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BLOOD and GUTS
to GLORY
A HISTORY OF SPORTS
THE FIRST VIDEO-TEXT ON SPORT HISTORY
Gerald R. Gems
TOTAL HEALTH PUBLICATIONS
Copyright 2014
ISBN (epub) 9788293232872
MEET THE AUTHOR
Professor Gerald Gems teaches sport history at North Central
College in Illinois. He is a former president of the North American Society for Sport History and is the vice president of the International Society for the History of Physical Education and Sport. He is also a member of the Professional Football Researchers Association. He is an internationally known speaker on the history of sport and has written several books in the area. He not only has the academic credentials of expertise but he has been a successful athlete and an experienced coach of football, baseball, softball, basketball and track as well as an athletic director. He is the recipient of a 2013 prestigious award for exceptional service by the North American Society for Sport History.
His expertise in the history of sport has given him the opportunity to research, teach, lecture and learn throughout the world—giving him an unparalleled international expertise in the field of sport. He has been: a Fulbright Senior Scholar in Europe, an honorary member of the Bangladesh Institute’s for Sport Sciences, a Visiting Professor at Beijing Sports University and is a reviewer for the South African Journal for Research in Sport, Physical Education and Recreation.
You, the reader, will now profit from Dr. Gems passion and knowledge.
READING A VIDEO-BOOK The text can be read anywhere but for videos to be seen, you must be
connected to the Internet. The videos bring to light how ancient and modern sport has been played.
Acknowledgement.
My thanks to Brian Hoffert, Professor of East Asian Studies at North Central College for proofreading Chapter 1 and correcting my errors.
FOREWORD
Currently, sport is in the limelight, as the Football World Cup raises the interest and emotions of the populations, not only of the participating countries, but worldwide. Without any doubt, media sport has become a major factor in policies and politics as well as in the everyday lives of peoples. With the increasing debates about health and wellbeing as well as the global wave of obesity, sport (for all) seems also to be an activity and a movement which promises beneficial effects. Thus sport has become an activity and an issue of high relevance in various contexts.
The new roles of sport and the current expectations with regard to the benefits of physical activities and sport have to be addressed from a historical perspective and embedded in historical developments, as they help to understand sporting values and practices in the past, but also today.
This book presents and discusses the huge variety of sporting practices in various cultures and different time periods. It provides insights into pre-historic hunting cultures, the competitions in Greek antiquity, conducted in the honor of gods, and the gladiator spectacles in the Roman Empire. The role of sport for knights in medieval times, the physical education concepts in the 18th and 19th centuries and the role of modern sport as a tool of politics and as mass entertainment are described and discussed in a way which is informative and entertaining at the same time.
Numerous pictures provide visual aids which support understanding. A particular feature is the provision of links to videos e.g. of performances of unfamiliar sports, which illustrate the text and address different learning styles. The inclusion of video material is a unique feature, not found in other books.
The author, one of the most prominent sport historians, present historical facts and developments in a way which is informative and entertaining at the same time.
The book can be recommended for general historians, sport historians and the general public. It is also very appropriate for the use as a text book-
Gertrude Phister Professor Phister iis the Past President of both the International Society for the History of Sport and Physical Education and the International Sport Sociology Association and is currently a professor at the University of Copenhagen.
Brief Table of Contents Chapter 1 Sport in the Ancient World From China to Rome Chapter 2 Sport in Medieval Europe Chapter 3 Renaissance Europe Chapter 4 England—The Birthplace of Modern Sport Chapter 5 Sport in the United States Chapter 6 Sport and Female Liberation Chapter 7 Global Sport
Chapter 1
Sport in the Ancient World
Physical activity has been a necessity since the dawn of man-‐kind as people traveled, hunted, and fought to survive. Demonstrations of physical prowess eventually evolved into sports with individual and group competitions defined by rules and regulations. The Chinese are among the oldest civilizations with a record of sporting practices. They generally regarded contemplation and scholarship as more important than physicality; but sporting endeavors might teach necessary military skills and reinforce cultural values such as respect for authority and elders, the social stratification of society, male dominance, and proper etiquette. Sports and games often included an important aesthetic component other than just winning the contest. Sports also provided an opportunity for gambling, a characteristic of Chinese culture.
SPORT IN ANCIENT CHINA1 Chinese sports can be traced back several millennia as dancers,
acrobats, and runners are depicted on pottery and stone carvings from 8,000 to 2,000 BCE. One game, known as jirang, required players to hit a grounded target at a distance of twenty to thirty paces in order to win a
point. Individual stunts as well as lifting partners in exhibitions were tied
to health practices and recreational activities. By the Han Dynasty (206 BCE-‐220 CE) music, dance, acrobatic displays, and even wrestling evolved into a form of gymnastics known as juedixi with public performances featuring single hand stands, inverted hangs from a pole or cart, and hand stands upon a tight rope. Such stunts evolved into the sport of modern gymnastics and remnants of such early activities can still be gleaned in the current daily practice of tai chi each morning among the urban residents of the nation.
As rival groups contended for territory and resources for
centuries martial skills became a necessity. Arrowheads dating back 28,000 years have been found in China, and Confucius, the great philosopher (551 – 479 BCE), advocated the practice of archery (shejian) as one of the Six Noble Arts (along with morality, ritual dancing, math, calligraphy, and driving hose carriages). Archery required the practice of proper etiquette by bowing to one’s opponent before the contest and sharing a drink afterwards. An archer had to demonstrate graceful performance and was expected to lose in deference an opponent of higher social status in order to demonstrate respect.2
The utilitarian activity of hunting with bows and arrowsand spears
was eventually transformed into the sport of archery. Some ethnic groups in China preferred the crossbow for hunting
and fishing, which the Chinese had invented as early as the 6th century BCE.. Their contests (shenu) consisted of shooting at targets consisting of corn cakes and parcels of meat, which the winners get to keep as prizes.3 Although not of military value, both men and women played a game known as touhu, in which they tossed arrows from varying distances into a vase. As the game became more spirited officials were required for competitions
Combative and equestrian skills assumed even greater importance
during the Period of the Warring States (475-‐221 BCE).China was eventually unified by Shih Huangdi, the first emperor of the Qin dynasty in 221 BCE. Emperors and nobles later developed their own hunting grounds within their domains as a leisure pursuit in the transition from utilitarian
activity to sporting practice during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE –220 CE), but archery remained one of the military exams until 1911.4 Horsemanship was a necessity for armies and esteemed as a skill for nomadic herding cultures. Military training included the demonstration of archery skills and spear throwing on horseback.
In addition to the typical horse races which tested the speed and endurance of horses, local events such as those in Mongolia, known as saima, required riders to maneuver a short course, 100 meters long, while grabbing ten silk pieces along the way within twelve seconds.5
Soldiers also had to travel distances rapidly and running abilities
won esteem. The bodyguards who ran behind the carts of the nobility earned their positions through running trials. By the Yuan Dynasty (1271-‐1368) rulers conducted strenuous annual running tests for their guards consisting of a cross country race of 90 km. The winner received a silver disc, while other top finishers received satin pieces that designated their accomplishments.
Wushu originated in the use of weaponry to subdue wild Animals, but during the Warring States era and the development of weaponry it required mastery of eighteen different types of armament. Swordplay became a standard feature of wushu and sword dances were later added. Performances and competitions appeared in the Qin and Han dynasties (221 BCE-‐220 CE), and a system of imperial examinations developed under the Tang Dynasty (618-‐907 CE)that included both civil and military versions. Wushu academies followed by the Ming Dynasty (1368 – 1644 CE) with divergent styles and practices.
Another sport valued by the military also exhibited different forms.
Chiyou tribesmen practiced wrestling by 3,000 BCE. Some forms were similar to Japanese sumo, while those in Mongolia still favor their own version (Shuaijiao), which includes colorful costumes adorned with copper, silver, and silk. In the Mongolian form of the sport a village elder serves as the judge to determine illegal holds and selects the competitors, whose challenges are issued by singers. The combatants perform particular dances before engaging in an untimed bout of three rounds. Losers are eliminated from the tournament until a champion is determined.
Professional wrestlers appeared as early as the Tang Dynasty(618 – 907 CE) to entertain imperial audiences. Professional wrestling spread to the general population during the Song Dynasty (960 -‐ 1279 CE) and national competitions were established.
Feats of strength always impressed others, and weight lifting competitions developed during the Warring States era with two versions. Qiao guan involved lifting a heavy door bar with one hand; while kang ding allowed a contestant to left a cooking vessel by both handles. During the Tang Dynasty (618 – 907 CE)weightlifting became part of the testing of military cadets, and heavy stones weighing from 100 to 150 kilograms were used until 1911. Weightlifting among commoners took on the appearance of a folk sport as peasants also lifted heavy stones, extracted trees from the ground, and lifted deer they had killed for consumption.
Several other sports enjoyed popularity during the Tang Dynasty. Both men and women engaged in swimming, and youths even challenged the high tides with their swimming and boating skills. Dragon boat racing enjoyed particular favor in southern China. The practice is believed to have originated more than 2,500 years ago as a ritual to honor a deity in Chinese religious practice.6 Spirited crowds followed the races during the TangDynasty and the Song Dynasty (960 – 1279 CE) rulers used naval troops, whose review included dragon boat racing in the festivities. Winning teams won both fame and fortune, awarded with prizes and the adulation of cheering fans.
Equestrian skills had both a utilitarian and military purpose. Cavalry troops trained on specially constructed fields and their exercises evolved into the game of polo (jiju) over many years.
The emperors of the Tang Dynasty (618 – 907 CE) were especially attracted to the game, many of whom were participants. Both rulers and other high ranking officials constructed polo fields on their properties during that era, and women at the imperial court during the Tang and Song Dynasties also played the game. The emperor Taizong, who ruled from 976 – 997 CE, was an avid player and he even staged a national tournament.7
Another ball game, known as cuju, did not need horses to playand was accessible to males and females,as well as to the peasantry. It has a long history in China with records datingbeyond 2,500 years. A cuju text on the game dates to the Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE). Similar to modern football, theball, which had an outer hide cover that encased an animalbladder, was kicked in avariety of ways. Stone balls wereapparently used totrain soldiers in the Warring States period(475 BCE – 221 BCE) , but by the Han Dynasty, teams playedon a demarcated field with goals and referees. Another version of the game developed during the Tang Dynasty (618 – 907 CE)in which the field was divided by a 12meter high net, whichhad a round goal or target attached above it. The net eliminated body contact and the team scoring the most goals was declaredthe winner.Femaleplayers appeared by 900 AD as an amusementfor the emperor who awarded the winners with prizes. Femalesattempted to kick the ball higher and moregracefully or creativelythan otherparticipants. Another emperor’s attraction to small feet, however, allegedly initiated the practice of foot binding as thestandard forfeminine beauty, derailing any widespread participationinsport for women. There is evidence of professional femaleplayers, however, during the Yuan (1271-‐ 1368 CE) and Ming Dynasties (1368 – 1644 CE).
The game of jianqiu may have originated as a deviation from cuju
as early as the 5th century BCE when a shuttlecock replaced the stone. Made of corn and chicken feathers, players volleyed the shuttlecock with their hands. The game was later codified to include a playing field and feet rather than hands were used to propel the shuttlecock over a net that bisected the playing court, similar to modern volleyball. Asian nations currently play the game, known as sepak takrawin the same manner, but
use a rattan ball.8 During the Tang Dynasty (618-‐907 CE) women who worked in the palaces of the ruling class also played a game known as buda or chuiwan during their leisure time. Similar to modern golf, players used a stick to hit a ball into holes in the ground. During the Song and Yuan Dynasties (960-‐1368 CE) evolved into a competitive sport with specified rules, playing fields, and prescribed equipment. It became especially popular among youth in urban locations.
The ancient sport of tug-‐of-‐war, known as bahe in China, was often
contested between villages in which both sides pulled on a bamboo pole, but by the Tang Dynasty (618 – 907 CE), rope proved to be a better substitute. The activity differed from the modern version in that a greater number of villagers might hold and pull on multiple strands of the rope and drummers provided a cadence to exert their comrades. In cold weather where ice formed in the northern territory residents constructed wooden sleds to slide upon the ice. During the Qing Dynasty (1644-‐1911 CE) athletic competitions in speed skating drew more than 1,000 participants, while figure skating contests required athletes to demonstrate the completion of a number of stunts on skates. A game similar to modern football in which participants kicked a ball on the ice engaged numerous others. Such activities indicate that Chinese culture developed a wide range of physical and leisure pursuits long before the peoples of the western world.
SPORT IN ANCIENT JAPAN9 Similar to China, Japanese sports developed out of utilitarian and
military activities, but generally at a later time. Sumo wrestling can be traced as early as 23 BCE and matches were conducted on an annual basis at the royal court by the 8th century CE with as many as thirty-‐four wrestlers accompanied by musicians and officials. Sumo became a mainstay at religious shrines between 794 and 1185 AD.10
While the sumo wrestlers entertained the nobility, the aristocrats
played their own game known as kemari, in which multiple players used only their feet to try to keep a ball aloft, similar to the Chinese game of cuju. Kemari appeared in Japan by the 644 AD and enjoyed its greatest popularity from the twelfth to the nineteenth centuries. It gained popularity among the lower classes before it attracted the attention of the nobility, including a number of emperors who took pleasure in the game.11
Archery competitions occurred by the 7th century BCE, and
appeared at the royal court as early as 483 AD. Target archery, known as jarai, enjoyed the favor of the nobility as well.
Similar to the Chinese version, lesser participants deferred to those of higher rank, and royal princes were accorded larger targets in which to score their points. Archery contests on horseback, known as kisha, had a distinct military function and palace guards were among the first practitioners. Horse races apparently added the extra element of archery as a greater challenge. The contest required mounted archers to hit three targets along a course of 220 to 270 meters in length. Archery schools gained prominence by the 14th century, reinforcing proper etiquette
and an element of spirituality in the exercise.12
With the emergence of the samurai warrior class by the 12th
century military skills assumed greater importance, particularly archery and swordsmanship. Fencing schools taught kendo, “the way of the sword,” which also stressed Zen spirituality. Due to the danger of swordplay and growing competition in fencing, specialized equipment, such as gloves, chest and groin protectors, helmets, and face masks, as well as the use of bamboo swords ensued to protect the fencers. The sport became so popular that commoners began the practice of kendo during the Tokugawa Era (1603-‐ 1867). 13
Chapter 6 Sport and Female Liberation
American women began to question their lack of equal rights shortly after the American Revolution; but the roots of an organized feminist movement (first wave) began in the mid-‐nineteenth century in
both the United States and England. Led by upper middle class women who held more social capital than their more downtrodden working class sisters, the progenitors had a greater voice in the society.
American women, led by Elizabeth CadyStanton (1815-‐1902), organized a Women’s Rights Convention in Seneca Falls, New York in 1848 that proposed voting rights for women. One of the attendees, Amelia Bloomer (1818-‐1894), became the editor of the first women’s newspaper and an advocate for the eponymous pants-‐like costume that afforded greater freedom of movement for women.
Dress reform for sports activities would become a very visible symbol of female liberation in later years.
Bloomer introduced Stanton to Susan B.Anthony
(1820-‐1906) in 1851. The two formed a lifelong partnership in a crusade for women’s rights that included suffrage, temperance, property and employment rights.14
Elizabeth Cady Stanton (seated) and Susan B. Anthony In England the women’s rights movement was
led by Bessie Rayner Parkes (1829-‐1925) and, later, Emmeline Pankhurst (1858-‐1928). Parkes, like the Americans, campaigned for the right to work and the right tovote. She served as editor of the English Woman’s Journal from 1858to 1864. Pankhurst was an ardent proponent of suffrage, even using violence to achieve that aim, for which she and her followers served prison sentences, which she countered with hunger strikes. In 1903 she founded the all female Women’s Social and Political Union.15
Bessie Rayner Parkes Emmeline Pankhurst
Throughout the Victorian Age (1837-‐1901) women were saddled with the belief in female debility and the need for separate spheres between the genders.
Women were assigned to the biological function of
reproduction, motherhood, and domesticity, responsible for the moral upbringing of their children. Their bodies were thought to be incapable of great physical exertion. Later in the nineteenth century when women entered the labor force in greater numbers they were thought to be susceptible to neurasthenia, a malady that caused a nervous breakdown and depression due to stress and exertion. As early as the 1820s Catherine Beecher (1800-‐1878) opened schools for girls in which she offered physical education for her pupils in the United States. By mid-‐century young women would begin to challenge the perceptions of weakness. 16
ENGLAND Throughout the era aristocratic English women
had continued their participation in the hunt and they as well as French and German sportswomen engaged in archery. By mid-‐century the finishing schools for young women allowed for calisthenics but frowned upon ball games, nevertheless, swimming, skating, and a variety of ball games followed in subsequent decades both within the schools and in public life. Such activities transferred to the colonies when they accompanied their husbands on their foreign duties. “In the antipodes as in England, women of the upper classes rode to the hunt, played croquet and tennis,
and participated in archery, but all other sports were considered ‘manly’ and thus unbecoming for colonial women.”17
By the 1860s croquet became a popular activity among the young as a means to circumvent prohibitive courting rituals. Whereas couples were expected to visit in the presence of the family home or with a chaperone when outside of it, croquet allowed them to mix socially on the family lawn without disrepute and in the winter months ice skating too assumed an honorable status. Upper class families established the All-‐England Croquet Club in 1869 and hosts were expected to provide a champagne dinner for 100 and accompanying musicians to entertain their guests.18
Upper class English women had engaged in the
traditional sport of archery since the beginning of the nineteenth century; but the practice became more competitive with the first national women’s championship in 1880. Others joined fencing clubs that sprouted throughout the country.19
In the latter decades of the century tennis and cycling replaced croquet and archery as more active forms of socialization. The All-‐England Croquet Club became the All-‐England Croquet and Tennis Club in 1877. Tennis evolved from a relatively passive activity with women serving the ball in an underhand fashion to a more active pastime that required a transition in women’s sporting attire which allowed for greater freedom of movement. England initiated its first women’s national tennis championship in 1884. The sport soon produced female stars, perhaps most notably
Charlotte “Lottie” Dod (1871-‐1960), who won her first national championship at the age of fifteen.
Her shorter skirts allowed her to cover more ground than her more thoroughly covered opponents. An all-‐around athlete, Dod captured the national tennis title at Wimbledon five times, and later won the women’s golf championship. She was awarded a silver medal in women’s archery at the 1908 Olympic Games.20
Lottie Dod The increased activity levels of women stirred
concern and controversy as physicians feared damage to their reproductive organs; but cycling engendered psychological as well as physical issues. Some women began to test their physical limitations in long distance ventures, while others opted for speed. Working class females, in particular, seemed to revel in such pursuits, even challenging men, a transgression of the ascribed gender boundaries.
Scottish women had competed for prizes in golf as early as 1810. A women’s club appeared in England in 1868 and the game spread throughout the island and beyond by the end of the century with women holding membership in many clubs. In Australia 132 women had joined the Royal Melbourne Golf Club within five years of its founding in 1891, and by 1894 the Australian women held a national championship, only a year after that of the British women.21 British women had engaged in the game of
cricket since at least the eighteenth century, but it was first adopted for play in the schools in 1868. Although popular among the girls, by 1881 the Birmingham Daily Mail declared that it “is essentially a masculine game. It can never be played properly in petticoats.” The game remained popular among women on their country estates; but gave way to field hockey in the schools by the end of the century. English females toured Ireland in a field hockey competition in 1894, but lost every match to the Hibernians.22
Meanwhile, British suffragists continued their campaign for women’s rights. In 1913 a militant suffragist, Emily Davison (1872-‐1913), took the most drastic step of becoming a martyr for the cause at the Epsom Derby when she stepped from the infield on to the course in front of King George V’ s horse, Anmer, that was charging along the rail. The collision fractured her skull and cost her life four days later. The tragedy can be viewed at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-G4fJ9I_wQg.
The British colony of South Australia had already granted suffrage to its women in 1894, followed by the rest of the territory by 1909. Australia gained greater autonomy when it gained commonwealth status in 1901. The female swimmers of Australia soon used their sport to extend the boundaries of their freedom. Annette Kellerman (1886-‐1975), considered to be the originator of synchronized swimming in her
vaudeville act, first drew attention as a professional swimmer and high diver who developed a one piece swimming suit rather than the cumbersome dresses and pantaloons that
restricted women from doing anything more than bathing in the water. She held the women’s world records for swimming at distances from 100 yards to one mile by 1905. In Paris she swam against men in an endurance race in the Seine River and even attempted to swim the English Channel that year, a feat accomplished only once before by a man (Matthew Webb in 1875). Although unsuccessful on three attempts she attracted worldwide attention and took her vaudeville act to Europe and the United States, where she was arrested in Boston for indecent exposure. In 1909 she became an actress, appearing in numerous films in the United States, drawing outrage for completely nude scenes. By 1918 her talents drew her to writing fitness and health books as she continued to push the possibilities of dress reform for women and challenge the gender boundaries that presumed female debility.23 A video of her water ballet can be viewed at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FsO-cOKkeGs.
By 1906 Fanny Durack (1899-‐1956) had become the Australian national swimming champion and had adopted the one piece suit. When the more liberal Swedes allowed the inclusion of women’s swimming in the 1912 Olympics held in Stockholm, Durack captured the gold medal in the 100 meter freestyle, and Mina Wylie (1891-‐1984), another Australian advocate of the Kellerman suit, took the silver medal. Jennie Fletcher, one of eleven children from a poor family worked twelve hours per day for six days per week and trained after her toil. She found solace in swimming. Wearing a one piece suit, she won the bronze medal in the 100 meters and a gold medal in the 4 x 100 meter relay for England.24
Fanny Durack (left) and Mina Wylie at the 1912 Olympics
Jennie Fletcher (second from left) on the 4 x 100 meter relay team Working class women like Fletcher also engaged
in football, and one industrial team enjoyed great celebrity despite a ban by the Football Association. Dick, Kerr’s Ladies, workers at a World War I munitions plant in Preston, played informally during their lunch breaks; but they evolved into a team that played women at other wartime industries with the paid admissions to the games going to charities. Their first match
drew 10,000 spectators and another drew as many as 30,000. In 1920 a team of French women traveled to England to play the first women’s international match against the Dick, Kerr team with the English winning two games, losing one and drawing in a fourth. When the Dick, Kerr women traveled to France they won one game and drew three. They then embarked on a tour of Canada and the United States in 1922, only to learn that the Canadians disallowed women’s football. In the United States they played against male teams but still managed a 3-3-3 record. Although the team changed its name to the Preston Football Club later in the decade they continued to play until1965, winning fame and promoting football for countless young women in the nation. The Football Association finally granted formal recognition to women’s football in 1971. 25 See a video of the Dick, Kerr Co. team at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LAs6PaFDtf0.
The war spawned other issues relative to proper
sporting practices of women. Annie Newton (1893-1955) learned to box in her uncle’s boxing academy and proved to be the best of his pupils. She practiced her craft sparring in stage shows and fairgrounds tents in which the male and female boxers took on their challengers. When Newton lost two husbands in the war she sought to fight professionally in the ring in order to support her daughter, which caused a public clamor. She answered the concerns of physicians and moralists by stating “And really! All this talk about boxing for women being ‘degrading’ and ‘risky’ and ‘too hard work’ strikes me as very comic. Is it any more degrading, or half as hard work, as scrubbing
floors?” Newton expressed the working class habitus, viewing life through a physical lens. For her, an hour in the ring seemed like a bargain compared to a full day spent scrubbing on her knees. She was little concerned with her social status, as the working class had little status to lose.26
The British Home Secretary interceded to ban
the arranged match, which reportedly took place surreptitiously, as did Newton’s bouts with men. Despite the prohibition the fairgrounds matches continued and the concern over women’s boxing went on unabated.27
While World War II curtailed women’s boxing, the issues resumed in its aftermath as Yorkshire born Barbara Buttrick (1930- ) began boxing in the fairgrounds in both England and France though she stood only 5 feet tall (1.524 meters) and weighed but 100 pounds (45 kilograms). With an undefeated record she was acknowledged as the English champion and she then traveled to the United States, where she obtained a professional boxing license in 1954, the first woman to do so. In 1957 she defeated Phyllis Kugler in a match that decided the women’s world championship. A 1959 bout was the first female encounter broadcast on the radio. She retired with a 30-1 record, her only loss to a woman who outweighed her by 20 pounds (ten kilos). She later founded the Women’s International Boxing Association and served as the first president in 1995. Her efforts eventually helped to win acceptance for female boxers, which resulted in their inclusion in the 2012 Olympic program.28 A video of Buttrick is available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BXPGnqqHxmQ.
UNITED STATES
Developments in America paralleled those in England and revolved around the same issues relative to dissipation of women’s energy and the possible repercussions as well as the cooptation of male social roles. In 1861 when male colleges refused to accept the daughters of Matthew Vassar (1792-‐1868)he started his own college for women in Poughkeepsie, New York, complete with a gym and facilities for archery, croquet, shuttlecock (badminton), a bowling alley, and a stable for riding horses. The young women soon formed a baseball team and took up boating and gymnastics as well. They were to wear a “light and easy-‐fitting dress” for their physical activities. By the 1876-‐77 term the ball games class enrolled twenty-‐five students, with ninety-‐four in the boating class,108 in croquet, twenty-‐four in gardening, and another 116 who walked for their health. The students at subsequent such women’s colleges followed suit. By the end of the century tennis, basketball, and field hockey gained great popularity among women on the campuses.29
Matthew Vassar As in England, tennis marked one’s social status,
and the upper classes energetically organized clubs with restricted memberships. Female members played the game socially, but their languid style of play became more competitive with a national singles championship initiated by 1887 and a mixed doubles title by1891. May Sutton (1886-‐1975)played a more vigorous game with powerful
overhand strokes, and covered more ground by wearing shorter skirts that aided her in capturing the United States women’s championship in 1904. The
next year she became the first American to win the British championship at Wimbledon.30
May Sutton The interest in basketball crossed class lines,
played by college students, urban ghetto dwellers in settlement houses, and among Native Americans on Indian reservations. The game spread rapidly from Smith College in Massachusetts on the East Coast, where the women’s rules were adapted in 1892, to the first intercollegiate contest between the universities of California and Stanford on the West Coast by 1896. The Hull House Settlement in Chicago fielded a girls’ team in 1895 and the high schools in that city formed a league for interscholastic competition in the same year. Girls from the Fort Shaw Indian School in Montana claimed the world’s championship in a tournament at the 1904 World’s Fair in St. Louis, which coincided with the Olympic Games.31
For the Native American girls, consigned to
the government boarding school and forced to assimilate, basketball offered a sense of liberation. They were able to travel off the school grounds for games and display the physicality inherent in their own culture, but considered to be unseemly for white women. Beating the whites at their own game also instilled a sense of pride for themselves and other Indians.
While the women at Smith College enjoyed the game, they had the financial means to pursue other activities. Annie Smith Peck (1850-‐1935), a suffragist and professor at Smith , found mountain climbing to be a liberating experience. Flaunting social custom, she climbed in pants, considered to be suitable only as male attire. Despite the hostility of men who tried to hamper her efforts Smith persevered to set several records for her ascents. Upon conquering Mount Coropuna (21,079 feet or 6,425 meters) in Peru, she planted a banner on the peak that read “Vote for Women.”32
Annie Smith Peck Working class women had less genteel interests.
Some competed as boxers and professional rowers as early as the 186os, and Harry Hill’s Exchange, a
New York saloon, became a major venue for female bouts in the next decade. Richard Kyle Fox, editor of the National Police Gazette, a salacious newspaper, offered cash prizes and expensive championship belts to for female fighters.33
Women also vied for fame and fortune as pedestrians and cyclists in endurance contest, sometimes against male opponents. Bertha von Hillern migrated from Germany and walked in petticoats. Although her dress did not challenge the Victorian proprieties, her activity defied perceptions of female weakness. Ada Anderson, who traveled to America from England, drew large crowds to her long distance performances, one of which covered 675 miles (1,085 km) in 180 hours. Such feats inspired a host of other female pedestrians, with more than 100 women competing as professionals by 1879.34
Female endurance cyclists toured the country in troupes. Among the most famous, Louise Armaindo, covered 843 miles in 72 hours in marathon events that often lasted for six days. By the 1880s cycling became widely popular
Louise Armaindo among the middle class. Like croquet, cycling afforded an opportunity to transform courtship patterns as males and females joined cycling clubs that allowed them to socialize as they made extended journeys through the countryside.35
Cycling, did, however, pose some dangers. The
high wheeled bikes were prone to “headers,” i.e. falling head over handlebars when they ran over rocks or stones in the road. Cyclists therefore joined together in a politically powerful national union known as the League of American Wheelmen (LAW), that lobbied politicians for paved roads long before the automobile appeared on the roadways. The safety bicycle with equal sized wheels began to replace the high wheelers by the 1880s; but they too posed dangers for female riders, as skirts got caught in the spokes. Women began wearing pants, bloomers, and knickers in lieu of skirts, much to the chagrin of men. Clergy denounced such cyclists as possessed by devils and a Chicago suburb banned them from its streets unless attired in a skirt. A wily woman, however, invented a cycling clip that gathered skirts in a fashion similar to pants, circumventing the prohibition.36
Artist Charles Dana Gibson (1867-‐1944) provided
illustrations of such young, independent, athletic, and vivacious “new women” in the print media during the 1890s; hence, they became known as “Gibson girls.” 37
See a video biography of Gibson at
http://www.heraldsquarehotel.com/CDGibson.htm.
With the expansion of public high schools and this new image of liberated women, sports garnered more interest for female students at the turn of the century. The New York Public Schools Athletic League added sports for girls in 1905, but did not permit interscholastic competition. Still girls might find abundant opportunities in the park district programs,
clubs, and church teams. Working class girls and young women competed on a variety of industrial teams, such as baseball, softball (women’s version of baseball), bowling, basketball, and track and field, which proved an effective form of marketing for the companies. The Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) conducted national championships for women in swimming (1916), track and field (1924), basketball (1926), and gymnastics (1931). Illinois became the first state to adopt a high school athletic association for girls in 1917. In 1925 ten states offered a state basketball tournament for girls’ teams and eight states played in a national basketball tournament from 1925-‐1928. The 1920s became a heyday for women’s sports as the media lauded the accomplishments of female athletic stars. Gertrude Ederle (1905-‐2003) became a sensation as the first woman to swim the English Channel, surpassing the male record in doing so.
Gertrude Ederle Sybil Bauer (1903-‐1927), a swimming champion at
the 1924 Olympics, had beaten the men’s world record in the backstroke in 1922. Helen Wills Moody (1905-‐1998) ruled the tennis ranks, and
Glenna Collett claimed the national golf title six times;despite the opposition of many female
physical educators, who felt that competitive sport was unfeminine and masculinizing. 38 Such strong disapproval of the female leaders led them to advocate non-‐competitive “play days” were schools might mix for socializing and recreational games. Others allowed for postal or telegraphic meets were scores might be sent to other schools who did not actually meet in face-‐to-‐face competition. 39
As the Olympic Games gradually expanded women’s events against the wishes of the founder, Pierre de Coubertin (1863-‐1937), the American team was largely composed of working class women from club teams and the industrial companies that competed in the Amateur Athletic Union. In the 1930s black female athletes from the African American colleges began to appear on the U.S. Olympic track team and would become the core of the squad in later years.40
The era produced the greatest all-‐around female athlete in American history. Mildred “Babe” Didrikson (1911-‐1956) excelled at virtually all sports. She won All-‐American honors in basketball as her team captured the national championship in 1931. She single-‐handedly won the national track championship as a one person team in 1932
by winning six of the eight events she entered and setting four world records in the process. At the Olympic Games that year she won two gold and one silver medal. She was an expert swimmer and diver, bowler, baseball, softball, tennis, and billiards player; but gained even more fame as a professional golfer, as she dominated the women’s circuit until her early death from cancer.41
Softball enjoyed great popularity during the
Depression years, as it mimicked the national game of baseball, but required less space and little equipment. A national championship tournament for both men and women’s teams was initiated at the 1933 World’s Fair held in Chicago. During World War II a women’s professional baseball league was organized in the Midwest and proved so popular that it continued until 1954.
Women also formed barnstorming basketball teams,
the famous Redheads squad played both male and female opponents and covered forty-‐six states in their travels.42
In 1941, Gladys Palmer, a professor at Ohio State University who disagreed with other female physical educators on the value of sport for women, organized a women’s golf tournament. In 1943 females composed only 16% of collegiate athletes; but that percentage increased to 26% by 1951. Opportunities increased thereafter. By the 1960s schools in New England offered intercollegiate skiing competition, as well as sailing, fencing, and squash. Even the dissenters from the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation (AAHPER) acquiesced to women’s national championship competition in 1967. By 1971 the women organized their own governing body, the Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (AIAW) to conduct national contests. 43
In 1972 the federal government passed Title IX as part of the Education Amendments Act, a public law that required any school receiving federal aid to provide equal opportunities for all students. Female athletes and their supporters invoked the law to gain greater recognition, sponsorship, and support for women’s sports in secondary schools, colleges, and universities. The number of female teams and female athletes increased exponentially. The primarily male governing body for collegiate sport, the NCAA, began sponsoring national championships for women in 1981(thirty-‐five female championships by 1987).Whereas women accounted for only15% of college athletes in 1971, that figure reached 42% by 2000.44
At the professional level, tennis star Billie Jean King (1943 -‐ ) headed a feminist movement
that clamored for equal rights. She co-‐founded the women’s professional tennis tour and became the first female athlete to earn $100,000 in a year; but gained even greater fame for her victory over Bobby Riggs, a former male champion, in the 1973 “Battle of the Sexes.” Riggs had claimed that even at the age of 55 he could defeat any woman. More than 30,000 spectators witnessed the match in person, which was broadcast internationally to thirty-‐six countries. King’s decisive win made her a feminist hero and she used her celebrity to advocate for women’s rights. In 1974 she founded the Women’s Sports Foundation to advocate for female athletes.45
Billie Jean King The opportunities afforded to women produced many
female athletic stars who served as role models for the next generation of young girls. Mary Lou Retton (1968- )captured the all-around gymnastics championship at the 1984 Olympics, and Florence Griffith-Joyner(1959-1998) won four medals as the outstanding performer at the 1988 Olympics, and was acknowledged as the athlete of the year.
Her sister-‐in-‐law, Jackie Joyner-‐Kersee (1962 -‐ ),
winner of the Olympic heptathlon in 1988 and 1992 won even greater acclaim as the top female athlete of the century.46
The American women’s soccer team, led by the prolific scorer Mia Hamm (1972 -‐ ) from 1987 to 2004, dominated international soccer, winning the World Cup in 1991 and 1999, and the Olympic gold medal in 1996, 2004, 2008, and 2012.47
The American women’s ice hockey team has
enjoyed similar success, winning the Olympic gold medal in 1998, and the world championship in 2005, 2008, 2009, 2011, and 2013. In other sports the Women’s National Basketball Association (WNBA) is considered to be the premier female league in the world and Venus (1980 -) and Serena Williams (1981 - ) have dominated women’s professional tennis since the turn of the century. Professional female tennis players have more than tripled in number since 1977 and some earn as much as male professionals.48
Serena and Venus Williams during doubles match
On the international level, Anita De Frantz (1952 - ), who captained the American Olympic rowing team in 1976, was elected to the International Olympic Committee in 1986 and became a vice-president in 1997. Despite the elite leadership role of De Frantz, and the ever increasing participation of girls
and women in sports in the United States, Title IX has not been universally beneficial to women. Since the enactment of the law women have actually lost coaching and administrave positions as more men than women coach women’s teams and about 80% of the athletic directors’ positions in the American colleges are held by males, indicating that males still hold a dominant role in American sport. The media too greatly favors male sport, with females only getting about 7% of the coverage, indicating that although women have made great strides since 1972, full equality has not been achieved. 49
EUROPE While American and British women may
have spearheaded the liberation movement, others made important contributions. Women in France, Germany, and Switzerland exercised with limited exertion during the nineteenth century, with German women participating in the turner activites by the 1840s, and girls competing in turnfest races in 1861; although they were not admitted as full members until after World War I. More aristocratic women engaged in the hunt, archery contests, and fencing at mid-century, and physical education classes were introduced to girls’ schools in Germany by the 1860s. Russian women took part in a regatta at the St. Petersburg Yacht Club in 1865, and three years later girls raced bicycles in Paris, with longer endurance races outside the city. In the 1890s the Belgian-born HeleneDutrieu (1877-1961) claimed the world championship, having covered 39.19 km in an hour in an 1895 event, and winning sprint championships in 1897 and 1898.50
Amelie LeGall surpassed Dutrieu as well as a
Scottish female as the cycling fad spread through Europe. LeGall then defeated a man in a 25km handicap race. Danish women also eclipsed some of the male cycling records in their country.51 Racing in various forms seemed to be a particular interest in Paris, where women competed in the Seine River as early as 1885. In 1903 a reported 2,500 working class women ran a 12 km race while another 250 ran a 300 meter sprint. Germans began races of 400 to 500 meters in Berlin the next year. Even middle class women soon joined the contests and they started wearing less restrictive clothing to enhance their performances.52
The German women had increasingly undertaken a number of sports during the latter nineteenth century: tennis in 1877, ice skating in 1885, cross country skiing in 1893 and slalom skiing in1905. The Arbeiter Turn-‐und Sportbund (Workers’Gymnastics and Sports Association) counted nearly 12,000 female members by 1896. Rowing clubs had already been established by upper class women during the nineteenth century and could be found in Denmark, Norway, and Poland by 1916. 53
In the post-‐war era known as the Weimar
Republic, German women were granted suffrage and they adopted a liberation psychology that resulted in new body concepts depicted in sport, dance, gymnastics, art, and fashion that transferred into more active lifestyles. The sports of boxing, soccer, and track and field transgressed the previous gender boundaries. The media eroticized and sexualized sports stars, such as the German boxer Max Schmeling (1905-‐2005). Among female athletes, Cilly Aussem (1901-‐1963), won the Wimbledon tournament as well as the French and German championships in 1930 and was considered to be more aggressive in her play than male stars Gottfried von Cramm, Daniel Prenn, and Otto Frotzheim.54
Cilly Aussem Despite the objections of Pierre de Coubertin, the
founder of the modern Olympic Games, the athletic spectacle slowly permitted some competition for women: golf, tennis, and sailing in 1900, archery in 1904, tennis, archery, and figure skating in 1908, swimming, diving, tennis, and a gymnastic exhibition in 1912; but it denied strength and power sports, such as track and field, which it deemed to be unladylike and the province of men.55 French women responded with their own bold Initiative. They had already founded their own Femina Sport Club in Paris in 1911, and track and field meets ensued thereafter. The club sponsored the first national track championship for women in 1917 and took to the pitch with a soccer team the next year. Alice Milliat (1884-‐1957),a rower and leader of the French women’s sports movement, petitoned the Olympic committee for inclusion of track and field events for women in the Games.
After continual rebuffs, Milliat took matters into
her own hands, establishing the Federation Sportive Feminine Internationale in 1921 and holding a women’s version of the Olympics in Monaco with track and field and basketball competiton that year. Three hundred female athletes from Europe and the United States attended, The following year she organized another event in Paris that also included swimming and drew 600 athletes and 20,000 spectators. Violette Morris (1893-‐1944), a remarkable French athlete, won the shot put event in the first two meetings, and she excelled at many other sports, including the discus throw, football, water polo, bicycle, motorcycle, auto, and airplane racing, as well as boxing against male opponents.56
Violette Morris See a French documentary on Morris at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bjS1Vs_SCOs. Milliat organized national championships in field
hockey, football, basketball, and swimming, and nine international conferences on women’s sports between 1921 and 1936. The women’s Olympics continued in 1926 in Goteborg, Sweden and the
IOC finally relented, allowing women’s participation in track and field at the 1928 Games in which the 800 meter race, won by Lina Radke (1903 – 1983) of Germany, produced a great controversy when the IOC determined the race to be too exhausting for women and removed it from the Olympic program until 1960.57
Olympic 800 meter run, 1928, with Radke in the lead The workers’ sport movement of the post WWI era
greatly increased the number of female athletes, who sponsored their own version of the organized Olympic Games as well.The new soviet Russia organized a women’s basketball championshipby 1923, and employers established company teams to socially control their workers.
Women’s sport assumed even greater prominence as fascists usurped control of European governments and strong, athletic women became a symbol of their racial doctrines and nationalistic pride.58
Professional women’s sport produced another nationalistic heroine in the person of French tennis star Suzanne Lenglen (1899-‐1939). Lenglen won her first Wimbledon match in 1919, and proceeded to win 269 of 270 matches upto 1926. Proud, tempestuous and posessing an inimitable style both on and off the court, she relished her international celebrity and the adoration of the French public.59
The Depression and World War II limited women’s sports; but the political Cold War between communist and capitalist nations placed greater importance on female athletes for much of the rest of the century as the Olympic Games
trumpeted the perception of the merit in both systems. Even westerners admired the grace of Russian gymnast Olga Korbut (1955 - ) in the 1972 Olympics, and Nadia Comenici (1961- ), the Romanian who was the first to score a perfect 10 points in a gymnastic event in 1976. East German figure skater, Katarina Witt (1965 - ),
Olga Korbut Nadia Comenici captivated a global audience at the 1984 and 1988 Winter Olympics; while Czech born tennis star Martina Navratilova (1956-‐ )
Katarina Witt Martina Navratilova dominatedthe professional courts for a quarter century and is widely considered to be the greatest female player in tennis history.60 Such performances continued to overturn notions of women as the weak sex; but like the American media, men still got most of the coverage.
ASIA As in the United States and England, women had
few rights in China before the twentieth century.
They could not vote, hold property, and got little if any education. Most women remained illiterate and entirely subservient to their husbands. The traditional binding of women’s feet
in China left them incapable of even walking normally. They had to carried in sedan chairs. Coupled with the aristocrats’ perception of sport as work prohibited any interest in physicality before the twentieth century. The transition had much to do with the western impositions of the Christian missionaries, who began arriving very early in the nineteenth century. As early as 1836 the Baptists opened a girls’ school in Macao, and another followed in Ningbo on the mainland in 1844. By 1876 there were 121 missionary schools with more than 2,000 students, and the latter number doubled by 1902 (but most were boys). Influenced by western ways the Chinese opened their own girls’ school in Shanghai in 1898. The missionaries conducted an ardent crusade in opposition to bound feet and pressured the empress to address the issue. She did so in 1902 with an edict that abolished the practice and advanced a women’s liberation movement in China. Girls’ schools multiplied therefter with gymnastics as part of the curriculum by law as of 1907. The girls’ schools also taught sports and games, such as the American games of baseball, basketball, and volleyball, as well as track and field activities.61
The religious proselytizing and imposition of
western culture resulted in a nationalist uprising in 1900 known as the Boxer Rebellion that was defeated and chastened by western military forces. In the wake of the revolt the westerners made further attempts to incorporate China into the western sport system. The YMCA created the Far East Games, a regional Olympics, which China hosted in 1915 and again in Shanghai in 1921. The latter festival included women’s events. Women’s tennis and volleyball were added in 1923 and the following year softball and basketball were incorporated into the Chinese National Games. In 1930 women’s swimming and track and field were added to the Far East Games program.62
The relentless proselytizing and Chinese frustration with western racist attitudes and immigration quotas led them to distance themselves from the foreigners and assume greater control over the administration of their own sports programs.When a Chinese civil war ensued in 1927 the foreigners were ousted. Under their own purview the Chinese offered seven women’s sports for the 1933 National Games; but growing conflict with Japan, the consequent World War II, and another civil war disrupted sport in China. The Cultural Revolution of 1966-‐1976 deempasized sport; but China’s return to the Olympic Games in 1984 signalled its growing emergence as a world power. Its female athletes have been especially successful in such sports as gymnastics, swimming and diving, table tennis, martial arts, volleyball, and sailing. On the professional level tennis star Li Na has become a world class player.63 Japan voluntarily underwent westernization during the Meiji Period (1868-‐1912), and increasingly joined the western sport system to test itself against the reigning powers in the 1912 Olympics and the Far East Games from 1913 through 1934; but it did not produce a great female athlete until the appearance of
Far East Games Men;s Basketball 1928
Kinue Hitomi (1907-‐1931),who set numerous national records throughout the 1920s. At the 1926 Women’s Olympics in Sweden she was the only Japanese entrant, where she won four medals, setting a world record in the long jump. At the 1928 Olympics she finished a close second in the infamous 8oo meter run.64
The Japanese women’s volleyball team has twice
won the gold medal, in 1964 and again in 1976. The women’s football team captured the World Cup trophy in 2011.
More recently, South Korean female golfers have dominated the LPGA tour. After Se Ri Pak
(1977 - )won the 1998 U.S. Open and then continued togarner a host of victories it inspired young womenin her homeland to take up the game. By 2013 five of the top nine players and fourteen of the top fortyon the tour were Koreans. Pak has been succeeded by Inbee Park (1988 - ) who won nine tournaments in 2013. 65
In North Korea the communist regime promotes gender equality as a matter of political policy. Its efforts are noticeable in its women’s boxing program, which far surpasses that of its male boxers. In 2005, the capital city of Pyongyang served as the host for the World Boxing Council Female (WBCF) championships, in which three North Korean women gained victories. The North Korean media portrayed Kwang-‐Ok Kim, the bantamweight champion, as “the proud daughter of the nation, whose fists attracted the world’s attention.” Such boxers promote the nationalistic pride of the country. One magazine stated that “From the past, wisdom and courage constitute the essential character of our nation, and on many occcasions, this character is expressed through the fists.” In that sense the North Koreans take more pride in their female boxers than their male counterparts.66
MIDEAST In the Mideast the various interpretations of
the Koran in Muslim countries present obstacles to western concepts of female liberation. Although the Koran does not forbid physical activity for women, there is great diversity within Muslim cultures ranging from entrenched patriarchy to more egalitarian societies. Muslim women from North Africancountries were the first to challenge the gender boundaries of Islamic culture. Nawal El Moutawakil (1962 -‐ ) of Morocco won the inaugural 400 meter hurdles race for women at the 1984 Olympic Games and became a member of the IOC in 1998.
A video of her performance can be seen at http://www.olympic.org/videos/los-angeles-1984-athletics- women-‐400m-‐hurdles.
In 1992 Hassiba Boulmerka (1968 -‐ ) of Algeria won the 1500 meter race in the
Olympics amidst death threats by more conservative Islamic practitioners.67
There has been slow and limited change since
then despite pressure from the IOC. Ghada Shouaa (1972 - ) of Syria won the Olympic heptathlon championship in 1996 and became a national heroine; but other countries have been slow to accept female athletes.The London Olympics of 2012 marked the first appearance of female athletes from Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Kuwait, and Brunei.68
Football holds the predominant interest of men and women throughout the Muslim world. Morocco promoted the first unofficial Arab tournaments for women in 1997 and 2001, and the first Women’s Arab Cup of the Arab Football Federation occurred in 2006 that included a team of Palestinian women. Morocco initiated a women’s league in 2008 that quickly grew to twenty- four teams; but it lacks the infrastructure, space, coaching, and funding to grow the sport. Available funding is largely directed to male sport programs.69 Both FIFA and FIBA have also retarded the growth of football and basketball in the Mideast due to its ban of the hijab (headscarves) in games. Some national teams have refused to play without their religious headgear, and FIFA decided to permit it on a trial basis in 2014.
Before the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 that nation fielded girls’ basketball and volleyball teams in the schools, but in the next 20 years of taliban rule, such activities were repressed. While the country has more recently developed a gender segregated Olympic training
program for women similar to the one in Iran, government officials have decided on a slow approach so as not to disrupt cultural values too quickly. Cultural values, perhaps moreso than religion, impede the rapid growth of women’s sporting opportunities in the Muslim world. While many women find sport to be a liberating experience, most are reluctant to challenge societal norms that expect them to marry and assume maternal and domestic responsibilities upon reaching adulthood.70
See the video of clandestine women’s football in Saudi Arabia at http://content.time.com/time/video/player/0,32068,1774003197001_2121397,00.html.
Time dictates that change is inevitable. Globalization and the internet have accelerated that process, including greater liberation of females throughout the world. Sport has become a very visible symbol of that process, starting with women’s efforts in the United States and England in the nineteenth century to current transitions in the Mideast.
Food for Thought 1. Why did women seek greater freedom? 2. What role did sport play in the liberation process? 3. How did sporting practices effect women’s clothing styles? 4. How important was social class in effecting cultural change? 5. What sports were most effective in generating greater freedom for women? 6. In what ways did women chaallenge the belief in their physical debility? 7. Why did American female physical educators object to competitive sport? In what ways was Title IX both a benefit and a disadvantage to women in the United States? 8. In what ways do female athletes serve as role models? 9. What role did Alice Milliat play in the liberation of European women?
END NOTES
lxxi
SOURCES 1 Material on ancient Chinese sport is derived from the official site of the Chinese Olympic Committee at http://en.olympic.cn/sports_in_ancient_china/2013-11-16/11292.html (February 15, 2014); and http://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/focus/sport-land2.htm (February 15, 2014). http://www.chinatownconnection.com/chinese-dragon-boat-festival.htm (February 16, 2014). 2http://www.absolutechinatours.com/china-travel/archery-sport-gentlemen-ancient-china.html (February 16, 2014). 3 http.:www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/focus/sport-land2.htm (February 15, 2014). 4 http.:www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/focus/sport-land2.htm (February 15, 2014); and http://www.absolutechinatours.com/china-travel/archery-sport-gentlemen-ancient-china.html (February 16, 2014). 5 http.:www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/focus/sport-land2.htm (February 15, 2014). 6http://www.chinatownconnection.com/chinese-dragon-boat-festival.htm (February 16, 2014). 7 Allen Guttmann, Sports: The First Five Millennia (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2004), 42. 8http://www.shuttlecock-world.org/site/news/history_of_shuttlecock_sport/ (February 17, 2014). 9 Material on Japanese sports is derived from Guttmann, Sports: The First Five Millennia, 45-8. 10Allen Guttmann and Lee Thompson, Japanese Sports: A History (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2001), 14, 16, 23. 11 Guttmann and Thompson, Japanese Sports, 26-27, 31-36. 12Guttmann and Thompson, Japanese Sports, 42-46, 56. 13Guttmann and Thompson, Japanese Sports, 56-58. 14 Gems, Borish, and Pfister, Sports in American History, 212. 15en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessie_Rayner_Parkes (May 12, 2014); en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmeline_Pankhurst
(May 12, 2014). 16Guttmann, Women’s Sports, 85-105; Gems, Borish, and Pfister, Sports in American History, 73-6, 107, 123, 167. 17Guttmann, Women’s Sports, 92, 94, 106- 23, 118 (quote). 18Guttmann, Women’s Sports, 119; Gems, Borish, and Pfister, Sports in American History, 167-8. 19Guttmann, Women’s Sports, 118-20. 20Guttmann, Women’s Sports, 121. 21Guttmann, Women’s Sports, 121-2. 22Guttman, Women’s Sports, 122 (quote), 123. 23http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/australian-story/annette-kellerman (May 17, 2014). 24http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/wylie-wilhemina-mina-15656 (May 17, 2014); http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/fl/jennie-fletcher-1.html (May 17, 2014). 25https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LAs6PaFDtf0 (May 17, 2014); Collins, Sport in Capitalist Society, 89-90. 26Gerald R. Gems, Boxing: A Concise History of the Sweet Science (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2014), 224; Jennifer Hargreaves, “Women’s Boxing and Related Activities: Introducing Images and Meanings,” InYo: Journal of Alternative Perspectives (September 2001), n.p. (article in author’s possession) cites H. C. Norris, “She Wants to FIGHT Jack Dempsey,” Japan Times and Mail, October 3, 1926, 6. 27http://maltaboxing.net/blog/2010/06/annie-newton-%E2%80%93-boxer-1893-%E2%80%93-1955/ (May 17, 2014). 28Gems, Boxing, 227. 29Gems, Borish, and Pfister, Sports in American History, 170; Betty Spears and Richard Swanson, History of Sports and Physical Education in the United States (Dubuque, IA: William C. Brown, 1988), 141-43; Guttmann, Women’s Sports, 112-16. 30Gems, Borish, and Pfister, Sports in American History, 216. 31Gerald R. Gems, Sports in North America: A Documentary History, vol. 5: Sports Organized, 1880-1900 (Gulf Breeze, FL:Academic International, 1996), 147-52; Gems, Borish, and Pfister, Sports In American History, 214; Linda Peavy and
Ursula Smith, Full Court Quest: The Girls from Fort Shaw Indian School, Basketball Champions of the World (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 2008). 32Gems, Borish, and Pfister, Sports in American History, 212. 33Gems, Boxing, 215-18. 34Dahn Shaulis, “Pedestriennes: Newsworthy but Controversial Women in Sporting Entertainment,” Journal of Sport History, 26:1 (Spring, 1999), 29-50. 35Gems, Borish, and Pfister, Sports in American History, 161-66, 214. 36Gems, Borish, and Pfister, Sports in American History, 161-3; Gems, Windy City Wars, 38-40. 37Gems, Borish, and Pfister, Sports in American History, 212-13; Guttmann, Women’s Sports, 125. 38Pruter, The Rise of American High School Sports And the Search for Control, 1880-1930, 244-72; Spears and Swanson, History of Sport and Physical Education in the United States, 197, 238-44; Gems, Borish, and Pfister, Sports in American History, 249-55; Benjamin G. Rader, American Sports: From the Age of Folk Games to the Age of Spectators (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1983), 336-37; Guttmann, Women’s Sports, 147-53. 39Pruter, The Rise of American High School Sports and the Search for Control, 1880-1930, 270-72; Spears and Swanson, History of Sport and Physical Education in the United States, 270-74. 40Rader, American Sports, 336-37; Guttmann, Women’s Sports, 141. 41Don Van Natta, Jr., Wonder Girl: The Magnificent Sporting Life of Babe Didrikson Zaharias (New York: Little, Brown and Co., 2011). 42Rader, American Sports, 338. 43 Spears and Swanson,History of Sport and Physical Education in the United States, 245, 312-17; Rader, American Sports, 339. 44Gems, Borish, and Pfister, Sports in American History, 296-7, 325-31; Spears and Swanson, History of Sport and Physical Education
in the United States, 313-17. 45Gems, Borish, and Pfister, Sports in American History, 295-97, 336; Rader, American Sports, 342-44. 46 Gems, Borish, and Pfister, Sports in American History, 326, 330. 47Gems, Borish, and Pfister, Sports in American History, 328, 330. 48Gems, Borish, and Pfister, Sports in American History, 330-31. 49Gems, Borish, and Pfister, Sports in American History,326; http://acostacarpenter.org/AcostaCarpenter2012.pdf (May 24, 2014). 50Gertrud Pfister, “Sport for Women,” in Naul and Hardman, eds., Sport and Physical Education in Germany, 165-90. Guttmann, Women’s Sports, 92-4, 101-02, 120, 132. 51Guttmann, Women’s Sport, 102. 52Guttmann, Women’s Sport, 103. 53Guttmann, Women’s Sports, 129-31, 160. 54 Eric N. Jensen, Body by Weimar: Athletes, Gender, and German Modernity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010). 55Guttmann, Women’s Sports, 163-4. 56Guttmann, Women’s Sports, 166-68; Kathleen McElroy, “Somewhere to Run,” 6, in Lissa Smith, ed., Nike Is a Goddess:The History of Women’s Sports (New York: Grove/Atlantic, 1998), 1-29. 57Guttmann, Women’s Sports, 167-69, 186. 58Guttmann, Women’s Sports, 186-88, 180-88; Guttmann, Sports: The First Five Millennia, 295-98; Collins, Sport in Capitalist Society, 89-93, 98-9; Naul, “History of Sport and Physical Education in Germany, 1800-1945.” 59Guttmann, Women’s Sports, 157-59. 60Guttmann, Women’s Sports, 211, 244, 248-9, 265; Guttmann, Sports: The First Five Millennia, 301-06. 61Gems, Athletic Crusade, 18-21; Fan Hong, “The Female Body, Missionary and Reformer: The Reconceptualization of Femininity in Modern China,” International Journal of the History of Sport, 10:2 (August 1993), 133-58. 62Gems, Athletic Crusade, 21-25.
63Gems, Athletic Crusade, 26-8. 64 Guttmann and Thompson, Japanese Sports, 75. 65http://www.back9network.com/article/why-south-korea-is-dominating-womens-golf/ (May 24, 2014). 66Gems Boxing, 233-34; Jung Woo Lee, “Red Feminism and Propaganda in Communist Media: Portrayals of Female Boxers in North Korean Media,” International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 44:2-3 (June 2009), 193-211 (quotes, 202 and 205 respectively). 67Tansin Benn, Gertrud Pfister, and Haifaa Jawad, eds., MuslimWomen and Sport (Abingdon, UK: Routledge, 2011); Guttmann, Women’s Sports, 265-66. 68Andreas Seliaas, “A Middle East Female Sports Revolution?” at http://www.playthegame.org/news/detailed/a-middle-east-female-sports-revolution-5127.html (May 25, 2014). 69Nicole Matuska, “The Development of Women’s Football in Morocco,” at www.mei.edu/sites/default/files/publications/Sports in ME.pdf (May 25, 2014). 70Awista Ayub, “The Evolving Role of Afghan Female Athletes,” 27-30; and Hana Askren, “Tradition Trumps Sport: A Female Wrestler Retreats,”31-34, both at www.mei.edu/sites/default/files/publications/Sports in ME.pdf (May 25, 2014). lxxi
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