BEYOND TRADITIONAL PEACEKEEPING

Also by Donald C. F. Daniel

INTERNATIONAL PERCEPTIONS OF THE SUPERPOWER MILITARY BALANCES (editor)

STRATEGIC MILITARY DECEPTION (editor with Katherine L. Herbig)

ANTISUBMARINE WARFARE AND SUPERPOWER STRATEGIC STABILITY

BEYOND THE 600-SHIP NAVY

THE FUTURE OF SEA POWER (with Bradd C. Hayes)

Also by Bradd C. Hayes

NAVAL RULES OF ENGAGEMENT: Management Tools for Crisis

THE FUTURE OF SEA POWER (with Donald C. F. Daniel)

Beyond Traditional Peacekeeping

Edited by

Donald C. F. Daniel Director. Strategic Research Department Center for Naval Warfare Studies. US Naval War College

and

Bradd C. Hayes Deputy Director, Strategic Research Department Center for Naval Warfare Studies. US Naval War College

Palgrave Macmillan

Selection and editorial matter © Donald C. F. Daniel and Bradd C. Hayes 1995 Chapters 1-16 © Macmillan Press Ltd 1995

Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1995 978-0-333-62653-5

All rights reserved. For information, write: Scholarly and Reference Division, SI. Martin's Press, Inc., 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010

First published in the United States of America in 1995

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Beyond traditional peacekeeping / edited by Donald C. F. Daniel and Bradd C. Hayes. p. cm. Includes index.

I. United Nations-Armed Forces. 2. Intervention (International law) 3. United States-Military policy. I. Daniel, Donald C. F. (Donald Charles F.), 1944- . II. Hayes, Bradd C. JX 1981.P7B47 1995 341.5'8--dc20 94-38458

CIP

ISBN 978-1-349-23857-6 ISBN 978-1-349-23855-2 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-23855-2

ISBN 978-0-312-12512-7

ISBN 978-0-312-12512-7

Contents

List of Figures and Tables vii

Notes on the Contributors viii

Glossary xii

Foreword by Shashi Tharoor xvi

Introduction by Donald C. F. Daniel and Bradd C. Hayes xx

Part I: Sovereignty and Intervention

1 On the Brink of a New Era? Humanitarian Interventions, 1991-94 Thomas G. Weiss

2 National Perspectives on International Intervention: From the Outside Looking In Dorinda G. Dallmeyer

3 UN Intervention in Civil Wars: Imperatives of Choice and Strategy Stephen John Stedman

Part II: Supporting Non-Traditional Peacekeeping: National Choices

4 The Case for Engagement: American Interests in UN Peace Operations Edward C. Luck

5 Minding Our Own Business: The Case for American Non-Participation in International Peacekeeping/ Peacemaking Operations

3

20

40

65

67

Christopher Layne 85

6 Working Multilaterally: The Old Peacekeepers' Viewpoint Bo Huldt 101

7 Other Selected States: Motivations and Factors in National Choices Angela Kane

v

120

vi Contents

Part ill: Improving Eft'ectiveness and Efficiency 149

8 Structural Issues and the Future of UN Peace Operations William J. Durch 151

9 UN Peace Support Operations: Political-Military Considerations Jim Whitman and Ian Bartholomew

10 Military Issues in Multinational Operations Margaret Cecchine Harrell and Robert Howe

Part IV: Case Studies

11 The United Nations Operation in the Congo: Peacekeeping, Peacemaking and Peacebuilding Indar Jit Rikhye

12 United Nations Peacekeeping in the Former Yugoslavia

169

189

205

207

Mats Berdal 228

13 Beyond Traditional Peacekeeping: The Case of Cambodia James A. Schear 248

14 UNOSOM II: Not Failure, Not Success Gary Anderson

15 Success and Failure in Southern Africa: Peacekeeping in Namibia and Angola

267

Virginia Page Fortna 282

Part V: Conclusions 301

16 Problems and Progress: The Future of UN Peacekeeping Donald C. F. Daniel and Bradd C. Hayes 303

Index 308

List of Figures and Tables

Table 6.1 UN Peacekeeping Operations, 1948-93 102 Table 6.2 Early Peacekeepers - Participants in the First 13

Operations (1948-87) 106 Table 6.3 Contributors to UN Peacekeeping Operations

since 1988 106 Table 6.4 Ten Largest Troop Contributors 107 Table 6.5 Contributing Countries for UNPROFOR I-III

and UNOSOM II 108 Table 6.6 Ten States Most in Debt to the UN 109 Figure 8.1 UN Department of Political Affairs, Proposed

Organisation 162 Figure 8.2 UN Department of Peacekeeping Operations,

Current Organisation 163 Figure 9.1 Proposed Control Structure for UN Peacekeeping

Operations 178 Figure 9.2 Proposed Control Structure for UN Peace-

Enforcement Operations 179

vii

Notes on the Contributors

Gary Anderson is a Colonel in the US Marine Corps serving as the Course Director, Amphibious and Offensive Operations, at the Marine Corps Combat Developmen! Command in Quantico, Virginia. He has served as the senior US Military Observer with UNTSO in both Leba­non and Jerusalem and was the operations officer in Operation Sea Angel in Bangladesh.

Ian Bartholomew is a Commander in the Royal Navy and was seconded to the Global Security Programme when his chapter was written.

Mats Berdal is a Research Associate at the International Institute for Strategic Studies in London.

Dorinda DaIlmeyer is the Research Director for Rusk Center and teaches international negotiations at the University of Georgia School of Law. She is involved with numerous projects ranging from new approaches for reconciling international trade conflicts to environmental protection to developing confidence and security-building measures for Balkan states.

Donald C. F. Daniel is the Director of the Strategic Research Devel­opment of the Center for Naval Warfare Studies, Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island. He has been a Visiting Scholar at the Brookings Institute in Washington, DC, a Research Associate of the International Institute for Strategic Studies in London, and winner of a Ford Foun­dation competition for research in international security and arms con­trol. Since 1992 he has been actively involved in United Nations research, overseeing the production of numerous reports and chairing two inter­national conferences on peacekeeping.

William J. Durch is a senior associate at the Henry L. Stimson Center and author-editor of The Evolution of UN Peacekeeping: Case Studies and Comparative Analysis (1993). He holds a doctorate in political science from MIT.

Virginia Page Fortna is a PhD candidate in the Government Depart-

viii

Notes on the Contributors ix

ment at Harvard University. She worked on peacekeeping issues as a Research Assistant at the Henry L. Stimson Center in Washington, DC.

Margaret Cecchine BarreD is an Operations Research Analyst with the RAND Corporation. She has been involved in several studies of peace support operations, ranging from the traditional UN peacekeep­ing missions to Somalia operations.

Bradd C. Bayes, a captain in the US Navy, is the Assistant Director of the Strategic Research Department. He has served as the Strategy and Policy Officer for US Naval Forces in Europe and as a Federal Executive Fellow with the RAND Corporation.

Robert Bowe is an Operations Research Analyst with the RAND Cor­poration, involved with projects analysing the planning process at US service headquarters, the Joint Staff and field commands. He has also focused on the structure of residual US forces in Europe for the Army Staff and training requirements for forces engaged in multinational operations.

Bo Boldt is currently head of the Department of Security Policy and Strategy at the Royal Swedish Military Staff and War College. A former director of both the Swedish Institute of International Affairs and of the International Institute of Strategic Studies in London, Dr Huldt has written extensively on the United Nations, Nordic and European security, Swedish foreign policy, and the international arms trade.

Angela Kane is the Principal Officer in the Executive Office of the UN Secretary-General. She has extensive experience, having worked with the UN for over fifteen years. Since assuming her current posi­tion in early 1992, she has focused primarily on political issues in the European region. She attended the University of Munich and has de­grees from Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, and the Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) in Washington, DC.

Christopher Layne is a widely published, unaffiliated international re­lations scholar living in Los Angeles.

Edward C. Luck is President of the United Nations Association of the

x Notes on the Contributors

United States (UNA-USA), the nation's leading centre for policy re­search and public education on the UN, where he also served as Ex­ecutive Vice-President and Vice-President for Research and Policy Studies. He worked as a consultant in the Social Science Division of the RAND Corporation and was a fellow of the Russian Institute of Columbia University. He has written extensively on arms control, na­tional security policy, Soviet foreign policy, and multilateral diplomacy, including scores of articles, two edited books, and dozens of Congres­sional testimonies.

Indar Jit Rikhye is a veteran of Second World War Middle East and Italian campaigns. After the war he saw service on the Northwest Fron­tier, in the first Kashmir operations and in Ladakh. He began his UN service as Commander Indian troops and Chief of Staff, UNEF. He was then appointed Military Advisor to Secretaries-General Hammar­skjold and Thant, and finally Commander, UNEF. On leaving the UN, he became Founding President, International Peace Academy. He is now the Senior UN Advisor to the United States Institute of Peace, Washington, DC. He is the surviving regular member of Hammarskjold's Advisory group for the Congo Operations known as the 'Congo Club.'

James A. Schear, PhD, is Senior Associate at the Henry L. Stimson Center, Washington, DC, and also serves as a policy consultant to the UN Secretary-General's Special Representative for the former Yugo­slavia. During 1992-93 he worked for the head of the UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia.

Stephen Stedman is an Assistant Professor of African Studies and Comparative Politics with The Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies, Johns Hopkins University.

Shashi Tharoor is Special Assistant to the Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations at the United Nations.

Thomas G. Weiss is Associate Director of the Thomas J. Watson Jr. Institute for International Studies and Associate Dean of the Faculty at Brown University; he also serves as Executive Director of ' the Aca­demic Council on the United Nations System. Previously, he held a number of UN posts (at UNCTAD, the UN Commission for Namibia, UNITAR, and ILO) and served as executive director of the Interna­tional Peace Academy. He has authored and edited 16 books on vari-

Notes on the Contributors xi

ous aspects of international organisation, conflict management, hu­manitarian action, and North-South relations. With David Forsythe and Roger Coate he has just completed a new textbook, The United Na­tions and Changing World Politics (1994). He is now working on The United Nations and Civil Wars (forthcoming 1995) and, with Larry Minear, on Mercy Under Fire: War and the Global Humanitarian Community (forthcoming 1995).

Jim Whitman is leader of the UN Project, Global Security Programme, Cambridge University.

Glossary

ACABQ

ANC ASEAN AWACS C2

CDU CMAC CMOC CMTC CNN CPP CSCE

DAM

DHA OOMREP

DPA DPI DPKO EC ECOSOC

ECOWAS EU FALA FALD

FAO FCP FOP FMLN

roo

Advisory Committee on Administrative and Budget­ary Questions Armee Nationale Congolaise Association of Southeast Asian Nations Airborne Warning and Control System Command and Control Christian Democratic Union (Germany) Cambodian Mine Action Centre Civilian-Military Operations Centre Combat Maneuver Training Center (US Army) Cable News Network Cambodian Peoples' Party Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe Department of Administration and Management (UN) Department of Humanitarian Affairs (UN) Secretary-General's Representative in the Dominican Republic Department of Political Affairs (UN) Department of Public Information (UN) Department of Peacekeeping Operations (UN) Economic Community Economic and Social Council of the United Nations Economic Community of West African States European Union Armed Forces for the Liberation of Angola Field Administration and Logistics Division (formerly FOD) Foreign Area Officers (US Army) Force Contributors' Panel (proposed) Free Democratic Party (Germany) Frente Farabundo Mart! para la Liberaci6n Nacional (EI Salvador) Field Operations Division (UN)

xii

FRELlMO FUNCINPEC

GA G-7

HRO IFIs IMIS IMSS JRTC KPNLF KR LOC MC MILREP MINURSO

MNF MOUT MPLA MSC NAFTA NAM NATO NGO OAU OCC ONUC ONUCA

ONUMUZ ONUSAL

ONUVFH

PDK Perm-S

PLO

Glossary

Front de Liberation du Mozambique Front Uni National pour une Cambodge Ind6pendent, Neutre, Pacifique et Coo¢ratif General Assembly

xiii

Group of Seven leading industrial nations (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, UK and US) Humanitarian Relief Organisation International Financial Institutions Integrated Management Information System (UN) International Military Support Staff (proposed) Joint Readiness Training Centre (US) Khmer Peoples' National Liberation Front Khmer Rouge Line of Communication Military Committee (proposed) Military Representative Mission des Nations Unies pour Ie Referendum du Sahara Occidental Multinational Force Military Operations in Urban Terrain Movimento Popular de Libert~io de Angola Military Staff Committee North American Free Trade Agreement Non-Aligned ·Movement North Atlantic Treaty Organisation Non-Governmental Organisation Organisation for African Unity Operations Control Centre (proposed) O¢ration des Nations Unies au Congo Observadores de las Naciones Unidas en la Central America Op6ration des Nations Unies au Mozambique Observadores de las Naciones Unidas en El Salvador L'Observation des Nations Unies pour la verifica­tion des elections au Haiti Party of Democratic Kampuchea Five permanent members of the UN Security Council (China, France, Russia, United Kingdom, United States) Palestine Liberation Organisation

xiv

POL PRK PSO PVO QRF RENAMO ROE RPG SAM SCG SDF SOP SG SGSR SNA SNC SWAPO UN UNAMIC UNAVEMIIII UNDOF UNDP UNEF IIll UNHCYP UNGOMAP

UNHCR UNICEF

UNIFIL UNIIMOG UNIKOM UNIPOM UNITA

UNITAF UNMOGIP

UNMOs UNOGIL UNOMUR

Glossary

Petroleum, Oil and Lubricants Peoples' Republic of Kampuchea Peace Support Operation Private Voluntary Organisation US Quick Reaction Force La Resistance Nationale Mozambicaine Rules of Engagement Rocket-Propelled Grenade Surface-to-Air Missile Strategic Core Group (proposed) Japanese Self-Defence Forces Social Democratic Party (Germany) UN Secretary-General Secretary-General's Special Representative Somali National Alliance Supreme National Council (Cambodia) South West African People's Organisation United Nations United Nations Advance Mission in Cambodia United Nations Angola Verification Mission United Nations Disengagement Observer Force United Nations Development Programme United Nations Emergency Force (IsraellEgypt border) United Nations Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus United Nations Good Offices Mission in Afghanistan and Pakistan United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon United Nations Iran-Iraq Military Observer Group United Nations Iraq-Kuwait Observer Mission United Nations India-Pakistan Observation Mission UnHlo Nacional para la Independencia Total de Angola Unified Task Force United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan United Nations Military Observers United Nations Observation Group in Lebanon United Nations Observer Mission Uganda-Rwanda

UNOSOM IIII UNPROFOR

UNSCOB UNSF UNTAC UNTAG

UNTSO UNYOM URNG US USFORSOM USCINCCENT VIP WEU WFP

Glossary xv

United Nations Operations in Somalia United Nations Protection Force (former Yugosla­via) United Nations Special Committee on the Balkans United Nations Security Force (West Irian) United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia United Nations Transition Assistance Group (Namibia) United Nations Truce Supervision Organisation United Nations Yemen Observation Mission Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Guatemalteca United States of America US Forces in Somalia Commander-in-Chief, US Central Command Very Important Person[s] Western European Union World Food Programme

Foreword * This book could not have appeared at a more topical moment. As these words are written, the United Nations Security Council has just approved the Organisation's eighteenth current peacekeeping opera­tion, UNASOG in the Aouzou Strip between Chad and Libya. Never in the history of the United Nations have there been so many peace­keeping operations in business at the same time. Indeed, it took 43 years for the first thirteen peacekeeping operations to be established by the United Nations; then the next thirteen followed in 43 months, and we have had seven more since. In the course of the last year, the peacekeeping operations in Cambodia, Somalia and the former Yugo­slavia have each vied for the distinction of being the largest-ever in the UN's history. In early May 1994, there are over 70000 peacekeepers wearing UN blue, from over 70 countries. The attempt in the present volume to consider their role and examine their endeavours is there­fore particularly timely.

Given that there have been twenty new operations established in the last five years - as opposed to two in the first five years of the UN's existence - it is not surprising that there has been talk of a 'renaissance of peacekeeping'. Indeed, so many and various are the situations to which the United Nations Security Council has applied the peacekeeping treatment that the Secretary-General Boutros Boutros­Ghali even spoke in 1992 of a 'crisis of too much credibility'. At the time, peacekeeping practitioners had become accustomed to tracing a discernible evolution from 'traditional peacekeeping' of the classic interposition, patrolling and observation variety to 'multi-dimensional peacekeeping' involving a variety of non-military functions (election supervision, human rights monitoring, civilian police work, even civ­ilian administration). But in the last two years, peacekeeping has gone well beyond the multidimensional. The 'blue helmets' have found them­selves delivering humanitarian aid under fire, monitoring no-fly zones, mounting 'preventive deployments', protecting 'safe areas' and hunt­ing down recalcitrant warlords. The new term of art became 'second generation peacekeeping'.

* The views expressed in this Foreword are personal and do not necessarily represent the views of the UN.

xvi

Foreword xvii

But the problem with a second generation is, of course, that of a generation gap. Peacekeeping was now being applied even where there was no peace to keep. Inevitably, the reaction set in, and today the questions are rife: about the appropriateness of peacekeeping as a tool in all these situations, about the adequacy of established peacekeeping methods to cope with the new challenges with which the UN is con­fronted; about the availability of the means to do the job; and about the resilience of the United Nations system in the face of the unpre­cedented strains being placed on its peacekeeping capacity. With editorialists and op-ed page writers decrying the impotence of United Nations peacekeepers in Bosnia and Somalia, Rwanda and Haiti, it would seem that the UN is now facing a crisis of too little credibility.

This is as unfair as the earlier over-enthusiasm was unfounded: clearly, there are dangers in the pendulum swinging too far. The world needs the United Nations, and it needs the United Nations to fulfil the first purpose enshrined in its Charter - the maintenance of international peace and security. But if the United Nations is to achieve any suc­cess in this task, it needs to be given both mandate and means by its member states. There must be recognition that peacekeeping is not a panacea for every headline-grabbing case of international disorder; and at the same time there must be acceptance of its potential in solving certain kinds of problems, providing it is given the resources to do so. Both the determination of mandates, and the resources to implement them, can only come from member states. The fundamen­tal question that we must all ask ourselves is: 'What kind of United Nations do we want?' A vital part of the answer lies in establishing the tasks and methods that member states are ready and willing to approve, support and pay for.

To some degree, peacekeeping has been a victim of its own suc­cess. For years during the Cold War, peacekeeping worked well, within the limitations imposed upon it by superpower contention - well enough, at any rate, to win the 1988 Nobel Peace Prize. Then, when the Cold War ended, the limitations vaporised and everything seemed possible: there was no more talk of 'superpower paralysis', as former adversar­ies found themselves on common ground, able to agree with ease and rapidity on common approaches to global crises. At the same time, the new transcendence of the global media added a sense of urgency to these crises: it is a striking coincidence that the reach and impact of CNN and its imitators peaked precisely at this time of post-Cold War concordance. Television showed that action was needed, and the end of the Cold War meant that action was possible. As the great

xviii Foreword

clamour went up to a newly united Security Council to 'do something' in a number of crises, member states found in peacekeeping the 'some­thing' the UN could do. Operations that one superpower or the other might not have agreed to establish in the old days were launched with self-congratulatory ease. United Nations peacekeeping was thrust into a breathtaking phase of rapid and profound evolution.

In the process, as this book reveals, the international community has been making policy on the run. United Nations peacekeepers have intervened in crises without finding the time to elaborate, or agree upon, the doctrinal justifications, the conceptual issues or the overall strategy behind each new mandate (or modification of mandate). In the continuing debate about whether peacekeeping operations belong properly under Chapter VI or VII of the Charter, we have often found ourselves at sixes and sevens. The Department of Peace-keeping Op­erations at United Nations Headquarters (DPKO) has been coping with a rate of acceleration worthy of a sports car, while still perched on a 1950s model bicycle. We could all do with a breathing space in which to take stock of where we have come, and where we might usefully be going.

This book portrays United Nations peacekeeping in transition, a task that is much like painting a moving car. Those of us in the car -the 'practitioners' at DPKO and in the missions in the field - too often find ourselves steering a rattling vehicle that is moving at breakneck speed, without an up-to-date roadmap, while trying to fix the engine at the same time. We know the purpose of our journey, but we're not sure we're in the right automobile, what the condition of the road is and whether and when we might run out of gas. The one consolation is that we know where the best road repairmen, gas station attendants and car manufacturers can be found. They are the member states of the Organisation.

I am often reminded of Stalin's line about the moral authority of the Catholic Church - 'How many divisions has the Pope?' One might well ask, how many divisions has the United Nations? At one level, none: we have no standing army, no reserve stocks, not even a re­plenished Working Capital Fund. But at another level, we have all the 'divisions' we can possibly want, because there is nothing required by United Nations peacekeeping that member states could not pro­vide, if they wanted to. For member states to want to support and strengthen United Nations peacekeeping, it is obviously important both that we do the right thing, and that we do the thing right. We have to mount the 'right' operations, those which are worth doing because

Foreword xix

they respond to real threats to international peace and security, and because - an equally important consideration - they can be done well. We also have to ensure sustained political and popular support in member states for these worthy peacekeeping operations. And to merit that support, we have to earn it. We must develop the capacity to plan, mount, support and manage such operations better than ever before, and to combine the 'gifted amateurism' and inventive idealism of the traditional days of peacekeeping with the technological sophistication, the modern communications and logistics, and the will to win of the professional warriors.

And if we do all that, the moving car I have described will ride more smoothly, however bumpy the road. And it will take us where the world wants us to go. The future directions of United Nations peace­keeping are being established these days, at what is clearly a defining moment for the Organisation. These directions have not yet been mapped with any degree of clarity; but readers will find the present volume of great value in charting the course they might take.

SHASH! THAROOR

United Nations New York, 13 May 1994

Introduction Donald C. F. Daniel and Bradd C. Hayes

This volume focuses on United Nations directed activities beyond the scope of traditional peacekeeping. By the latter we mean the use of small numbers of unarmed or lightly-armed military personnel, inter­posed between consenting parties, to help implement a cease-fire. While such missions continue, the United Nations has since the late 1980s increasingly gone beyond traditional peacekeeping to deal with situa­tions deemed not amenable to solution by its methods. Non-tradi­tional operations can differ in breadth where the UN involves itself in helping new, collapsed, or otherwise hard-pressed states develop or maintain basic governmental structures and social services. They can also differ in depth by involving far larger numbers of UN military and civilian personnel.

As Shashi Tharoor points out in the Foreword, the UN's assump­tion of these new responsibilities has not been without problems. The time has come to take stock, to reevaluate whether the organisation ought to continue down its new path. Reevaluation requires setting down issues, drawing together the lessons learned in the last few years, estimating the limits and possibilities open to the UN for collective response, and recommending when, if at all, the UN ought to man­date non-traditional missions.

To those ends the Naval War College brought scholars, experts and practitioners to a conference entitled 'Beyond Traditional Peacekeep­ing'. The meeting was supported by The Ardis and Robert James Foundation, The Hitachi Foundation, The Ploughshares Fund, The Carnegie Corporation of New York and The Naval War College Foun­dation. The chapters in this volume were presented at the conference in four sessions devoted to: sovereignty and UN intervention in na­tions' internal affairs; the willingness of member states to support and engage in UN military operations; the processes and procedures asso­ciated with preparing for and effectively executing such operations; and issues and insights raised by in-depth looks at specific cases. This volume follows the same sequence.

Part I, containing three chapters, deals with the international com­munity'S right to intervene for humanitarian purposes. Thomas Weiss states that, while we are on the verge of entering an era in which the

xx

Introduction xxi

UN possesses such a right, operational problems constitute significant barriers against moving briskly into it. Dorinda Dallmeyer focuses on the differences in the international community concerning the UN's right to intervene and argues in particular that developing states want a stake in how decisions are made, lest the Security Council face a legitimacy crisis. As an expert in civil wars, Stephen Stedman takes another tack and argues that UN intervention can be effective only after a negotiated settlement has been reached.

Four chapters are then devoted to the topic of national willingness to participate in or support non-traditional peacekeeping. Two focus on US policy choices. Edward Luck makes the case for a substantial American commitment to working with and through the UN to shape collective responses - including interventions if necessary - to inter­national instabilities. Christopher Layne argues that America's interests are best served otherwise and laments that the Clinton Administra­tion has failed to develop a coherent foreign policy beyond fuzzy multi­lateralism.

Other selected states are discussed by Bo Huldt and Angela Kane. i

Huldt examines the old peacekeepers, particularly the Nordic states, and outlines their reaction to the UN's foray into non-traditional mis­sions. Kane takes an absorbing look at the reasons that others decide to participate or not in UN operations. She covers the permanent members of the Security Council (excluding the United States), two states hop­ing to become permanent members (Germany and Japan), and several other countries which particularly well illustrate or reflect trends.

Part III of the book shifts the discussion to proposed changes in UN organisation, processes and procedures aimed at improving op­erational effectiveness and efficiency. William Durch recommends a restructuring of the Secretariat while Jim Whitman and Ian Bartholomew promote their concept of new military staffing arrangements to strengthen UN planning. Margaret Harrell and Robert Howe focus on how indi­viduals or units used in peace support operations should be selected, trained, organised, equipped and controlled, and conclude by noting that major changes will not be required for the US military in this regard.

There are six case studies in the book's penultimate section. Lead­ing off is a chapter on the Congo operation (ONUC) which, while it occurred over 30 years ago, was the precursor to much of what the UN has done since 1988. Written by Indar Rikhye, a well-known mili­tary practitioner, it provides a firsthand account of events. Mats Berdal then presents an analysis of the first of five recent or ongoing operations

xxii Introduction

- UNPROFOR in the former Yugoslavia. He is followed by James Schear, who gives us another firsthand account, this time concerning Cambodia (UNTAC). Gary Anderson reviews the successes and fail­ures of the UNOSOM II mission in light of the US-led UNIT AF op­eration which preceded it. Finally, V. Page Fortna compares two West African cases: Namibia (UNTAG), considered a classic instance of success, and Angola (UNA VEM II), which to date is a classic in­stance of failure.

Keying on the UN's fiftieth anniversary, the book concludes with a chapter which reflects on the present and prospective status of peace­keeping by drawing together insights and observations offered by the contributors. It focuses both on the progress made by the UN to date and on the problems which must be resolved if progress is to continue.

The UN is no different from most organisations; it changes radi­cally only under substantial and sustained pressure such as it faced during the Congo operation. Several studies undertaken in ONUC's aftermath offered sensible recommendations for improving the organi­sation's effectiveness in large-scale missions. However, at that time, 'the Secretariat and the member states were more interested in forget­ting than in learning, more interested in avoiding future ONUCs than in doing them better'.2 From 'our discussions with UN members and staffs, it is Our belief that, while both may be no less interested in avoiding future Congos, Somalias and Bosnias, they are indeed interested in learning how to do things better. We offer this book in that Sflirit.

NOTES

1. One of the most difficult dilemmas we had to resolve was which coun­tries would be discussed in this book. With 76 nations currently provid­ing forces for UN operations, it was clear that they could not all be covered. We therefore had to select states which could not be ignored, such as present and prospective permanent members of the Security Council, nations which represent larger groupings (such as the Nordics for the 'old peacekeepers'), or those which provide examples of emerging trends (such as Malaysia's participation based on idealism). The inevitable result of this selection process was that some reliable contributors do not receive the mention they merit (India, for example). There was no intent to slight or diminish the significance of any state's contribution.

2. William J. Durch, 'The UN Operation in the Congo,' in Durch (ed.), The Evolution of UN Peacekeeping (New York: S1. Martin's Press, 1993), p. 349.