Biology EOI

Review

P.A.S.S. Objectives

Biological Diversity

C3.1, C3.2, P2.1, P2.2

Classification

•Developed by Carolus Linneaus in 1730s•Based on physical & structural similarities•Today, includes evolutionary relationships

Divisions

Three Domains:• Archaea• Bacteria• Eukarya

Four Eukarya Kingdoms:• Protist• Fungi• Plant • Animal

Domain: Archaea

• Characteristics– Prokaryotic– Unicellular– Live in extreme

environments

Domain: Bacteria

• Characteristics– Prokaryotic– Unicellular– Most habitats

Eukarya Kingdom: Protists

• Characteristics– Eukaryotic– Unicellular and

multicellular– Can be autotrophic or

heterotrophic

Eukarya Kingdom: Fungi

• Characteristics– Eukaryote– Unicellular or

multicellular– Absorbs nutrients from

environment

Eukarya Kingdom: Plants

• Characteristics– Eukaryotic– Autotrophic– Multicellular– Contains chloroplast

and cell walls

Eukarya Kingdom: Animals

• Characteristics– Eukaryotic– Multicellular– Heterotrophs

Classification Rankings

*Domain

Kingdom* Phylum

Class

* Order» Family

» Genus

» Species

*Daring

Kings * Play

Chess

* On» Fiber

» Glass

» Stools

Genus and Species

• Genus is the first name of an organism. The genus is always capitalized such as

• Killer whale : Orca orca

• Species is the 2nd name of an organism. The species is always all lower case such as for human: Homo sapien

Review Question

• Which of the three taxons below contains the other three?– A. Phylum– B. Species– C. Genus– D. Order

Review Question

• The system of assigning two names to identify an organism is called bionomial nomenclature. The first name corresponds to an organism’s– A. Family– B. Kingdom– C. Species– D. Genus

Review Question

• Upon examining samples of water and mud from a nearby river, you come across an unidentified organism. Closer observation indicates that the organism is unicellular and autotrophic. In addition, you can identify a membrane-bound nucleus within the cell. To what kingdom dose this organism most likely belong?– A. Archaea– B. Fungi– C. Protist– D. Bacteria

Measurements and Graphs

P.A.S.S. Objectives

Science Processes & Inquiry

P3.5

Measurements

• Mass

• Volume

• Length

• Temperature

Mass: amount of matter in an object

• Units – grams (g)• Tool – Balance

• Tool -Digital Balance

Tool -Triple Beam Balance

How to read a Triple Beam Balance• Add the numbers from each mass located on

each beam to find the total mass in grams.

Length: measurement of distance between two points

• Units – Meter (m)• Unit - Centimeter (cm)• Unit - Millimeter (mm)

• Tool – Ruler• Tool - Tape measure• Tool – Meter stick

Volume: amount of space an object occupies

• Unit – Liters (L)• Unit – Milliliters (mL)

– Used for liquids

• Unit – cubic centimeter– Used for solids with the

formula (L x W x H)

• Tools– Graduated Cylinder– Pipette (for small liquids)– Tool for solid object is

based type of solid

How to Read a Graduated Cylinder

• Look at the bottom of the curve, called the meniscus, on a flat surface to obtain a proper measurement.

Temperature: amount of kinetic energy of an object

• Units – degrees Celsius

– °C

• Tool – Thermometer

• Kinetic energy is energy in motion. As the temperature increase, the kinetic energy of an object increases.

Density: amount of matter in a given volume

• Density = mass/volume– g/mL or grams per milliliter– Very important measurement for identifing

different objects in the biosphere and beyond

• Population density = the number of organisms in an area– Pop. Density = # of organisms/ area of land

Measurement Prefixes: words in place of numerical values

|_micro-__|_______|_______|__milli-__|_centi-__|_deci-__|__Base__|__Deka- |_Hecto-_|_Kilo-_| 1/1000000 1/1000 1/100 1/10 Unit (1) 10X 100X 1000X 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 10 0 101 102 103 (0.000001) (0.001) (0.01)

P.A.S.S. Objective: P1.3

Conversion of measurements

1. Change 1 meter into centimeters:

1 m X 100 cm = 100 cm 1 m

2. Change 5 cm to microns (micrometers):

5 cm X 1 m X 1 x 106 µm = 5 x 104 µm 100 cm 1 m

P.A.S.S. Objective: P1.3

P.A.S.S. Objectives

Science Processes & Inquiry

P3.1, P3.2, P3.4, P4.4, P4.5, P6.1, P6.2

Steps to the Scientific Method

• State a Problem (in the form of a question)• Research background information• State a testable hypothesis (an educated

guess)• Set-up a controlled experiment• Collect and analyze data• Conclusion (either null or accepted)• Re-work hypothesis, if null conclusion

Experiment Set-Up

• Independent Variable – what causes a change; the one item different in experimental set ups.

• Dependent Variable – what changes or the results of the change if any; what is measured.

• Constant – factors that are kept the same in both groups.

• Control – the experimental set up that is not receiving the Independent Variable; what might be considered “normal” conditions.

Example of the Scientific Method

• Problem: Does Raid or Black Flag kill ants better?• Read the can labels & look for chemical differences.• If Raid contains chemical “X” then it will kill more ants

than Black Flag (BF).• 3 sets of ten black ants, all under the same

environmental conditions: 1 is given a 1 second blast of Raid; 1 is given a 1 second blast of BF; and the 3rd is left alone (control)

• In the Raid container, 8 of 10 ants died; In the BF container, 7 of 10 ants died; In the control, 2 of 10 ants died

• Conclusion: Both products seem to work about the same on black ants.

Experiment Set-Up: Types of Experimental Data

• Qualitative data: data that does NOT require a numerical value such as color, smell, texture.

• PASS Objectives: P4.2, P4.6, P4.7

• Quantitative data: data does require a numerical value and an unit usually a measurement. Examples include the number of organisms, length of object, or temperature of the ecosystem.

Review Question

• A sound experiment will test a hypothesis by the process of– A. collecting information under varied

conditions.– B. collecting information under controlled

conditions.– C. observing phenomena under varied

conditions.– D. asking questions under varied conditions.

Review Question

• Information gathered from an investigation is called data and can be expressed– A. as verbal, written or numerical information.– B. only in a graph or table.– C. as a hypothesis or a theory.– D. as a peer-reviewed journal article.

Graphs: PASS P4.3 & P4.8

Making a graph

• 1. Write a title.

• Independent v. Dependent

• 2. Create X & Y axis

• 3. Label the axis

• 4. Determine the

units for each axis

• 5. Graph the data

Graph Set-Up

• Independent Variable on the x-axis– Label (should include units)

• Dependent Variable on the y-axis– Label (should include units)

• Title– Y vs. X

• Key – optional to the presenter

Line Graphs

• Shows a relationship between the two variables

• Positive Relationship:When one variable increases, as does the other

• Negative RelationshipWhen one variable increases, the other decreases

Line Graphs

• Single line graph shows change over time.

• Multiple line graphs can also show comparisons.

Bar Graph or Histograms• Shows comparisons.

Circle or Pie Chart

• Graph that shows the percentage of each variable

THE CELLOrganelles, DNA, and Genetics

P.A.S.S. Objectives

The Cell

C1.1

Unless indicated otherwise

Cell Organelles

Nucleus• Function:

– Cell’s Control Center

– Eukaryotic Cells

– Plant and Animal Cells

– Not found in Prokaryotic Cells

– Location of DNA and RNA

Nucleolus

Cell Membrane• Function

– Major part of controlling homeostasis

• Lets material in and out to maintain balance

• Located in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

• Consist of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.

Cell Membrane• Homeostasis is the

maintaining of a constant internal environment

• Phospholipids are fatty molecules which consist of two layers.

• Proteins are used for ACTIVE and PASSIVE transport.

Cell Wall• Function

– Supports and protects the cell which contains cellulose

• Located in– Eukaryotic Cells and

some Prokaryotic Cells

– Plants ONLY in Eukaryotic Cells

– Bacterium have cell walls

Cytoplasm• Function

– Provides internal structure for the cell

– Located in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

– Cytosol is the solution that fills the cytoplasm

• Function– Site where proteins

are produced

• Located– Both prokaryotic and

eukaryotic cells– Plant and animal cells

AKA rRNA

Mitochondria

• Function– “Powerhouse of the

cell”

– Location of cellular respiration that produces energy (ATP)

– Found in eukaryotic cells

– Found in plants and animals

Chemical Reactions:Composed to three parts

• 1. Reactants:

• The ingredients that make a reaction possible.

• 2. Yield arrow or sign

• always points AWAY from reactants.

• 3. Products:

• The products are the results of a reaction

• 2. Yield arrow or sign

• always points TOWARD products.

Cellular Respiration

Cellular Respiration

Glucose + oxygen → water +

carbon dioxid

e + energy

Cellular Respiration Facts• Requires food (glucose) and oxygen

(ingredients)

• Produces carbon dioxide and water (results)

• Releases energy in the form of ATP (result)

• Reaction is completed in the mitochondria and cytoplasm of the cell

Chloroplast

• Function– Produces food in the

form of glucose

– Site of photosynthesis

– Eukaryotic Cells

– Plant Cells ONLY

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis

water + carbon dioxid

e + energy → G

lucose + oxygen

T

he opposite of C

ellular R

espira

tion!

Photosynthesis Facts

• Requires light (energy), water, carbon dioxide (ingredients)

• Produces oxygen and food (glucose) (results)

• Processed in the chloroplast in the components called the thylakoid and stroma.

Photosynthesis FactsTwo Reactions

• Light-dependent reaction occurs in the thylakoid membrane.

• Light-independent reaction occurs in the solution filled area called the stroma

Review Question

• Chromosomes are produced in what part of the eukaryotic cell?– A. Cell wall– B. Nucleus– C. Ribosome– D. Vacuole

Diffusion• Movement of particles across a membrane

• Movement from high concentration to low concentration makes a concentration gradient.

• Osmosis – diffusion of water by way of the plasma membrane due to a concentration gradient.

Osmotic Solutions

Solution Inside the

Cell

Outside the Cell

Net Flow

Hypotonic Low Water

High Molecules

High Water

Low Molecules

INTO THE CELL

Hypertonic High Water

Low Molecules

Low Water

High Molecules

OUT OF THE CELL

Isotonic Equal Concentration of

water and molecules

Equal Concentration of

water and molecules

INTO AND OUT AT THE SAME RATE

SWELLINGNO CHANGESHRINKING

Active Transport

• Active Transport: movement of molecules or compounds across a barrier against the concentration gradient with the use of energy such as ATP

http://image.tutorvista.com/content/biomembranes/active-transport-stages.jpeg

Active Transport

Review Question

• If a cell contains a ten percent concentration of salt and is surrounded by water that also contains a ten percent concentration of salt, which of the following will occur?– A. Water will leave the cell only.– B. Water will enter the cell only.– C. Water will enter and leave the cell at same

rate– D. The cell will die.

Review Question

• Active transport of materials through a membrane against a concentration gradient requires– A. a carrier protein and energy.– B. energy only.– C. an isotonic solution.– D. a carrier protein only.

Classification of Cells

• Eukaryotic vs. Prokaryotic

– Eukaryotes – has a nucleus and membrane bound organelles, complex

– Prokaryotes – do not have a nucleus, simple

Classification of Cells– Eukaryotes – – 1. Contains a

nucleus– 2. Contains

membrane- bound

organelles– 3. Complex in

design

Classification of Cells

– Prokaryotes – do not have a nucleus, simple in design

• Unicellular vs. Multicellular

– Unicellular – one cell

– Multicellular – multiple cells

Amoeba

Worm

• Animal Cell

• 1. Contains lysosomes

• 2. Does not contain cell wall & chloroplast

• Plant

cell

• 1. Contains a cell wall for support and protection

• 2. Contains chloroplasts for autotrophic activity

Organization Levels

• Organism– Organ systems

• Organs– Tissue

» Cell» The basic unit of life –

• Cell (can be broken down further)– Organelles

• Molecules– Atoms

Organization Levels:smallest to largest level

A

M

O

C

T

O

S

O

ATOMS

MOLECULES

ORGANELLES

CELLS

TISSUES

ORGAN

ORGAN SYSTEMS

ORGANISMS

Review Question

• Which of the following is the correct order, from simplest to most complex?– A. cells, tissues, organs, organ system– B. tissues, cells, organs, organ system– C. cells, organ system, organs, tissues– D. molecules, cells, compounds, organs

DNA and Genetics

DNA

• Double Helix• Complementary base

Pairs– A T– C G

• Found only in the nucleus

• Composed of phosphate, sugar, & nitrogenous base

RNA

• Single strand

• Found in nucleus and ribosomes

• Three types– mRNA– rRNA– tRNA

Heredity Material

DNA RNA

Nucleic Acid

Name

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

Ribonucleic Acid

Base A, T, C, G A, U, C, G

Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose

Location Only in nucleus Nucleus & Cytoplasm

Shape Double Helix Single Strand

Includes prophase, anaphase, metaphase, & telophase

Cell Cycle

Replication

• DNA DNA

– Base Pairings• A T• T A• C G• G C

– Making an exact copy or identical copy or the original strands

Transcription

• DNA RNA

– Base Pairings• A U• T A• C G• G C

– Type of RNA• mRNA

Mitosis• The division of the nucleus in nonsex cells• 1 diploid cell 2 diploid cells

– diploid – 2 sets of chromosomes

Meiosis

• Division of the nucleus in sex cells– Spermogeneis – making of sperm– Oogenesis – making of eggs

• 1 diploid cell 4 haploid cells (gametes)

Meiosis Phases

Review Question

• The DNA message depends on the order of the – A. nitrogen bases.– B. acids.– C. sugars.– D. genes.

Review Question

• When DNA replicates, each replicated DNA molecule has– A. two new strands.– B. one original stand and one identical strand.– C. two original strands.– D. one new strand.

Genetics

Alleles – different forms of the same gene

Example: Some alleles for the eye color gene are

• B – Brown eyes• b – blue eyes

Traits

• Dominant Trait– Written as a capital

letter to show that it is overpowering

• Recessive Trait– Written as a lowercase

letter to show that it can be covered up

• Genotype– The actual allele

combination– Example:

• AA, Aa, or aa

• Phenotype– The physical

appearance which expresses the genetic trait.

– Example: – brown eyes or blue

eyes

• Homozygous– When the two alleles

are the same– BB or bb

• Heterozygous– When the two alleles

are different– Bb

Punnett Square

Review question

• Brown eyes are dominant to blue eyes. If a homozygous brown-eyed individual is mated with a blue-eyed individual, what percent of their offspring will have blue eyes?– A. 0%– B. 25%– C. 50%– D. 75%

Biological Diversity

Evolution

• Defined as changes that occur in a population of organisms over time;

• Changes occur as organisms better suited to a particular environment survive and produce more offspring than those organisms less fit.

• Example: A polar bear with its white fur is better suited to Arctic conditions than a brown furred grizzly bear. Does that mean brown furred polar bears are never born? No, it means they do not survive in the Arctic to reproduce.

Evidence to Support Evolution:

• Homologous structures

• Analogous structures

• Vestigial structures

• Embryonic development comparisons

• Fossils

• DNA comparisons

• Selective breeding

Homologous Structures

• Definition– Structures that came

from a common ancestor

• Example– Limbs in tetrapods

Analogous Structures

• Definition – structures that are similar, but do not have a common

ancestor

• Example– Wings in different species

Vestigial Structures

• Definition – a structure that is now no longer used as its original purpose– Hip bones in whale– Appendix

Cladograms

• A model of evolutionary history of organisms– Primitive traits evolve

first– Derived traits are

shown later in the cladogram

• Part of phylogeny

Dichotomous Key

• Tool used for identification of an organism by asking two questions at a time.

Adaptations

• Adaptation – any behavior, structure that will allow a species to survive better

Variation with a species• Niche – a role a species plays in an area

– What type of food the organism eats, where it lives, how it interacts with other species.

Ecology

ABIOTIC vs. BIOTIC

• ABIOTIC

• Factors in the environment considered nonliving matter.

• Such as rocks, water, air, soil, temperature, weather.

• BIOTIC

• Factors in the environment considered to be organisms or living matter.

Carbon Cycle

Carbon Cycle Processes

• Photosynthesis– Takes in carbon as carbon dioxide– Releases carbon as glucose

• Cellular Respiration– Releases carbon as carbon dioxide

• Burning of Fossil Fuels– Releases carbon as carbon dioxide

• Decomposition– Releases carbon as carbon dioxide

Water Cycle

Water Cycle Processes• Evaporation

– Water entering into the atmosphere• Precipitation

– Water falling from the atmosphere• Condensation

– Change from water vapor to liquid which usually forms clouds or fog

• Transpiration– Change from liquid to water vapor usually in

plants for movement of water from roots to leaves.

Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen Cycle Processes

• Ammonification – decomposers releasing nitrogen to the soil

• Nitrification – changing ammonia into nitrates

• Denitrification – releasing nitrogen to the atmosphere from nitrates in the soil

• Nitrogen-fixation – plants taking nitrogen directly from the atmosphere and making ammonia

Ecological Relationships

• Symbiosis – close relationship between two different species3 Types

Parasitism

Mutualism

Commensalism

Type of symbiosis: Parasitism

• Relationship where one species benefits at the expense of the other species

Type of symbiosis: Commensalism

• Relationship where one species benefits and the other species is neither harmed nor benefits.

Type of symbiosis: Mutualism

• Relationship where both species benefits

Limiting Factors: Competition• When two or more species compete for the same resource

– Examples:• Mates• Food• Habitat• Water• Space

Limiting Factor: Predator - Prey• Predator – Prey

– Predator – the “hunter”– Prey – the “hunted”

Autotrophs vs Heterotrophs

• AUTOTROPHS

• Two types:

• 1. Photoautotrophs use sunlight to convert energy into glucose

• 2.Chemoautotrophs use the compounds around them to survive.

• AKA producers

• HETEROTROPHS• AKA consumers• Organisms that eat

other consumers.

Food Chain• Simple passage way of energy and nutrients in

an ecosystem

Food Web

• Food web - interconnected food chain to show how species are related in an ecosystem

Ecology Terms

• Carrying Capacity– The maximum number

of species in an area

• Limiting Factors – The factor that

restricts the growth of an organism

• Ex: water, food, space

• Natality – Birth rate of organisms in an area

• Mortality – Death rate of organisms in an area

• Immigration – movement of individuals into an area

• Emigration – movement of individuals out of an area

• Biotic Potential – the fastest rate on population increase for a species

• Colonization – the start of a population in a new area– Pioneer species

• Biomass – the amount of living matter in an area

• Population Density – the number of individuals in an area

Population Graphs

J-Shaped Curve

• Shows exponential growth

• Typical of smaller organisms– Insects– Flies

S-Shaped Curve

• Graphs shows carrying capacity

• Shows how limiting factors will affect a population

Density Dependent vs. Independent

• Density Dependent Factors

• 1. Illness & disease• 2. Competition • 3. Predators• 4. Parasites• 5. Food

• Density Independent Factors

1.Most are abiotic

2.Temperature

3.Weather

4.Drought

5.Chemical agents

6.Major habitat disruption

Food Chains

Diet Types• Herbivores – organisms

that only eat producers, plants or autotrophs.

• Carnivores – organisms that eat other consumers

• Omnivores – organisms that eat both plants and animals

• Decomposers

– Eat on every level of a food chain

Ecological Pyramids

Pyramid of Energy• Energy decreases at each level

– 90% of energy is lost at each level due to activity and heat

• Rule of 10%– 10% of energy transfers to the next level

Pyramid of Numbers

• Population decreases at each level

Pyramid of Biomass• Biomass – amount of living matter