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Sponsored by -----
This Advanced Research Workshop was organized by:
GIDAI - Fire Safety- Researc/1 and Tcclmofogy UNIVERSIDAD DE CANTABRIA Dpto. de Transportes y Tecnologia de Proyectos y Procesos Avda. Los Castros, sin 39005 Santander. Spain Tf. + 34 942 201826. Fax. +34 942 202276; [email protected]; hllp:llgrupos.unican.es/GIDAI
With the collaboration of: Society ol Fire Protection Engineers National Fire Protection Association
SFPE NFPA
Scientific Committee· Editorial Board:
Jooge A. Capote ......................... ..
Daniel Alvear . ......... ......... ......... ..
Richard Carve! ......... ............. .
Michacl Detichatsios .. ............. ..
Carlos Fem~ndez-Pello .............. ..
Charles M. Fleischmann ............. ..
George Hadjisophacleous ........... .
Morgan J. Hurley ....................... ..
Time Korhonen ........................... .
James A. Milke .... ................. ..
Frederick W. Mowrcr ............. ..
Pau!o Piloto ......................... . .. .
David Purser .............................. ..
James G. Ouintiere .................... ..
Guillarmo Rein ...... .... ............. .
Jose L. Torero ........ ........... .. ..
Arnaud Trouve ..... .. ..... ......... .. .
Sponsored by:
University of Cantabria (Spain)
University or Can!abria (Spain)
University ol Edinburyh (UI<)
University or Ulster (UK)
University ol California, Berkelsy (USA)
University of Canterbury (N. Zealand)
University of Carlelon (Canada)
SFPE(USA)
VTT (Finland)
University ol lvlaryland (USA)
University of Maryland (USA)
Institute Pol. de Bragan~a (Portugal)
Hartlord Environment Research (UK)
University ol Maryland (USA)
University of Edinburgh (UI<)
University ol Edinburgh (UK)
University of Maryland (USA)
International Association lor Fire Safety Science tAFSS
1,11NISTERIO
DE CIENCIA c INNOVACION
Convocaloria de Ayudas para la reahzacion de Proyectos de lnvestigacion, Programas de Actividad lnvestigadora y Acciones Complementarias
Ref.: BIA2009-05701·E
Contents
Index .... ..... ................. ..... ... .......................... ........................ .................. .......... ..... ............. .
Pn:facc ..... .. ................ .... ....................... ...... ... .... .. ....... .... .. ...... ............... .. ............. .. ..... ..... .. ii i
Invited Lecture: Prescribing the Input for the Aset versus Rset Analysis: is this the
way forward for Performance Based Design'! ........................ ........................................... .
Application of Human Behuviour and Toxic Hazard Analysis to the Va lidation of
CFD Modelling for the Mont Blanc Tunnel Fire Incident............ ..... ...... .. ... ....... ... .. ... .... .. 23
Fire Behaviour and Fa<;:ude Flames for Corridor and Tunne l Like Enclosures Fires.... ..... 59
Analysis of Eleven Evacuation Ev~nts in Finland................. ................................ .. ............ 75
Experiments to lnvcstig;1tc Radiant Heat Flux on Adjacent Buildings............ ...... .. ........... R7
Them1al Analysis in Fire-Resistance Furnace.......................... .. .......... .. .................... ....... 103
Low and Medium Power Full-Scale Atrium Fire Tests and Numerical Validation or
FDS ................... ....... ...... .. ...... .................................................. .... .. .... ....... .......................... 113
Landing Distance of Droplets from Water I'VIist Suppress ion Systems in Tunnels with
Longitudinal Vent ilation ........ .. .... ............................. ........................................... :................ 139
!Vlodelo Estocastico de Evacuacit'ln pur:J Trenes de P:1sajeros ....... .. ... .. ...... ................... ... . 155
Influence of the Bench Scale Test in the Calcu lation of the Heat Release Rate fur
Ai rcraft Materials: Cone Ca lorimeter vs. OSU Appnmtus . ............. ................................... . 185
Efkctivcncss Assessment of Road Tuuncl Fi re-Fighting Stmtcgies by Ventilation and
\Vater Mist Systems .. .. ...... ... ............................ .................... ........................ ......... .. ..... ......... . 197
Can Active Fire Protection Systems in Tunnels Prevent Minor Fire Incidents from
becoming Disasters'? 22 1
ADVANCED RESEARCII WORI\SIIOI'
FIR£ f'ROT£CTIUX :IND LIFI:" S:IFETl' IN IIUILDJ,\'GS :IND TIUNSf'OJI1:·1TJOi\' Sl'STE:IIS
Numerical Simulations of' Some Possible Fin: Scenarios in a Closed Car Park with
RANS and LES ......................................................... .. .................... ............. ...................... .. 233
Modelling or pcdcslrian 1110\'Cillelll around 90° and I ~0° bends............... .......... ............... 243
Experimental Rcst:arch - Large-Scale.: Tunm:l Fire Tcs1s and the use or CFD
modelling to predict Thermal Behaviour....... .... .......................................................... ...... . 255
An Experimental Revic\\' or the Homogeneous TemperaLure Assumplion in Post
Flasho\·cr Compartment Fires.. .......................................................... ... ............................... 273
Psicosociologia aplicada a Equipus de lntcrn:ncion en Situacioncs dt: Emcrgencia. ....... 295
Estabilidad antt.: cl Fuego de la Estructma Mct;'dic<~ de Cubicna dd Edilicio lntcrmodal
tk la Nucva Tcnnin:li T I ut:! Aeropuerto de Barcclon:J ..................................... .... .... ........ 307
The Regulatory Use of Advanced Firt: Engineering Tcclmiqucs....................................... 323
Human Behuvinur in case of Fire inside a Urban Tunm:l th rough Computcr Modelling ... 3-19
Comp:1rison of STEPS and FDS+EVAC Simulations tu an Evacuation of a 5 Storey
Building............ ..................... ................. ... ....... .. ............. ..... ................ .. ................ .... .. ........ 363
An lmmersivc Simulation of Fire Evacuation Based on Virtual Reality. .................. ........ 3!l5
The Smoke: Layer lmerl;1ce tluring a Fire in an Atrium: a New Method to Locate it
using a Zone Computer lVI ode I.......................................................... .... .............................. 31J7
Thermal Analysis in Fire-Resistance Furnace
Pilr11o. P..-I.G. 1, Mc!Stjllila, L./lf.R. 1
: Ale.mmfre Pereiro: 1- Applied Mech. Dep .. Po{r!eclmic Ins t. r~j"Bragan~·a. Campus Sra . .-lpoldnia.
5301-85 i Braganra. Portugal
:- Fr!lloll' research. Po{l'leclmic Inst. of Braganra. Campus Sw . ..lpo16nin,
5301-857 Bragml('a. Portugal
ABSTRACT
Fire resistance rating or building construction elements is defined under fire-resistance test
rum ace. The geometry and shape of fire-resistance furnaces is not defined by any prescriptive
document. being necessary to comply them1nlly with speci lied nominal lire curves, such as ISO :)34 or hydrocarbon [ 1,2).
This research work intends to measure temperatures inside furnnce vo lume. using sixteen
plate thermocouples to compare average temperature in four planes. Those planes are
compared with re ference thermocouple which is responsible for controlling li.1mace operation,
sec figure I. Three tests were pcrfonncd, the firs t two running with ISO S34, tluring 45
minutes and the last one running with hydrocarbon curve, during 30 minutes. Experimentnl
results demonstrate th:ll relative temperature diflcn:nccs arc smaller than 30 % in the initial
test stage, being smaller than 5 %. after 500 [s] unti l the end of the tests.
The numerical simulations were performed using f'luent CfD. using the structuretl finite
volume mesh method. The Eddy Dissipation Model (EDM) was used for chemical species
transport and reacting flow. The governing equations for nwss, momentum and energy were
solved for the three dimensional unsteady incompressible flow, with radiativc heat tr;msfcr
and turbulence model. The numerical results agree well with experimental resulls. being the
relative temperature difference smaller than 5% for each nominal test. Numericnl simulation
also revea ls the localized effect of each burner.
INTRODUCTION
The thermal perfonnam:e of firc.:-rcsi stance furnace is investigatetl. Furnace environment is
normally considered homogeneous and with uniform tcmperuture distribution. following
specified nominal temperatur~ evolution. Tests were conducted at the Polytechnic Inst itute of
Bragan~a laboratory ( LERM) using the I cubic meter fire-res istanct! fu rnace. This small
furnace is suitable for initial vn lidation of experimental temperature measurements. The
furnace has 4 propane burners wi th 90 [kW] max imum power cnch, reference Kromschroder
BIO 65 HM-I 00/35-72/8. This furnace complies with European Standard EN 1363-1.
considering th~ maximum deviation between reference temperature and the theoreticn l specified nominal curve for 1emperature.
IOJ
All\'ANCED RESEAnCII WOHKS BOP IO·I FIRE f'ROTECT/0.\' .-IND LIFE S.IFETr IN IJU/LlJ!NGS .-IND TR.·I NSI'OIIT.·I T/ON .\TSTD!S
Four planes were delined to evaluate the furnace temperature performance. Four plait:
thcnnocouplcs define eat.:h plant:. Plant: X 1.50 and XS50 an~ parallel to tlw exhaust zone whi le
plane Z !50 and Z1150 arc parallel to the transvcrsnl plane of burners.
a/ Funh;c,•mmld wuhf mw hunh'rl Ill 11• },.JI bJ Gt•om, •Jrh J'Hl\11/ I•H/iu· plat .. · cl Fuman• lt'/1/t t'i'~'IIL'll doo r uJia tlro:mt11'Ct111plc•., II!HdL•ji,.nm· t·. nm11in~: h 'H J
Fig. / . ModeljiwfirL'-r~.ri.l'fm/c~.fimwce.
Three tes ts were performed. The first two tests used ISOS34 nominnl fi re curve, defined by
equation (I). while the last one used hydrocarbon nominnl fire curve (2). In these equations.
0" represents n:fcrencc furnace temperature for time 1, during testing conditions.
0, = 20 + 3~5 x logw(Hx r + l ) [O, ("Cl: r(minl] ( IJ
(2)
The thermal performance is dt:tt:nnined by the comparison between average plane
temperntures with reference llmwct.: tt:mpcraturc_ which represents ench nominal fi re curve.
Numerical s imulat ions arc also performed. using computntionnl flui d dynamics, to evaluate
thermal performance and validate experimental tests.
2 EXPERIMENTAL TESTS
The !ire-resistance litrnace was instrumented with 16 pla te thermocouples, suspended at
insulated slcndemcss steel frame. see figure 2. Plate thermocouples fulfi l standards and were
positioned according to the vertex posit ion of'700 [mm2] cube, centcred ins ide furnace.
.....
T/IEII.IIAL .·JNAL J'S/S IN F/RE-!IESIST·Ji\"CE FURNACE
f'iloto. P.A. G .. ;1/estfllil<l. l..MJI., Paeira, ..J. 105
!~) R~·MtkL· pmilioll/or tll lfc' tllt'fiiiiK flltJliL'J M PI. Ut.' tlla ii:OWIIJ1h' ( l_l]Jt' K cmd .fUli1Jio1 .\ tcd p f11lt.' .IJO.JJ.
Fig. ~- /'late tlu .. 'nuocouple in'itrUIJJL'Illalicm.
Thermocouple control is achieved by matching the measured thennocouple temperature with
the prescribed nominal fi re curve. However, since thennocouples irradiate heat, they adjust
themselves to the temperature at which there is a balance between the convection and net
radimivc heat transfer, [3] . Plate thermocouple is a stainless steel plate with lOO [mm2] and
0.7 ± 0. I [mm] thick. The emissivity was considered greater than 0. 7. The wire thermocouple
is positioned on the back face. screwed with a small plate and insulated with ceramic fibre ,
[1).
Measurements were pcrfom1ed with multi-channel datu acquisition system, MGCplus from
!·IBM. with frequency ~:qual to 0.1 [Hz]. Results were averaged from 4 plate thermocouples
for each plane. Plane XS50 was defined by the average temperature readings on Tf I, Tf2,
BF I, BF2, Plane X I 50 was de lined by the average temperature readings on Tb I, Tb2, Bb I,
Bb2, Plane Z850 was defined by the average temperature readings on TFL, BfL. TbL, BbL
while Plane Z 150 was defined by the uvcrage temperature rcildings on TbR, TFR. BbR and
BfR.
figure 3 represents each me;Jsured temperature with plate thermocouple and the reference
temperature for furnace.
The relative di fference between each average pl<mc temperature and reference tempc:rature
from furnace is below 5%, after the initial testing phase. corresponding to 500 [s] . H ighcr
relative difTerencc is expected before. due to higher temperature variation with Lime.
1ou ADYANCED RESEARCH WORii:SHOI'
FIRE 1'/IOTECTION :IND LIFE S:IFETr IN BUILDINGS :!ND TRANSPORT.·IT/ON Sl'STE:I!S
The exhaust temperature was also measured f(Jr test l . There was a constant temperature
difference between the reference furnace temperature and the temperature measured at the
cxlwusts. This temperature was measured with an insulated welded thennocoup le without
plate an insulation protection. This explains the oscillating registry.
Trmp.:n l;:rri'CI
f HI - rrr.
1: , ~= i ..., I
•« l :., I ;, I :oo! I«
- N>I -!l!.P.
Ti~ -ur1 m: - Ufl - mH -Ibl -nb: - nL -nR -ftll'i.\([ - L\H\ l!"ll
0 ·--------------------------~----~
""
Ttr:lft,:t!turiTJ
-HI -lfH -!U:l
'""
- rr. - UJL -n~!
--IU~! - FWtS.\LT.
"'' I ~{I()
l imr ]1]
-nr. - m - nn
cJ TL'.l l J n·lfh ISO .'i].J mmrir111l curw.
l~ m?"'ull:rr]'C]
- 111 - 11: - ilil -TIH -na -IHR
t -IJ'J!___=l!t-~------ltL
"""I lunv 1
I
'""
: oo
- TII. -n-~ - IJt.l
;:m
- H L -H·~
mt
/1) T.:.s r I wit/: ISO SJ-1 mm:uw/ ntn·c.
UththcTtrnjlfUILur lllrf~rcnn·
• :> :===============:=:;
.,
""" 1 ~\JJ Tln1r ]1]
tlJ TL'.\'1 ~ h'itiJ IS() SJ.J l!fltltll1111 CUI,'t.'.
Timtl •l
J} li.:.H 3 waf1 /~nlrjiCIIrhlm 1111111111al , ·an 'l-'.
Fig. 3. Experimental rcsrt!rs for tCfiiJh!rarun· mcasrwcmcnts m;d re/aNn.-. tcmpt:rawre de1·iutions _fOr each plw1c.
THERM.·IL ..tN..!Ll'S!S IN F!RE-RES!ST..INC£ FURNACE
Pilow. P.:l. G .. M.:sl[llita. L. .11. R .. Pereim, .-I.
3 NUMERICAL SIMULATION
)[)7
Tho.: numerical simulations were performed with Fluent software. usmg the fi nite vo lume
method, [4]. The generalized Eddy Dissipation Model \\'US used to simulate the combustion of
propane-air mixture. This model is based on the assumption that chemical reaction is almost
instantaneous. when compared with the chemical species flow transportation. The combustion
was modelled using a global one-step reaction mechanism. assuming complete conversion of
the propane to the product species of equntion 3.
(3)
The reaction will be defined in terms of stoichiometric coeflicicnts, formation cnthalpies and
parameters that control the re:1ction rate. The pressured based solver was used with unsteady
and first order implicit fommlation. The viscous model "K-Epsilon" with two equations and a
standard wall function for near wall treatment was used. The surfucc to surface radiation
model was used with computed view factors. The emissivity value for the internal wall
furnace was considered equal to 0.7.
The use of constant trunsporl properties for viscosity. thermal conductivity and mass
diffusivity coefficients is acceptable because the flow is fully turbulent. sec tables I und 2,
[4]. The molecular transport properties will play u minor role compared to turbulent transport.
The assumption of temperature dependent specific heat is an important key factor to predic t
more realistic peak flame temperature.
SpeciFic heat Mixing law (J/kg K]
Conductivity 0.0454 [W/ml<]
Viscosity 1.72x10 5 (l<glms]
Tahle !. !'rup .:rii.:.ljiw J>r"J"""'-air mi.l / 111 '<', { -!}.
Specific mass 1.225
Specific heat 1006.43 [Jikg l<]
Conductivity 0.0242 [W/ml<]
Viscosity 1.7894x10.5 [Kglms]
Tahle :! .. ·lirpmpalil'.l' , at n:f~'l'<'ll<'<' 1<'/Jifh'rtl/ll rc. :!98 / K}. [.1/.
ADVANCED RESEARCH WOIH\SBOI'
IOti FIRE PROTECT/OS AND LIFE S.·fFETr IN BU/LD/i\'GS AND TRANSPOHT:IT/ON Sl"STEMS
Ttmprnlur:~fl'l
Fig. ·1. VarimioJI t~( specific heal of I he producls and rcaelwl/x f.J j.
The specitic heat considered for mixture will be higher where the propane is concentrated,
near the fuel inlet and where the temperature and combustion product concentration should be higher. see figure 4 for temperature dependence.
The governing equations for mass momentum and energy conservation are de lined hy
equations 4-6.
~ (p J;)+\l ·(p;:};)=-\1-J,·i·R, Of
(4)
\Vhere p represents the specific mass, P the velocity vector, }: is the local mass fraction that
correspond5 to the spec ies "i ' ', J, the ditTusion flux. while R, represen ts the rate o r each
species formation by chemical reaction.
For the momentum conservation equation, the stati c pressure ts defined by p , while r
represents the stress tensor.
~ (p ;:)+ \l ·{p;:;:)= - \lp+\1.¥ Cl
(5)
For the energy equation. E represents the energy value, 1<,.11
the effective value for
conductivity, T the temperature value. h1
the sensible enthalpy. while S~o represents the
energy value from chemical reaction.
~ (p E)+ \J. (;:(pE + p))= \ ' ·( k,. .. \7T -) h, ./, + (~ .. · ;:))+ S, m · 7 ~ (6)
TIIERM.·IL ..JN..JL l"SIS IN FIHE-FIESFST·INCE FUR:\".·!CE
l'i/ow, P.A. G .. ,\/cstfllila, L.M.R .. /'crdra . . -1. 10')
An ndiabatic condition was assumed in the internal furnace walls. The inle t them1al
conditions were specified nt room tempemturc. The exhaust tempemturc products were
defined with information from cxperimentalme;tsured data.
The time dependence inlet velocity for air and propane were kept in proper ratio. during each
tcsl. Those values were defined according to the manufacturer limiting values. because they
were not measured.
To solve the unsteady solution. the initial conditions were defined and an incremental time
step was specified. An iterative process was used to solve discrctized equat ions.
The numerical model was built with a structured mesh, using 115840 hcxahcdm finite
volumes, each with 0.02[m] length side, sec figure 5. Major simpl ification was introduced
into the lour burners. using the hydraulic diameter as reference value. Four inlet gas zones
were defined concentric with the same number of air inlet zones, with dimension equal to
20x20 [mm] and 60x60 [mm], respcctivt.:ly. The exhaust is well identified at the bottom of the
furnace volume, with rectangular dimensions equal to I 00 x 400 [mm].
Fi!]. 5. ,\Jrulelfurjire-r~.<iSIIII lCL' f umace.
Flame temper<Jturc depends on several l~tct ors during the combustion process and affects,
significantly, hcut transfer inside lire-resistance furnace. The rate of heat transfer increase
with tlamc temperature. Figure 6 represents temperature and velocity, during the simulation
of test I. in di fie rent defined planes. in particular X 150. XS50, Z 150, ZH50 and exhaust. Tl1e
burner 83/84 plane is also represented.
110 .-\D\'ANCED RESEARCH WORh:SIIOP
FIRE PIWTI::C710N .·!ND LIFE S:JI·L1T I.V BUILDINGS :!ND TII:J.VSI'ORT:IT/ON SJ'ST£.1/S
1 e i~·n
l .i h ·l! ! .s>~ . !1 ! .!.t~ -n
Ul~ ~ ~!
Uk· C! 12~~·n
L:!!"·{! 1.13e•11 I.CSr · !l 5 i Y. · J:' ; 11::·\?
:.~ 1: -; : E.i ~t · i} E:J !r • ':" ~-:'5t · f.:' t..!- lc •!2 1.15~ · t:t ) . ii:: •t:
ul Gmwur,\ tifh'"'l"-'rulllrt• /K/ itt 111~' {cmr fJidlh.'l 1111/t' • JOII bf.
I .H r•el 1.71t •i) t.!:~ r· n
t.!t:·n t.!,r·n ). tjr•O
I.J'!:r·~ J t ..1er ·~ 3 1.2-it -~ J u :;r •!l U~e·O
S.l~ t •E ~ 5 Ur · t ~ U!.c· E; i .SC! •C e.T~c •t; 5.fh·t:' S:'~ ·C t.~ (e ·C :'
l iSc·l?
I
w C) CmUmtr.i taJ h'ntpc:raflln•f A'/ ill llb• fimr f'llltl a:J, ltnll' •)6(1(1 / t/
~ .~Cc · ~ ( : !: c • ~' : : ~e • ! ( ~ 1 3• · CC : .Ht < : L :: !.: ·~ ! 1 .:~- ·! ~
1.5-J:·U u.:e· ;~
t.::c•t• L: ~~ •ii I.Ue·~~
t:t..e-!1 ·.;:r· C: I £::!r ·i l H~r· ll
:;;:c ·U :.~ h-1:
1.1~·C!
l H: ·H
Bfr •U :'.ll:t •: \
~.13::-· H
.:'.C;c ••! l l .!!r • ~ 1 l. i!-t · :l l.!:~e · ; ~
L~h · '! i.J~: •i Q
I.:'! ~ ·U
I. I~:·H
I .H: · !~ e. I ~~ - ; I i.Sir · ; l E.:? :~ · :l
~ tir·il i75 t ·!l ~.: ~:·tl
l.~:.r·! l
i.H:•!:
Fig. fi. Num~ricalr.·.wiTJ.for T,·sr I.
The nux of species is descendent, with small vortices zones, as can be seen in figure 6b) and
d). The numerical resul ts allow identi(ying the localized effect of each bumer. The
experiment;!) measurements corroborate this evidence.
To determine the thermal pcrfom1nnce of the numerical simulation. the mass average
temperature value was determined for each plane defined for experi ments, using equation (7).
This averuge value is also compared with the rcft!n:nce value of the li re-resistance funmce,
detennining the relative difference, sec figure 7.
f = fT pvd.4j fpPd.4 rl . I
(7}
TIJE!IMAL ANALl'SIS IN F/R£-1/ESIST..JNCE FURN.·lCE f'i /o/U, f'.A.G .. Mescfllii<J, L.M.R .. f'crcira, .·1.
llth liotlfml'"uturt Wil'trfiiU
~ • ..,mul n .Pt'l·\1.:1 I
I
u-----J
( -~•c-r•~ ~11-' r-Unn
Ill
l' ~~ ~00 IU •J I Y• l : 10) : ~011 }li.Al ]~¥1 400 1
a) ,\·mllt:ricul ,.,_.,r lllh, ll!iln;: !Wmim:l lc.'Jting nrn'l' JSO.YJ.t ( lt._'.ftli:J.
nr.ul•l
Fig. 7. Al•eroge tt!mperuuJrL' 1-'aiuL' inxide.fiwnace ond rd:llin! lemprratW't! differ~ttce.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors acknowledge the financial support from the Portuguese Science and Technology
Foundntion, under the reference project PTDC/ EME-PME/649 13/2006.
REFERENCES
I, A EN OR, Norma UNE 1363: Fire rcsistuncc test. Part I: Genernl requirements, 2000.
2. AENOR, Nonnn UNE 1363: Fire resistance test. Part 2: Altcntative and additional
procedures, October 2000.
3. S.Welch, pa Rubini . "Three dimensional simulation of a fire resistance fumace",
Proceedings of 5th International Symposium on Fire Safety Science, Melboume, Australia,
ISBN 4-9900625-5-5 International Association for Fire Safety Science (IAFSS), pp I 009-
1020, March 1997.
4. FLUENT 6.3 Documentation, users manual , 2006.
5. Giuliano Gardolinski Venson, Giiberto Augusto Amado Moreira, Jose Eduardo Mautone
Barros, Ramon Molina Valle. "Modelagem do Perfil de Tempemtura cm Camara de
Combustao Tubular Utilizando o Modelo de Combustiio Eddy Dissipation", X E11contro de
Modelagem Complllaciollal, lnstituto Politecnico/UERJ - Nova Friburgo/RJ, 2 1 a 23 de
Novembro 2007.
6. Coelho, P. J. "Numerical simulation of a mild combustion bumer", Combustion ami name.
124: 503-518, Elsevier, 200 I. 7. Welch, S: Rubini, P.: "Three dimensional simulat ion of a firc-resistnnce furnace".
Proceedings of 5th International Symposium on Fire Safety Science, Melbourne, Australia.
March 1997, International Association for Fire Safety Science. pp. I 009-1020, ISBN 4-
9900625-5-5