BELL RINGER1.9.2012

Take out your reading assignment and dream log projects to turn in.

If you did any extra credit , turn them in at this time as well.

On your bell ringer sheet, briefly describe “learning” in your own words.

Unit 7: LearningAP Psychology Ms. Desgrosellier

Key Ideas:

Classical conditioning Classical conditioning paradigm Classical conditioning learning

curve Strength of conditioning Classical aversive conditioning Operant conditioning Thorndike’s instrumental

conditioning Operant conditioning training

procedures Operant aversive conditioning Reinforcers

Operant conditioning training schedules of reinforcement

Superstitious behavior Cognitive processes in learning The contingency model Latent learning Insight learning Social learning Biological factors in learning Preparedness evolves Instinctive draft

Learninglearning: a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience.

This is an example of nurture.

Classical ConditioningLearning which takes place when two or more stimuli are presented together.

An unconditioned stimulus is paired repeatedly with a neutral stimulus until it acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response.

The subject learns to give a response it already knows to a new stimulus.

Classical Conditioning

Can be used to overcome fears, increasing or decreasing immune functioning, and increasing or decreasing attraction of people or products.

Classical Conditioning

Stimulus: a change in the environment that elicits (brings about) a response.

Neutral stimulus (NS): a stimulus that initially does not elicit a response.

Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus (US): reflexively, or automatically, brings about the conditioned response.

Unconditioned response (UR): an automatic, involuntary reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.

Classical Conditioning

Conditioned stimulus (CS): a neutral stimulus (NS) at first, but when paired with the US, it elicits the conditioned response (CR).

Acquisition: in classical conditioning, learning to give a known response to a new stimulus, the neutral stimulus.

Classical Conditioning

Pavlov used classical conditioning to train his dogs.

Reflexive behavior

US (Meat) UR (Salivating)

Acquisition trials

NS (Bell) + US (Meat) UR (Salivating)

Acquisition demonstrated

CS (Bell) CR (Salivation)

Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning

CS = the organism LEARNED to respond to it.

US = the organism responds REFLEXIVELY

Classical Conditioning

In classical conditioning, the learner is passive – behavior is learned by association.

Presentation of the US strengthens or reinforces the behavior.

Video (The Office)

Strength of Conditioning

Delayed conditioning: ideal training – the NS precedes the US and they briefly overlap.Produces the strongest conditioning.

Simultaneous conditioning: NS and US are paired together at the same time.Produces weak conditioning.

Strength of Conditioning

Trace conditioning: NS presented first, removed, then the US is presented.Produces moderately strong conditioning.

Backward conditioning: US presented first and NS follows.Usually produces no conditioning.e.g. when a pregnant woman vomits hours after eating a burrito often will not eat a burrito again.

Little Albert Study

John B. Watson conditioning a nine-month-old infant known as Little Albert to fear a rat.

US = Loud noise

UR = Crying to loud noise

NS = The rat

CS = The rat

CR = Crying when seeing the rat

Little Albert Study

Extinction: repeatedly presenting a CS without an US leads to return of NS.e.g. showing the rat over and over with no loud noise.

Little Albert Study

Spontaneous recovery: after extinction, and without training, the previous CS suddenly elicits the CR again temporarily.e.g. seeing the rat after a short break, Little Albert starts crying again.

Little Albert Study

Generalization: stimuli similar to the CS also elicit the CR without training.Little Albert crying when he sees anything white and fuzzy.

Little Albert Study

Discrimination: the ability to tell the difference between stimuli so that only the CS elicits the CR.Little Albert NOT crying when he sees other white, fuzzy things.

Little Albert Study

Higher-order conditioning: classical conditioning in which a well-learned CS is paired with an NS to produce a CR to the NS.

The new CR is not as strong as the original CR.

e.g. Conditioning your dog to salivate to a light instead of a bell

Little Albert Study

Acquisition Trials:

NS (Light) + CS (Bell) CR (Salivation)

Acquisition Demonstrated:

new CS (Light) CR (Salivation)

Classical Aversive Conditioning

Conditioned taste aversion: an intense dislike and avoidance of a food because of its association with an unpleasant or painful stimulus through backward conditioning.

BELL RINGER1.11.2012

Think about the conditioning experiment from yesterday’s Bell Ringer (Martese, Toyin, and cookies).

What would happen if extinction occurred?

Spontaneous recovery?

Generalization?

Descrimination?

Operant Conditioning

learning that occurs when an active learner performs certain voluntary behavior and the consequences of the behavior (pleasant or unpleasant) determine the likelihood of its recurrence.

Thorndike’s Instrumental Conditioning

E.L. Thorndike experimented with hungry cats. He put them in “puzzle boxes” and placed a fish outside.

To get the fish, the cats stepped on a pedal, which opened the door.

Thorndike’s Instrumental Conditioning

Thorndike’s Instrumental Conditioning

The cats clawed at the door at first until they accidently stepped on the pedal.

The time it took the cats to escape gradually fell.

Thorndike’s Instrumental Conditioning

Thorndike called this instrumental learning: associative learning in which a behavior becomes more or less probable depending on its consequences.

Law of Effect: behaviors followed by positive consequences are strengthened while behaviors followed by annoying or negative consequences are weakened.

B.F. Skinner’s Training Procedures

The ABC’s of behavior:

A: antecedents (or stimuli) that are present before a behavior occurs.

B: behavior that the organism voluntarily emits.

C: consequences that follow the behavior.

B.F. Skinner’s Training Procedures

positive reinforcement: reward training, a rewarding consequence that follows a behavior or response that increases the probability that the response will occur again.

e.g. giving a child allowance after they do their chores

e.g. giving a piece of candy after a student gives the correct answer

B.F. Skinner’s Training Procedures

negative reinforcement: removal of an aversive (bad) consequence that follows a voluntary behavior thereby increasing the probability the behavior will be repeated.

e.g. taking an aspirin when you have a headache.

e.g. putting on your seatbelt when you hear the buzzer in your car.

B.F. Skinner’s Training Procedures

Reinforcement = increasing behavior!

Video (The Big Bang Theory)

DO NOW2.9.2011

Take out your reading notes to be checked.

THEN briefly describe the differences and similarities between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement.

B.F. Skinner’s Training Procedures

Positive punishment: an aversive (bad) consequence that follows a voluntary behavior, thereby decreasing the probability the behavior will be repeated.

e.g. every time a student talks out of turn they get shocked

e.g. bank fees when your overdraft

B.F. Skinner’s Training Procedures

Negative punishment (omission training): removal of a rewarding consequence that follows a voluntary behavior, thereby decreasing the probability the behavior will be repeated.

e.g. taking away your cell phone for getting bad grades

e.g. getting grounded for missing your curfew

B.F. Skinner’s Training Procedures

Punishment = decreasing behavior!

“Positive” = giving a consequence

“Negative” = taking something away

Operant Aversive Conditioning

Aversive conditioning is both negative reinforcement and punishment.

Avoidance behavior takes away the aversive stimulus before it begins.

e.g. a dog jumping over a hurdle to avoid an electric shock.

Operant Aversive Conditioning

Escape behavior takes away the aversive stimulus after it has already started.

e.g. the dog is shocked and jumps the hurdle to stop the shocking.

Operant Aversive Conditioning

Learned helplessness: the feeling of futility and passive resignation that results from the inability to avoid repeated aversive events

If it then becomes possible to avoid or escape the aversive stimuli, it is unlikely that the learner will respond.

BELL RINGER1.13.2012

Objective: SWBAT define and provide examples of latent learning, insight, social learning, and instinctive drift.

In your own words, provide an example of positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment & negative punishment.

Reinforcersprimary reinforcer: something that is biologically important, and thus, rewarding.e.g. food, sleep, oxygen

secondary reinforcer: something that is rewarding because it is associated with a primary reinforcer.e.g. money, points, gold stars

ReinforcersGeneralized Reinforcer: secondary reinforcer associated with a number of different primary reinforcers.e.g. money

ReinforcersToken economy: an operant conditioning training system that has been used extensively in mental hospitals and jails.

Tokens are given to positively reinforce desired behavior.

Tokens can then be exchanged for items and special privileges, like food, TV time, or weekend passes.

Teaching a New Behavior

Shaping: positively reinforcing closer and closer approximations of a desired behavior to teach a new behavior.

e.g. If I want my dog to eat in the laundry room instead of the kitchen, I might slowly move the bowl and reward the dog every time he eats at his new location. Eventually, he’ll be eating in the laundry room.

Teaching a New Behavior

Chaining: establishing a specific sequence of behaviors by initially positively reinforcing each behavior in a desired sequence, then later rewarding only the completed sequence.

Teaching a New Behavior

e.g. Trainers at an aquarium will train their animal to do a routine and reward the desired behavior step by step (jump, flip, splash). Eventually, they will only reward the animal when it does the entire sequence.

Schedules of Reinforcement

A schedule refers to the training program that states how and when reinforcers will be given to the learner.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement: schedule that provides reinforcement following the particular behavior every time it is emitted.Best for the acquisition of a new behavior.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Partial reinforcement (intermittent schedule): occasional reinforcement of a particular behavior.Produces responding that is more resistant to extinction.

4 types of partial reinforcement.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed ratio: reinforcement of a particular behavior after a specific number of responses.e.g. After answering a question correctly 5 times, you get a cookie.

Fixed interval: reinforcement of the first particular response made after a specific length of time.e.g. Only reward students who answer a question every 10 minutes.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Variable ratio: reinforcement of a particular behavior after a number of responses that changes at random around an average number.

e.g. Give a psych dollar when students answer a questions correctly following this schedule:1, 9, 3, 5, 7, 4, 2

Schedules of Reinforcement

Variable interval: reinforcement of the first particular response made after a length of time that changes at random around an average time period.

e.g. give out candy when a student answers a question correctly following this schedule:30 seconds, 2 minutes, 1 minute, 45 seconds, 90 seconds

Schedules of Reinforcement

Fixed (same amount)

Variable (different amount)

Interval (time)

Fixed interval reinforce at a constant time

Variable interval

reinforce at random times

Ratio (# of

responses)

Fixed ratioreinforce after a

constant number of responses

Variable ratioreinforce after a random number

of responses

DO NOW2.14.2011

Turn your CLASSICAL CONDITIONING projects in to the back tray.

Briefly describe one of the four types of partial reinforcement.fixed intervalfixed ratiovariable intervalvariable ratio

Reward every 30 times a rat presses the buttonFixed-ratio schedule

checking e-mail repeatedly to get the reward of a new messagevariable-interval schedule

Reinforcement Schedules

People who play slot machines in hopes of winning the jackpotvariable-ratio schedule

people checking for the mail as delivery time gets closerfixed-interval schedule

Reinforcement Schedules

fixed ratio: know how much behavior for reinforcement

fixed interval: know when behavior is reinforced

variable ratio: how much behavior for reinforcement changes

variable interval: when behavior is reinforced changes

Reinforcement Schedules

Not traditionally studied by behaviorists. Why?

Cognitive Processes in Learning

Cognitive theorists believe that humans and other animals are capable of forming expectations and consciously being motivated by rewards.

Contiguity model: the close time between the CS and the US in classical conditioning was most important for making the connection between the two stimuli and that the CS eventually substituted for the US.

The Contingency Model

Contingency model: in classical conditioning, the CS tells the organism that the US will follow. The key is how well the CS predicts the appearance of the UCS.

Blocking effect: when one cannot condition an organism to react to a NS because of a previously learned CS.

Delaying gratification often affects one’s decisions and behaviors.

The Contingency Model

learning in the absence of rewards.

Edward Tolman studied rats learning a maze.

Latent Learning

The experimental group did not receive an award for going through a maze for 10 days, while the other group did.

The rewarded group made significantly fewer errors navigating the maze.

On day 11, both groups were rewarded.

On day 12, the previously unrewarded group navigated the maze as well as the rewarded group, demonstrating latent learning.

Latent Learning

He hypothesized that the previously unrewarded rats formed a cognitive map or mental picture of the maze during the early nonreinforced trials.

Once they were rewarded, they expected future rewards and were motivated to improve.

Latent Learning

the sudden appearance of an answer or solution to a problem.

Wolfgang Kohler exposed chimpanzees to new learning tasks and concluded that they learn by insight.

Insight

A piece of fruit was placed outside a chimp’s cage beyond his reach, with a short stick inside the cage.

After several attempts to reach the fruit using the stick, the chimpanzee stopped trying and stared at the fruit.

Insight

Suddenly, he bolted up and used the short stick to reach a longer stick outside the cage, and then used the longer stick to reach the fruit.

NO conditioning had been used.

Insight

Suddenly, he bolted up and used the short stick to reach a longer stick outside the cage, and then used the longer stick to reach the fruit.

NO conditioning had been used.

Insight

Observational learning: learning that occurs by watching the behavior of a model.e.g. learning a new dance by first watching someone else do the dance.

The cognitive aspect comes in when you think through how the person is moving various body parts and, keeping that in mind, try to do it yourself.

Social Learning

Bobo doll study with Albert Bandura.

Social Learning

Mirror neurons in the premotor cortex and other portions of the temporal and parietal lobes provide a biological basis for observational learning.

These neurons are active when you perform an action, but also when you observe someone else perform a similar action.

Biological Factors in Learning

These neurons transform the sight of someone else’s action into the motor program you would use to do the same thing and to experience similar sensations or emotions, the basis of empathy.

Biological Factors in Learning

e.g. conditioned taste aversion

According to some psychologists, conditioned taste aversions are probably adaptive responses of organisms to foods that could sicken or kill them.

Preparedness Evolves

Preparedness: through evolution, animals are biologically predisposed to easily learn behaviors related to their survival as a species, and that behaviors contrary to an animal’s tendencies are learned slowly or not at all.e.g. people are more likely to fear snakes or spiders than flowers or happy faces.

Preparedness Evolves

There are biological constraints on the ease with which particular stimuli can be associated with particular responses.e.g. rats have a tendency to associate nausea and dizziness with tastes, but not with sights or sounds.

Rats also tend to associate pain with sights and sounds, but not with tastes.

Preparedness Evolves

a conditioned response that drifts back toward the natural (instinctive) behavior of the organism. e.g. wild rats in Skinner boxes sometimes reverted to scratching and biting the lever, instead of pressing it for a reward.

e.g. animal trainers who must stay vigilant even after training their animals because they may revert to dangerous behaviors.

Instinctive Drift

Classical conditioning

Classical conditioning paradigm

Classical conditioning learning curve

Strength of conditioning

Classical aversive conditioning

Operant conditioning

Questions?

Thorndike’s instrumental conditioning

Operant conditioning training procedures

Operant aversive conditioning

Reinforcers

Operant conditioning training schedules of reinforcement

Questions?

Cognitive processes in learning

The contingency model

Latent learning

Insight learning

Social learning

Questions?

Biological factors in learning

Preparedness evolves

Instinctive draft

Questions?