Book Review

Mark V. Barrow, Jr., Nature’s Ghosts: Confronting Extinction from theAge of Jefferson to the Age of Ecology (Chicago: University of ChicagoPress, 2009), xi + 497 pp., illus., $35.00.

The Endangered Species Act of 1973 offered an unprecedented level ofprotection for imperiled species. This sweeping legislation covered notonly charismatic birds and mammals, but also more homely vertebrates,invertebrates, and plants. Moreover, the act had teeth. It establishedstrong measures to protect threatened and endangered species and theircritical habitat on both public and private lands. Environmental his-torians often view this act as the culmination of the post-war environ-mental movement that created many pieces of landmark legislation.However, as Mark Barrow effectively demonstrates in Nature’s Ghosts,the Endangered Species Act also emerged from persistent efforts byscientists to document and publicize extinction, articulate an environ-mental ethic that included non-human nature, and mobilize citizens andpublic agencies to protect embattled species.

Despite the valuable role of key individuals and organizations,Barrow also documents the scientific community’s checkered history onconservation issues. Many naturalists actively contributed to the demiseof species by amassing collections of rare specimens. ‘‘The more thaneight hundred Carolina parakeet skins, skeletons, and eggs that gatherdust in museum collections around the world today,’’ Barrow writes,‘‘offer powerful testimony about the orientation of avian science at thetime’’ (p. 128). Even scientists without a professional stake in thesecollecting activities often displayed an unsettling apathy about theplight of endangered species. Nevertheless, Barrow concludes that theseshortcomings were outweighed by the vital role of scientists in preser-vation efforts. ‘‘Taken as a whole … the remarkable thing about nat-uralists’ growing involvement with the issue of wildlife extinction is notthat it provoked tensions, contradictions, and occasional opposition,but that the level of engagement was so prolonged and so deep’’ (p. 12).Nature’s Ghosts offers a compelling and nuanced analysis of this com-plex history through the stories of individual species.

Journal of the History of Biology (2010) 43:203–206 � Springer 2010

DOI 10.1007/s10739-010-9225-9

The past two decades have brought a wealth of scholarship at theintersection of the history of science and environmental history. Barroweffectively synthesizes this material, along with an impressive amount oforiginal research, into a coherent narrative spanning two centuries.With rich source material and a compelling story, this book shouldbecome the definitive account of conservation biology prior to theEndangered Species Act.

The book opens with a discussion of late eighteenth and earlynineteenth century debates over the possibility of extinction. Enlight-enment thinkers like Thomas Jefferson believed that the disappearanceof species was impossible in a world created by a wise and benevolentdeity. The discovery of mastodon and megalonyx fossils, which did notappear to resemble known extant species, challenged this view. Jeffersonheld out hope that these species might be found alive in the vast areasstill unexplored by Europeans. His position became less tenable asGeorges Cuvier’s work in comparative zoology showed that manyfossils represented unique species, and as explorers like Lewis and Clarkreturned without observations of these large mammals roaming thewestern territories. Extinction quickly came to be seen as a commonevent in earth history. Charles Lyell viewed human-caused extinction inthis light, observing that ‘‘we exercise no exclusive prerogative’’ whenwe eliminate other species in our successful struggle for existence.

In the following decades, naturalists documented the disappearanceof avian species like the dodo and great auk. Although most naturalistsfollowed Lyell in viewing extinction as the inevitable result of advancingcivilization, a few began to lament these losses. The American orni-thologist John James Audubon decried the ‘‘war of extermination’’ onnesting seabird colonies, and the British naturalist Alfred Newtoncriticized the scientific community for their part in the final passing ofthe great auk: ‘‘these poor birds were persecuted, their eggs plunderedand their necks broken to supply the demand which museums were thencreating’’ (pp. 64–65).

While the disappearance of island species raised intermittent con-cerns, the precipitous decline of species like the bison and passengerpigeon sparked more widespread calls to action. In the final decades ofthe nineteenth century, naturalists like Joel Asaph Allen and WilliamTemple Hornaday sounded the alarm in scientific and popular publi-cations. However, even naturalists who were concerned with speciesextinction could not escape the initial urge to collect specimens. In 1886,Hornaday estimated that fewer than 300 bison remained in the UnitedStates and quickly assembled an expedition with the intention to collect

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100 specimens for the Smithsonian and other museums. After thisexpedition, he experienced a ‘‘conversion from zealous collector toardent protector’’ and spent much of the following decades working toprotect the bison through fiery publications, calls for a western gamepreserve, and captive breeding programs at the New York ZoologicalSociety (p. 113). Although the passenger pigeon might have survivedthrough a similar captive breeding program, naturalists did not mobilizein the same manner.

After describing this initial success – and several failures – at speciesprotection, Barrow turns to the work of American naturalists in inter-national conservation, especially in Africa and Latin America. In thelate nineteenth century, sport hunters and museum collectors – whowere often the same person – led the fight for wildlife conservation. Bythe early twentieth century, when big-game hunters turned their atten-tion to African wildlife, the inevitable contradictions in these activitieswas a source of open tension. Barrow describes this debate, as well asthe effort to create a world-wide inventory of mammals based on thespecimens and the field observations collected by scientists.

American naturalists who called for protective measures in othercountries were sometimes viewed as hypocrites, since the United Statesgovernment continued to condone, and even encourage, the extermi-nation of predators. The next two chapters focus on the campaign toprotect carnivores like the wolf and bald eagle. The case for predatorswas made, in large part, through ecological arguments that emphasizedthe importance of protecting entire ecosystems. In this section, Barrowhighlights the importance of radical contingents in mainstream orga-nizations, such as Victor Shelford in the Ecological Society of America,and Waldron Miller and Rosalie Edge in Audubon chapters.

The next chapter, ‘‘Salvation through Science?’’ explores the work ofbiologists to understand and save imperiled avian species like the heathhen, ivory-billed woodpecker, California condor, and whooping crane.These case studies are filled with drama and poignancy. They illustratethe importance of scientific research and advocacy for the survival of theCalifornia condor and whooping crane through aggressive captivebreeding programs. At the same time, they highlight the limits of sci-entific efforts in the face of government inaction and the vagaries of astochastic world. Endangered species are in constant peril, evinced bythe devastating effects of meadow fires on the last heath hen populationon Martha’s Vineyard.

In the final chapter, Barrow traces the important role of naturalists inshaping wildlife legislation like the Marine Mammal Protection Act of

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1972 and the Endangered Species Acts of 1966, 1969, and 1973. Hisaccount shows how each act corrected flaws and loopholes in previouslegislation, with the fate of charismatic species like cheetahs, dolphins,and blue whales hanging in the balance.

Barrow covers a lot of territory without sacrificing historical detail orsocial context. In addition, the story packs an emotional punch. Eventhough we know the outcome of most episodes, we follow each step inthe effort to save a species with nervous anticipation. We root for AlfredGross in his effort to protect the heath hen and lament with him thepassing of the last member of its species.

Nature’s Ghosts deserves a wide audience. It would make a strongtext for courses in history and environmental studies. By weavingtogether multiple disciplines, the text offers a solid introduction to thehistory of ecology and evolution, the history of environmentalism, andenvironmental ethics. Many students, I predict, will be captivated bythe vital role of field research in species conservation. Barrow makes thecase that such research not only improves our understanding of thenatural world, but also incubates profound emotional connections toother species. At the same time, the book offers valuable insight intothe broader social movements and political discussions that determinethe fate of many species. By connecting the work of academic societies,conservation organizations, and government bureaucrats to the fate ofindividual species, Barrow makes the institutional elements of the storyaccessible and pressing. The book offers a springboard for robustclassroom discussions about research priorities, conservation strategies,and environmental policies.

Kevin FrancisEvergreen State College

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