Beliefs about second language learning: the influence of learning context and learning purpose

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Beliefs about second language learning:the influence of learning context andlearning purposeSaleh Al-Osaimia & Martin Wedellba Institute for the Teaching of Arabic to Non-Arabs, Al-ImamUniversity, Riyadh, Saudi Arabiab School of Education, Leeds University, Leeds, UKPublished online: 26 Mar 2012.

To cite this article: Saleh Al-Osaimi & Martin Wedell (2014) Beliefs about second language learning:the influence of learning context and learning purpose, The Language Learning Journal, 42:1, 5-24,DOI: 10.1080/09571736.2012.661753

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Beliefs about second language learning: the influence of learning context

and learning purpose

Saleh Al-Osaimia* and Martin Wedellb

aInstitute for the Teaching of Arabic to Non-Arabs, Al-Imam University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia;bSchool of Education, Leeds University, Leeds, UK

Much second language acquisition research in recent decades has assumed thata learner’s main purpose for learning a second language (L2) is to developcommunicative competence. Consequently, many studies have focused oninvestigating ways in which teachers and/or the learning environment maysupport the development of such competence. In particular, it has been arguedthat L2 learning is facilitated when learners interact, particularly inconversation with native speakers. Further, natural settings in which thelearner is in contact with native speakers appear to lead to a higher level of L2proficiency. Studies of learners of Arabic tend to agree with this view. NativeArabic-speaking contexts are of course diglossic, with local and standardvarieties being used for different purposes. Research suggests that studentsbelieve it is most useful to learn the local variety of Arabic – the colloquialvariety – for the sake of communication with native speakers. This articlereports on a study of beliefs about learning L2 Arabic held by students of 61nationalities at the Institute for the Teaching of Arabic to Non-Arabs(ITANA), in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Analysis of data from questionnaires andinterviews highlighted students’ belief cluster, based on a perceived strong linkbetween the Arabic language and Islam, the religion of the participants. Otherelements of the cluster consisted of beliefs concerning the importance ofgrammar, memorization and accuracy, and also the relative value of learninglocal and standard varieties of Arabic. It was found that in the conservativeeducational culture of ITANA and the wider context of Riyadh and SaudiArabia, students’ own purposes for learning, which were largely religious, ledto beliefs about Arabic learning that supported ‘traditional methods’ ofinstruction and resisted attempts to introduce ways of learning based oncommunicative approaches. The findings remind us that learning context andlearning purpose are powerful influences on beliefs about what is helpful forthe process of L2 learning, and that where communicative competence is notthe goal of such learning, beliefs may differ considerably from those reportedin much of the contemporary literature.

Introduction

It is a generally held assumption among theorists and researchers of second languageacquisition (SLA) that the main purpose of learning a second language (L2) is

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

� 2012 Association for Language Learning

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communicative competence. Many studies have argued that L2 learning is facilitatedwhen learners interact, particularly in conversation with native speakers (Long 1996;Gass 2003; Mackey and Abbuhl 2005; Gass and Mackey 2006; Gass and Selinker2008). Ellis (2008: 289) notes that where learners are learning in natural settings inwhich they have contact with native speakers, they are likely to achieve a higher levelof L2 proficiency. Studies of learners of Arabic tend to confirm this view. In mostcontexts, students have been found to be primarily interested in learning the localvariety of Arabic – the colloquial variety – for the sake of communication withnative speakers (Belnap 1987, 1995; Kuntz and Belnap 2001).

At the same time, teachers in some cultural contexts may resist what Levitt (2001)has called ‘essential change’ in line with this assumption, being unwilling or unableto develop students’ communicative ability and abandon established grammar-translation teaching practices. Examples have been found in Japan (Gorsuch 2000),Taiwan (Wang 2002) and Libya (Orafi and Borg 2009). Teachers’ behaviour is alsoconstrained by local contextual factors such as student resistance and lack ofresources (see, for example, Johnson, Monk and Swain 2000). This failure toimplement innovation is usually seen as having a deleterious effect on students’learning, but this study argues that, taking into consideration their purposes forlearning, students’ unwillingness to accept new methods may be reasonable ratherthan harmful to their learning or motivation, especially in a context wherecommunicative competence is not the main aim of language learning. This was themain finding of the study we present here.

Context

ITANA

The Institute for the Teaching of Arabic to Non-Arabs (ITANA) in Riyadh, SaudiArabia, was established in 1977 as one of five institutes teaching Arabic as a ForeignLanguage to non-native speakers. The aims of these TAFL (Teaching Arabic as aForeign Language) institutions are to instruct non-Arabs in the Islamic and Arabicsciences and to teach them Islamic culture and the Arabic language. As well aspreparing students for further studies at the universities to which they are attached,the institutes have a social objective: to serve the Islamic nation by teaching thepeople about their religion. Thus at ITANA as elsewhere, the organization of thecurriculum emphasizes the close link between the Islamic religion and the Arabiclanguage.

The policies and practices of Saudi Arabia’s TAFL institutions in general, andITANA in particular, are influenced by the culture of the university of which they area part, and by the wider educational culture of the country. It is a fair generalizationto say that the educational system in Saudi Arabia is based on rote learning whichfocuses on memorization and the transmission of information more than thedevelopment of analytical thinking and creative ability. ITANA is attached to theAl-Imam Muhammed Ibn Saud Islamic University (IMISIU), located in Riyadh, asocially and educationally conservative city, and consequently its educational culturemay also be characterized as conservative and ‘traditional’. There is an emphasis onthe study of ancient texts, and classwork is initiated and controlled by the teacher;the student is not regarded as an active participant in the teaching–learning process.Both religious and literary studies serve the main target, which is learning the Arabiclanguage. The teaching methods used are those common before 1987, the year in

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which the course books were published (they have not been revised since), and arebased on the audio-lingual approach, combined with a focus on grammar and thememorization of vocabulary lists. Thus at ITANA there is a ‘conserving’ attitude toknowledge and a ‘reproductive’ learning approach (Ballard 1996). Languageassessment has strong ‘washback’ (Schmitt 2002). Most students come fromeducational backgrounds that are similar to ITANA in that they emphasizecorrectness and success in exams. The textbooks, the assessment system, teachers’methods and students’ backgrounds together create an environment where the focusis on the structure of the language, and memorization is used to achieve a high levelof accuracy. Such an environment is likely to foster and reinforce certain beliefsabout the way Arabic should be learnt.

The programme at ITANA lasts for two years. All students are male and Muslimand are divided into four levels from beginner to advanced. Upon completion of theprogramme, the graduate is awarded a certificate in Language Preparation whichqualifies him to attend any course in any faculty within the University where Arabicis the medium of teaching. It can also serve as the necessary preparation for a furthertwo-semester, one-year course Diploma in Teaching Arabic and Islamic Studies (tonon-Arabs) in his home country, which can be awarded by ITANA. Before thecollapse of the Soviet Union, most students came from African countries; many nowcome from, for example, Chechnya, Serbia and Ukraine. All are granted generousscholarships and live on campus, and it is assumed that they wish to acquire theability to read and understand Arabic, and to learn about Islam.

Arabic and diglossia

Arabic is the key to understanding the Arabs, their culture, literature and legacy. It isthe language of Islam, being the vehicle through which the Quran was revealed. Itsreligious importance gives it its international prestige. Most Arabs, especiallyMuslims, are convinced of its pre-eminence among world languages, and even non-Arab Muslims tend to regard it as privileged, unique and miraculous, just as theQuran itself is regarded as a divine miracle. Arabic, however, is not one language butconsists of a number of local colloquial varieties as well as the Standard, which isvery close to the classical tongue.

The phenomenon known as ‘diglossia’ exists where different varieties of alanguage have distinctive social functions (Crystal 2003). In the case of Arabic,(Spolsky 1998; Crystal 2003; Husseinali 2006; Joseph 2006), two distinct varieties areused side by side by the same speech community, depending on situational andcontextual factors (Alosh 2005). The local vernacular (LV) is used for day-to-daysocial intercourse and is regarded by many Arabs as inferior to the Standard, beingthe language of illiterate and ‘vulgar’ people (Alosh 2005). On the other hand, theStandard can sound pretentious when spoken in informal situations. Diglossia posesa challenge to learners of Arabic who wish to communicate with others in their targetlanguage, as to do so they need to learn both varieties and know when to use them(Kuntz and Belnap 2001; Heider 2008).

Beliefs

There seems to be no generally acceptable definition of ‘beliefs’. While some scholarsdeplore this (see Pajares 1992), others see no need to articulate precise definitions

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(see Verloop, Van Driel and Meijer 2001; Woods 2003). The consensus, however, isthat beliefs have affective, social and religious dimensions besides a cognitivedimension. Price (1969) distinguishes belief that (assent to an existential proposition)from belief in (evaluative and affective, necessarily including esteem or trust). Beliefsinfluence motivation, attitudes and learning procedures (Riley 1996, 1997). Theymove us to action in the service of our purposes and desires (Armstrong 1973).

Learner beliefs

Learners’ beliefs can be strong mediating factors in their classroom experience(Lightbown and Spada 2006). Learners actively interpret classroom activitiesaccording to their prior experiences, needs and goals (Woods 2003). Horwitz (1985)found that students expressed belief in the concept of foreign language aptitude, andbelieved that some languages are easier to learn than others and that listening andrepeating are important. A further study (Horwitz 1987) confirmed these findings,and additionally found that students believed learning in a target languageenvironment facilitates language learning, and that the most important part oflearning a language is learning vocabulary and grammar rules. Ellis (2002) also notesthat many adult learners expect the study of grammar to be included in languageteaching; they view it as a central component and feel that systematic coverage ofgrammar gives them a clear sense of progression. An emphasis on grammar iscongruent with an emphasis on memorization and accuracy (Wenden 1986: 193;Benson and Lor 1999: 459) and students may tend to assign particular importance toaccuracy (McCargar 1993; Schulz 1996). Ellis (2008: 803, 860) notes that manylearners value error correction and points to clear evidence that correcting learnererrors can result in definite gains in accuracy.

Other studies have also found that students tend to have more favourableattitudes towards formal instruction and error correction than their teachers(Peacock 1998; Schulz 1996, 2001; McCargar 1993; Samimy and Lee 1997; Borg2003). Ellis (2008: 698) notes that while learners who are strongly willing tocommunicate may benefit from CLT (Communicative Language Teaching), otherswho are not so willing may be better served by more traditional instructionalapproaches. Learners’ beliefs about language learning tend to originate from theirL2 learning experiences, particularly in secondary school (Horwitz 1985; Kern 1995).Beliefs about learning should be viewed as functional in a given context of learning(Benson and Lor 1999). Students’ beliefs may also be influenced by their actual needs(Willing 1993; Peacock 1999).

There are few studies of Arabic learners’ beliefs. Smadi and Al-Abed Al-Haq(1998) investigated the beliefs of American students on an Arabic summer courseand found that, in general, they were communicatively oriented. Other studies havealso found that students were primarily interested in communication (Belnap 1987,1995; Kuntz and Belnap 2001). In Kuntz’s (1996) study, students saw Arabic as alanguage of business, politics and employment as well as of religion.

Belief systems

Beliefs are not generally regarded as being held in isolation from other beliefs, andare often seen as difficult to separate from other aspects of cognition (see, forexample, Woods 2003) and as forming a philosophy (Abraham and Vann 1987).


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Rokeach (1968) proposes an ‘atomic’ analogy in which central beliefs are moreresistant to change than the peripheral beliefs. Green (1971) similarly conceives beliefsystems as composed of primary and derived beliefs; their varying importance isrelated to their psychological centrality, to the strength with which they are held.Core beliefs are least susceptible to change, while the more peripheral are moresubject to examination and alteration.

Methodology

Purpose of the study

This study investigates one group of students’ beliefs – their belief system or cluster –about learning Arabic, and the reasons offered for those beliefs, particularly concerningthe nature and status of Arabic, and the importance given to grammar, memorizationand accuracy. We also explore the influence of the learning environment and thediglossic nature of Arabic as evidenced on campus and in Riyadh. We are particularlyinterested in students’ purposes for learning, and whether they are congruent with thecurrent international consensus that the main aim of learning a L2, irrespective ofcontext, is communicative competence. The main themes explored in this article are:

. students’ beliefs about themselves as learners of Arabic,

. their beliefs about the successful learning of Arabic,

. their beliefs about the Arabic language in terms of its ease and difficulty, and

. their beliefs about the Arabic language learning context (ITANA).

This study is part of a larger survey investigating the beliefs of both learners andteachers; while the focus here is primarily on students’ beliefs, occasional referencewill be made to findings on teachers’ beliefs.

Participants

Since level 1 students were unlikely to be competent enough in the target language toparticipate in the study, only students at levels 2, 3 and 4 participated. The wholepopulation (N ¼ 142 students) completed a self-report questionnaire. The studentswere between 16 and 51 years old (75% were between 20 and 26) and spoke 65mother tongues between them. Thirteen percent had a university degree and 70%had studied Arabic before entering ITANA. A total of 36 participants were invitedto take part in follow-up interviews, 12 from each of the 3 levels.

Data collection

This study’s research paradigm is essentially interpretive, aiming to ‘understandvalues, beliefs and meanings of social phenomena’ (Kim 2003; see also Smith andHeshusius 1986). The quantitative data from the questionnaire (N ¼ 142) providedan overview of the beliefs of the target population and highlighted themes for furtherinvestigation. Qualitative data from interviews (N ¼ 36) then enabled more in-depthinterpretation.

The questionnaire (see Appendix 1) was written in the target language (Arabic)and comprised two sections: the first requested background information while thesecond focused on student beliefs, using Likert-scale (items 1–42), multiple-choice


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(items 43–46), ranking (items 47 and 48) and a final open-ended question asking forany further comments about learning Arabic at ITANA or any other aspect ofITANA. In devising the questionnaire, existing inventories of learner beliefs (e.g. Al-Shuwairekh 2004; Cotterall 1995, 1999; Horwitz 1985; Kuntz and Belnap 2001) wereexamined and appropriate items were modified to suit the context of this research. Apre-pilot study was conducted with three AFL learners (one from each level) and twoteachers, followed by a pilot study with advanced AFL learners studying for theDiploma in Teaching Arabic, and a further two teachers. The reliability of the finalquestionnaire was confirmed by a Cronbach Alpha value of 0.85.

Four sets of interviews were then conducted, each cycle involving nine students(three from each of the three levels). The interviews were conducted in Arabic, andbegan with a discussion of the interviewee’s response to the open-ended question (seeAppendix 2 for the interview guidelines). Interviewees were allowed to structure theinterview to some extent in order to have the freedom to speak spontaneously. Thusit is important to note that not all topics were discussed by every interviewee and notall interviewees were asked the same questions; lines of questioning evolved duringindividual interviews and from cycle to cycle. All interviews were recorded andtranscribed, and interviewees were given the opportunity to double-check thetranscripts for clarification and to provide feedback.

Data analysis

A descriptive analysis was carried out on the students’ responses to the questionnaireitems. As for the qualitative data, the transcripts of the interviews, the open-endedresponses in the questionnaires and memos made during fieldwork were readrepeatedly as Marshall and Rossman (2006) recommend, in order to develop a codingframework for analysis. Content analysis was conducted in an iterative manner andcoding performed abductively (Dornyei 2007). The software NVivo7 was used toorganize the coding. Anonymity was preserved by using symbols instead of names inregard to both the responses to the open-ended question and the interview data.

Findings

Analysis of the data suggested that students’ beliefs about learning Arabicconstituted a system or cluster, the core belief being the strong link between Arabicand Islam. Other important beliefs concerned grammar, accuracy, memorization andthe diglossic environment. The context (ITANA, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia) and thestudents’ purposes and preoccupations were influential. Below we consider students’beliefs in relation to the key themes mentioned in the previous section.

Tables 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 below show the percentages of students disagreeing (D),unsure (U) and agreeing (A) with a questionnaire statement; responses of ‘stronglydisagree’ and ‘disagree’ have been conflated here, as have those of ‘strongly agree’ and‘agree’. The median (Mdn) score is also given and the range between highest and lowestscores (Rge). Appendix 1 shows the detailed quantitative results from the questionnaire.

Students’ beliefs about themselves as learners of Arabic

Table 1 gives the results for questionnaire items 1, 3, 5, 7, 8 and 9. The overwhelmingmajority agreed that learning Arabic was important to them (96%: 136 students) and


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that they enjoyed learning Arabic (93%: 132 students). The qualitative dataconfirmed this. There was also consensus that speaking Arabic well was important(95%: 135 students), but a slightly lower proportion (86%: 122 students) agreed thatthey enjoyed practising Arabic with others. In the interviews, an important reasongiven for speaking was to call others to Islam. To call (dawa) here means to introduceothers to Islam or invite them to practise true Islam; this is a voluntary religiousduty. Thirty-eight percent (54 students) nevertheless admitted embarrassment whenspeaking to others. This was clarified in the qualitative data: the difficulty appearedto be related to the coexistence of the LV and the Standard forms. As one studentput it: ‘I like to speak but I avoid doing so as natives speak the local vernacular andtease me when I speak the Standard I learnt at ITANA.’

In the interviews, many students (25) mentioned that they saw themselves asknowledge seekers. This is a characteristic Islamic concept: knowledge seeking meansthat every type of learning, even if it is not specifically religious, is intended by thelearner to be used for religious ends and in the hope of receiving rewards from Allah.Students linked being a knowledge seeker to serving Islam and calling others toIslam. These seemed to be motivations for their learning, and emphasized theperceived strong link between Arabic and Islam; between learning the language andpropagating the religion (we discuss these points further below).

Students’ beliefs about the successful learning of Arabic

As can be seen from Table 2, the great majority (90%: 132 students) agreed with item23 that practice with others was essential for successful language learning. Slightlyfewer (86%: 122 students) thought that they should find opportunities to practiseoutside class (item 22), and fewer still (74%: 105 students) felt that immersion inSaudi society was essential to learn Arabic well (item 6). Regarding speaking in class(item 21), 70% (100 students) believed that the teacher should speak more than thelearners. At the same time, however, it should be noted that 84% agreed withquestionnaire item 16, that students should be given opportunities to practise andspeak most of the time. The interview data shed some light on this apparentinconsistency; it was clear that students understood practising speaking in class asasking questions and seeking clarification from the teacher, rather than interactingwith the other students.

The qualitative data also suggested that students believed that practice should bebased on classroom work with a focus on learning the forms of the language. Manystudents (9 out of the 13 who raised this point) considered that it was the duty of

Table 1. Questionnaire results for students’ beliefs about themselves as learners.

Item D U A Mdn Rge

1 It is important to me to learn Arabic very well 1.4 2.1 95.8 5 43 I believe that I will learn Arabic successfully 7 4.9 86.7 5 45 I believe speaking Arabic well is important to me 2.1 2.8 95.1 5 47 I enjoy learning Arabic 0.7 4.9 93 5 38 I enjoy practising Arabic with others 2.8 8.5 85.9 5 39 I feel embarrassed when speaking Arabic in

front of others50.7 7.7 38.1 2 4


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both ITANA and their teachers to provide and control opportunities to practise,even outside ITANA. For example:

The Dean should compel ITANA to provide students with an hour a day at ITANA oreven outside to practise speaking and communicating in Arabic so that they learn toexpress themselves and preach [lecture] in Arabic.

In the interviews, no student challenged the teacher-led nature of instruction atITANA, and a number (8 students) explicitly expressed the belief that it was beneficialfor their learning. Students also emphasized being a knowledge seeker and passingexams to enter university as features of the successful learner of Arabic. Students (20),particularly at level 4, stressed the importance of memorization of Islamic materials.No student mentioned the ability to use the language to communicate with others.

Immersion and the LV

Not all students recognized that immersion would entail speaking the LV; some ofthose interviewed (10 students) assumed that local native speakers would easily be ableand willing to use the Standard. While almost all who raised this issue (24 students intotal) saw immersion in principle as an important factor contributing to languagelearning, few (4) believed that practising the LV would be useful for their learning; infact, more than twice as many (9) stated that learning the LV would not be useful andshould be ignored, and more still (11) felt that it could be harmful. For example, onestudent argued that learning the LV ‘hinders the learning of the Standard as it is not thelanguage of educated people’. Students did not seem to be concerned that they might bedeprived of the benefits of interacting with native speakers in the L2 community.

Grammar, memorization and accuracy

Table 3 gives the results for the questionnaire items relevant to this theme. Responseshighlight the importance students gave to learning grammar (and its associated

Table 2. Questionnaire results for students’ beliefs about successful learning.

Item D U A Mdn Rge

2 I believe that speaking Arabic is essential forme to learn Arabic

1.4 5.6 92.9 5 3

4 My own effort plays the most important role insuccessful Arabic language learning

7 4.9 86.7 4 4

6 I believe that being immersed in Saudi society isessential for me to learn Arabic well

16.9 8.5 73.9 4 4

16 During class, students should be given the chance andencouraged to practise and speak most of the time

7.7 8.5 83.8 5 4

20 I should find opportunities to practise what I amlearning at ITANA in class

9.9 13.5 76.6 4 4

21 During class, most of the time, the teacher shouldspeak more than the students

20.4 9.2 70.4 4 4

22 I should find opportunities to practise what I amlearning at ITANA outside class

4.2 9.9 85.9 4 4

23 Practising Arabic with others is essential to learningArabic well

2.8 7.1 90.1 5 4


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elements in Arabic: morphology and parsing – hereafter referred to as GMP). Thiswas confirmed by all 36 interviewees. The reasons given included: GMP helps in thecorrect production and pronunciation of Arabic, GMP is the foundation of Arabic,and GMP is important owing to the particularity of the language. A few (fourstudents) said that memorizing vocabulary, phrases and expressions was moreimportant than memorizing grammar rules. Memorization and practice werebelieved by the majority to be essential to the learning of GMP.

Responses to questionnaire items 15 and 17 highlight students’ strong orientationtowards accuracy. Most students (85%: 121 students) further agreed that the teachershould correct all their errors. In the qualitative data, of the 15 students who reflectedon the relative importance of accuracy vs. fluency, the majority (11) felt that accuracywas more important than fluency; some (4) linked the need for accuracy to theStandard and the need for fluency to the LV. Several students (8) mentioned specificallythat being accurate was a religious duty when calling others to Islam. For example:

Arabic is the language of religion and when we call we should be accurate and there isno room for error, as the Prophet said ‘Whoever misquotes me will be in Hell fire.’

However, some (4 students) at level 4 did not agree that perfect accuracy whenspeaking is essential, even when calling. For example:

The most important thing is that the learner delivers his message even without accuratelanguage as correctness will come over time after getting used to using the language a lot.

These students’ experience of the language had convinced them that two years wasnot enough to enable the learner to speak and write with perfect accuracy, whichmight be achieved only after many years of assiduous study.

The link between Arabic and Islam

Ninety-two percent of students (130) agreed with questionnaire item 26: ‘I believethat studying Arabic is essential in order to learn about Islam’. This high level ofconsensus was supported by the qualitative data. Typical comments included:

Table 3. Questionnaire responses for grammar, memorization and accuracy.

Item D U A Mdn Rge

10 Learning Arabic depends mostly on learning a lotof new words

2.8 15.5 81.7 4 4

11 Learning Arabic depends mostly on learning a lotof grammar

3.5 5.6 90.8 5 4

12 Learning Arabic depends mostly on learningmorphology

2.1 10.5 87.4 4 4

13 Learning Arabic depends mostly on learning to parse 4.9 9.2 85.9 4 414 Learning Arabic depends mostly on memorization 16.3 22 61.7 4 415 The teacher should correct all my errors 7 7.7 85.2 5 417 When doing a reading assignment, I should look

up all unknown words in a dictionary or ask theteacher about them

9.2 7.7 83.1 5 4

19 I should not say anything in Arabic until I can say itcorrectly

49.3 10 40.7 3 4


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The Arabic language is very important, primarily because it is the language of the Quranand also because the Prophet (peace be upon him) spoke Arabic. Anyway, if you didn’tknow Arabic, how would you read Islamic books?

Of course Arabic is extremely important for knowing Islam yourself without a mediatorbetween you and your religion

Arabic is essential for knowledge seekers.

Ten students also expressed the belief that they would benefit in the hereafter fromlearning Arabic as it is ‘a holy language’ and ‘the language of Paradise’. Meanwhile,looking at the link from the opposite direction, several students (8) argued thatstudying Islam is important when learning Arabic:

Studying Islam is important when learning Arabic . . . due to the strong link betweenthem.

Citations from the Quran help me a lot in learning Arabic. The Arabic language andIslam are like twins.

However, there was also disagreement on this point, with eight students voicing thebelief that learning about Islam did not necessarily help with learning Arabic.

Ease and difficulty of Arabic

Questionnaire items 44, 45, 46 and 48 probed students’ judgements on the difficultyof learning Arabic. Asked to estimate how long it would take to learn Arabic wellbased on their current learning regime of 5 hours a day (item 44), the majority of thestudents felt that more than two years (the length of the ITANA course) wasrequired. Typical reasons given for this in interviews included: ‘Arabic isn’t just forcommunication like English is: it’s for literature, religion and so on’ and ‘Arabic hassome distinctive features such as parsing that don’t exist in other languages’. Asshown in Table 4, the majority of students judged Arabic and GMP to be of‘medium difficulty’. Interview data suggested that they used memorization as astrategy to overcome difficulties.

In ranking the difficulty of the four skills (item 48), the greatest number ofstudents (45, or 32%) judged listening the most difficult skill while reading wasjudged the least difficult by 35% (49 students). On specific difficulties in learningArabic, students generally agreed that they experienced difficulties in relation toshort vowels (82% agreement on item 24) and parsing (90% agreement on item 25).Interestingly, a number of final-level students indicated at interview that they hadcome to see short vowels and parsing as not at all easy. This contrasts with receivedwisdom in TAFL (see, for example, Al-Batal 1995, and confirmed by some of ourinterviews with teachers) that short vowels are difficult for beginners but relativelyeasy for more advanced learners.

Table 4. Questionnaire responses on ease/difficulty of learning Arabic.

Item Very easy Easy Medium difficulty Difficult V. difficult

45 Arabic is . . . 4.2 16.2 45.8 15.5 18.346 Arabic grammar is . . . 2.8 12.8 45.4 25.5 13.5


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Students’ beliefs about the learning context (ITANA)

As Table 5 shows, students generally agreed that ITANA supported theirlearning; 75% (107 students) were satisfied with their progress in Arabic (item 28)and 89% (125 students) enjoyed the classes (item 41). Just over 50% (76students) thought the length of the course was adequate for their needs andpurposes (item 27). In the interviews, few students (3) were critical of the coursebooks, in sharp contrast to the opinion of most teachers (Al-Osaimi 2010).However, while the qualitative data indicated that most students (14) whodiscussed the issue were satisfied with the teaching at ITANA, 5 complained thatthey sometimes received mixed messages and criticized the approach of someteachers. For example:

The only thing that annoys me is that most teachers tell us to keep reviewing GMP butsome say ‘Don’t memorize the rules, GMP in itself isn’t important, go and speak even ifyou make mistakes in your grammar.’ Who’s right?

Some teachers keep on pushing us to speak –‘Speak, speak, speak, OK?’ I don’t haveanything to say, I like to listen to the knowledge from teachers who say to us‘Knowledge needs listening and comprehension, not talking, talking.’

Students who complained about this kind of teaching approach assumed that theteachers adopting it were either inexperienced or unprofessional.

Table 5. Students’ beliefs about their context of learning.

Item D U A Mdn Range

27 The duration of study at ITANA is enough for meto learn Arabic very well

30.9 14.4 54.7 4 4

28 Considering the amount of time I have studiedArabic at ITANA, I am satisfied with myprogress

13.4 11.3 75.3 4 4

29 The content of the Arabic course at ITANA willbe enough to enable me to speak andunderstand Arabic very well

29.1 16.3 54.6 4 4

30 The content of the Arabic course at ITANA willbe enough to enable me to read and writeArabic very well

21.8 16.9 61.3 4 4

31 Textbooks at ITANA encourage memorisation 27.4 19 53.5 4 434 The testing system in ITANA is helpful for my

learning of Arabic5.6 5.6 88.7 4 4

36 I am satisfied with the Arabic education I receiveat ITANA

7.7 8.5 83.8 4 4

37 I believe that the Arabic education that I receiveat ITANA is enough for me to understand themedia

27.2 23.6 48.9 3 4

38 I believe that the Arabic education that I receiveat ITANA is enough for me to immerse myselfcomfortably in Saudi society

14.8 19.7 65.5 4 4

39 I believe that the Arabic education that I receiveat ITANA will be enough to qualify me to enterthe university

4.9 9.9 85.2 4 4

41 I enjoy the Arabic classes at ITANA 4.2 7.1 88.6 5 4


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Most students (14) who commented on this issue believed that ITANA was helpingthem to immerse themselves in the local community, but a number (10) assumed thatlocals would be able and willing to use the Standard in conversation with them. Few(4 only) made any attempt to learn the LV, and failed when they did so. Students wouldspeak the Standard with other non-Arab students, but found that even Saudi studentswould only speak the Saudi dialect, which they did not understand. Guest workers’speech was quite unintelligible to them. Students generally regarded the LV as thelanguage of uneducated people, especially off the campus, which some students (8) wereunwilling to leave. Thus the students became aware of the problem represented by thecoexistence of two levels of language. Some (8 students) thought they could cope byusing only the Standard; others (6 students) did not.

Discussion

The data analysed above suggest that students’ beliefs were influenced in variousways and to various degrees by external contextual factors (the educationalculture and the diglossic environment in Saudi Arabia and in Riyadh particularly,and at the micro level, ITANA and its classrooms); and by their own purposes,concerns, experiences and existing knowledge, which may be viewed as theirpersonal context. In particular, a crucial link between the wider contextual andthe more personal factors emerges in the perceived connection between Arabicand Islam. This connection is seen as constituting the core belief, influencingother beliefs in various ways. Figure 1 represents the belief cluster and thecontextual factors which reinforce it. The other elements of the system or clusterconcerning the learning of Arabic were related to memorization (Memo) as astrategy, accuracy as a goal, the importance of GMP, and disglossia, i.e. theproblematic coexistence of the Standard and the LV both on and off campus.Some particular beliefs, such as the need to speak perfectly accurately at all times,were peripheral in that they were moderated as students gained experience of thelanguage. ITANA supported and reinforced students’ purposes for learning, eventhough some teachers were attempting to introduce new approaches into theclassroom. These innovations were often criticized by students in the interviews(for further details, see Al-Osaimi 2010).

While non-Muslim learners of Arabic may acknowledge the link between Arabicand Islam, their beliefs about learning the language will not be directly motivated byreligious faith. Although belief in this link is not itself a belief about languagelearning, Muslim learners, especially those with a strong religious motivation to

Figure 1. The contextual factors and belief cluster at ITANA.


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learn, will tend to see Islam and (Standard) Arabic as inseparable, and this tends toinfluence their beliefs not only about the status of Arabic (as divine, miraculous) butalso about why and how it should be learnt.

Most students surveyed affirmed that they were learning Arabic to understandIslam, including the Quran and hadith. They considered oral skills importantprimarily for religious purposes. For them, the learner of Arabic was a knowledgeseeker, one of whose obligations is to call others to Islam. Sharing or delivering theIslamic message requires the caller to be accurate when carrying out this duty.ITANA encourages students to be accurate, to memorize and to practise, and itssocial objective is to serve the Islamic nation. Thus the curriculum supports the beliefthat Arabic and Islam are inseparable.

Students’ comments indicated that they were interested in serving the broaderMuslim community and especially serving Islam in their own country. For them,seeking knowledge was a lifetime commitment and calling was a long-term goal thatwould be reached after returning home. Their integrative motivation thereforerelated to a future context and community rather than to the immediate context ofRiyadh. This helps to explain why students were not particularly interested inimmersing themselves in the local community or in learning the LV. Almost allstudents associated Muslim culture with the Standard, not the LV, which manyregarded as at best not useful for their learning. In this they differed from otherlearners of Arabic discussed in the literature. Thus negative beliefs about the value ofimmersion for their learning purposes, an emphasis on learning the Standard withinITANA, and some students’ negative experiences of trying to interact with localSaudis all reinforced each other and discouraged students from seeking to benefitfrom opportunities for interaction available in the L2 environment.

Students instead tended to focus on learning the forms of the language,concerning themselves with the study of GMP and the memorization of vocabularyand expressions, as well as Islamic materials. They aimed at accuracy in theproductive skills especially. These preoccupations reflected their religious andacademic purposes for learning. Students believed strongly in the importance ofmemorization and its role in learning. Because they did not separate the language ofIslam from Islam itself, the idea of memorizing Islamic materials as a religious dutyseemed to influence their attitude to memorizing aspects of the language.

There were, however, some differences in beliefs between the final level (level 4)students and those at levels 2 and 3. Horwitz (1999) and Wenden (1998) both suggestthat learners at different proficiency levels will have acquired different levels ofknowledge about language learning, which will in turn influence their approach tolearning and their expectations about the outcomes of their efforts. This studysuggests that advanced (level 4) students at ITANA no longer believed that beingcompletely accurate at all times in speaking was possible. Moreover, students atadvanced level may amend their beliefs and views as a result of their currentpriorities. Students at level 4 mentioned that Islamic literature had to be memorizedas this was necessary to achieve entry to the University and that they were concernedto meet the requirements of the next stage of their learning.

Conclusions

Studies of learners’ beliefs about L2 learning tend to assume that the main aim oflanguage learning is the development of communicative competence. This study,


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however, suggests that in the context of ITANA, students’ aims and purposes forlearning Arabic were very different. At ITANA, the main aim of learning wasproficiency in the Standard language in order to fulfil roles linked to religious faith.Students’ projections of themselves as knowledge seekers and callers to Islam in theirown country, together with concerns about the diglossic environment in Riyadh,overrode any beliefs about the importance of practising oral skills and immersion inthe L2 community. Learners were conservative in their attitudes to learning – aconservatism rooted in their religious faith – and the ‘traditional’ instructionalapproach at ITANA suited students’ needs well.

It is interesting to note that ITANA teachers interviewed as part of the largerstudy (Al-Osaimi 2010) varied in the degree to which they espoused ‘traditional’views of language teaching, depending on their qualifications and experience. Thosewith no qualifications in teaching Arabic tended to be the most conservative; thosewith a TAFL qualification and experience of study abroad (including learning aforeign language, usually English, in the L2 environment) had returned to ITANAconvinced of the value of CLT approaches and eager to practise what they hadlearnt. The Institute did not discourage these teachers’ attempts to influencestudents, for example, to be less concerned with memorization and accuracy, buttheir efforts were resisted by students themselves, who preferred to retain theirtraditional ways of learning.

The students’ belief system, then, was highly coherent. Their goals wereconsistent with their beliefs about learning Arabic, based on the core belief in thestrong link between Arabic and Islam. In the existing literature on beliefs in SLA(including Arabic as a foreign language), there is no reference to the potentialsignificance of religious motivation. In this study, students linked their concern foraccuracy to their concept of religious duty to comprehend and deliver the Islamicmessage. No evidence was found that their beliefs reduced their motivation to learnor were detrimental to their learning, given their purposes. The implication of thisstudy is thus that it is inadvisable to assume that the main focus of L2 learningshould be on communicative competence, irrespective of context, or that it isjustifiable to go against students’ expectations in order to institute approaches whichmay be considered effective in current theory.

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Appendix 1. The questionnaire (English translation)

Note: In section 2, the percentages shown in italics represent the proportion of studentresponses. It should be noted that not all percentages add up to 100%. This is because on a fewitems, some participants failed to indicate their response.

Section 1: background information:

The questions below are for research purposes only, and your individual answers will not bemade available to anyone and will not affect you in any way. Please answer the followingquestions or tick the answers that best apply to you.

(1) Your name .................................................................................................................(2) Your nationality: ........................... Please also write it in English ...........................(3) Your mother tongue: ....................... Please also write it in English ........................(4) Your age: ................................................................................................ ...................(5) Your level at ITANA (please tick one of the following): 2nd level ( ) 3rd level ( ) 4th

level ( )(6) What was your highest academic qualification before you came to ITANA?(7) At what level did you start learning Arabic at ITANA? (please tick one of the

following):1st level ( ) 2nd level ( ) 3rd level ( ) 4th level ( )

(8) Did you study a particular level more than once? Yes ( ) No ( ).(9) If yes, which level/s? ...................... How many times for each level? ......................(10) How long have you been studying at ITANA? (Number of years/months you have

studied Arabic here)(11) Did you study Arabic before you came to ITANA? Yes ( ) No ( ).(12) If yes, for how long? ................................................................................................ ..(13) Why are you studying Arabic now? (Please tick just one main reason).

1. I like the Arabic language 4. To enter university2. To get a better job 5. Other (please state) ............3. To learn about Islam

(14) Outside ITANA, on average how many hours per week do you spend studyingArabic? ............................................................................................................. hours.

(15) Do you live on campus? Yes ( ) No ( ).

Section 2: beliefs:

Below, you will find a number of statements about the beliefs that some people may haveabout Arabic language learning and about other aspects of learning. I am just interested inyour opinion. There is no right or wrong answer. Please be as precise as possible and tick theanswer on this sheet that best matches your opinion.

Please remember that there is no right or wrong answer; everyone has his own beliefs.

Strongly agree means that you agree entirely.Agree means that you agree to some extent.Unsure means that you do not have a clear opinion about it, or neither agree nor disagree.Disagree means that you do not agree to some extent.Strongly disagree means that you disagree entirely.


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Items SD D U A SA

1. It is important to me to learn Arabic very well 0.7 0.7 2.1 13.4 82.42. I believe that speaking Arabic is essential for me to learn

Arabic– 1.4 5.6 24.6 68.3

3. I believe that I will learn Arabic successfully 1.4 5.6 4.9 26.1 60.64. My own effort plays the most important role in

successful Arabic language learning1.4 6.3 9.9 33.8 48.6

5. I believe speaking Arabic well is important to me 0.7 1.4 2.8 26.1 69.06. I believe that being immersed in Saudi society is essential

for me to learn Arabic well6.3 10.6 8.5 36.6 37.3

7. I enjoy learning Arabic – 0.7 4.9 28.9 64.18. I enjoy practising Arabic with others – 2.8 8.5 28.9 57.09. I feel embarrassed when speaking Arabic in front of others 26.8 23.9 7.7 26.1 12.010. Learning Arabic depends mostly on learning a lot of new

words0.7 2.1 15.5 38 43.7

11. Learning Arabic depends mostly on learning a lot ofgrammar

2.1 1.4 5.6 35.2 55.6

12. Learning Arabic depends mostly on learningmorphology

0.7 1.4 10.6 42.3 45.1

13. Learning Arabic depends mostly on learning to parse 0.7 4.2 9.2 40.8 45.114. Learning Arabic depends mostly on memorization 2.1 14.2 22.0 35.5 26.215. The teacher should correct all my errors 2.1 4.9 7.7 23.2 62.016. During class, students should be given the chance and

encouraged to practise and speak most of the time1.4 6.3 8.5 29.6 54.2

17. When doing a reading assignment, I should look up allunknown words in a dictionary or ask the teacher aboutthem

0.7 8.5 7.7 24.6 58.5

18. Understanding the whole meaning of a text is moreimportant than knowing the meaning of every individualword

2.1 10.6 11.3 36.9 39.0

19. I should not say anything in Arabic until I can say itcorrectly

21.4 27.9 10.0 25.0 15.7

20. I should find opportunities to practise what I am learningat ITANA in class

2.8 7.1 13.5 41.1 35.5

21. During class, most of the time, the teacher should speakmore than the students

6.3 14.1 9.2 33.1 37.3

22. I should find opportunities to practise what I am learningat ITANA outside class

1.4 2.8 9.9 37.3 48.6

23. Practising Arabic with others is essential to learningArabic well

1.4 1.4 7.1 30.5 59.6

24. Short vowels cause difficulties for me in learning Arabic 23.7 28.1 15.1 20.9 12.225. Parsing causes difficulties for me in learning Arabic 22.3 23.7 18 20.9 15.126. I believe that studying Arabic is essential in order to

learn about Islam1.4 2.8 3.5 16.3 75.9

27. The duration of study at ITANA is enough for me tolearn Arabic very well

10.8 20.1 14.4 24.5 30.2

28. Considering the amount of time I have studied Arabic atITANA, I am satisfied with my progress

3.5 9.9 11.3 39.4 35.9

29. The content of the Arabic course at ITANA will beenough to enable me to speak and understand Arabicvery well

9.2 19.9 16.3 29.1 25.5

30. The content of the Arabic course at ITANA will beenough to enable me to read and write Arabic very well

4.9 16.9 16.9 31.7 29.6

31. Textbooks at ITANA encourage memorization 7.0 20.4 19.0 38.7 14.8

(continued)


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43. I believe that my ability to learn Arabic is: (please tick one of the following):Poor (1.4%) Satisfactory (5.6%) Good (50.3%) Excellent (42.7%)

44. If someone spent five hours a day learning Arabic, how long would it take him tolearn Arabic well? (please tick one of the following):1. less than a year (2.1%) 2. 1–2 years (42.3%) 3. 3–4 years (33.8%) 4. Over 4 years(19.7%) 5. It is impossible to learn Arabic well (2.1%).

45. Arabic is: (please tick one of the following):1. A very easy language (4.2%) 2. An easy language (16.2%) 3. A language of

medium difficulty (45.8%) 4. A difficult language (15.5%) 5. A very difficultlanguage (18.3%).

46. Arabic grammar is: (please tick one of the following):1. Very easy (2.8%) 2. Easy (12.8%) 3. Of medium difficulty (45.4%) 4. Difficult

(25.5%) 5. Very difficult (13.5%).47. Arabic learning involves (please order the following according to their importance

where 1 ¼ most important and 5 ¼ least important):

48. Please order the following Arabic language skills according to their difficulties for youwhere 1 ¼ the most difficult and 4 ¼ the easiest:

Appendix (Continued).

Items SD D U A SA

32. Textbooks at ITANA encourage the development of theskills needed to use Arabic well

2.8 2.8 9.9 39.7 44.7

33. Vocalization in the textbooks at ITANA is helpful formy learning of Arabic

2.1 6.3 9.2 38.0 44.4

34. The testing system in ITANA is helpful for my learningof Arabic

0.7 4.9 5.6 40.1 48.6

35. The grammar teaching at ITANA is complicated (noteasy to understand)

13.3 40.7 17.0 20.0 8.9

36. I am satisfied with the Arabic education I receive atITANA

1.4 6.3 8.5 39.4 44.4

37. I believe that the Arabic education that I receive atITANA is enough for me to understand the media

7.9 19.3 23.6 30.7 18.6

38. I believe that the Arabic education that I receive atITANA is enough for me to immerse myself comfortablyin Saudi society

3.5 11.3 19.7 36.6 28.9

39. I believe that the Arabic education that I receive atITANA will be enough to qualify me to enter theuniversity

2.1 2.8 9.9 36.6 48.6

40. Living on the campus is helpful for my learning ofArabic

4.3 12.2 3.6 26.6 53.2

41. I enjoy the Arabic classes at ITANA 2.1 2.1 7.1 34.0 54.642. It is easy to immerse myself in Saudi society 12.1 16.3 21.3 33.3 17.0

1 2 3 4 5

Learning new words 46.5 19.7 6.3 15.5 12.0Learning grammar 23.2 22.5 38.0 13.4 2.8Learning morphology 9.1 16.1 30.8 27.3 16.1Learning to communicate 19.0 31.0 11.3 16.9 21.8Learning to parse 7.7 10.6 11.3 25.4 45.1


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49. Do you have any other comments about learning Arabic at ITANA or about anyother aspect of ITANA itself?

Appendix 2. Interview guide

The following list was used to guide the semi-structured interviews:

. Ask about interviewee’s comments to in the open-ended question 49 in thequestionnaire.

. Ask about anything interesting in his responses to the questionnaire.

. Can you talk about the role of grammar, morphology, and parsing in learning Arabic?How important are they? Why?

. To what extent is learning Arabic important? Why?

. To what extent is immersion in Saudi society important for learning Arabic? Why?

. To what extent are oral skills important in learning Arabic? Why? If the learner wants tolearn Arabic for Islam, does he need to improve his oral skills? Why?

. Does the existence of LV affect the learning of Arabic? Does the existence of twovarieties make learning Arabic more difficult? Why? Which variety is more useful for(your) learning? Why?

. To what extent is practice important? Why?

. Who is responsible for (your) learning? Explain?

. To what extent do students find speaking in front of others difficult?

. Who should speak more in class, students or teachers? Why?

. What is the role of memorization in learning? How important is memorization inlearning Arabic? Why? To what extent is it emphasized at ITANA?

. What is the right balance between accuracy and fluency when learning Arabic? Which isthe more important? Why? Should the teacher correct all a student’s errors?

. What do you think about the relationship between Arabic and Islam? Why?

. To what extent is Islamic content important? Why? Is it possible to teach Arabicwithout Islamic content? Why? What do you think about the balance at ITANA? Couldyou explain more fully?

. How would you describe the successful learner of Arabic?

. How long does it take to learn Arabic? Why? What do you think of the course atITANA in this respect?

. What is the role of short vowels in (your) learning?

. What do you think of ITANA’s: programme, students, teachers, and TAS? Why?

1 2 3 4

Writing 28.2 28.9 24.6 18.3Reading 19.7 19.7 26.1 34.5Listening 31.7 25.4 22.5 20.4Speaking 25.4 27.5 23.9 23.2


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