Федеральное агентство по образованиюРоссийской Федерации

___________

Государственное образовательное учреждениевысшего профессионального образования

«РОСТОВСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ»

Кафедра английского языка естественных факультетов

МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ

по развитию навыков чтения и разговорной речи на английском языке по теме «Моя специальность»

для студентов 1-2 курсовестественных факультетов университетов

(часть 2)

Ростов-на-Дону

2005Составители: проф. Сафроненко О.И., ст. преп. Белоусова М.М.,

ст. преп. Кузнецова Л.В., ст. преп. Скнарина И.И., преп. Сытникова Е.Б.

Рецензент: ст. преп. Резникова С.Ю.

Печатается в соответствии с решением кафедры английского языка естественных факультетов ГОУ ВПО «РГУ», протокол № 2 от 21 октября 2005 г.

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Методическая записка

Настоящие методические указания предназначаются для аудиторной и самостоятельной работы студентов 1-2 курсов.

Основная цель указаний – расширение знаний студентов естественных факультетов по теме «Моя специальность» и совершенствование навыков изучающего и ознакомительного чтения и устной речи на английском языке. Методические указания также способствуют расширению тематического и терминологического словарного запаса по данным темам.

Данные методические указания состоят из трех основных разделов по следующим темам:

Биология; Химия; Науки о земле.

В каждый раздел входит текст, предназначенный для изучающего чтения, ряд заданий и тренировочных упражнений для работы в аудитории. Под рубрикой «Supplementary Reading» предлагаются дополнительные тексты по теме раздела для самостоятельного чтения. Под рубрикой «Discussion Points» приводятся творческие задания, которые побуждают студентов прокомментировать прочитанные тексты, высказать свое отношение и обменяться мнением по полученной информации.

Методические указания также содержат ссылку на сайт формата Webquest, посвященный величайшим ученым и их открытиям в различных областях человеческого знания. Данный сайт можно использовать как информационно-аналитический сборник, включающий аутентичные материалы широкого спектра, что обеспечивает каждому студенту возможность личностного выбора тематики и индивидуального графика подготовки к занятиям по избранной теме.

При наличии хорошей компьютерной базы данный сайт можно использовать как ролевой проект для изучения вклада ученных в развитие науки и оценки их научных достижений, что способствует развитию аналитических, поисковых и исследовательских навыков студентов, а также навыков речевой деятельности на английском языке.

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BIOLOGY

1. Before you start1.1 Answer the following questions:1. What is biology?2. How is modern biology different from ancient biology?3. What do you know about the Biology faculty at Rostov State University?4. What classificatory systems do you know?

2. Pronunciation2.1 Read and practise the pronunciation of the following words:

anatomy anthropology antibiotics bacterium bacteria biochemistry biology botany consumption () cytology enzyme genetics genus : mammal ()hormone microbiology molecular biology ()

phenomenon

phylum phenomena psychology protein :reptile subdivision ()species :: vital Aristotle : Linneus :

3. Reading3.1 Read the text to know more about biology.

BiologyBiology may be defined as the science about life and how to sustain it on the

planet Earth. The word biology is derived from the Greek words “bios” (“life”) and “logos” (“word” or “science”). Biology deals with all kinds of living things and living systems. In studying them we learn the relations of plants and animals to one another and to the world around them, we also learn some of the great fundamental laws and processes of nature.

Biology is a very old science and it is closely bound with other natural sciences such as physics, chemistry, geology, anthropology, psychology, agriculture, medicine and others. Biology is entitled to be called the most vital of the sciences.

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The phenomena of life are very numerous and very different. Great attention has always been paid to the classification of living systems. Attempts to arrange them in a single classification have been made since ancient times. Aristotle was one of the first who made such attempts. Later taxonomists such as John Ray and Carl Linneus built classificatory systems of living organisms.

All the known animal species were grouped into five classes: mammals, birds, reptiles, fishes and worms. Carl Linneus is considered to be the founder of taxonomy, the study of classification. His system of classification was founded on the concept of a basic natural grouping of like individuals, called a species. Nowadays all related organisms are grouped as follows: 1) Phylum (or division in the plant kindom); 2) Class; 3) Order; 4) Family; 5) Genus; 6) Species.

Up to the present time more than 840.000 kinds of animals and 345.000 kinds of plants have been named, described and classified.

Modern biology is a very broad science which has a lot of subdivisions. But there are two principle divisions in it: botany which deals with plants and zoology which deals with animals. Besides, there are a lot of other subdivisions in biology: citology deals with cells, protozoology - with bacteria, ornithology - with birds, entymology - with insects, ichthyology - with fish, etc. Physiology is the study of function and process, ecology is the study of environmental factors and how organisms interact with them, biochemistry deals with chemistry of living system and studies chemical constituents and chemical changes in an organism. One of the vital biological sciences is genetics which deals with the nature of genes and how different traits are inherited. There are some comparatively new branches of biology: biochemistry, biophysics, molecular biology, gene engineering, space biology, genetics, microbiology, etc.

Biologists have made a great contribution to science. They have increased our food supply, they have developed new and better varieties of plants and animals. They have done a great deal in the field of selection, in irradicating many serious diseases, in discovering important principles in the activity of the brain and in the higher nervous activity. They have obtained various physiologically active substances: enzymes, vitamins, hormones, antibiotics, amino-acids and proteins for human and animal comsumption.

The Biology faculty is one of the largest and oldest in Rostov State University. It was founded in 1934. There are 7 departments at this faculty: the department of botany, zoology, biochemistry and microbiology, physiology of man and animal, genetics, environmental science or ecology and the department of soil science and agrochemistry.

In these departments students students get training in all branches of biology. They are given lectures in various subjects of natural science, namely botany, zoology, anatomy, microbiology, biophysics, biochemistry, genetics and so on. They have every opportunity to master their speciality and do reseach under the supervision of highly

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qualified teachers and researches. In the third year they choose a branch of biology to major in.

In the Biology faculty there are several museums and laboratories and two centres for practical training – Nedvigovka agricultural research centre and the Nikel field work centre and a botanical garden.

Graduates of Biology faculty work in research institutes, laboratories and schools.

(Adapted from the Internet sites)

3.2 What new facts about biology have you learnt from the text?

4. Comprehension check4.1 Answer the following questions:1. What does the science of biology study?2. What natural sciences is biology bound with?3. Why is the classification of living things so important?4. How many classes are the animal species grouped into? What are they?5. Who is considered to be the founder of taxonomy?6. What branches of biology do you know? Which of them are veryold? And the new

ones?7. What contribution have biologists made to sciences?8. What is the contribution of the famous Russian biologists to the world science?9. What opportunities does the Biology faculty provide for the students’ further

training?

4.2 Agree or disagree with the following statements1. The phenomena of life are numerous and very different.2. Biology is a comparatively young science.3. John Ray was the founder of taxonomy.4. Modern biology is a broad science with three main subdivisions in it.5. The Biology faculty is one of the oldest faculties in Rostov State University.

5. Vocabulary5.1 Give English equivalents to the following word-combinations:происходит от; живые организмы; взаимоотношения между животными и растениями; тесно связана; единая классификация; виды животных и растений; факторы окружающей среды; подразделы науки; отрасли биологии; овладеть специальностью.5.2 Complete the sentences1. Biology may be defined as…2. When studying biology we learn the relations of…3. Aristotle was the first who…

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4. All known animal species are grouped into…5. The students of the Biology faculty get training in …

5.3 Match words in the left column with the definitions on the right

1. genetics 1. The scientific study of the formation, structure, and function of cells

2. enthymology 2. The study of the chemical composition of the substances that form living matter and of the chemical processes that go on in living matter

3. cytology 3. The scientific study of the biological processes involved in the transmission of characteristics from an organism to its offspring

4. ornithology 4. The scientific study of fishes 5. biology 5. The scientific study of birds6. biochemistry 6. The scientific study of micro-

organisms 7. microbiology 7. The scientific study of living things

and life processes, including growth, structure, and reproduction

8. ichthiology 8. The scientific study of insects

6. Supplementary reading6.1 Read the text to know more about pedology.

PedologyPedology studies different types of soils. It pays much attention to the

classification, description and appraisal or inventory of soils. Soil science is a biological science, it is closely connected with agrochemistry, microbiology and biochemistry. It is closely connected with geology, geomorphology and climatology as well. Soil science studies pedogenesis or the formation of soils, agrotechnique or the cultivation of soils, the protection of soil erosion, melioration and a number of other problems. The main aim of all pedologists is to enrich soils. A well-known pedologist, Academician Bykovsky and Professor Gladkov wrote: “Our aim is to leave better soils for the succeeding generations”.

The Soil Science Department at Rostov State University was founded by Prof. Zakharov in the early 1920's. Zakharov was a follower and deciple of the well-known pedologist Dokuchayev. At present the Soil Science Department is rather large. More than 100 students and postgraduates study here. The department is headed by Prof.

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Kryshenko. The students of the department must work hard to become qualified specialists. They study the following subjects: history of soil science in Russia and abroad; agrochemistry; the physical analysis of soil; the chemical analysis of soil and some biological subjects. In the department there are two soil laboratories with modern equipment and a soil museum where soil samples from different parts of our country are exposed.

In summer the students of the department usually take practical training. In their first year they take it in the University Botanical Garden. Being in their second year they take part in expeditions sampling and analysing soils in different provinces. After graduating from the university, our students work as soil science engineers or agrochemists at special research institutions and stations.

(Adapted from the Internet sites)

6.2 Read the text to know more about biology.

Signs of LifeBiology is the group of sciences that deal with life in all its forms and functions.

It is necessary to distinguish between living and non-living bodies. The dividing line between the living and non-living is not a very sharp one.

From the view-point of function we can speak of several signs of life. They are responsiveness, nutrition and reproduction.

Responsiveness. All typical organisms are responsive, that is they react to stimulation by chemical agents, such as food, or by physical agents such as light.

Nutrition. All living things take in food from which they obtain matter for growth and energy for movement. In other words, food in the living body can serve not only as fuel, buy also as a raw material for chemical synthesis to provide for maintenance and growth. All the constructive phases of nutrition by which new substances are synthesized and incorporated into the structure of the living body, are absent in all non-living systems.

Production. The most unique characteristic of living bodies is capacity for reproduction. From the smallest bacterium to the mightiest mammal, each living species maintains an unbroken line of descent in order to avoid extinction. The processes of reproduction are extremely complex and delicate even in the simple forms of life

Thus these activities - responsiveness, nutrition and reproduction - are combined in living bodies and can be taken as the main criteria of the living state.

(Adapted from the Internet sites)

6.3 Read the text to know more about the origin of life on Earth.

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At the Cradle of LifeHow did life originate on Earth? Man has been interested in this problem from

time immemorial. Today, taking part in this search are biologists, chemists, biochemists, biophysicists, geophysicists, geologists and even astronomers. Scientists have decided that life originated on Earth as part of general development of nature. Here is what Academician Alexander Oparin has to say on the subject. “It has been established that life has existed on Earth for a much longer time than it was at first assumed. Billions of years went by before the foundations for biological metabolism were formed and the cell – “brick” for everything living was born.”

To discover its beginning is to find out, first of all, whether carbonic compounds used to exist on the pre-biological Earth. At that very far-off time the Earth was enveloped in an atmosphere which lacked oxygen and was composed of gases-amonia, methane and hydrogen and water vapour. Carbon monoxide and other compounds were also present in the atmosphere of the Earth. The solar ionizing irradiation could activate the molecules of carbonic compounds, ionize them and make them capable of reaction. The reactions happened between the substances in the atmosphere and in the primeval ocean on the one hand and the compounds which were located on the surface of the Earth on the other. These reactions gave birth to the simplest compounds which later on became the components of the high-molecular compounds which are included in living organisms. Later on they started to precipitate from the solution in the special colloid form, the so-called coacervate droplets.

The coacervates competed with one another and a sort of struggle for life set in. The best organized coacervates with universal properties won. These high molecular systems and the compounds included in them later on had passed through the whole world of living beings. The same compounds are found in the cells of most varied living organisms.

But coacervate droplets lacked the ability to conduct metabolism, one of the many properties which a living being must possess, and they lacked such properties as changeability - the ability to take on different forms, the simplest form of heredity, and lastly interaction with the environment from which it has to absorb the necessary materials.

How did nature cross this barrier? Science as yet cannot provide a simple answer to this question. Apparently it was some sort of intermediate formation - we call it the probiont.One thing is evident, that nature has pierced this barrier once, so man will be able to reproduce that act in an experiment.

When man learns the biological phenomena of life he will learn also to control them. Putting nature under control people will provide an abundance of food for themselves and will decorate the globe with useful plants. Diseases will become a thing of the past. When they study the past, the scientists think of the future.

(Adapted from the Internet sites)6.4 Read the text to know more about the famous Russian physiologist I.M. Sechenov.

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I.M. SechenovIvan Michailovich Sechenov is the pioneer of physiology in Russia and one of

the greatest scientists. I.M. Sechenov's experimental and theoratical researches are a rich source of inspiration for biologists. These works are the basis on which the physiological schools of Pavlov and Vvedensky - the leading schools of the Soviet Union - have developed.

K.A. Timiriazev, in his book “The Awakening of Natural Sciences in Rissia at the End of the XIXth Century”, gives the following definition of the role played by Sechenov:

“Just as our chemistry was built up by the joint labour of many talented chemists; or our descriptive biology in its modern form can be traced down to Zenkovsky; so does our physiology originate from I.M. Sechenov. This striking personality and brilliant worker is undoubtedly one of the most characteristic figures of this time. No other physiologist possessed such a wide range of scientific achievements in his own personal research, beginning with the purely physical study of the solubility of gases and ending with the analysis of nervous processes and the strictly scientific examination of problems of psychology. In the field of psychology, Sechenov was the same strict logician as in the purely physiological sphere; this brought upon him the displeasure of the psychologists of the old metaphysical turn of mind. Add to this the wonderfully simple and lucid form in which he expressed his thoughts, and you understand the magnitude of his influence upon Russian science and upon intellectual circles far beyond the limits of his immediate audience. Those who were present at the famous first public lecture on the “Reflexes of the Brain” know that this lecture was an event not only in the Medical Academy, but far beyond its walls. Future history will no doubt recognize that no other scientist in Russia has ever had such a wide and happy influence upon Russian science and upon the growth of scientific interests in our society, - not even Sechenov's friend Mendeleyev, of whose scientific merits Sechenov always spoke with sincere admiration.”

(Adapted from the Internet sites)

6.5 For further information on the biographies of the famous scientists and their achievements use Hotlist - Famous Scientists WebQuesthttp://www.kn.sbc.com/wired/fil/pages/webwebquestel.html

7. Discussion Points7.1 Work in groups of 3 - 4. Find information about one of the departments at your

faculty and prepare a poster presentation of it. Include the following topics:- history of the department;- prominent scientists and teachers working at the department, famous graduates;- scientific research carried out by the department fellows.

7.2 Comment on the statements1. Biology is the science of life.

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2. Modern biology is a very broad area of study.3. Biologists have contributed greatly into the world science.4. Graduates from the Biology faculty at Rostov State University become highly

qualified specialists in their branch of science.

CHEMISTRY

1. Before you start1.1 Answer the following questions:1. What do you know about chemistry?2. Is chemistry one of the fundamental sciences?3. Why did you choose to study at the Chemistry faculty?4. What recent advances (achievments) in modern chemistry can you name?

2. Pronunciation2.1 Read and practise the pronunciation of the following words:chemistry catalysis lss biochemistry theoretical organic : manufacture ceramics molecule : molecular certify :pharmacist :qualify

3. Reading3.1 Read the text to know more about chemistry.

ChemistryChemistry is the science concerned with the composition and properties of

matter, changes, the conditions under which such changes take place and the alterations in energy levels which accompany them. A chemical change is a change that takes place in a substance, during which it breaks up into simpler substances or it combines with different properties or characteristics.

Chemistry is concerned with the nature of fire and the structure of water. It deals with colours, catalysis and crystal structure, with physical properties and chemical reactivity. Chemistry is one of the fundamental sciences. It plays an important part in the development of biochemistry, physics, geology and many other fields of science.

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Chemistry has two main aspects: descriptive chemistry (the discovery of chemical facts) and theoretical chemistry (the formation of theories).

The broad field of chemistry may be divided into two branches: organic chemistry and inorganic chemistry. Organic chemistry deals with the compounds of carbon that occur in plants and animals. Inorganic chemistry is concerned with the compounds of elements other than carbon. Each of these branches of chemistry has in part practical and theoretical applications.

Chemistry's origin goes back to ancient times with the manufacturing of bronze, iron, ceramics and glass. At the end of the 16th century newly discovered natural laws, entirely free of magic which surrounded the work of the alchemists, appeared. In the 17th century modern chemistry began with the work of Robert Boyle. He was the first to study the relationship between the volume of a gas and the external pressure upon it. Later A. Lavoisier introduced the concept of chemical elements. In the 19th century A. Avogadro suggested that matter can be studied in units called molecules. He stated that equal volumes of gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules. F.A. Kekule and A.B. Butlerov introduced the structural theory of organic Chemistry.

In 1869 D.I. Mendeleyev made the greatest discovery in the sphere of chemistry. He observed certain patterns and regularities in the composition of matter and from this created the first elemental chart. The achievements in chemistry made it necessary to reconstruct the Periodic Table taking into account new discoveries. This progress resulted in the discovery of the inert gases and the study of 14 rare earth elements. In the last few decades 11 new radioactive elements were obtained. Two of them were named in honour of Russian scientists: the 101st was called Mendelevium and the 104th - Kurchatovium (in memory of Igor Kurchatov).

Many great scientists devoted their lives to the development of chemistry. They were: Bohr, whose theory of the hydrogen atom was very important; the Curies, who in 1934 announced the preparation of radio-active elements; Marie Curie who alone discovered radium and the element polonium.

Russian chemists also made great contributions to the world of science. Among them were the outstanding Russian chemists M.V. Lomonosov, D.I. Mendeleyev, A.M. Butlerov, N.N. Semenov, N.D. Zelinsky and many others.

Academician N.N. Semenov has made great discoveries in the field of chain reactions. He has formulated the theory of chemical chains and branched reactions. N.D. Zelinsky's works have formed the basis for the synthesis of a large number of new compounds. A team of researchers has evolved a new method of extracting phenol and aceton from benzene and propylene.

Chemistry is so much a part of our lives that it is very easily taken for granted. Metals, glasses, plastics, dyes, insecticides, paints, paper, soap and perfumes are all made of chemicals.

The Faculty of Chemistry at Rostov State University has six departments: the Department of General and Inorganic Chemistry, the Department of Analytical

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Chemistry, the Department of Organic Chemistry, the Department of Physical and Colloid Chemistry, the Department of Electrochemistry and the Department of Chemistry of Nature and Higher Molecular Compounds.

Students also major in solid state chemistry, environmental control, chemical strength of materials and food inspections.

Graduates of this faculty can do research in the fields of analysis and synthesis of organic compounds, oxidation and environmental protection. They are certified as professional chemists, pharmacists and are qualified to teach chemistry.

(Adapted from the Internet sites)

3.2 What new information about chemistry have you learnt from the text you have read?

4. Comprehension check4.1 Answer the questions:1. What does chemistry study?2. What is a chemical change?3. How many aspects does chemistry have?4. What branches may chemistry be divided into?5. What does organic chemistry deal with?6. What is inorganic chemistry concerned with?7. Who made the greatest discovery in the sphere of chemistry?8. What new radioactive elements were obtained lately?9. How many departments are there at the Faculty of Chemistry at Rostov State

University?

4.2 Agree or disagree with the following statements:1. A chemical change is a change that takes place in a substance.2. Nowadays chemistry no longer plays the leading part in the development of science

and technology.3. The broad field of chemistry may be divided into four main branches.4. Chemistry's origin goes back to ancient times with the manufacturing of gold.5. In the 19th century N.D. Zelinsky suggested that matter can be studied in units called

molecules.6. Metals, glass, plastics, drugs are all made of chemicals.

5. Vocabulary5.1 Give English equivalents of the following words and word combinations:иметь дело (рассматривать); состав; свойства вещества; условия; иметь место (происходить); природа огня; важная роль; развитие; два главных аспекта; ветвь (отрасль); древние времена; бронза; железо; современная химия; зависимость; внешнее давление; предполагать; структурная теория; величайшее открытие;

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периодическая таблица элементов; посвятить свою жизнь; делать вклад; воспринимать как должное.

5.2 Match the parts of the sentences:

1. Chemistry is the science dealing with a) to ancient times.

2. Chemistry is concerned with b) descriptive chemistry and theoretical chemistry.

3. Chemistry has two main aspects: c) the greatest discovery in the sphere of chemistry.

4. Chemistry’s origin goes back d) with the work of Robert Boyle.5. In the 17th century modern chemistry

begane) the composition and properties of

matter.6. In 1869 D.I. Mendeleyev made f) the nature of fire and the structure of

water.

5.3 Complete the sentences:1. Chemistry is the science dealing with …2. A chemical change is a change …3. Chemistry is concerned with …4. It plays an important part in the development of …5. Chemistry's origin goes back to …6. Robert Boyle was the first to study …7. D.I. Mendeleyev observed certain patterns and regularities in the …8. Academician N.N. Semenov has made great discoveries in the …

5.4 Fill in the gaps with the words and word combinations from the text:1. Chemistry deals with …, … and crystal structure.2. Chemistry is one of the … sciences.3. The broad field of chemistry may be divided into two …: … chemistry and …

chemistry.4. Organic chemistry deals with the compounds of … that occur in plants and animals.5. In 1869 D.I. Mendeleyev made … … in the sphere of chemistry.6. The achievements in chemistry made it necessary to … the Periodic Table.7. In the last few decades 11 new … … were obtained.8. Many great … devoted their lives to the development of chemistry.9. A group of researchers has evolved a new method of … phenol and aceton from

benzene and propylene.

6. Supplementary reading6.1 Read the text to know more about Melvin Calvin.

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Melvin CalvinMelvin Calvin was born in St Paul, Minnesota on April 8, 1911. He was the son

of Jewish emigrants from Russia. Growing up, Calvin was fascinated with chemistry. This early interest in chemistry led him to a major in chemistry at Michigan College of Mining and Technology. While attending graduate school at the University of Minnesota, he studied the electron affinity of various halogens. He completed his doctorate in chemistry in 1935. In 1937, Calvin became an instructor of chemistry at Berkeley in California. There his interest turned to general theoretical aspects of organic molecular structure and behavior. Calvin's career at Berkeley was briefly interrupted when he worked for four years on goverment science projects during World War II. He also worked on the Manhattan project that developed the atomic bomb. Melvin Calvin was married to Genevieve Jemtegard, the daughter of Norwegian emigrant parents. They had two daughters, Elvin and Katole, and one son, Noel.

Throughout his prestigious career, Calvin wrote over 500 scientific papers and was the author of seven books. In 1946, Melvin Calvin became the director of the bio-organic chemistry group in the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory at Berkeley. Calvin became interested in photosynthesis during his studies with Professor Michael Polany, and his work in photosynthesis earned him the 1961 Nobel Prize in chemistry. In addition to the Nobel Prize Calvin received six honorary degrees and many awards including the Sugar Research Foundation Prize, the Gold medal of the American Institute of Chemists and the National Medal of Science. Calvin was a member of many prestigious science organizations, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the National Academy of Sciences among them.

Calvin retired from his work at Berkeley in 1980. However, he continued his research for many years after. He died on January 8, 1997, at the age of 85 after several years of declining health.

(Adapted from the Internet sites)

6.2 Read the text to know more about photosynthesis.

PhotosynthesisPhotosynthesis is defined as the production of complex organic materials,

especially carbohydrates from carbon dioxide, water, and inorganic salts, using sunlight as the source of energy and with the aid of chlorophyll and associated pigments.

Photosynthesis occurs in leaves and in the green stems of plants. Each cell in a plant leaf has 40 or 50 chloroplasts, divided by thylokods which contain molecules of chlorophyll, the pigment that traps light for photosynthesis. The process of photosynthesis is divided into two stages: the light-depended reaction and the light-independent reaction. Melvin Calvin's work focused primarily on the light-independent reaction.

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This process involves carbon dioxide entering plant through the pores in the leaves diffusing through the cell into the chloroplast, and scattering in the stroma. In the stroma, the light-independent reaction takes place. This reaction is also called the Calvin cycle in honour of the man who explained it. During the experiment, he found that when he removed the light source over the plants, some of the cells continued to be active. As a result of this discovery, he deduced that part of the process was not dependent on light. Using ion-exchange chratography, he found that the primary compound was the three-carbon compound.

Photosynthesis plays a very important role in evolution. One of the first organisms of earth was the cyanobacteria. It carried out photosynthesis and evolved into more complex organisms. In order for animals to develop, plants had to be established. Animals are unable to produce glucose for energy so they must obtain it from plants. A by-product of photosynthesis is the oxygen that animals breathe. Thus, without photosynthesis, life on earth would cease to exist. Virtually every organism on earth is dependent on photosynthesis in one way or another. Because of these vital uses, photosynthesis is one of the most important processes on the earth.

(Adapted from the Internet sites)

6.3 Read the text to know more about Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier.

Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier(1743-1794)

Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier was born in the family of a wealthy Parisian lawyer. He completed a law degree in accordance with family wishes. But his real interest was in science. On the basis of his earliest scientific work, he was elected in 1768 to the Academy of Science, France's most elite scientific society. A few years later he married Marie-Anne Picrette Paulze. Madam Lavoisier prepared herself to be her husband's scientific collaborator by learning English to translate the work of British chemists.

In 1775 Lavoisier was appointed a commissioner of the Royal Gunpowder and Saltpetre Administration and took up residence in the Paris Arsenal. There he equipped a fine laboratory. He succeeded in producing more and better gunpowder, by increasing the supply and ensuring the purity of the constituents-saltpetre, sulfur, charcoal as well as by improving the methods of granulating the powder.

Characteristic of Lavoisier's chemistry was his systematic determination of the weights of reagents and products involved in chemical reactions including the gaseous components. Among his contributions to chemistry were the understanding of combustion and respiration as caused by chemical reactions with the part of the air he called “oxygen”, and his definitive proof by composition and decomposition that water is made up of oxygen and hydrogen. These names are still used today. These terms expressed the theory that oxygen was the acidifying principle. He considered thirty-three substances as "elements" by his definition, and substances that chemical analyses had failed to break down into simpler entities. Among these substances was “caloric”-

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the unweighable substance of heat, light, that caused other substances to expand when it was added to them.

To propogate his ideas, in 1789 he published a textbook on chemistry, Traite elementaire de chimie, and began a journal, Annales de Chimie, which carried research reports about the new chemistry almost exclusively.

Lavoisier took an active part in all political and social events, leading to the French Revolution. But, despite his eminence and his services to science and France, he came under attack and was guillotined in 1794.

(Adapted from the Internet sites)

6.4 For further information on the biographies of the famous scientists and their achievements use Hotlist - Famous Scientists WebQuesthttp://www.kn.sbc.com/wired/fil/pages/webwebquestel.html

7. Discussion Points7.1 Work in groups of 3 - 4. Find information about one of the departments at your

faculty and prepare a poster presentation of it. Include the following topics:- history of the department;- prominent scientists and teachers working at the department, famous graduates;- scientific research carried out by the department fellows.

7.2 Comment on the statements:1. Chemistry is the science concerned with the composition and properties of matter.2. A chemical change is a change that takes place in a substance.3. Chemistry is one of the fundamental sciences.4. The broad field of chemistry can be divided into two branches: organic chemistry and

inorganic chemistry.5. Chemistry's origin goes back to ancient times.6. D.I. Mendeleyev made the greatest discovery in the sphere of chemistry.7. The achievements in chemistry made it necessary to reconstruct the Periodic Table. 8. Many great scientists devoted their life to the development of chemistry.

GEOSCIENCES

1. Before you start1.1 Answer the following questions:1. Do you like studying at the Geology and Geography faculty? Why?2. Why did you choose to study at the Geology and Geography faculty?3. What geosciences do you know? What are they concerned with?

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4. What particular areas of geosciences are you interested in?5. Are geosciences important nowadays? Why?

2. Pronunciation2.1 Read and practise the following words:

biogeography [ d grf]oceanography [ grf]geophysics [ d(:) fz]geochemistry [ d(:) ]geology [d ]geography [d f]variety [ ]inquiry [ k]successive [() ]microstructure [ ]to minimize [ ]abundance [ ()]measurement [ ]earth’s crust [ : kr]hazardous waste [ ]technique [ :]analysis [ ]

3. Reading3.1 Read the text to know more about geosciences.

GeosciencesThe geosciences embrace a wide variety of well-defined scientific disciplines –

specially developed avenues of precise inquiry into the nature of the Earth. They are geography, geology, seismology, volcanology, oceanography, tectonics, geomagnetism and others.

Geography is one of the most ancient sciences on the earth. It's a science about the earth's surface, physical features, divisions, climate, products, population, etc.

Nowadays geography becomes more and more important in the human activities. Modern geography is represented by the system of interconnected sciences which have their own objects and methods of research. It takes a lot from physics and chemistry, biology and geology, sociology and other sciences. The most important task for geography is understanding the relationships between nature and sociology. Geography is a long established academic discipline with its own unique field of interest, philosophy, methodology and continually expanding research frontier. Students may choose an area of concentration from the following: physical geography,

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biogeography, economic geography, political geography, historical geography, population distribution, ecological geography, general geography.

Physical geography deals with the problems of the earth's crust, water basins (lakes, rivers, seas, and oceans) soils and natural resources. This branch also studies coastal areas and the impact that human beings have on them.

Biogeography includes geography of microorganisms, plants and animals.Economic geography focuses on the study of population distribution, change

and migration. It also investigates the problem of domestic and foreign economics and the prudent use of natural resources.

Recreational geography is concerned with tourism, its history and recreational resources.

Ecological geography researches problems of air, water, soil pollution, climatic change, hazardous wastes, sedimentology in seas and oceans.

General geography studies the earth's surface and how it has been changed by human activity, climate and global factors. In addition geography as an art is expressed in the natural landscape. We can hardly imagine a progress in the world without geosciences.

Geology is the study of the planet Earth too, and is concerned with the origin and development of the Earth, the materials of which it is made up, with the structure of both the surface and the interior of the planet. It deals with the living things, the agencies and processes which are continually altering it, which actively shape its surface features, also with weather and climate, mineral resources. Geology has several branches: mineralogy, structural geology, paleontology, historical geology, physical geology and others. Physical geology deals with the materials of the earth, earth-crust movements, the structure of the earth, the agencies by which the earth has been modified for many millions of years. Historical geology studies the records of the successive events of the earth’s history and evolutionary changes of the organisms which have lived upon the earth. Mineralogy is concerned with minerals, their comparative study, and crystal structure of minerals, their chemical composition and physical properties. Oil and Gas geology studies the identification of oil-gas regions, oil and gas potential of submarine zones, methods of quantitative prediction of hydrocarbons. Paleontology deals with prehistoric man and traces of his activity, colonization of land by plants and animals, microstructural and chemical analyses of fossils.

Geology is vitally important to mankind in many ways. Many of the Earth’s major resources are found in the rocks or within the Earth. These include mineral, energy, water resourses. The geologists have an important role in exploration and production of these resourses and in minimizing damage to the environment.

Seismology includes wave motions in the Earth, natural origin of cataclysmic energy, gases released in earthquakes.

Volcanology and petrology are the analytical sciences of rocks and other volcanic products, their origin involving physics and chemistry of their formations,

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abundances of terrestrial elements; it studies the role of magma in the formation of continental rocks and evolution of magmatic and metamorphic processes.

Geochemistry focuses on physics-chemical analysis and observation of geological processes, origin and evolution of Solar system, types of meteorites.

Oceanography embraces the whole science of the oceans and their underlying basins.

Tectonics involves internal forces; it deals with movements and shifting structure underlying the origin of hills, valleys, oceans and surface irregularities; it investigates principles of tectonic zonation of continents, mathematical models of tectonic processes, continental and oceanic rift systems.

Initially we thought of geosciences as relating solely to the Earth. But within the past decades, with advent of space travel the prefix “geo” has been extended to the Moon and the planets as well. Access to the variations of planetary history, of sedimentation, of interior structure in various planets and their composition and radioactivity foretells very rapid development of a new field of geosciences – geophysics. It deals with seismic zonation, methods of prediction of seismic activity, modeling and interpretation of geological data by geophysical methods. Through cooperative efforts of thousands of men, geophysicists were able to occupy the whole Antarctic continent for wide varieties of surveys and measurements. The whole Earth becomes a laboratory of the geophysicists.

All the aforementioned geosciences are offered within the Geology and Geography Faculty. Specialized techniques and approaches include problem-oriented thinking, data collection theory, field experience, gathering, map analysis and design, report production and presentation.

3.2 What new facts about geoscience have you learned from the text?

4. Comprehension check4.1 Answer the questions:1. What kind of science is geography?2. What other sciences are closely connected with geography?3. What branches of geography do you know?4. What does physical geography deal with?5. What does economic geography investigate?6. What is recreational geography connected with?7. What does general geography study?8. What kind of science is geology?9. How many branches is geology divided into?10. What other geosciences do you know?

4.2 Agree or disagree with the following statesments:1. Geosciences can be connected only with our planet Earth.

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2. The most important task of geography is understanding the relations between the earth and space.

3. Physical geography deals with microorganisms, plants animals and their habitat.4. Geography and geology are the sciences which have much in common.5. Volcanology and tectonics study the same things: volcanic products.6. Geophysics is a new field of geosciences with its own object of investigation and

methods.7. Specialized techniques and approaches are used to train students at the faculty of

Geology and Geography.8. Geosciences have always been very important in our country.

5. Vocabulary5.1 Give English equivalents to the following Russian words and word combinations:древняя наука; земная поверхность; физические черты рельефа; население; методы исследования; взаимоотношения между природой и обществом; уникальная сфера; земная кора; водный бассейн; почва; природные ресурсы; отрасль; прибрежные области; осадконакопление; исследовать; опасные отходы; факторы и процессы; химический состав; физические свойства; происхождение; останки ископаемых; предсказывать; окружающая среда; исследование; земные элементы; быстрое развитие; поиск и измерение; методы и подходы; проблемное мышление; данные и статистика.

5.2 Fill in the gaps with the words and word combinations from the text:1. Geography is one of the … sciences on the earth.2. Students can choose the … from the following geosciencees: geography, geology,

oceanography and others.3. Ecological geography … with environmental problems.4. Geology is the study of our planet, … and interior of the earth.5. Oil and gas geology studies … of gas and oil regions.6. Geology is … important to … in many ways.7. The geologists have a great role in … of natural reources.8. Many of the … are found in the rocks within the earth.9. Oceanography … the whole science of the oceans and their underlying basins.

5.3 Complete the sentences:1. Modern geography is represented by…2. General geography studies… 3. Physical geography deals with…4. Geology is concerned with …5. Geology has several branches such as…6. Paleontology deals with …7. Seismology includes …

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8. Tectonics involves …9. The whole Earth becomes …10. Geosciences are very important today, because …

6. Supplementary reading6.1 Read the text to know more about sources and types of energy.

Signs of Progress Fossil fuels are sources of energy that are buried under the ground: coal, oil and

natural gas. They are non-renewable fuels, originating from organic matter of the late Paleozoic Era and estimated by most scientists to run out during this century. When coal, gas and oil supplies are depleted, how will people see to read? What will power their cars, buses, trains? What will provide electricity for their computers and factories?

Some renewable energy sources are well known and already in wide use. The World Energy Council has identified six sources of energy to pursue as alternatives to non-renewable fossil fuels: solar (energy from the sun’s rays), wind (energy from moving air), geothermal (energy from heat inside the earth), modern biomass (energy from plant and animal residue), ocean (energy from seawater movement and temperature changes), small hydroelectric (energy from small dams, such as those filled by melting snow).

Ultimately, almost all energy comes from the sun. The energy stored in coal, oil and gas is the result of photosynthesis carried by plants that lived hundreds of millions of years ago. Wind energy is actually the movements of the atmosphere driven by the heat from the sun. Currently solar energy is used two ways: for heat (thermal) and to generate electricity (photovoltaic). Solar rays can be directly thermal in two ways: actively as can be seen in the thousands of rooftop water heaters and passively with proper design of homes and buildings. Improvement of solar panels continues to make this technology more applicable, especially for developing countries. Increased efficiency of converting sunlight to electricity, using thin film silicon panels or copper indium thin film, has been an ongoing goal of several manufacturers of solar energy technology.

As alternative to non-renewable energy sources, modern biomass may have the greatest potential for growth, especially in transportation and powering vehicles, for example, Brazil has been a leading nation in the use of ethanol (alcohol-based fuel) for automobiles. Biomass also looks promising as a fuel source for electricity if it is burned in small, local power stations.

The use of wind energy is growing faster than any other type of renewable energy, because of improvements in wind turbine technology over the past 20 years. The best locations for wind as energy source are coasts, mountains, and plains. Most of the world’s generation capacity is located in the USA, Denmark (the pioneer in wind generation), the Netherlands, Germany, and India.

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Geothermal energy, or heat from the earth in the form of steam, has been used for many years for heating buildings. Geothermal energy is renewable only if the water that brings the heat to the surface as steam is replenished. A recent application of geothermal heating is greenhouses. For example, a large flower-growing operation in the state of new Mexico uses geothermal energy to heat over 10 hectares of greenhouses in the winter so that roses will be available for sale during major holidays in February (Valentine’s Day), March or April (Easter), and May (Mother’s Day).

Other renewable sources of energy, such as hydrogen-powered cars, are not yet sufficiently developed to meet the growing world demand for energy. But clearly, the production of vast amounts of energy using technology that exploits renewable sources will be needed as the world enters the inevitable post-fossil fuel future.

(English Teaching “Forum”, October, 2002)

6.2 Read the text to learn more about ecology and its problems.

Ecology Ecology (from the greek oikos, “home”, and logos, “to study”) is the scientific

study of the interaction between organisms and their environments. The environment includes abiotic factors, such as temperature, light, water, and

nutrients. Just as important in their effects on organisms are biotic factors - the other organisms that are past of any individual’s environment.

Organisms are affected by their environment, but by their very presence and activities, they also change it - often dramatically. Through their metabolism, microorganisms in a lake at night reduce the oxygen and lower the pH of the lake. Trees reduce light levels on the floor of the forest as they grow some times making the environment unsuitable for their own offspring. Throughout our survey of ecology, we’ll see many more examples of how organisms and their environments affect one another.

Acid rain localized famine aggravated by land misuse and population growth, the growing list of species, extinct or endangered because of habitat destruction, and the poisoning of soil and streams with toxic wastes are just a few problems that threaten the home we share with millions of other forms of life. The science of ecology provides the necessary background for us to understand these problems and to solve them.

Ecology is the study of the distribution and abundance of organisms. The questions of ecology are extremely wide-ranging. What factors determine where species are found, and what factors control their numbers in those locations? Specific aspects of these general questions we can find in different levels of organization in ecology. They are organismal ecology, the population, a community, the ecosystem.

Organismal ecology (sometimes called physiological ecology) is concerned with the behavioral, physiological, and morphological ways in which individual organisms meet the challenges posed by physiochemical aspects of the environment.

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The organism’s limits of tolerance for environmental stressors ultimately determine where it can live.

The next level of organization in ecology is the population, a group of individuals in a particular geographic area that belong to the same species. Population ecology concentrates mainly on factors that affect population size and composition.

A community consists of all the organisms that inhabit a particular area; it is an assemblage of populations of different species. Questions at this level of analysis involve the ways in which predation, competition, and other interactions among organisms affect community structure and organization.

A level of ecological study even more inclusive than the community is the ecosystem, which includes all the abiotic factors in addition to the community of species that exists in a certain area. Some critical questions at the ecosystem level concern energy flow and the cycling of chemical within and among various biotic and abiotic components.

Human population growth is based on the same general parameters that influence on the other animal and plant population: birth rate and death rate. Usually population stay relatively constant, on the other hand, it continues to expand and no one knows how long this can continue. In the meantime, the human population puts pressure on the biosphere and produces pollutants that influence on the environment.

Many territories, water basins, lakes, rivers, seas, oceans, and the atmosphere are polluted with all kinds of technological, agricultural, chemical nuclear and other wastes. The intensive development of sciences, industry and chemistry in the 20 th

century has made the pollution of our environment a global problem which should be solved by all means.

All of us must remember the wise advice of a great English writer John Galsworthy who said: “If you don’t think about the future you will not have it”.

(Adapted from the Internet sites)

Nuclear power and nuclear wastesNuclear (or atomic) energy comes from the energy stored within the nuclei of

atoms. The energy produced from nuclear reactions is known as radiation.There are several arguments for using nuclear power as a source of energy. First,

the earth contains a limited supply of fossil fuels.Second, fossil fuels are very harmful to environment. Nuclear power does not

add to the greenhouse effect.Third, the earth contains a large supply of natural uranium. Nuclear power

could, theoretically, supply all the world’s energy needs for thousands (and possibly millions) of years.

Fourth, nuclear power comes to the consumer as electricity, which is clean and convenient from energy.

However, there are many reasons why nuclear power is not the best source of energy. First, there is the danger of nuclear war. Thankfully, nuclear power has not been

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used for destructive purposes since World War II. The next nuclear war would probably destroy the world as we know it.

Second, even “peaceful” nuclear power is a danger to health. The radiation released when atoms split causes cancer and birth defects. Many survivors of the atomic bomb explosions in Hiroshima and Nagasaki later died of cancer, and women gave birth to deformed babies. Nuclear power stations are a potential source of this harmful radiation. The massive radiation leak from Chernobyl in the Soviet Union in 1986 was caused by a fire in the reactor. People living in or near Chernobyl developed cancers.

Third, there are the problems of nuclear reprocessing and nuclear wastes. Impurities build up within the core of a nuclear reactor and stop working efficiently. These impurities are highly radioactive and dangerous to health. They must be stored deep underground in steel or concrete boxes. Eventually, they will decay into stable elements, but this takes a long time. Plutonium-239, which is the most toxic man-made substance in the world, has half-life of 24,000 years - that is, it takes 24,000 years to lose half of its radioactivity. There is no easy or permanent method of disposing of radioactive waste.

A few years ago, many of us thought that nuclear power was the easy answer to the world’s energy problems. It was, we thought, a clean, modern and efficient way to generate almost unlimited amounts of electricity. But today’s nuclear power will be tomorrow’s radioactive waste. We cannot make radioactive waste safe; we can only bury it and try to forget about it. It will be a problem for our children, our children’s children and many generations after them.

6.2 For further information about the biographies of the famous scientists and their achievements use Hotlist - Famous Scientists WebQuest http://www.kn.sbc.com/wired/fil/pages/webwebquestel.html

7. Discussion points7.1 Work in groups of 3 - 4. Find information about one of the departments at your

faculty and prepare a poster presentation of it. Include the following topics:- history of the department;- prominent scientists and teachers working at the department, famous graduates;- the scientific research carried out by the department fellows.

7.2 Comment on the statements:1. There is no progress in the world without geosciences.2. Geography is an important academic discipline at the Geology and Geography

faculty.3. Geology embraces the whole science about the Earth.4. Scientists of the whole world try to find some renewable sources of energy.5. Ecology is one of the most important sciences in the world.6. The problem of nuclear wastes has been a very acute concern for the last 20 years.

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7. The Geology and Geography faculty is the best place to study at.

7.3 Find some information on the Internet to make a presentation at the student conference on ecology on one of the problems listed below:- air pollution;- water pollution;- depletion of the ozone layer;- acid rains;- greenhouse effect;- urban expansion;- soil conservation;- industrial pollution;- the destruction of the rainforests;- non-renewable energy resources and the future.

8. Check yourself

Do you know what these words and phrases mean?- fossil fuels;- non-renewable fuels;- greenhouses;- environment;- famine;- birth/death rate;- ecosystem;- pollution;- extinct species;- habital;- to store energy;- nuclear wastes;- to bury;- to supply.

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