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Communication: - The term communication is derived from Latin word communis,

which means common. Communication is a process whereby information is enclosed

in a package and is channeled and imparted by a sender to a receiver via somemedium. The receiver then decodes the message and gives the sender a feedback. All

forms of communication require a sender, a message, and an intended recipient;

however the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender's intent to

communicate at the time of communication in order for the act of communication to

occur.

There are verbal means using language and there are nonverbal means, such as body

language, sign language, paralanguage, haptic communication, chronemics, and eye

contact, through media, i.e., pictures, graphics and sound, and writing.

Nature of Communication

1. It involves at least two persons.2. It involves transfer of ideas, facts, emotions, gestures, symbols, actions, from

sender to receiver.

3. Understanding is an essential component of communication. Ideas, emotions,opinions should be accurately replicated in the receivers mind.

4. Communication is the process,, the term process has been defined as anidentifiable flow of inter related events over a time towards some goal orobjective.

5. It is inimitable. It is essential physical, social & psychological exercise.6. Communication is meaning based.7. Communication is systematic. Every component of communication is affected by

the other component of communication is affected by other process of

communication.

8. Communication is a social process, human being is a social animal, cant live inisolation. Communication is a process which helps him to interact & socialize.

9. Communication is a two way process. Feedback is essential component ofcommunication process.

10.Communication can be intentional or unintentional.11.Purpose of communication is to express certain point of view.12.Communication is a dynamic process.13.Communication is not constant or one time event.14.Communication is continuous process. More often it is repeated to achieve a

desired result.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralanguagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haptic_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_contacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_contacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_contacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye_contacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haptic_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paralanguagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sign_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonverbal_communicationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information

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15.It involves interaction & transaction. The participants of communication exerciseexchange ideas & information besides influencing each other in the process.

16.Its a Knowledge of language17.It is behavioral interaction.18.Communication may be made through gesture as well.19.Communication is all-pervasive.

Objectives of Communication

1. Human relation=Communications job is to help and promote human relations,making use of it among other things, in the medium or media. There can be no

mutual understanding without communication and mutual understanding

human relations is possible through communication.

2. Empathy=Empathy is feeling with the other person expressed by speech.Sympathy is feeling sorry for him expressed by words.

3. Persuasion=Persuasion is a process of convincing and motivating to get thingsdone. Speech is one of the methods to persuade a person.

4. Dialogue=Dialogue is a process of conversation or speech with the purpose . Itinvolves exchange of ideas. It is influencing behavior. It takes the form of

discussion,criticism and deliberation.

5. Information=In the new information order of te world, informationtransmission is the process of getting things done. In complex business

organizations, effective decisions depend upon collection, storage and supply

of information.Information-taking and information-giving is a continuous

process in organizations.

6. To influence=The object of transmitting information is to change the behaviorof the recipient. Communication is aimed at influencing, persuading,

motivating or activating towards desired goals.

7. Understanding=The main cause for conflicts in interpersonal situation is lack ofmutual understanding. The problems of communication are really the

problems of understanding people. The most important managerial function to

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bridge the gap is possibly communication, without it mutual understanding

cannot be achieved.

8. To Discourage Mis-information=The object of communicaton is not only to passand exchange policies, rules, order, procedures and objectives but also to avoiddistortions in communication. Communication is used to discourage the spread

of mis-information, rumours, gossips and release of emotional tentions of the

workers.

9. Free Exchange=The two way communication model ensures free exchange ofinformation and ideas which gives an opportunity to all the employees in

understanding and accepting the messages, acting and feedback.

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THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS:

The communication process consists of a message being sent and received. The

message maybe verbal or non-verbal. It contains information encoded by the senderin order to protect it from the external barriers to the receiver who decodes it in his

own interpretations and gives feedback.

The communications process is often very complex with success depending on many

factors such as the nature of the message, audience interpretation and the

environment in which it is received along with the receivers perception of the source

and medium.

Here is a diagram to show/Explain the process of communication:

Over the years a basic model of communications has evolved that represents the

various elements of the communications process. The elements of the model include:

A. Source/Encoding The sender or source of a communication is the person or

organization who has information to share with another person or group. It should be

noted that the source can be an individual (e.g., salesperson or hired spokesperson) ora nonperson entity such as the corporation or organization itself. The receivers

perception of the source influences the manner in which the communication is

received, interpreted and responded to.

Encoding is the process of putting together thoughts, ideas and information into a

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symbolic form to communicate a message. The senders goal is to encode the message

in such a manner so as to ensure that it will be understood by the receiver.

B. Messagethe encoding process leads to the development of a message that

contains the information or meaning the source or sender hopes to convey. Messages

can take a variety of forms and may include symbolic forms or signs. To betterunderstand the symbolic meaning that might be conveyed in a communication, many

advertisers have begun focusing attention on semiotics, which involves the study of

the nature of meaning. From a semiotic perspective, every marketing message has

three basic components: an object, a sign or symbol and an interpretant. The object is

the product that is the focus of the message (e.g. Marlboro cigarettes). The sign is the

sensory imagery that represents the intended meaning of the object (e.g., the

Marlboro cowboy). The interpretant is the meaning derived (e.g., rugged,

individualistic, American).

The message must be put into a transmittable form that is appropriate for the channel

of communication being used. Advertising messages range from simply written words

or copy that will be read or heard as a radio message to the expensive production of

elaborate television commercials with a great deal of visual impact and imagery.

C. Channelthe channel is the method or medium by which the communication

travels from source or sender to receiver. At the broadest level, channels of

communication exist as two types:

Personal Channels which involve direct interpersonal contact with target individuals

or groups. For example a salesperson serves as a personal channel of communication

when delivering a sales presentation.

Nonpersonal channels are those which carry a message without involving

interpersonal contact between sender and receiver. These channels are often referred

to as the mass media as messages transmitted through them are sent to many

individuals at one time. The two major categories of nonpersonal channels are print

and broadcast media.

D. Receiver/Decodingthe receiver is the person(s) with whom the sender shares

thoughts or information. Receivers are generally viewed as the consumers in

the target audiencetargeted by the firms marketing and promotional program.Decoding is the process of transforming and interpreting the senders message back

into thought and is heavily influenced by the receivers frame of reference or field of

experience.Effective communication is more likely when common ground or shared

meaning or understanding exists or has been established between the sender and

receiver.

E. Noisethroughout the communications process the message is subject to noise

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which refers to factors that can distort or interfere with adequate reception or

comprehension. Noise can occur during the encoding, transmission, or decoding of a

message. Noise can also occur because of a lack of common ground or understanding

between the sender and receiver.

F. Response/Feedbackresponse refers to the reaction the receiver has after seeing,hearing and/or reading the message. These responses can range from non-observable

actions such as storing information in memory to taking immediate actions such as

ordering a product seen in a direct response ad. Feedback is the part of the receivers

response that is communicated back to the sender and takes a variety of forms.

Feedback provides the sender with a way of monitoring how the message is being

decoded and received by the target audience.

Types of linear models:

ARISTROTLE:The first step towards the development of communication had been taken by

aristrotle. He had developed an easy, simple & elementary model of communication

which is known as ARISTROTLE MODEL.His model includes three main elements-

I. SpeakerII. Speech

III. Audience

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Mathematical:

The mathematical model of communication was developed by shannon and weaver

and is popularly known as SHANNONWEAVER MODEL. This model was developed in

1949 as a model in electronic communication..

Information:In 1950, information theory developed separately from communication theory.

Shannon was an engineer, concerned himself with the technical problems of

transmitting signals from one point to another. He considered communication as

mechanistic system comprising of-

I. Information

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II. TransmitterIII. ChannelIV. ReceiverV. Destination

David k. berlos model:In all communication models, Berlos model has identified 9 components ofcommunication-

I. SenderII. Encoder

III. MessageIV. ChannelV. Receiver

VI. DecoderVII. Meaning

VIII.

FeedbackIX. Noise

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Harrold lasswells model:The communication process of Lasswekk gives us answers to 4 basic questions, i.e.-

I. WHO ?II. WHAT ?

III. WHOM ?IV. WHICH ?

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WILLBURR SCHRAMMS MODEL:This theory is concerned with the theory of mass communication. His model (HOW

COMMUNICATION WORKS) focuses on signal from the 2 sides of the source &

receiver.

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inter-personal model:

It is also called as circular model of communication . In circular model of

communication, the element of feedback is introduced.

Feedback, with reference to communication model means interaction or interface or

face-to-face communication with another person who is the receiver of the message.

In this direction, level and Galle have introduced elements of interaction between

sender and receiver. This model is based on the interaction between sender and

receiver.

DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION NETWORK

Network represent pattern of communication amongst the members of

organization it mainly depends upon the nature of channels of communication and no

of people involved in the communication process a network determined the speed

accuracy and smoothness with which the message flows through out the

organization.

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TYPE OF COMMUNICATION NETWORK

1. CHAIN NETWORK2. CIRCULAR NETWORK3. WHEEL NETWORK4. FREE FLOW NETWORK1. CHAIN NETWORK :- The message flows in direct vertical line along a scalar

chain of command it can flow top to bottom and from bottom to top in a line

there is no horizontal communication in the chain network .

2. CIRCULAR NETWORK:-In case of circular network the message moves in a circle each

person can communication with his two neighbor hood colleges a disadvantage of

circular network network is that the communication is very slow.

A

B

C

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3. WHEEL NETWORK: - A wheel network represents the communication pattern underwhich subordinates can communicate with and through one manager.

It is called wheel network since all communication pass through the manager who act

as a central authority like a hub of wheel.

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4. FREE FLOW NETWORK OF ALL CHANNEL NETWORK :- It is fourth type of network

under such organization design there is no restriction in the flow of communication

everyone is free to communicate with anyone and everyone in the organization.

This type of network is informal and unstructured and it allows free flow of

communication.

BASIS OF

COMPARISION

CHAIN NETWORK WHEEL NETWORK CIRCULAR

NETWORKSpeed of

performance

Fast Very fast Slow

Accuracy Good accuracy Good accuracy Avg.accuracy

Flexibility to change Slow Slow Very fast

Emergence of

leader

Marked Very prominent There is none

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An organisation's communication structure consists of formal and informal elements,

as well as other ingredients, and is not reducible to either. These formal and informal

communication structures within the organisations have a complex interrelationshipcharacterized by similarities and differences.

The differences are as follows -

S.No. FORMAL INFORMAL

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Formal communication takes place

through the formal channels of the

organization structure along the lines of

authority established by the

management.

It is the official communication within

the organisation.

Formal communication is systematic

and ensures orderly flow of ideas.

Formal communication helps in

maintaining authority structure in the

organisation. It also helps in fixing

responsibilities of subordinates for

various activities within the

organisation.

Overlapping of communication does not

take place as the information flows

through a formal channel.

Information passed through the formal

channel in trustworthy and reliable.

Informal communication arising out of all

those channels of communication that fall

outside the formal channels is known as

informal communication.

Informal communication is the unofficial

communication in the organisation.

Informal communication is the result of

social interaction among the various

members in an organisation. There is no

order of flow of ideas.

Informal communication does not allow

fixing responsibility and authority in case

of default.

Informal communication is very often

prone to overlapping of information.

Information passed through the informal

unofficial channel is not at all trustworthy

or reliable, and may also lead to

generation of rumours in the

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6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

The source of communication can easily

be located in formal communication.

In formal communication, there are

minimum chances of gossip.

Follow-up action is easy in formal

communication.

Formal communication is very time

consuming.

Formal channel of communication is

impersonal and hence lacks personal

warmth.

Formal communication channel

discourages free flow of information.

Formal communication can be oral or

written, in the form of meetings,

interviews, presentations, letters,

memos, e-mail, notes, etc.

organisation.

In informal communication, it is not

possible to find the information source,

i.e. who was responsible for the same.

Informal communication is not authentic,

thus, the message may be distorted. It

does not carry complete information, and

may lead to leakage of confidential

information.

It is very difficult to perform a follow-up

in informal communication as the source

is not known.

Informal communication is very fast.

Informal communication on the other

hand helps in building better human

relations in the organisation.

Informal communication is free from all

barriers.

Instant messaging, a casual discussion,

verbal exchange, note, or memorandum

that may adhere less strictly to rules and

conventions are some types of informal

communication.

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Ex.

Barriers to Effective Communication

Barriers to communication are things people say or do that are obstacles to good

conversation or good interpersonal interaction. They are hurdles that do not bring

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discussion satisfaction. They are high-risk responses whose impact on communication

is frequently negative.These hindrances are more likely to be destructive when one or

more persons who are interacting are under stress. These roadblocks frequently

diminish the other's self-esteem. These roadblocks tend to trigger out defensiveness,

resistance, and resentment.

Barriers to Communication may be broadly classified as below: -

1. Physical Barriers Following are the physical barriers:

(a) The Competing Stimulus (noise): It becomes very difficult to pass on the message

orally, if another confirmation giving information simultaneously within hearing

distance, sometimes-loud music or traffic noise creates barrier in the communication

process.

(b) Environmental Stress: A strong light puts hindrance in case of visual

communication. Because of undesired strain on the eyes of the communicate,

message is not received properly. A high temperature, humidity, bad ventilation etc.

contribute in the sending and receiving of message.

(c) Subjective Stress: Due to sleeplessness, ill health, consumption of drugs, mental

strain etc. communicator can not interpret the message in desired manner.

(d) Ignorance of Media: User should be well conversant with media that is adopted for

conveying the message. The use of a media with which the receiver is not familiar

would turn the media itself into a barrier. For example, the uses of visual media likemaps and charts to instruct workers, who have not been familiar with maps and

charts, would switch off their attention for lack of knowledge of the media.

2. Language / Semantic Barrier: Language is carrier of all the information and ideas.

People of different levels understand, write and speak frequently.

(a) Unclear Message: Lack of clarity in a message makes it badly express.

For Ex: Poorly choose empty words of phrases

1) There is no city like it Unclear

2) There is no such city Clear

(b) Unqualified Assumptions: Sometimes, the sender may send information which is

not clarified to the receiver, as he does not understand the assumptions clearly.

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(c) Wrong Interpretation: Whenever one interprets a symbol, ones own understanding

may be different from that of others. The Hindi word KAKA means uncle in one part

of the country but would denote small boy in another part of the country.

(d) Technical Language: When technical language is used in the communication

process, it creates barriers in understanding the message in same sense and spirit.

When technical jargon or specialist language is used in the communication andconversation process, it creates tension, confusion, and misunderstanding between

sender and receiver.

Example: MOUSE is only an animal, whereas in computer jargon, it is a device

3. Organizational Barrier: This type of barrier develops due to the problems with

physical distance between members with respect to their functional specialization of

tasks , power, authority and status relationship , values held and ownership of

information.

(a) Organization Culture and Climate: In every organization there exists a unique

culture and climate. The climate and culture of an organization ultimately influences

the freedom, thrust and interaction pattern among its people. As people working take

tome to adapt themselves, bottlenecks in communication are inevitable.

(b) Status Relationships: The status, power and position acts as a hurdle in the

effectiveness of communication. Individuals may not be able to say what they wish to

say because of their fear for the position and power of the other party in the

communication process.

(c) Organizational Rules and Regulations: The rules and regulations of the organization

vary. While some may be so rigid that they influence the flow of information in a

wrong direction, there could play a cementing role.

(d) Complexity of the Organization: The complex hierarchal structures of the

organization like too tall or too much of divisionalisation within the set up may not

facilitate a free flow of communication

4. Socio-Psychological Barriers:- are the major bottle necks in interpersonal

communication . People have different styles of communication. They also have

personal feelings, desires, fears, likes, dislikes and opinions .the meaning assigned to a

message depends upon the emotional or psychological status of both the parties

involved in the process of communication

(a) Attitudes and opinions: Personal attitude and opinions often act as barriers to

effective communication. People react favorably or are hostile according as the

information is to their personal advantage or not. If the information is advantageous

to an employee, he welcomes it as good or if it affects him adversely he rejects it.

(b)Emotions: Agitated mind cannot receive or transmit anything correctly. Emotional

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state plays an important role in the act of communication. The communicator should

not try to communicate while in a state of emotional excitement. In the same way, the

receiver should not react to the message of his mind is disturbed.

(c)Closed mind: A person with a closed mind is very difficult to communicate with. He

rejects a message or a proposal and reveals deep-rooted prejudices, opinions andemotions if asked to state his Reasons. Closed mind people react with anger and give a

sharp rebuff to anyone who tries to argue with them. They preclude all possibility of

communication by doing so.

(d)Status (consciousness): This exists in every organization and is one of the major

barriers to effective communication. People are over conscious of their lower or

higher rank and do not express themselves candidly. Such communication failures can

be averted if the managers and other persons in authority rise above the

consciousness of their status and encourage their employees to talk freely.

(e)The Source of Communication: If the receiver has a suspicion about or prejudice

against the source of communication, there is likely to be a barrier to communication.

People often react according to their attitude to the source of facts than to the facts

themselves.

Ex: if an employee gets compliment from an executive, who is in the habit of finding

fault with his employees, the employee becomes suspicious and starts attributing

motives to the compliment.

(f)Faulty transmission: In oral communication, 30% of the information is lost in each

transmission. A message is never communicated from one person to another in itsentirety.

(g)Poor retention: Employees retain only 50% of the information communicated to

them. The rest is lost. Poor retention leads to imperfect responses and hampers the

communication process.

5. Cultural Barrier: This communication barrier arise when two people of any

organization belongs to different culture, place or religion. There are many otherfactors of cultural barrier like age, social position, mental difference or thinking

behavior, economic status, political views, values and rules, ethics or standards,

motives and priorities. The communication done without mixing any culture will not

miss its meaning, but once a culture is mixed up with the communication then it may

loose its exact meaning.

Some of the significant different cultures are:-

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1. Basic Personality2. Language3. Values and norms of behavior4. Social relationships5.

Concept of Time

6. Concept of Space7. Perception

Words, colors and symbols have different meanings in different cultures

For Example:-

1) When the Japanese say Yes .They mean that they are listening. WhenAmericans say Yes that they are agreeing.

2) In England, an invitation for dinner at 8 pm would see most guests arriving atabout 8.15 in Germany punctuality is king ; in Greece ,9 to 9.30 might be the

norm ; in India even later if at all.

3) Wearing white color on an auspicious occasion like marriage may be for biddenin some cultures where as , in other cultures , the main wedding dress is white

in color

4) For some cultures,Time is money, while in other cultures, it may besubordinate to relationships.

6. Interpersonal barrier: These barriers also develop in the process of communication.

They are based upon the relationships, values held and attitudes of the participants in

the process of communication.

(a) Barrier from superior: Lack of time and shortage for employees. The superior may

not devote enough time for every employee due to their busy schedule.

(b) Lack of Trust: Sometime superior may not trust subordinate because of variousreasons which can act as a hurdle in a free flow of communication.

(c) Wish to capture an authority: The may hide confidential and important information

from employee in a view of capturing and retaining the authority.

(d) Fear of loosing power of control: The supervisor may have of loosing power and

control .If he freely expresses his ideas and view with his subordinates.

(e) Barriers from Subordinates:

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1) Lack of proper channel

2) Low interest to communicate

3) Lack of cooperation

4) Lack of trust

5) Fear of penalty / fine

Improving Communication Effectiveness

1) Clarify ideas before communication.

2) Communicate according to the needs of reciever.

3) Consult others before communicating.

4) Be beware of language , tone , and content of message.

5) Convey things of help and value to listeners.

6) Ensure proper feedback.

7) Communicate for present as well as future

8) Follow up communications

9) Be a good listener

Objectives Written Communication

Permanent record

Written message can be kept in files as a permanent record of the general, like the

Affairs, transactions and agreements of the business organization. It remains as an

evidence of the companys performance, which is useful for future reference. It

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forms a basis for new policy decisions and also for the fresh measures for the

development and expansion of the business.

Legal evidence

Written message provides tangible evidence of the agreements signed betweenthe two particles. It also gives a proof of the stages in which the transaction was

carried out. It can show how the mistakes were committed in carrying out the

transactions by either of the parties involved in it.

Accuracy

Usually, the written messages are organized more carefully than the spoken

messages. The communicator uses standard languages and tries to avoid colloquial

words and expressions. As compared to oral messages, the written messages are

more accurate in grammatical structures. Accuracy in languages helps to prevent

any misunderstanding or misinterpretation of the message.

Lengthy messages

Written media is especially more suited for lengthy and complicated messages.

The receiver can read it repeatedly till he properly understands it. Secondly, it

assures retaining every vital detail if the lengthy and complicated message.

Correspondence

Postal correspondence has given a really wide access to written media. This facilityis available to almost all the communicators and receivers in the nooks and

corners of the world.

Written communication involves any type of interaction that makes use of the written

word. It is one of the two main types of communication, along with oral/spoken

communication. Written communication is very common in business situations, so it is

important for small business owners and managers to develop effective written

communication skills. Some of the various forms of written communication that are

used internally for business operations include memos, reports, bulletins, job

descriptions, employee manuals, and electronic mail. Examples of written

communication avenues typically pursued with clients, vendors, and other members

of the business community, meanwhile, include electronic mail, Internet Web sites,

letters, proposals, telegrams, faxes, postcards, contracts, advertisements, brochures,

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and news releases.

Written Communication

Some of the main advantages and disadvantages of written communication are:

Advantages

- Written communication is good for complicated and vital instructions, which can be

given in a precise and uniform manner.

- There is a lesser chance for the message to be misunderstood.

- Written instructions can be checked at a latter date. It serves as a useful reference.

- Authority is transmitted more effectively with a written order than with an oral one.

-Do not have to be delivered on the spur of the moment; instead, they can be edited

and revised several times before they are sent so that the content can be shaped to

maximum effect.

-It provides a permanent record of the messages that have been sent and can be

saved for later study. Since they are permanent, written forms of communication alsoenable recipients to take more time in reviewing the message and providing

appropriate feedback. For these reasons, written forms of communication are often

considered more appropriate for complex business messages that include important

facts and figures.

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-It associated with good writing skills include increased customer/client - satisfaction;

improved inter-organizational efficiency; and enhanced image in the community and

industry.

-Written message has a advantage of provide reward, references ,etc.

-It is suitable for lengthy message which are not possible to convey through oral

communication.

-Written communication is suitable when receiver are spread over vast geographical

area.

-maintenance of proper records, letter, memos, report can be build up for legal

defenses for an organization.

-Written communication give access to large audience through mass mailing.

-Written communication helps in building the organization and image and goodwill.

-It facilities proper assignment of responsibility. One may some times go back on the

spoken word but not on work which have been put on the papers.

Disadvantages

- It is impersonal.

- People may not always read them.

- It does not answer questions and there is no immediate feedback.

-Wherein impressions and reactions are exchanged instantaneously, the sender of

written communication does not generally receive immediate feedback to his or her

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message. This can be a source of frustration and uncertainty in business situations in

which a swift response is desired.

-Written messages often take more time to compose, both because of their

information-packed nature and the difficulty that many individuals have in composing

such correspondence. Many companies, however, have taken a proactive stance in

addressing the latter issue. Mindful of the large number of workers who struggle with

their writing abilities, some firms have begun to offer on-site writing courses or

enrolled employees in business writing workshops offered by professional training

organizations, colleges, and community education programs.

-It is limited to literate people who have capability to read and write.

-It takes time to reach and hence it is time consuming.

-It create lots of paper work which is sometimes difficult to handle.

-It is difficult to mend once the written message is dispatched.

-It is costly process in terms of stationary and number of people involved in it.

-It lack immediate impact. The receiver the message takes time to understand and

response to the message.

A memorandum is generally used for internal communication that is, it is a message in

return send by one person or department to another within a business organization.

That is why it is called interoffice memorandum. Memos are used commonly for issue

instructions to the staff, to keep the members of an organization aware of new

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policies, inviting suggestions, given information, to report an activity or situation,

making requests & so on.

A memorandum is by definition, a written statement you prepare specially

for a person/group of persons or communicate an order to give them information

about a particular matter.

In an organization it takes the form of a short official note that we write to a person orto several people, especially with people whom we work with. It has been derived

from the latin word memo rare, changed to memorandums, which means literally to

mention or tell. A memo is used for internal communication between executive and

subordinate or between officers of the same group. It is never sent outside the

organization. Affectionately called a memo this is a written communication from one

person to another within the same organization. Memos are standard form of

communication in many public and non-profit organizations. Memos are often used to

help decision makers to: understand the critical issues requiring their attention,

recognize what are available, what a staff recommendation is what the basis or

support for your recommendation is.

Memorandums (memo) serve a variety of purposes which are as:

1. To inform of decisions2. To request decision or actions3. To provide information of any kind4. To remind someone of action required

The advantages of memorandum are as:

1. Ability to maximize value

2. Flexibility to alter process

3. Maximum control over process

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A meeting is coming together (generally 3 or more) to exchange information in a

planned manner or to discuss issues or to setout before arriving at a decision or to

solve problem etc.

Meetings may occur face to face or virtually, as mediated by communications

technology, such as a telephone conference call, or a videoconference.

Thus we can say that meeting an act or process of coming together as an assembly fora common purpose

FEATURES OF MEETING

It requires a notice which is a call or an invitation to attend the meeting. It has an agenda and outcome of the meeting in a written form. The purpose of meeting is exchange of information Articulation of an alternative viewpoint Removal of misconception Initialization of plans and strategies Review of performance

TYPES OF MEETING

INFORMATIVEThe purpose is to give information to the participants aboutthe product, ideas,new techniques etc.

CONSULTATIVE-the purpose is to solve the problems EXECUTIVE-These are those meetings in which discussions are taken by those

who are employers of the task.

SOME COMMON TYPES OF MEETING

1. Status Meetings, generally leader-led, which are about reporting by one-waycommunication

2. Work Meeting, which produces a product or intangible result such as a decision3. Staff meeting, typically a meeting between a manager and those that report to

the manager

4. Team meeting, a meeting among colleagues working on various aspects of ateam project

5. Ad-hoc meeting, a meeting called for a special purpose6. Management meeting, a meeting among managers7. Board meeting, a meeting of the Board of directors of an organization8. One-on-one meeting, between two individuals9. Off-site meeting, also called "offsite retreat" and known as an Away

day meeting in the UK

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10.Kickoff meeting, the first meeting with the project team and the client of theproject to discuss the role of each team member

11.Pre-Bid Meeting, a meeting of various competitors and or contractors tovisually inspect a jobsite for a future project. The meeting is normally hosted

by the future customer or engineer who wrote the project specification to

ensure all bidders are aware of the details and services expected of them.

Attendance at the Pre-Bid Meeting may be mandatory. Failure to attend

usually results in a rejected bid

Advantages of meeting

1.It Saves time:since in a meeting one can meet,number of people at the same

time,interactively a meeting can save time.

2.Addressive Group:It means that one can decide in advance according to the

background and leads of the group and address them one by one.

3.Social and Emotional support:Member can get personal support from each other

when they meet and exchange ideas.

4.Feeling of being consulted:Member get the feeling that they have been consulted

and this is important for getting their intelligent willing corporation.5.Ideas development:Ideas are systematically analized and improved by a group.

6.Preventing Mistake:A Meeting helps to avoid mistakes by a collective focus on

various issues.

Disadvantages of meeting

1.Time consuming:Meeting require no. of people to come together at same time and

place.This cost time because other work has to be put aside for the save of meeting.

2.Lack of seriosness:Many meeting suffer from the drawback and feel that other

person would do all thinking and talking.3.Expensive:To arrange a meeting it require a

place,paperwork,priorer,communication,travelling by the attending.

4.Open to description:A meeting is prove to be disturb i.e. opposed to its objectives.

5.Inexpert cheering:Lack of skills and personnel biases of the cheers person may fail

the meeting.

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Style of oral communication:-

The word style with reference to com means the manner or a way of speaking. Different

style may be adopted in different situation depending upon time a person, situation, place.

Aggressive or blame-:It means finding fault with persons. Some people communicate in blending style to

find fault with others. They transmative messages which imply that everybody is foolish

and flow at understanding.

Assertive style or level-:Levelers are persons who are able to stand up for their rights & express feelings,

thoughts or indirect, honest & straight forward manner. Messages are congruent with their

thoughts tone of voice, gestures, eye contact all fit words that are spoken actions also

follow words & assertive people follow through(what they say will do).

Non-assertive-:People of convincing nature often attend to get themselves they are sympathetic,

do not hurt other people feelings. They always exhibit pleasing behavior, always keep

friendly behavior to avoid complicit.

Intellectual-:Intelligentsias are people who are claver & who having ability to understand.

People of this type in their interpersonal relationship they apply intelligence. These styles

of communication reprocess the quality of being an intelligent. These people appear to be

gentle, polite, calm hidden feelings.

Manipulative-:Person using distractions or manipulative acts in quite distinctive manner. They

tend to act in such a ways to draw aside the mind. They always try to handle interpersonal

situations mail fully or manipulating other persons feelings.

Media of oral communication:-

1. Face to face:

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(A) Presentation

(B) Interview

(C) Group Discussion (GD)

(D) Viva

(E) Negotiation

(A). Presentation:-

Presentation is defined as a technique of formal communication that

involves speaking in front of a group of people or presenting a topic in public

and seems effective because the feedback can be obtain by body language &

reactions of the audience at a time.

(B). Interviews:-

Interview is a formal meeting in which a person evaluates or consults

other person for the known purpose. The information exchanged under the

interview may or may not be kept secret.

(C). Group Discussion:-

Group Discussion stands for an activity in which a

theme/subject/matter is thoroughly shaken, inquired or examined with a

group of people so as to reach a conclusion or decide upon a course of action.

(D). Viva:-

Viva is way of communication in which a student answers question in

speech rather than writing asked in examination.

(E). Negotiation:-Negotiation can be defined as a process by which two parties interact to

resolve a conflict or to reach an agreement. Negotiation is to confer with

another person with a view to strike a compromise or agreement. It is not

necessary that every negation will have a conclusion but it may be vain.

2. Mechanical or electronic devices:

(A) Radio

(B) Telephone

(C) Intercom(D) Teleconference.

(A). Radio:-

Radio is a source communication media which reaches to vast area and

coveys the message or information to a large number of people.

(B). Telephone:-

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Telephone is the electrical system of communication that you use to

talk directly to someone else if a different place. You use the telephone by dialing a

number on a piece of equipment and speaking into it.

(C). Intercom:-

Intercom is a small box with a microphone which is connected to aloudspeaker in another room. You use it to talk to the people in the other room.

(D). Teleconferencing:-

It is the technology of sending signals and message over long distances

using electronic equipment. Telephone are used in business to call an employee in

work or to inform for that his/her interview is declared.

There are many more Medias in oral communication that is used for various purposes.

Presentation:-presentations are yet another medium of oral communication. It is a

face to face interaction which is planned in advance for the purpose. There must be

two or more persons for the purpose. Presentations are considered to be a group

communication as it held within a group.

Advantages of presentation

* Since in a presentation information can be given to a group of people at the same

time rather than giving it one by one to everyone thus presentation save time.

* .Ideas are systematically analyse and can be improved by a group thus there is a

point of idea development.

* .Easy understandability can be achieved in presentation thus it is a face to face

conversation there are no chances of misunderstanding or inability to understand the

subject of presentation

* .In a large organization modern mechanical devices are used for presentation. These

devices do not disturb the work of others who are not involved in the presentation.

Disadvantages of presentation

* Presentation require number of people to come together at same time at a place

this cost time because other work has to kept aside for the sake of presentation.

* To arrange a presentation it requires a place, paperwork, traveling by attendance

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* Presentation is prawn to be disturbed by an element that is oppose to its objectives

thus presentations are open to disruption.

* Lack of skills and personal biasis of a speaker may fails in a presentation. Thus there

is inexpert chairing

The Importance of Visual Aids in Communication

Effective communication can be quite challenging, especially when making a

presentation or giving a speech. In order for the communication to be effective, you

must keep the attention of the listeners and deliver the information in such a way that

it is fully understood. One of the most effective ways to get your message across and

make it memorable is with visual aids.

Memory Retention

1. Psychologists and educators have found that use of visual tools led to aretention of information rate three days after a meeting or other event that

was six times greater than when information is presented by the spoken word

alone. Visual aids allow the speaker to use verbal and nonverbal

communication to solidify the message and provide a point of reference for the

mind.

Attention Span

2. Everyone has a limited attention span. Once this capacity is spent, the mindwill decrease its ability to retain information and listen effectively. Using visual

aids refreshes the mind and engages it in a different way, renewing the

attention span. Visual aids keep the mind entertained and therefore sharp and

ready to receive information.

Organizing Communication

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3. Visual aids can be used to organize communication, making it easier toremember points made in a presentation. The introduction of a different visual

aid for each point of a speech or presentation helps the mind to separate

messages into smaller chunks of information. The visual aids also create a

point of reference for the mind to quickly refer to when attempting to retrieve

information. For example, the use of icons or labels helps trigger messages inthe mind. When you see the McDonald's restaurant golden arches logo along

an interstate highway, your mouth may begin to water because of they

represent eating a meal.

Comprehension

4. Not everyone understands concepts and information at the same rate. Somepeople can understand messages quickly while others need help to grasp what

is being said. Visual aids are a way of further explanation. If some people are

more visual than audio learners, the visual aids may be necessary for

comprehension. Visual aids create repetition and the more repetition in

communication, the greater the chances that your audience will understand

and remember effectively.

Create a Focal Point

5. Visual aids help a speaker stay on track. If there is one central visual aid thatthe speaker can use, then the speaker's thoughts and the audience's attention

will stay on course. There's nothing worse than listening to a speaker rambleand lose the audience. Visual aids assist in avoiding such a scenario.

Usage of visual aids in presentation-

Visual aids help your presentation make things happen. Visual aids help you reach

your objectives by providing emphasis to whatever is being said. Clear pictures

multiply the audience's level of understanding of the material presented, and they

should be used to reinforce your message, clarify points, and create excitement.

Visual aids involve your audience and require a change from one activity to another:

from hearing to seeing. When you use visual aids, their use tends to encourage

gestures and movement on your part. This extra movement reinforces the control that

you, the speaker, need over the presentation. The use of visual aids, then, are

mutually beneficial to the audience and you.

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Visual aids add impact and interest to a presentation. They enable you to appeal to

more than one sense at the same time, thereby increasing the audience's

understanding and retention level. With pictures, the concepts or ideas you present

are no longer simply words - but words plus images. The chart below cites the

effectiveness of visual aids on audience retention.

People tend to eye-minded, and the impacts visual aids bring to a presentation are,

indeed, significant. The studies, below, reveal interesting statistics that support these

findings:

Studies by educational researchers suggest that approximately 83% of humanlearning occurs visually, and the remaining 17% through the other senses - 11%

through hearing, 3.5% through smell, 1% through taste, and 1.5% through

touch.

The studies suggest that three days after an event, people retain 10% of whatthey heard from an oral presentation, 35% from a visual presentation, and 65%

from a visual and oral presentation.

The use of visual aids, then, is essential to all presentations. Without them, the impact

of your presentation may leave the audience shortly after the audience leaves you. By

preparing a presentation with visual aids that reinforce your main ideas, you will

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reach your audience far more effectively, and, perhaps, continue to "touch" them long

after the presentation ends.

Tips on Preparing Visual Aids-

Start with at least a rough outline of the goal and major points of thepresentation before selecting the visual aid(s). For example, a particular scene

or slides may trigger ideas for the presentation, providing the power of images.

Do not proceed too far without first determining what you want to accomplish,

what your audience wants to gain, and what the physical setting requires.

The content must be simple and contain only one message. Placing more thanone message on a single image confuses the audience and diminishes the

potential impact of visual media. Keep visual aids BRIEF.

Determine the difference between what you will say and what the visual aidwill show. Do not read straight from your visuals.

Use charts and graphs to support the presentation of numerical information. When preparing graphics, make sure they are not too crowded in detail. Do not

over-use color. See that line detail, letters, and symbols are bold enough to be

seen from the back of the room.

Seek feedback on the clarity of your visuals and do so early enough to allowyourself time to make needed adjustments.

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Types of visuals-

Flip charts Overhead transparencies Posters Video tapes

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Executive summary

Executive summary is an important part of the report. It can extend from a paragraph

to two pages in length. It should include a bit of all components of the report. It iswritten after the entire report is compeleted. No particular part of report should

dominate in the executive summary.

Executive summary is a term used inbusinessfor a short document that summarises a

longer report, proposal or group of related reports in such a way that readers can

rapidly become acquainted with a large body of material without having to read it all.

It will usually contain a brief statement of the problem or proposal covered in the

major document(s), background information, concise analysis and main conclusions. It

is intended as an aid to decision making by business managers.

An executive summary differs from anabstractin that an abstract will usually beshorter and is intended to provide a neutral overview or orientation rather than being

a condensed version of the full document. Abstracts are extensively used in academic

research where the concept of the executive summary would be meaningless.

Characteristics

Other characteristics of the executive summary are difficult to pin down as different

businesses publish definitions to suit their own purposes. An executive summary willusually

be written in non-technical language have a conclusion make a recommendation summarize more than one document

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Businesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Businesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Businesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_%28summary%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_%28summary%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_%28summary%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_%28summary%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business

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Incorporating an executive summary will help readers absorb the main focus of the

report without necessarily reading it in detail.

From the reader's point of view, that saves time. From the writer's point of view,

getting the message across is the main objective, and executive summary provides

another means of doing that.

The most common mistake report writers make, however, is making their executive

summaries too long. Sometimes there's so much detail that the reader might just as

well read the whole report, which defeats the purpose.

The following three sections should be contained in your executive summary:

1. The Statement of Purpose

This states as simply as possible why we have written the report. Keep this as short as

possible, preferably one sentence.

Make sure the sentence does not ramble or contain too many ideas. Use wording such

as, "This report summarizes the work completed so far on the construction plan for the

new printing plant."

2. The Statement of Scope

This sets the boundaries for our subject and purpose. For example, we have been

asked to review one specific aspect of a proposed project. In this section, you point

out the focus and limitation of your report.

Again, keep the language clear and concise. We might say, for example, "This reportcovers the construction planning only. Materials supply and other matters are outside

its scope and are not discussed."

3. The Findings and Conclusions

These briefly summarize what you have written in the body of the main report.

Resist the temptation to "summarize" every page, which results in a document too big

to be truly called a summary.

Set out each conclusion clearly and succinctly, with page or section references so that

the reader can go to the full report for more information if he or she wishes. Do not

use graphic devices in the executive summary.

Report writing is a challenge. Many writers complain that the people to whom the

reports are addressed don't read them because they are too long.

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The fact is, people will read what is of interest to them, and when they see a long

report with many pages they may discard it because of the time it will take to read.

However, a good executive summary makes the main points clear in a few minutes. If

they want to know the details they will read on; if they got the message by reading

the executive summary they'll be happy with that --- and the writer should be too.

An efficient executive summary will make your reports more reader friendly, and

enhance your own reputation as a clear thinker and efficient communicator.

Barriers in listening

Various types of barriers in listening are:-

A). Barrier by speaker

1). Voice volume too low to be heard.

2). Making the message to complex either by including too many

Issues.

3) Body language or non-verbal elements or cues contradicted or

Interfering with the verbal message.eg smile while other anger

Or hurt is being expressed.

4). Paying to much attention to how the other person is taking the

Message or how he might react to the message.

5). Using a unique code or unconventional method of delivering the

Message.

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B). Barriers by listeners.

1). Be preoccupied or not listening.

2). Rejecting a person, listener may have general like or dislike

About a speaker.

3). If the purpose of the talk is not clear or it does not serve the

Purpose of listener he or she may not listen.4). Sometimes one may not listen to an individual because of speaker

Looks,ress,age,maneerism or speech defect may bother the

Listener.

5). Listener mental state may act as a barrier if someone is ill his

Or her family or even individual physically unwell the mental

State may not be changed to receive the message fully.

c). External barriers/miscellaneous

1). Odd type of presentation or conversation.

2). Extreme hot or cold condition at the venue.

3). The seat on which listener is seating is uncomfortable.

4). Chatting with the person next to you.

5). Noise volume noise outside the venue.

6). Poor light or ventilation condition.

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Grapevine

In every organization the informal channel of communication is called grapevine. The

use of the term grapevine is said to be originated during the US civil war when thetelegraph lines struck loosely between the trees. The soldiers said the wires

reassembled as grapevine. The messages that were difficult to decipher were said to

have come through grapevine. A grapevine do not follow the straight- line approach.

The messages may be passed along in a much more scattered manner. The informal

channel of communication is called grapevine because it denotes informal means of

circulating information or gossip. Management can utilize this channel for effective

and speedy communication. Certain messages are not suitable to circulate by formal

means. According to Koontz and O.H Donnell: the most effective communication

results when managers utilize the informal organizations to supplement the

communication channels of the formal organization.

The grapevine consists of a series of small groups of people interconnected to one

another until it covers everyone in the organization. Each group has a person at the

centre as a leader who communicates the messages to every member in that group.

The members of that group in turn transmit the same message to other member in

another group and so on and the process continues.

Types of grapevine

Professor Keith Donnell, who has done some research on the nature of the grapevine

or the informal channel of communication classifies it into four basic types :- single

strand, gossip, probability, and cluster:-1. Single Strand Chain :- The single strand chain involves the passing of information

through a long line of persons to the ultimate recipient .A tells B, who tells C, who tells

D, and so on, till the information has reached most of the persons concerned.

2. Gossip Chain :- In the gossip chain, A actively seeks and tells everyone. This chain is

just like the wheel where A is at the centre and the information passes along the

spokes of the wheel to others stationed on the rim.

3. Probability Chain :- The probability chain is a random process in which A transmits

the information to others in accordance with the laws of probability and then these

others tell still others in a similar manner. This chain may also be called random.

4. Cluster Chain :- In the cluster chain, A tells selected persons who may in turn relaythe information to other selected individuals. Most of the informal communication

follows this chain.

Importance of grapevine

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1. A Safety Value:- apprehensions experience by workers on workers on matters like

promotions and retrenchments become an obsession with t6hem.Talking about them

may not alleviate their fears, but it certainly provides them relief. Thus the grapevine

acts as a kind of safety-value for the pent-up emotions of the subordinates.

2. Organisational Solidarity And Cohesion:- The existence of the grapevine proves

that the workers are interested in their associates. The very fact that they talk thatthey talk among themselves helps to promote organizational solidarity and cohesion.

Properly used, the grapevine may even raise the morale of the workers.

3. Supplement To Other Channels:- All information cannot be transmitted to the

employees through official channels. If there is some useful information unsuitable for

being transmitted through official channels, it can be transmitted to the employees

through the grapevine.

4. Quick Transmission:- The speed with which information is transmitted through the

grapevine is just unbelievable. Rumours, they say, spread like wildfire. Just spot a few

leaders of the grapevine and give them some information, cleverly describing it as top

secret, and within minutes, it will have reached everybody.

5. Feedback:- The grapevine provides feedback to the management. It enables them

to know what the subordinates think about the organization and its various activities.

Demerits of grapevine

1.Distortion:the grapevine respects nobody and it may ascribe the worst possible

motives to the noblest of people.Thus one of the major drawbacks of the grapevine is

that it may spread baseless or distorted news which may sometimes prove harmful

even to the employees.

2.Incomplete information : the grapevine information is usually incomplete. So there

is every likelihood of its being misunderstood or misinterpreted.

3.Damaging swiftness: the swiftness with which the grapevine transmits information

may even be damaging.a rumour may have spread and caused serious damage before

the management becomes aware of it and can take any rectifying steps.

How to use grapevine effectively

Because of the damaging effect the grapevine is capable of producing, some managers

are highly auspicious of it and want to stop it completely. They dont realize that the

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grapevine can neither wither nor die. Instead of trying to curb its growth, it is much

better to feed water and cultivate it so that it can be used for the benefit of the

organization. The grapevine can be effectively used in the following ways:

1.The managers should try to spot the leaders. They should try to find out the people

who are more active on the grapevine and keep them well informed so that harmful

rumours do not reach the employees.2.The grapevine should be used to feel the pulse of the employees.

3.If there is any false rumour, the management should immediately use the official

channels to contradict it and to dispel the fears of the employees.

4.If the workers are associated with decision-making, the rumour-mongers will be

automatically frustrated. Tf the workers are already aware that the plant is to be

modernized but that the modernization process is not going to involve any

retrenchments, the arrival of the new machinery and engineers will not cause any

undue apprehensions among them. Thus harmful effects of the grapevine will be

successfully neutralized.