, carved out of the erstwhile Ga Municipal. The process was part of the government’s decentralization and local government reforms of 2004.

The Ga West District is the second largest of the six Municipalities and Districts in the Greater Accra Region. The Municipality shares common boundaries with Ga East Municipality and Accra Metropolitan Assembly to the east, Akuapem South, Suhum-Kraboa-Coaltar and West Akim Municipal to the north, Awutu-Efutu-Senya District to the west, and the Gulf of Guinea to the south.

The development focus of the Ga West Municipal Assembly for the next decade is “ to achieve accelerated poverty reduction, shared growth through the creation of an enabling environment and empowerment of vulnerable groups within the context of good governance and decentralization. This relies on infrastructural development with particular emphasis on education and health, sanitation, water supply, improved agricultural production and marketing, all with the ultimate objective of promoting growth”. (http:// gawest.ghanadistricts. gov.gh/retrieved 28-03-09).

III.4- Selection of the Sample The sample, which was purposively selected, included the

Chief Director of the Ministry of Education, and the Director General of the Ghana Education Service. It also included the Chief Directors of the Ministries of Health and Works and Housing and Water Resources, as well as the Director General of the Ghana Health Service and the Managing Director of the Ghana Water Company. Thus, in all, six officials were selected from the centre.


At each of the six districts, the District Chief Executive, the District Coordinating Director, and two members of the Social Services Committee of the District Assembly were selected. So at the district level a total of twenty four respondents were selected.

Included in the sample in each district were five assembly members randomly selected, five opinion leaders randomly selected, and ten other members or beneficiaries at the grassroots level randomly selected. These produced a total of one hundred and twenty respondents. In all a total of one hundred and fifty respondents were selected and used as the sample. In addition, Focus Group Discussions were held with 8-10 members in each of the six districts. There were two of such groups in each district.

III.5- Data Collection InstrumentsThe questionnaire was used as the main tool for data

collection. This instrument was used to elicit information from policy makers and policy implementers. These were busy people who could not have been subjected to about an hour of interview. Besides, they were men and women well educated enough to offer information without interference from the researchers and research assistants. (Sarantakos, 1997).

Other reasons why the questionnaire was found the most appropriate tool were that besides its potential to produce information from many respondents within a short time, it is quite inexpensive in terms of time. It can also be completed at the respondent’s convenience. Hence this instrument was administered to Chief Directors of Ministries, Managing Directors of state institutions, Directors General of state institutions, District, and Municipal Chief Executives, District-and Municipal Coordinating Directors, and well educated assembly members.


The questionnaire, according to Creswell (2002) has certain disadvantages. The first is that it does not allow for probing, prompting and clarification of answers given. The second is that it does not provide opportunity to collect additional information from the respondent. These limitations were addressed by providing open-ended items to enable the respondents to explain, opine, and make elaborations.

Another tool used to collect data was the interview guide. At the grassroots level most of the beneficiaries of projects were found not literate enough to independently respond to questionnaires, so data were collected from them through the face-to-face interview mode.

Focus group discussions and documentary sources were also used to gather information. Focus group discussions were held with opinion leaders and grassroots beneficiaries. Documents accessed included those on the internet. All the information on district and municipal assemblies were gleaned from the internet.

III.6- Data Collection ProcedureAt different times prior appointments with the Chief

Directors and other policy-makers in the education, health and water sectors were secured. At the meeting with each official the purpose of the project was explained, and all questions in this regard were answered. The questionnaire was then hand-delivered to the official. The same was done with the District and Municipal Chief Executives and the other consequential actors. In all cases it was agreed that the questionnaires would be completed and collected back in a week. The one-week completion time, however, could not be adhered to since on several occasions the researchers could not meet the official in office. It took about 2 months for each official to complete their questionnaires.


Focus group discussions were also held with opinion leaders and grassroots beneficiaries in the communities. The opinion leaders were mainly retired people, headteachers, and other “traditional respectables”. They usually met in the late afternoons after the day’s work. They agreed on the time and venue for their meetings. The facilitator, guided by a detailed outline, initiated, guided and moderated the discussion, prompting, asking for clarifications, and tape-recording. At the end of each discussion schedule the tape was played back for the group to hear.

The non-opinion leaders were mainly farmers, housewives, food vendors, and operators of very small scale businesses. Meeting with these groups was challenging since they could not adhere to the meeting times agreed upon.

III.7- Problems EncounteredSeveral formidable problems were encountered in the

process of data collection. First, it was found extremely difficult to reach officials at the national, district and municipal offices to arrange for appointment. When appointments were eventually secured, it became very difficult to reach the officials for discussion. Sometimes interruptions were so numerous that precious discussions had to be cut short and then postponed.

Second, the task of constituting focus groups for discussion was found challenging. This was especially so with the grassroots focus groups. Getting them to assemble was a problem; getting them to report on time was another.

The third was fear and suspicion. In the rural areas potential respondents suspected that the researchers and research assistants were out to elicit information from them for purposes they the people did not know. They suspected


that they would be betrayed one day if they expressed negative feelings about politicians. Others suspected that the research assistants were agents of a political party who were out there to elicit information for political purposes. Still others were not sure of the usefulness of the exercise because, according to them they had previously been involved in similar exercises which had yielded no obvious fruits. Such potential respondents were very unwilling to be involved in the exercise. In some cases such people refused altogether to participate in the exercise.

The fourth was demands for payment. Some of the respondents demanded payment before consenting to participate in the exercise. The tokens given to them were obviously not enough to satisfy them.

Finally the weather was not friendly at all. In the Ashanti Region especially, the data collection exercise was on several occasions disrupted for several days by torrential rains. On such occasions rivulets, streams and other water bodies blocked roads and paths, making it impossible for movement around to be made.

Whatsmore, in the Ga West District frequent encounters with snakes put a lot of fear in the research assistant. Such encounters and fear could stall the exercise for days. To alleviate the fear protective boots had to be bought for the research assistant.

IV- RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter deals with the results and discussion of the findings emanating from the eight research questions.


Research Question 1: What are the manifestations of the effectiveness of decentralization in the education, health, water and electricity sectors?

This first section of the chapter examines the manifestations or indications of the effectiveness of decentralization in the study areas. The data available indicate that decisions in connection with decentralization in the education, health, water and electricity sectors are taken at the national, district and the local community levels. Decisions taken at the national level focus on planning, budgeting and resource allocation. The other is concerned with human resource management issues.

Although respondents could not provide consensus about the existence of a written policy in the education sector, the literature tends to suggest that the decisions and efforts aimed at decentralizing educational service delivery reflect Ghana’s decentralization reform, i.e. districts should be empowered to implement policy decisions effectively (1992 Constitution; Ghana Republic, 1994). Indeed researchers, as for example, Rondinelli, (1981) clearly articulate that the transfer of authority or the dispersal of power in public planning, management and decision-making from the national level to sub-national or local levels are the basic tenets of decentralization.

The education sector is inching toward full-blown decentralization but it is beset with problems such as inadequate or lack of the necessary financial, human and infrastructural resources. These bottlenecks give credence to Rosenbaum’s (2000) assertion that national governments have the tendency to devolve responsibilities to local government without providing the necessary resources.


The key objectives of the decentralization policy in the health sector are to achieve probity and accountability and give authority to the regional heads. The rationale behind this is the conviction that when power and authority are transferred to the regions and when probity and accountability are in place resource, fairness in resource allocation as well as project monitoring and evaluation would be improved.

As pointed out by Agrawal and Ribot, (2007), the three distinct dimensions that underlie decentralization are the actors, powers and accountability. The data suggest that developments in the health sector have improved monitoring and evaluation of its programmes. Still, however, the problems of inadequate human and financial resources still remain. What so more effective devolution of power on the regional and district heads has not been achieved Thus there seems to be concentration of power still at the national level.

The objectives or key tenets of decentralization in the water sector are to reach out to the most remote communities or areas with water. The stated policy has been that the communities should be enabled to support themselves in water provision and community sanitation. Respondents indicated that budgetary allocations for the water sector, though inadequate, have always been made.

The objectives of the decentralization policy in the energy sector are to make energy available to the local communities and encourage the local communities to contribute to project funding. Through rural self-help electricity programmes, there has been considerable success in the extension of electricity to the rural areas. Some minimal budgetary allocations have always also been made at the national and district levels.


As observed the self-help electrification programme by which roles are shared by the national and local people has enhanced the supply of electricity to rural areas. What draws back this deconcentration and delegation, however, has been inadequate funding.

Decisions in the education sector made at the district level in the Northern Region include decisions concerning posting of teachers, work place policies and enacting of by-laws to monitor the performance of teaching/learning. In Ashanti Region these include decisions concerning posting of teachers and enacted by-laws to monitor the teaching and learning, as well as transfer of teachers and administrative staff. It also includes the building of school blocks. In the Greater Accra Region the main decision concerns posting of teachers and the building of school blocks. The distributions of these responses are presented in Table 1.


Table 1: Types of decisions in the educational sector made at the district level

Region

Types of decision

Decisions

concerning posting of teachers

Workplace

Policies

Decisions

on building school blocks

Make

byelaws

to m

onitor teaching

and learning

Transfer of teaching

staff and adm

inis-trative staff

No

responseTotal

Northern

(N/R)

5(62.5%

)1

(12.5%)

0(.0%

)1

(12.5%)

0(.0%

)1

(12.5%)

8(100.0%

)A

shanti(A

/R)1

(12.5%)

0(.0%

)4

(50.0%)

1(12.5%

)1

(12.5%)

1(12.5%

)8

(100.0%)

Gr

ea

ter

Accra

(A/R)

5(62.5%

)0

(.0%)

1(12.5%

)0

(.0%)

0(.0%

)2

(25.0%)

8(100.0%

)

Total11

(45.8%)

1(4.2%

)5

(20.8%)

2(8.3%

)1

(4.2%)

4(16.7%

)24

(100.0%)


These findings made in the communities give support to the accounts made at the national and

district levels to the effect that decisions on education are taken at both the national and district levels: the latter focuses on posting of teachers, building of new school blocks and monitoring of teaching and learning, while the former focuses on policy and financial issues. This picture is an indication of dispersal of decision making to the substructures of government at the regional and district levels, a process which is consistent with the New Local Government system.

In all the regions it was reported that decisions that devolve on the districts are posting of nurses and essential health workers, as well as provision of health education. Others are decisions on work place policies and where to site health posts. The distribution of the responses by region is presented in Table 2.


Table 2: Types of decisions in the health sector made at the district level

Region

Types of decision

Provision of health facilities

Posting of

nurses to

rural areas

Work-

place policies

How

to m

ake health-

care accessible

Where

to site health post or clinics

Educating clients

on health bits

Recruitm

ent of

comm

unity health

workers

and nursing assistants

Decision

on bye-law

s on personal hygiene

and sanitation

No

responseTotal

Northern (N

/R)2 (25.0%

)1(12.5%

)1(12.5%

)1(12.5%

)2(25.0%

)1(12.5%

)0(.0%

)0(.0%

)0(.0%

)8(100.0%

)

Ashanti

(A/R)

2(25.0%)

1(12.5%)

0(.0%)

0(.0%)

1(12.5%)

1(12.5%)

1(12.5%)

1(12.5%)

1(12.5%)

8(100.0%)

Greater

Accra

(GA

/R)

2(25.0%)

1(12.5%)

1(12.5%)

1(12.5%)

0(.0%)

0(.0%)

0(.0%)

0(.0%)

3(37.5%)

8(100.0%)

Total6(25.0%

)3(12.5%

)2(8.3%

)2(8.3%

)3(12.5%

)2(8.3%

)1(4.2%

)1(4.2%

)4(16.7%

)24(100.0%

)


Respondents were asked if decisions in the health sector were made at the national level. In the Northern Region it was reported that decisions in the health sector are made at the national level, and to some extent, at the district level. Thus decisions are made at both the national and district levels. In Ashanti Region it was it was reported that decisions in the health sector are made at both the national and district levels. The same is the case in the Greater Accra Region.

These data also establish that decisions in the health sector are taken at both the central government and district levels. Decisions by the districts involve the deployment of nurses, building of new health posts and efforts at making health facilities accessible to the local people. These corroborate the information provided at the national and district headquarters. This situation reflects some elements of decentralization referred to as deconcentration and delegation where according to its proponent’s decision making authority and financial management responsibilities are distributed among different levels of the central government but ultimately accountable to the government (www ciesin. org)).

The loci of decision making in the water sector do not differ from those of the education and health sectors. The data is presented in Table 3.


Table 3: Types of decisions in the water sector m

ade at the district level

Region

Types of decisionD

ecisions concerning provision of w

ater resources

Managem

ent of potable drinking

water

Distribution of w

ater facilities

mechanized borehole to m

any com

munities

No

responseTotal

Northern (N

/R)4 (50.0%

)2 (25.0%

)1(12.5%

)0 (0%

)1 (12.5%

)8 (100.0%

)A

shanti (A/R)

0(0%)

0(0%)

3(37.5%)

5(62.5%)

0(0%)

8(100.0%)

Greater A

ccra (G

A/R)

2 (25.0%)

0 (.0%)

3(37.5%)

1(12.5%)

2(25.0%)

8(100.0%)

Total6 (25.0%

)2 (8.3%

)7(29.2%

)6 (25.0%

)3 (37.5%

)24(100.0%

)


Obviously, in the Water sector decisions are taken at all three levels: national, district and local, though the kinds of decisions vary from level to level. For instance all the regions report that decisions taken at the district level include only those concerning the distribution of water facilities and construction of boreholes. Just as the case is in education and health sectors, some elements of deconcentration and delegation are present though not in a comprehensive form.

The communities also indicated that decisions about electricity were made at the National and District levels. Like the other sectors discussed above, fiscal decentralization was not evident. There is however an element of deconcerntration and delegation of decision making. Overall, it appears decentralization of decision making in the regions and districts has been far more effective in administrative decentralization and far less effective in fiscal decentralization.

Regarding the existence of educational facilities in the communities it was discovered that virtually respondents in all the communities indicated that there were schools in their communities. This is overwhelming evidence that schools do exist in all the districts.

However, it is worth noting that the number of respondents, who confirmed that schools existed, tends to dwindle as one moves away from the districts near the national capital (Dangbe West and Ga West Districts). The districts in the Northern region (Nanumba South and TolonKumbugu) have the lowest. It is concluded here that the greater the physical proximity of a community is to a centre of urban life the more the number of schools it tends to have. The distribution of responses is presented in Table 4.


Table 4: Respondents who agreed that they had schools in their communities

Districts Frequency Percentage

Tolon/Kumbugu District (TKD) 14 70.0

Nanumba South Distict (NSD) 13 65,0Kwabre District (KD) 18 90.0AtwimaNwabiagya District (AND) 19 95.0

Dangme West District (DWD) 20 100.0Ga West District (GWD) 20 100.0

In the case of libraries, the reverse was the case: the Northern Regional Districts (Tolon Kumbugu and Nanumba South Districts) had more libraries in their communities than the Ashanti (Atwima and Kwabre) and Greater Accra Regional Districts (Dangbe and Ga West Districts). Ga West has none at all. These revelations were confirmed through the focus group discussions. Respondents in the districts of the Greater Accra and Ashanti Region, especially complained about the lack of or inadequacy of library facilities. For instance, an elderly man in the AtwimaNwabiagya District lamented that: “In addition to the poor state of their classrooms there is no library for safe keeping of the inadequate books”

In the health sector respondents indicated that for the past 5 to 20 years only a few (not more than 20%) of communities in the study districts had hospitals constructed. Districts that did not have hospitals at all were Nanumba South, TolonKumbugu, Ga West and Dangbme West. This is in stark contrast with the case of education where over 80% of the respondents in the districts reported having had schools and kindergartens for the past 5 to 20 years.


In districts where hospitals were not available, it was realized that there were clinics and/or health posts to take care of their health needs. The clinics and health posts were however not able to deal with complicated health cases. For example in the NanumbaSouth and TolonKumbuguDistricts, some of the respondents had this to say. ‘’ because there is no hospital, we always have to rush the sick to the district capital or in extreme cases the Tamale Hospital. Such delays invariably lead to deaths’’.

The respondents were asked if water facilities had been provided for the past 5 to 20 years. In all the six districts those who indicated that they had pipe borne water were fewer than those who indicated otherwise. For instance in three districts (Dangme West, TolonKumbugu and Atwima Districts) over 60% of the respondents did not have pipe borne water.

Communities that did not have pipe borne water, depended on bore holes and wells as their sources of drinking water. It was further observed that while Dangme West had no bore holes, TolonKumbugu and Kwabre districts depended heavily on bore holes, wells and other water bodies. Similar findings came from the focus group discussions. The following concerns expressed during one focus group discussion in the Kwabre District illustrate the point. ‘’ River Offin is our major source of water, the only borehole is still under construction and we are not sure when it will be completed. Therefore without the river our lives will be unbearable. Hmm … the sad story is that during the dry season, the Offin dries up and we have to move from house to house to draw water from wells. We end up drinking bad water which frequently results in diseases”.


The views of respondents regarding payment of money towards the schooling of their wards were divided in all the six districts. While some declared that payments have ceased following the abolition of fees and introduction of the capitation grant others disagreed, claiming that payments still existed in the form of examination fees, fees for school projects and in a few cases for textbooks fees. Apparently the latter groups of respondents interpret free education as an absolutely free service. Responses on payment of school fees are presented in Table 5.


Tabl

e 5:

Rea

sons

for w

ards

not

pay

ing

scho

ol fe

es

Dis

tric

ts

Rea

sons

Tota

lC

apita

tion

gran

tA

bolit

ion

of fe

esC

apita

tion

gran

t And

A

bolit

ion

of

fees

Not

too

sure

of

wha

t to

say

No

resp

onse

Tolo

n/Ku

mbu

gu D

istric

t (TK

D)

12 (6

0.0%

)4

(20.

0%)

0 (0

%)

4 (2

0.0%

)0

(0%

)20

(100

.0%

)

Nan

umba

Sou

th D

istic

t (N

SD)

14 (7

0.0%

)3

(15.

0 %

)1

(5.0

%)

2 (1

0.0

%)

0 (0

%)

20 (1

00.0

%)

Kwab

re D

istric

t (KD

)16

(80.

0%)

0 (0

%)

0 (0

%)

4 (2

0.0%

)0

(0%

)20

(100

.0%

)

Atw

ima-

Nw

abia

gya

Dist

rict (

AN

D)

9 (4

5.0%

)0

(0%

)0

(0%

)9

(45.

0%)

2 (1

0.0%

)20

(100

.0%

)

Dan

gme W

est D

istric

t (D

WD

)6

(30.

0%)

0 (0

%)

0 (0

%)

5 (2

5.0%

)9

(45.

0%)

20 (1

00.0

%)

Ga

Wes

t Dist

rict (

GW

D)

8 (4

0.0%

)0

(0%

)0

(0%

)5

(25.

0%)

3 (1

5.0%

)20

(100

.0%

)

Tota

lC

ount

% w

ithin

N

umbe

rs65

(54

.2%

)7

( 5.8

%)

1 (.8

%)

33 (2

7.5%

)14

(11.

7%)

120

(100

.0%

)


Again, opinions were divided on the payment for health care in all the districts except Dangme West District. While others stated that they did not pay for health services, others insisted that they paid for their medical services. Those who paid were largely those who were not registered under the National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS). Such individuals had to pay for drugs, consultation and other services. Interestingly, the premium for the NHIS registration was said to be unbearable, especially in the Atwima Nwabiagya and Kwabre districts where the respondents complained bitterly about the cost of medical services.

In all the six districts the people paid for the use of pipe borne water. It is evident from the data that electricity usage is paid for in all districts. The few respondents who stated that they did not pay for electricity in the NanumbaSouth, AtwimaNwabiagya and Dangme West Districts for instance are likely to be in communities not connected to electricity in their homes.

The local level responses confirm the results of the district level where it was observed that access to schools and kindergarten, was higher than the availability and use libraries in the various districts.

As a reflection of the lack or inadequate number of health facilities, particularly hospitals, in all the districts the proportion of the people in the communities who reported to have access to modern health care facilities is low. The use of health facilities is remarkably low in TolonKubumgu and Nanumba South Districts. During the focus group discussions it was observed that quite a significant number of the local people still patronized traditional medicine in the districts in the Northern Region due to first, the lack of health care facilities, second inability to pay for the NHIS premium and third the high cost of modern health care.


Apart from DangmeWest District, the picture is that of poor access to pipe borne water. The use of boreholes and wells is higher in the remaining districts. When asked why they did not use pipe- borne water, all the respondents indicated that either the facility was not available in the community or that the wells and boreholes are more patronized because their use does not attract any fees.

In all the Districts it was found that large proportions of the population had access to electricity. The distribution of people who enjoyed electricity in the districts is shown in Table 6.Table 6: Responses on whether respondents used electricity or not Positive effects of services provided

Districts Yes NoTolon/Kumbugu District (TKD) 18(94.7%) 1 (5.3%)Nanumba South Distict (NSD) 16 (80%) 4 (20%)Kwabre District (KD) 20 (100%) 0 (0.0%)AtwimaNwabiagya District (AND) 19 (95%) 1 (5%)Dangme West District (DWD) 13 (65 %) 7 (35%)Ga West District (GWD) 19 (95%) 1 (5%)

Respondents were asked to indicate the positive effects of developments in the education, health, water and electricity sectors on their lives. The responses are provided in Tables 7, 8 and 9. Table 7 displays the specific positive changes that have occurred in the lives of the respondents as a result of the abolition of school fees and the introduction of the Capitation grant. According to them the money which could have been used to pay school fees are used for other things. They thus can send more of their children to school.


Table 7: Specific positive changes that have occurred in the lives of respondents as a result

of the abolition of school fees and the introduction of the C

apitation grant

Regions

Specific Positive Changes

Money used to pay

school fees are used for other things

To send more

of my children

to schoolN

o response Total

Tolon

/Ku

mbu

gu D

istrict (TKD)

17 (89.5%)

2 (10.5%)

0 (0%)

19 (100.0%)

Nan

um

ba Sou

th D

istict (ND

)17 (85.0%

)2 (10.5%

)1 (5.0%

)20 (100.0%

)

Kw

abre District

(KD)

8 (40.0%)

12 (60.0%)

0 (0%)

20 (100.0%)

Atw

imaN

wabiagya

District (A

D)

5 (25.0%)

2 (10.0%)

13 (65.0%)

20 (100.0%)

Da

ng

me

West

District (D

D)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

20 (100.0%)

20 (100.0%)

Ga W

est District

(GW

D)

4 (20.0%)

3 (15.0%)

13 (65.0%)

20 (100.0%)

Total51 (42.9%

)21 (17.6%

)47 (39.5%

)119 (100.0%

)


Table 8 also shows the specific positive changes that have occurred in the people’s lives as a result of the introduction of NHIS. The respondents indicated that the pressure for them getting money before they are treated was no more, hospital bills were now used for other purposes and that they now visit hospital regularly.

Table 9 also shows the specific positive changes that have occurred in people’s lives as a result of the provision of water in the communities.

Table 10 also depicts the specific positive changes that have occurred in people’s lives as a result of the provision of electricity in the communities.


Table 8 : Specific positive changes that occurred in people’s lives as a result of

the introduction of NH

IS.


District

Pressure for getting m

oney to be treated is

gone

Hospital bill

is now used

for other purpose

Can access health

regardless (m

oney or no m

oney)

Regular

hospital attendance

Frequent death in m

y family is

a thing of the past

No

response

Total

To

lon

/Ku

mb

ug

u D

istrict (TKD)

1368.4%

210.5%

210.5%

210.5%

00%00%

19100.0

Nanum

ba South Distict

(ND

)18

90.0%00%

00%2

10.0%00%

00%20

100.0

Kwabre D

istrict (KD)

1785.0%

315.0%

00%00%

00%00%

20100.0

Atw

imaN

wabiagya

District (A

D)

1260.0%

735.0%

00%1

5.0%00%

00%20

100.

Dangm

e West D

istrict (D

D)

1575.0%

525.0%

00%00%

00%00%

20100.0

Ga W

est District

(GW

D)

945.0%

945.0%

00%00%

15.0%

15.0%

20100.0

Total84

70.6%26

21.8%2

1.7%5

4.2%18%

18%119

100.0


Tabl

e 9

: Spe

cific

pos

itive

chan

ges

that

hav

e oc

curre

d in

the

lives

of r

espo

nden

ts a

s a

resu

lt

of th

e pr

ovis

ion

of w

ater

in th

e co

mm

unitie

s.

Dis

tric

t

Spec

ific

Posi

tive

Cha

nges

We

no lo

nger

w

alk

long

di

stan

ces

for

wat

er

Gui

nea

wor

m

infe

ctio

n is

go

ne

We

now

hav

e ac

cess

to g

ood

drin

king

wat

erN

ot to

o ce

rtai

n

No

resp

onse

Tota

l

Tolo

n/Ku

mbu

gu D

istric

t (TK

D)

12 (6

3.2%

)5

(26.

3%)

2 (1

0.5%

)0

(0%

)0

(0%

)19

(100

.0%

)

Nan

umba

Sou

th D

istic

t (N

D)

18 (9

0.0%

)0

(0%

)2

(10.

0%)

0 (0

%)

0 (0

%)

20 (1

00.0

%)

Kwab

re D

istric

t (KD

)7

(35.

0%)

0 (0

%)

9 (4

5.0%

)4

(20.

0%)

0 (0

%)

20 (1

00.0

%)

Atw

imaN

wab

iagy

a D

istric

t (A

D)

6 (3

0.0%

)5

(25.

0%)

4 (2

0.0%

)1

(5.0

%)

4 (2

0.0%

)20

(100

.0%

)

Dan

gme W

est D

istric

t (D

D)

0 (0

%)

5 (2

5.0%

)0

(0%

)0

(0%

)15

(75.

0%)

20 (1

00.0

%)

Ga

Wes

t Dist

rict (

GW

D)

5 (2

5.0%

)4

(20.

0%)

4 (2

0.0%

)1

(5.0

%)

6 (3

0.0%

)20

(100

.0%

)

Tota

l48

(40.

3%)

19 (1

6.0%

)21

(17.

6%)

6 (5

.0%

)26

(21.

0%)

119

(100

.0%

)


Table 10: Specific positive changes that have occurred in the lives of respondents as a result

of the provision of electricity in the com

munities

District


Now

able to use electrical gadgets like

TVs

It helps m

e to sell soft drinks

Helps to

study at

night

Not

spend m

oney on

buying batteries

Brightens the

comm

unity

Gives m

e an

improved

standard of living

No

responseTotal

Tolon/Kumbugu D

istrict (TKD

)8 (42.1%

)3 (15.8%

)2

(10.5%)

1 (5.3%)

4 (21.1%)

0 (0%)

1 (5.3%)

19 (100.0%)

Nanum

ba South Distict

(ND

)13 (65.0%

)0 (0%

)0 (0%

)0 (0%

)0 (0%

)2 (10.0%

)5 (20.0%

)20 (100.0%

)

Kwabre D

istrict (KD)

11 (55.0%)

6 (30.0%)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

3 (15.0%)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

20 (100.0%)

Atw

imaN

wabiagya

District (A

D)

2 (10.0%)

2 (10.0%)

5 (20.0%

)0 (0%

)1 (5.0%

)1 (5.0%

)9 (45.0%

)20 (100.0%

)

Dangm

e West D

istrict (D

D)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

20 (100.0%)

20 (100.0%)

Ga W

est District (G

WD

)4 (20.0%

)1 (5.0%

)3

(15.0%)

2 (10.0%)

1 (5.0%)

0 (0%)

9 (45.0%)

20 (100.0%)

Total38 (31.9%

)12

(10.1%)

10 (6.4%

)3 (2.5%

)9 (7.6%

)3 (2,5%

)44 (37.0%

)119

(100.0%)


Considerable proportions of respondents in Tolon Kumbugu,, Nanumba South and Kwabre Districts indicated that the abolition of school fees and introduction of the capitation grant had resulted in tremendous positive changes in their lives as well as in the lives of other community members. Explaining some of the positive changes that had occurred in their lives during a focus group discussion a man said: ‘’I could not have afforded to send more of my children to school, but with this abolition of school fees I am able to do so”.

A woman declared: ‘’Sometimes in the past, when my child came home from school or when she was on holidays, I used to engage her in selling some petty things to raise money for school fees or any other expenditure, but now with the abolition of school fees, I no longer engage her in such activities’’.

On the contrary most respondents in Atwima Nwabiagya, Dangme and Ga West Districts could not express any positive effects of the capitation grant and abolition of school fees. In the focus group discussion in GaWest District, a man said: ‘’ because whenever the capitation grant does not come early, the whole academic programme of the school is jeopardized throughout the year’.

As can be observed from the data available in all of the six districts studied, majority of the local level respondents agreed that the NHIS and the Free Maternal Health Care (FMHC) programmes had had positive consequences on their personal lives and the lives of other members of the community. During focus group discussion the respondents recounted some of the benefits in their lives; ‘’ there is easy access to health care, “even when you do not have money”, “you can go to the hospital”, “it has improved our health


status’’. In Nanumba South District, a man added that; ‘’whenever my wife is pregnant, the Free Maternal Health Care relieves me of some burden, because the little money that I have will be used for other things like baby clothing, soap and preparation for the naming ceremony. I wish the government could extend it to the period when the child is three years old”.

The data show that majority of the local respondents in the districts concur that the provision of facilities like pipe borne water and bore holes has impacted positively on their lives as well as the lives of other members of the community. The most appreciated benefits include the fact that the provision of water has saved them a lot of time, prevented guinea worm infection, and provided them good drinking water. In short they have economic, social and health benefits. Similar sentiments were expressed at the focus group discussion. In Tolon Kumbugu District for instance, a respondent had this to share; ‘’I am now free from guinea worm; this has improved my health status’’. Another added: ‘’for me, every morning I used to walk a long distance for water before I could do anything else but now pipe borne water is near me. So now I can get water within a short time’’.

With the exception of a respondent in Dangme West District all respondents reported remarkable positive changes in their lives and in the lives of other members of the community. The following comments from the focus group discussions illustrate the point: ‘’the provision of electricity here has encouraged some experts like nurses, teachers, and assembly workers to stay here and discharge their duties effectively’’. (Nanumba South District) ‘’ Now electricity has provided security for all of us, people used to commit crimes in the night without being caught, but now such things are


past things in this town’’. (TolonKumbuguDistrict) ‘’ Yes we have benefits, we use it for ironing and watching TV, but frequent light–outs destroy our appliances and food stuffs’’. (GaWest District),

The answer for research question one can now be summarized to the effect that manifestations of the effectiveness of decentralization in the education, healthand water sectors are that decisions in all the four sectors are taken at both national and districts levels. More people now have access to school, healthcare, water and electricity. This has impacted positively on the lives of people. Decentralization of the health sector has enhanced monitoring and evaluation in that sector. Budgetary allocations to the health sector, though inadequate has always been made. Through rural electrification programmes of the District Assemblies considerable successes have been made in the extension of electricity to rural areas. Districts Assemblies make bye –laws to monitor the performance of teaching and learning. e.g. the functions of Parent Teacher Associations and School Management Committees. Regarding power to actors, sometimes national level authorities still hold on to power which should have been transferred to the lower structures of government. The implication of this is that the decentralized authorities sometimes have inadequate authority to implement their programmes or meet their responsibilities.

Research Question 2To what extent are human and material resources

transferred from the national level to the local levels?This section focuses on the extent to which human

and material resources have been transferred from the


national level to the district and local levels to promote the decentralization process. The human resources in question are teachers, nurses, doctors and technicians in the water and electricity sectors. The non human resources are infrastructure, equipment and finance. Others are materials such as books, drugs and machinery. These transfers are important because effective decentralization requires that functions, powers expertise and resources are made available at the various implementation levels (Ministry of Local Government, 1994: Rondinelli, 1981).

The findings indicate that a substantial number of teachers have constantly been posted to the schools through the District Education Directorate. The respondents indicated that apart from the directors and supervisors, teaches have been posted to schools in the community. In spite of these postings the discussions revealed that there are still not enough trained teachers in all the communities. An overwhelming majority (90.0%) of the respondents were of the view that the teachers are contributing quite effectively to learning in the schools. The few who did not think so attributed the teachers’ inability to deliver more effectively to inadequate textbooks and stationery as well as inadequate and unsuitable classrooms and furniture. Others were frustrations arising out of poor salary and lack of decent accommodation and modern social amenities, especially in the rural areas. The respondents indicated further that in some cases teachers do not live in the community due to inadequate accommodation. Some of the teachers do not live in the communities because either they dislike living in the village or they don’t feel comfortable living in the village owing to ethnic differences as indicated in Table 11.


Tabl

e 11

: Rea

sons

for t

each

ers

not r

esid

ing

in th

e co

mm

uniti

es

Rea

sons

Tota

lLa

ck o

f acc

omm

odat

ion

Dis

like

livin

g in

th

e vi

llage

Don

’t fe

el

com

for-

tabl

e liv

ing

in th

e vi

llage

du

e to

et

hnic

ity

No

resp

onse

Tolo

n/Ku

mbu

gu

Dist

rict (

TKD

)12

(63.

2%)

7 (3

6.8%

)0

(0%

)0

(0%

)19

(100

.0%

)

Nan

umba

Sou

th

Dist

ict (

NSD

)11

(55.

0%)

0 (0

%)

7 (3

5.0%

)2

(10.

0%)

20 (1

00.0

%)

Kwab

re D

istric

t (KD

)10

(50.

0%)

1 (5

.0%

)1

(5.0

%)

8 (4

0.0%

)20

(100

.0%

)A

twim

aNw

abia

gya

Dist

rict (

AN

D)

12 (6

0.0%

)6

(30.

0%)

0 (0

%)

2 (1

0.0%

)20

(100

.0%

)

Dan

gme W

est D

istric

t (D

WD

)15

(75.

0%)

5 (2

5.0%

)0

(0%

)0

(0%

)20

(100

.0%

)

Ga

Wes

t Dist

rict

(GW

D)

13 (6

5.0%

)4

(20.

0%)

0 (0

%)

3 (1

5.0%

)20

(100

.0%

)

73 (6

1.0%

)23

(19.

3%)

8 (6

.7%

)15

(12.

6%)

119

(100

.0%

)


So in conclusion the data indicate that the majority of the beneficiaries perceive teachers to be contributing to effective learning in the schools. Even though doctors, nurses and other health workers posted to these communities are trained, they are found to be inadequate in numbers. The case of doctors was found to be even more serious. In the Nanumba South District for example, where modern social amenities were inadequate, it was reported that there was no single doctor at the time of the study. Responses from 77.5% of the respondents indicate that to a large extent the doctors, nurses and other health workers were contributing to effective health delivery in the communities. However, factors that inhibit their full enhanced performance as in the case of teachers were frustrations due to delay in salary payments, inadequate decent accommodation, inadequate equipment and uncooperative attitude of patients.

Responses from the respondents indicated that enough technicians had been selected and offered training to maintain the machinery in the water sector. Supervisors also visit the communities regularly to oversee the work the technicians do. In the TolonKumbugu, NanumbaSouth and KwabreDistricts, 9(47.4%), 13(65%) and 18(90%) respondents respectively indicated that the supervisors or technicians were available to ensure the running of water from pipes/boreholes in the community. In the AtwimaNwabiagya, DangmeWest and GaWest Districts; 11(55%), 0(0%) and 10(50%) indicated that there were technicians to the ensure the safety of the machines.

We therefore conclude that in the communities there are supervisors in the water sector who visit the technicians to ensure the running of water from the pipes and bore-holes. With regard to the effectiveness of the work of the supervisors and technicians in ensuring the availability of


running water in the communities, opinions were divided. About half of the respondents (50.7%) were of the view that the technicians and the supervisors have been so far effective. The other half expressed a contrary view. The later group attributed the apparent lack of effectiveness to the fact that some of the supervisors do not live in the communities, that the job is not a daily activity or the pipe borne water provision was still in the hands of the contractors and that the supervisors disliked living in the villages as shown in Table 12. Besides there was low morale due to inadequate decent accommodation and dissatisfaction with their salaries. We may conclude therefore that whenever there are pipes and bore-holes workers in the water sector are quite effective in ensuring that water is running as required.


Table 12: Reason for apparent lack of effectiveness of the w

ork of the technicians and supervisors

Reasons

No

responseTotal

The pipe borne w

ater is still in

construction

Lack of accom

mo-

dation

The job is not a

daily activity w

hich dem

ands them

there alw

ays

Dislikes

living in village

Dissatis-

faction w

ith their

salaries

Tolon/Kum

bugu District

(TKD)

9 (47.4%)

1 (5.3%)

2 (10.5%)

2 (10.5%)

2 (16.0%)

3 (15.8%)

19 (100.0%)

Nanum

ba South Distict

(NSD

16 (80.0%)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

4 (20.0%)

20 (100.0%)

Kwabre D

istrict (KD)

2 (10.0%)

1 (5.0%)

3 (15.0%)

0 (0%)

3 (15.0%)

11

(55.0%)

20 (100.0%)

Atwim

a-Nw

abiagya D

istrict (AND

)4 (20.0%

)0 (0.0%

)7 (35.0%

)0 (0.0%

)5 (25.0%

)4 (20.0%

)20 (100.0%

)

Dangm

e West D

istrict (D

WD

)15 (75.0%

)0 (0.0%

)0 (0.0%

)0 (0.0%

)5 (25.0%

)0 (0.0%

)20 (100.0%

)

Ga W

est District (G

WD

)4 (20.0%

)1 (5.0%

)4 (20.0%

)0 (0.0%

)4 (20.0%

)7 (35.0%

)20 (100.0%

)

50 (42.0%)

3 (2.5%)

16 (13.4%)

2 (1.7%)

19 (16.0%)

29 (24.4%

)119 (100.0%

)


The data available also indicate that in the electricity sector experts had been transferred. However, they are not adequate for all the communities. For example in the Atwima Nwabiagya District, some problems connected with electricity supply have to be reported at Kumasi, the regional capital To some extent the electricity experts can be said to be not all that effective since complaints made to them are either not always attended to at all or the attention is not prompt.

The answer for research question two, therefore, is that to a large extent human and non-human resources have been transferred from the centre to the districts. The sector most favoured in terms of human resources transferred to the district is the education sector. In the case of the health sector, however, in many cases the numbers of doctors and nurses posted to the districts have invariably been inadequate. Specifically, central government appoints 30% of District/Municipal Assembly members. This is done mainly to fill skilled manpower gaps. Personnel or experts (teachers, nurses, doctors, technicians and extension officers) are transferred into the Districts to fill vacancies. Teachers who serve in the rural areas have some incentives. e.g. they qualify for study leave with pay within shorter periods. The District Education Directorate each year post newly trained teachers and teachers seeking transfers. Five percent to 7% of the national budget is reserved in a fund called the District Assemblies Common Fund. This is distributed according to a formula to all the decentralized authorities Equipment and other capital items are also transferred to the District by the central government. The challenges are the lack of social amenities in the rural areas which sometimes de-motivate personnel posted and transferred to the countryside as well as adequacy and the late arrival of funds from the central government.


Research Question 3: How effectively are the human and material resources transferred to the local levels utilized; to what extent is their performance satisfactory

In this section we discuss the issue of whether material resources were transferred to the districts or local levels and whether they have been effectively used in those areas. Devolution of resources has been recognized as a key pre-requisite for effective implementation of decentralization policy. Rosenbaum (2000) states that decentralization in reality involves the devolution of responsibilities and resources to independent and autonomous sub-national authorities which are accountable to both the central government and their communities. “And there shall be established for each local government unit a sound financial base with adequate and reliable sources of revenue” (1992 Constitution p, 150).

It is evident from the data that though funds have been made available for education, health, water and electricity projects in almost all communities they are not adequate in all cases. As illustrated by Faguet, (2001) and Bardhan, (2002), case studies of successful decentralizationin Brazil and Boliva were as a result of substantial resources allocated across localities especially from the central government to poor areas. Therefore, as found in this study since funds have not been enough for all the sectors, the realization of the decentralization goal is far from being achieved.

A recurring revelation from all the Focus Group Discussions carried out was that the District Assembly Common Fund is the main source of funding from the government. However, this fund is not only inadequate but also it does not arrive on time. In addition the Assemblies lack personnel who are well


versed in revenue mobilization. Hence funding constraints retard the effective working of the decentralization process. Funds transferred to the districts according to most of the respondents have to a large extent been accessible. Besides, funds allocated to the districts though inadequate are effectively used.

A government of Ghana policy is that every child in the Basic School should have copies of the textbooks in the three core subjects (English, Mathematics and Science). The majority of the respondents in all the communities indicated that textbooks had been supplied to the schools. However, in some cases the problems lie in delays in supply and in the refusal of some headteachers to allow the children to take the textbooks home. The supply of supplementary books has not been adequate. In almost all the districts the responses indicated that the supply of stationery has not been adequate in terms of quantity. The supply of textbooks, supplementary books and stationery havealso been erratic and therefore cannot be put to effective use.

The majority of the respondents in the communities indicated that they had classrooms and furniture. The gloomy side of it is that in all the districts, school libraries are either woefully inadequate or are nonexistent. In most of the public schools the textbooks and supplementary readers are largely obsolete and mutilated. The libraries, even if they exist, are not put to effective use.

Concerning the health sector, the majority of the respondents indicated that medicine, vehicles, office equipment, and accommodation have been supplied to the clinics and hospitals in their communities and are being put to effective use.


The findings above are indications of specific kinds of concrete interventions at the district level that lend substance and give meaning to the devolution of resources, roles and powers to government sub-structures. According to most perspectives on decentralization, effectiveness hinges on the availability, adequacy and the effective use of resources. It also hinges on accountability (Rosenbaum, 2000: Agrawal&Ribot 2007)).

In the spirit of decentralization enough technicians have been selected and offered training to maintain the machinery in the water sector. In the communities there are supervisors in the water sector who visit the technicians to ensure the running of water from the pipes and bore-holes. With regard to the effectiveness of the work of the supervisors and technicians in ensuring the availability of running water in the communities we may conclude therefore that whenever there are pipes and bore-holes, workers in the water sector are quite effective in ensuring that water is running as required.

As pointed out above, medicine, office equipment, vehicles and accommodation have been supplied to the clinics and hospitals in the communities and have effectively been put to use though not to the same degree of effectiveness as is the case in the education sector. It is probably due to the limited number of health facilities and doctors in the communities. The experiences reported give support to the conclusions of Agrawal and Ribot (2007) which state that the three key factors that underlie all acts of decentralization are the actors, powers and accountability. The authors highlight accountability since according to them it broadens participation and allows actors to be held downwardly accountable to their constituencies.


Based on the data discussed so far, the answer for research question three is that human and material resources have been transferred to the local communities. The human resources such as teachers, nurses, doctors and technicians have not always been adequate in numbers. Funds have also been made available but this resource has been perennially inadequate. Efforts are in place to put all these resources to effective use, but their inadequacy makes output less satisfactory than expected.

Additionally, assembly members are put on committees according to their competencies. Competent assembly members prepare budgets for their decentralized authorities. They also monitor the implementation of the budget.

Personnel transferred from the national level are posted to sectors of their specialization. Central government programmes in the Districts are implemented and monitored by specialists sent into the decentralized government areas. With regard to the level of satisfaction with the effective use of transferred human and material resources transferred to the local levels, the information available suggests that the experts render satisfactory service; the challenge, however, is that it is difficult to retain such experts due to frustrations that are characteristic of rural areas.

Research Question 4: What is the degree of synergy among the structures put in place for the implementation of education, health, water and electricity policy at the community level?

The provisions of the 1988 local government structure outline a framework that promotes the integration of plans and programmes of the districts. The provisions also lead


to harmonization of district plans and programmes with national development policies and priorities, Therefore an important feature of the Local Government System in Ghana is that the Regional Coordinating Councils (RCCs) are expected to coordinate and ensure that development plans and programmes of the District Assemblies are integrated and harmonized with national development plans and programmes (Section 113 of PNDCL 207).

The respondents were asked of the mechanisms put in place to ensure that development in education, health, water and electricity sectors take place together. In the Northern Region, Ashanti Region and Greater Accra Region; 46.2%, 75% and 89.7% respectively indicated that programmes are drawn through joint planning at the district level; 12.8%, 7.5% and 2.6% indicated that this is done through joint implementation at both the district level and national level. Twenty eight percent, 10% and 0% respectively indicated that joint evaluation is done at the district level.

The respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which mechanisms for integrating the four sectors are in place according to policy guidelines. In all the regions the responses suggest that the mechanisms for integration are consistent with policy.

It is evident that joint planning, joint implementation and joint evaluation at the district level are some of the mechanisms put in place to ensure developments in the education, health, water and electricity sectors at the district levels. The mechanisms for integration of the four sectors are done to some extent in the districts. Chiefs, elders, women, government employees, non- natives and the youth are involved in the planning, and implementation of education, health and water projects to be undertaken in the districts.


Thus in line with the concept of delegation and pluralistic way of governance, roles are shared by more than one body, involving all key stakeholders of development in the districts,one of the key reasons why the decentralization programme of 1988 was designed (Aryee, 1994).

On the basis of the revelations recounted above, we conclude as the answer for research question four that programmes in the four sectors are drawn through joint planning at the districts level. This is so at the national level also. Besides, chiefs, elders, women’s groups, government officials, non-natives and youth groups are all involved in the planning and implementation of education, health and water projects in the districts.

Additionally, it must be noted that the decentralized authorities address social issues through the social services committee of the Assembly to which all sectors under review belong. To that extent the same committee plans for all the sectors taking account of the resources available. The implementations of the plans are thereafter left to the specialists in the various sectors. The social services committee in its planning is always guided by the national policies on the sectors under review. Through the instrumentality of the assembly members there always appears to be a level of synergy between the assembly’s developmental aspirations and local level development programmes.


Research Question 5: Does the level of integration of local structures allow for a successful implementation of projects in the education, health, water and electricity sectors?

The data indicate that joint planning, joint implementation and joint evaluation by district officials responsible for the various sectors are some of the mechanisms put in place to ensure that developments in the education, health, water and electricity sectors are integrated. Additionally, chiefs, elders and assemblymen are also involved. In some cases especially at the grassroot level women, youth groups and religious bodies are also involved in the planning, implementation and monitoring of projects, Developments in one sector are therefore interlinked with developments in the other sectors.

In effect, decentralization seeks to transfer functions, power, means and competence to the grassroots. District Assemblies are the pivots around which the decentralization programme revolves. Decentralized departments have been established to perform functions previously performed by the Central Government and all communication is now addressed to the District Chief Executive.

The level of integration of local structures allow for a successful implementation of policies in the education, health and water sectors. This is done through the Regional Co ordinating Councils whose responsibility it is to co ordinate and ensure that development plans and programmes of the District Assemblies are integrated and harmonized with National Development Plans and Programmes ( Section 113 of PNDC Law 207). Local level plans are in line with national plans and programmes because local plans and progrmmes are derived from national plans. Budget allocation is made by


central government to District Assemblies ( about 5% to 7% of national budget). However, the distribution of this vote to the various sectors is determined according to the priorities of the District Assembly where all local level sectoral plans are made. The needs and requests from the local areas within the District are channelled through their representatives in the Assembly. The data indicate that implementation of government policies has largely been successful.

In summary the answer for research question five therefore, is that joint planning, joint implementation and joint evaluation at the district level are some of the mechanisms put in place to ensure developments in the education, health, water and electricity sectors in the districts. We can thus conclude that the level of integration of local structures to a large extent allows for a successful implementation of projects in the education, health,water and electricity sectors.

Research Question 6: Is there any synergy of action between management structures aimed at promoting equitable access to basic social services?

In line with the concept of delegation as a tenet of good governance, roles are shared by more than one body, involving all key stakeholders of development in the districts. The results of the analyses show that in all the communities there is a major attempt to meet the demands of the 1992 Constitution. The constitution emphasizes that there should be popular local participation in local decision-making so that communities will be empowered to effectively participate in the decision–making that relates to the overall management of development at all levels (Republic of Ghana, 1993).

There was an effort to integrate the various sectors through joint planning, implementation and Monitoring and


Evaluation of educational, health, water and electricity sectors. And this was done by a number of stake holders including chiefs and elders, the youth, non-natives living in the communities, religious groups, NGOs, women and government personnel.

The answer to research question six therefore is that there is synergy of action between management structures aimed at producing equitable access to social services in that all management personnel are ex-officio members of the social services Committee of the Assembly This Committee plans and monitors delivery of social services in the District. The managers regularly report to both the social services committee, and the Assembly takes comments as feedback.

Research Question 7: To what extent have social services delivery policies promoted the reduction of gender disparities in general, and promotion of leadership among women in particular?

This section focuses on the extent to which decentralization in the delivery of social services such as education, health, water and electricity has promoted a reduction in gender disparities and promoted leadership among females.

Decentralization promotes political participation, education and leadership development. By devolving real decision making to local levels, higher levels of intersectoral participation in local government results, thereby anchoring citizens in the political system and enhancing democracy (Cheema & Rondinelli, 1993). It is plausible from this argument that decentralization ought to empower women and men equitably. More so, the decentralization concept in Ghana is forthright in its desire to ensure that development


reflects the aspirations of the people as expressed in their priorities and expressed needs (Ghana 1993). Therefore the extent to which women who form 51 % of the Ghanaian population participate in the planning and execution of social services is crucial.

The respondents were asked the extent to which females are involved in the execution of education projects in their communities. Responses from all the regions, except Dangme West, indicate that to a large extent, social services delivery policies and patterns tend to promote a reduction in gender disparities. The reason is what both males and females are involved in the planning and execution of education projects. These responses are presented in Table 13.

The case of the health sector is presented in Table 14. The data in Table 14 indicate that with the exception of responses from Atwima Nwabiagya District, those from all the other districts suggest that to a large extent females are involved in the planning and execution of projects in the health sector.


Table 13: The extent of female involvem

ent in the execution of education projects

in the comm

unities.

Extent of female involvem

ent

TotalTo som

e extent

To a large extent

To a very large extent

No

response

Tolon/Kumbugu D

istrict (TKD)

0 (0%)

11 (57.9%)

8 (42.1%)

0 (0%)

19 (100.0%)

Nanum

ba South Distict (N

SD)

0 (0%)

13 (65.0%)

7 (35.0%)

0 (0%)

20 (100.0%)

Kwabre D

istrict (KD)

3 (15.0%)

9 (45.0%)

8 (40.0%)

0 (0%)

20 (100.0%)

Atw

imaN

wabiagya D

istrict (AN

D)

4 (20.0%)

13 (65.0%)

3 (15.0%)

0 (0%)

20 (00.0%)

Dangm

e West D

istrict (DW

D)

15 (75.0%)

5 (25.0%)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

20 (100.0%)

Ga W

est District (G

WD

)6 (30.0%

)11 (65.0%

)2 (10.0%

)1 (5.0%

)20 (100.0%

)

Total28 (23.5%

)62 (52.1%

)28 (23.5%

)1 (.8%

)119

(100.0%)


Tabl

e 14

: The

ext

ent o

f fem

ale

invo

lvem

ent i

n th

e ex

ecut

ion

of h

ealth

pro

ject

s

in

the

com

mun

ities

.

Dis

tric

ts

Exte

nt o

f fem

ale

invo

lvem

ent

Tota

l

To n

o ex

tent

To

som

e ex

tent

To a

larg

e ex

tent

To a

ver

y la

rge

exte

nt

No

resp

onse

Tolo

n/K

umbu

gu D

istr

ict

(TKD

)0

(0%

)1

(5.3

%)

7 (3

6.8%

)11

(57.

9%)

0 (0

%)

19 (1

00.0

%)

Nan

umba

Sou

th D

isti

ct

(NSD

)0

(0%

)5

(25

%)

7 (3

5.0%

)8

(40.

0 %

)0

(0%

)20

(100

.0%

)

Kwab

re D

istric

t (KD

)0

(0%

)0

(0%

)5

(25.

0%)

15 (7

5.0%

)0

(0%

)20

(100

.0%

)

Atw

imaN

wab

iagy

a Dist

rict

(AN

D)

4(20

.0%

)0

(0%

)13

(65.

0%)

3(15

.0%

)0

(0%

)20

(100

.0%

)

Dan

gme

Wes

t D

istr

ict

(DW

D)

15(7

5%0

(0%

)5

(25.

0%)

0 (0

%)

0 (0

%)

20(1

00.0

%)

Ga

Wes

t Dist

rict (

GW

D)

5(25

.0%

)3(

15.0

%)

7 (3

5.0%

)4

(20.

0%)

1(5.

0%)

20(1

00.0

%)

Tota

l24

(20.

2%)

9(7.

6%)

44 (3

7.7%

)41

(34.

5%)

1(.8

%)

119(

100%

)


Table 15: The extent of female involvem

ent in the execution of water projects

in the com

munities

Extent of female involvem

ent

TotalTo no extent

To some

extent To a large

extent

To a very large extent

No

response

Tolon/Kumbugu D

istrict (TKD

)2 (10.5%

)2 (10.5%

)11 (57.9%

)4 ( 21.1%

)0 (0%

)19 (100.0%

)

Nanum

ba South Distict

(NSD

)7 ( 35.0%

)0 (.0 %

)11 (55.0%

)2 (10.0 %

)0 (0%

)20 (100.0%

)

Kwabre D

istrict (KD)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

5 (25.0%)

15 (75.0%)

0 (0%)

20 (100.0%)

Atw

imaN

wabiagya

District (A

ND

)10 (50.0%

)4 (20.0%

)2 (10.0%

)4 ( 20.0%

)0 (0%

)20 (100.0%

)

Dangm

e West D

istrict (D

WD

)5 (25.0%

)15 (75.0%

)0 (0%

)0 (0%

)0 (0%

)20 (100.0%

)

Ga

West

District

(GW

D)

6 (30.0%)

5 (25.0%)

4 (20.0%)

4 (20.0%)

1 (5.0%)

20 (100.0%)

Total30 (25.2%

)26

(21.8%)

33 (27.7%)

29 (24.4%)

1 (.8%)

119 (100.0%)


Responses on the extent to which females are involved in the planning and execution of projects in the water sector are presented in Table 15. The data in Table 15 suggest that in all the regions, except Dangme West, the respondents tend to perceive females to be actively involved in the planning and execution of projects in the water sector.

This is however, not the case as presented by participants in the focus group discussion held in the districts. Some women were not happy with the extent of women’s involvement. The following illustrate the point:

Ques: To what extent are females involved in the planning and execution of education, water and health projects?

Res: There is nothing like that, they don’t involve them at all (GWD)

Res: They don’t call women but if you are an assembly member you will be called (DWD)

Res: To some extent because it is only when our husbands are not around that we represent them at PTA meetings. (TKD)

From the discussion above, there is the suggestion that women in most of the districts are to some extent involved in making decisions on the provision of social services. In the Greater Accra Region, however, the perception is that they are minimally involved in the planning, execution and monitoring of education, water, health and electricity projects. It is rather interesting that the perception in the Greater Accra Region is so negative. But that should not sound strange since that is the region that hosts the regional capital city. It is therefore the hotbed of the women’s emancipation movement. As a cosmopolitan community it is


not strange that women are so articulate on their rights and empowerment issues.

The answer for research question seven then is that there are efforts at reducing gender disparities in decision making at the district level and at promoting leadership among women. In the view of some women’s groups however, these efforts have not adequately reduced gender disparities. They have not promoted enough of women’s empowerment and leadership either. The specific realities, however, are that the capitation grant makes schooling free for all. So parents no longer pay fees. It has thus made it possible for girls to participate in schooling, thereby reducing gender disparities in schooling. The school feeding prograrmme also has resulted in parents not having to spend money on children’s feeding. This has led to more girls’ involvement in schooling. The policy on Maternal Health and National Health Insurance has enabled families to save money for other purposes. Gender disparities in access to healthcare have also been reduced. .Women’s active role in the water sector has got some of them in leadership positions. Availability of electricity has enabled women to engage in economic ventures that make them quite economically independent. Women are thus empowered. In each District, girl child education officers have been appointed to monitor girls’ education. Such officers who serve as leaders are all women.

Research Question 8: What factors led governments to adopt decentralization?

This section focuses on the factors which led governments to adopt decentralization. It is stated as the answer for research question eight that decentralization has been a legacy of British Policy of Indirect Rule. The 1992 Constitution


of Ghana provides that power and decision making should devolve on the decentralized authorities. The global system of today also calls for increased decentralization system as a guarantee of democratic governance. Besides, decentralization has been enshrined in all the constitutions of the country since independence.

v- summary, conclusions anD recommenDaTions

This final chapter deals with the summary of the study, conclusions drawn and recommendations for policy.

SummaryThis study was designed to find out what the situation is

like after 19 years of the introduction of the decentralization policy in Ghana. The evaluation focuses on decentralization in the education, health, water, and electricity sectors of the country.

The accessible population for the study comprised stakeholders selected from two districts in each of the three ecological zones (the northern, middle and southern belts) of the country. The six districts selected are the Tolon Kumbungu, Nanumba South, Kwabre, Atwima Nwabiagya, GaWest and Dangme West districts. The sample, which was purposively selected, included the Chief Director of the Ministry of Education, and the Director General of the Ghana Education Service. It also included the Chief Directors of the Ministries of Health and Works and Housing and Water Resources, as well as the Director General of the Ghana Health Service and the Managing Director of the Ghana Water Company. Thus, in all, six officials were selected


from the Centre. The District Chief Executive, the District Coordinating Director, and two members of the Social Services Committee of the District Assembly were selected in each of the six districts. So at the district level a total of twenty four respondents were selected. In all a total of one hundred and fifty respondents were selected and used as the sample for the study. The questionnaire was used as the main tool for data collection. Another tool used to collect data was the interview guide. At the grassroots level most of the beneficiaries of projects were found not literate enough to independently respond to questionnaires, so data were collected from them through the face-to-face interview mode. Focus group discussions and documentary sources were also used to gather information.

Data analyses in this study were based on the questionnaires given to the respondents and the interviews recorded. Data in the questionnaires were analyzed through the quantitative approach, while those from the interviews and discussions were analyzed qualitatively.

Summary of Main findingsResearch question one was meant to look for indications

of the effectiveness of the decentralization process in the education, health, water and electricity sectors. The answer is that but for inadequacy of funding and the tendency of actors at the centre to hold on to too much power, the decentralization process has been quite effective, as major decisions on developments in the four sectors are taken at the assembly and grassroots levels.

Research question two is about the extent to which human and material resources have been transferred from the national level to the local levels. The answer is that experts such as doctors, teachers, nurses, technicians and


so on have been posted to the districts to render services. Government has also nominated experts to represent its interests in the assemblies. Materials such as drugs, books, machinery and so on have also been transferred to the districts.

Research question three was designed to find whether or not the human and non human resources transferred to the local levels are being put to effective use. The answer is yes. The experts render very useful services in the committees on which they serve at the assemblies. Doctors, teachers and nurses also work beyond their schedules, especially in the rural areas. The snag is that some of the experts are difficult to retain because of the frustrations that are characteristic of rural areas.

Research question four is meant to find out the degree of synergy among structures put in place for the implementation of programmes in the four sectors. The answer is that there is a large degree of synergy, in that at the assembly level, project and programme planning, implementation and evaluation are done together at the social services committee of the assembly where experts in the four sectors work jointly.

Research question five is about whether the level of integration allows for a successful implementation of projects in the four sectors. In this case too, joint planning, joint implementation and joint evaluation of projects in the four sectors are done at the assembly level. These joint actions to a large extent make successful implementation of projects possible.

Synergy of action is a key condition for successful decentralization. Therefore research question six was meant to measure the degree of synergy of action among management structures aimed at promoting equitable access


to basic social services. The answer is that there is a large degree of synergy. That is, all management personnel are ex-officio members of the social services committee of the assembly. These management members regularly report to the social services committee and the assembly. In that case problems of access to social services are dealt with at the management and assembly levels.

Research question seven has to do with the extent to which social services delivery policies promote reduction of gender disparities and promote leadership among women. Gender disparities in access to education have been reduced as a result of the introduction of the capitation grant which has enabled more girls to go to school. Gender disparities in access to health care have also reduced following the introduction of the national health insurance and maternal health care schemes. Availability of electricity has also enabled women to engage in economic ventures. Women also hold leadership positions in the water and girls education sectors.

Research question eight seeks to find out factors that stimulated the government to adopt the decentralization policy. The answer is that an interplay of historical and contemporary factors, such as the colonial policy of indirect rule, constitutional mandates, and membership of the global system, has motivated the government to adopt decentralization.

Challenges/ Problems As observed and as the data indicate, the barriers to

effective implementation of the decentralization policy are the tendency for the national level holding on to authority, inadequate finance and low capacity of human resource and logistics at the regional and district levels.


In the education, health and energy sectors there is the problem of inadequate finance and lateness in the distribution of this resource to the district level. There is also the challenge of inadequate professional teachers, poor infrastructure and poor communication flow. Problems of accommodation and delays in the payment of salaries are some of the factors that undermine not only morale and commitment, but also the success of the decentralization efforts.

Although the majority of the local people reported improvement in their lives as a result of the interventions discussed above, those in remote communities within the districts still lack good schools, libraries, hospitals, potable water and electricity. In a situation in which the majority of the people are not touched by the developments taking place in the education, and especially health, water and electricity sectors owing to lack of funding, managerial skills and too much interference from the national level, then one cannot declare that the decentralization process in Ghana has been as effective as expected.

ConclusionsBased on the objectives of the study and the findings

emerging therefrom, the following conclusions are drawn. Decisions in the four sectors are taken at the social 1. services committee of the district assembly. This committee is made up of members with expertise in the four sectors. To ensure success of business, experts such as doctors, nurses, teachers, technicians are transferred to the districts and local communities to render expert service. Government representatives at the assemblies are also appointed on the basis of their expertise, and they render satisfactory services in the districts. It is concluded, therefore, that the positing


of experts to the districts, as well as the joint action of experts in all the four sectors tend to a large extent to provide enough evidence that the decentralization process has been quite effective.The snag, however, is that some actors at the national level tend to hold on to powers that should have been transferred to the lower levels of government. An objective of the study was to find out the level 2. of integration or synergy of action in the education, health, water and electricity sectors such that projects in all these sectors are successfully implemented. It is concluded that joint planning, implementation, and evaluation of projects are done by officials (experts) representing all the sectors at the social services committee. of the district assembly. At the grass roots level too, chiefs, elders, women’s groups and assembly members are all involved in similar exercises. There is thus a high degree of synergy among the structures put in place for the identification, planning, implementation, and evaluation of projects in all the three sectors. Another key issue is whether social services delivery 3. has promoted the reduction of gender disparities, and whether such policies have promoted leadership among women. It is concluded that gender disparities have been reduced through the increased participation of women in the identification, planning, implementation, and evaluation of projects in all the sectors. Besides, females’ access to social services has been enhanced following the introduction of socialized medicine,


abolition of school fees, and the introduction of some social welfare policies. Women play leadership roles especially in girl-child education, health, water and electricity sectors where they spearhead projects.Finally it is concluded that an interplay of historical 4. and contemporary realities (external and internal) such as colonial (indirect) rule, the global emphasis on decentralization of governance, and constitutional mandate, has been the force behind the adoption of decentralization as a tool for effective governance.

RecommendationsOn the basis of what have been found in this study, the

recommendations that follow are made:It was found that strenuous efforts have been made to 1. transfer expertise to the district and local communities. However it is reported that the matching financial resources have never been adequate. It is therefore recommended to the Ministry of local Government and Rural Development to increase its budgetary allocation to the Districts so that they would have the wherewithal to do things for themselves. Findings emerging from the study suggest that 2. there is still too much power lodged above. It is recommended to the Ministry of local Government and Rural Development to insist that powerful officials at the national level cede some of their powers to their subordinates in the regions and districts. To this end, incentives such as accommodation, vehicles and special allowances should be made available to attract and motivate qualified personnel to accept posting to the districts and local communities.


It was also found that human resource development 3. in the administrative, fiscal and democratic/political spheres is not well balanced. Manor (1999) is of the opinion that the three must take place together. It is therefore recommended that capacity building especially in revenue mobilization skills be embarked upon in the districts. Management expertise should also be improved.


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