Outline the use of microorganisms in the extraction of heavy metals from low grade ores;

Disadvantages of extracting metals by bioleaching:

1. takes up large area ;2. unsightly ;3. requires, lot of water / continuous water supply ;4. contamination of water / pollution due to acid ;5. Cu / Fe, toxic to plants ;

Why extraction by bioleaching can be cheaper than mining?

1. low level technology / no sophisticated machinery / requires less maintenance ;2. low energy consumption / less fossil fuels used ;3. few safety hazards / safer ; R no hazards4. organism easy to, obtain / culture ;5. self replicating ;6. waste less hazardous ;7. disposal of waste, costs less / is easier ;8. ref. low grade ores / scrap iron ;9. less workers needed ;10. ref. use in situ ;

Explain what is meant by the terms batch culture and continuous culture;

Compare the advantages and disadvantages of batch and continuous culture with reference to the production of secondary metabolites (e.g. Penicillin), enzymes (e.g. Protease) and biomass (e.g. Mycoprotein);

Describe, for penicillin as an example of an antibiotic:The mode of action on bacteria and

1. autolysins ;2. make holes in cell walls ;3. in, growing / developing, bacteria ;4. (antibiotic), inhibits / acts on, (another) enzyme ;5. so peptidoglycan chains cannot link up / stops cross-links forming ;6. cell wall becomes weaker / AW ;7. turgor of cell not resisted (by cell wall) / AW ;8. cell bursts ;enzyme is glycoprotein peptidase

why it does not affect virusesPenecillin affects the crosslink formation....., and viruses do not have cell walls, so it does not affect viruses.

Causes and effects of antibiotic resistance;

[pa] immobilise an enzyme in alginate and compare the ease of recovering the enzyme and ease of purification of the product compared to the same enzyme that has not been immobilised;

Explain the principles of operation of dip sticks containing glucose oxidase and peroxidise enzymes, and biosensors that can be used for quantitative measurement of glucose;

Biosensors:The enzyme glucose oxidase catalyses the conversion of glucose to gluconic acid.• It contains a layer of immobilised glucose oxidase enzyme.• This enzyme binds with any glucose in the blood, which is oxidised withdissolved oxygen from the solution to form hydrogen peroxide and gluconicacid.• An electrode (usually platinum) measures the drop in oxygen concentration asit is used to make hydrogen peroxide. The electrode generates an electricalsignal.• The size of the electrical signal is proportional to the concentration of glucosein the blood.• A digital readout gives the user a figure for the glucose concentration[low reading = low glucose conc.]

Outline the hybridoma method for the production of a monoclonal antibody.

1. (mouse) injected with antigen ; A protein / red cells2. spleen / plasma / B, cell ;3. with ability to make antibody ; linked to 24. fused with, tumour / myeloma / cancerous, cell ;5. cells cultured ;6. cells checked for antibody production ;7. cells cloned ;

A mouse is injected with the antigen for which the antibodies are required. An immune response takes place and the mouse cells start to make the antibody. Plasma cells are extracted from the mouse. The plasma cells are fused with B myeloma cells. The resulting hybridoma cells are separated individually and allowed to grow and divide and produce antibodies. Some antibodies are removed and tested to check for the correct monoclonals. Those hybridoma cells which are producing the required antibodies are cultured in a large fermenter. The monoclonal antibodies are harvested and purified.

Evaluate the use of monoclonal antibodies compared to conventional methods for diagnosis and treatment of disease, and testing for pregnancy;