Basics - Urban Analysis

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U R B A N A N A L Y S I S~ G E R R IT S C H W A L B A C H ~

~ D E S I G N~ F U N D R M E N T R L S O F P R E S E N T R T IO N~ C O N S T R U C T I O N~ P R O F E S S I O N R L P R R C T I C E~ B U I L D I N G P H Y S IC S R N D B U I L D I N G S E R V IC E S~ B U I L D I N G M R T E R I R L S~ L R N D S C R P E R R C H I T E C T U R EU R B A N I S M~ T H E O R Y

R s a b a s i s f o r c i t y p l a n n i n g a n d a r c h i t e c t u r a ld e s i g n wo r k a s o l i d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e e x i s t i n ga n d s u r r o u n d i ng u r b a n s t r u c t u r e s i s i nd i s p e n s a b l e .a s i c s U r b a n n a l y s i s e x p l a i ns t h e p o s s i b l e a p p r o a c h e st o u r b a n a n a l y s i s ; i t a l s o d e s c r i b e s i n p r a c t i c a lt e r ms h o w t o i mp l e me n t t h o s e a p p r o a c h e s i n t h e a r e a sa n a l y z e d a n d h o w t o e v a l u a t e t h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d .


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CONTENTS

\\Foreword 7

\\Introduction 9

\\Theoretical principles of urban analysis _13\\Aesthetic observation: the visible city _13\\Scientific observation: the invisible city _16\\Integrative observation: the logical city _17

\\Implementation _23\\Preparation and planning phases _23\\Obtaining and processing data _27\\Working in the area under analysis _34

\\Methods of analysis _38\\Historical analysis _38\\Analysis of land use structure _41\\Analysis oftransport structure _48\\Analysis of open space and green structure _56\\Analysis of construction and housing structure _62\\Analysis of social space _65

\\Interpretation and illustration_71\\Interaction of the results of sectoral analysis _71\\Concluding evaluation _71\\Transition to subsequent course of action _74\\Illustration of the results of analysis _75

\\In conclusion _79

\\Appendix _80\\Literature _80\\Picture credits 80\\The author _82


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-FOREWORD

Studying existing urban structures, with their diverse social, histori-cal and architectural influences, is a major part ofmodern urban planning.Cities and city districts are often marked by many generations, each witha different way ofthinking. Anurban neighborhood is characterized by theway these many influences overlap.

Analyzing the mechanisms behind an urban neighborhood's charac-teristics, recording its broader spatial context, and identifying the failingsand mistakes of urban planning form the basis for safeguarding the long-term future of existing urban neighborhoods and their further develop-ment. This makes city analysis fundamental to any urban planning project.It is also the basis for intelligent urban planning context handling whenimplementing actual construction projects.

The Basics books on urban planning provide a basic grounding andvarious practical working methods for students of urban planning andarchitecture. Supplementing Basics Urban Building Blocks an introduc-tion to individual urban structural elements, the subject of this book isthe analysis of existing urban structures and their characteristics. Theemphasis is on explaining how to prepare and implement analyses of allurban factors, deal with sources of data and information and work in aspecific area of analysis. The author presents methods of analysis fromhis own practical experience, demonstrates analysis result documentationtypes and reviews possible courses ofaction based on these results. BasicsUrban nalysis is a valuable combination of methodical approaches andpractical knowledge that students will find useful both academically andprofessionally.

Bert BielefeldEditor

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U rb an a na ly si san du rb an p la nning

INTRODUCTION

Urban planning always demands analysis of the area involved. Thisprovides the background knowledge and rationale for any urban planningmeasure. Urban analysis, the study ofexisting urban spaces, is the prelimi-nary stage of urban planning in any existing city.

Urban planning has increasingly less to dowith quantitative growthand more to do with caring for and adapting existing urban structures,especially in Europe. This change in orientation requires intensive study ofexisting urban structures. The fundamental question, however, is whetherexisting cities' future development can actually be planned, and whetherthis kind of development can be determined in advance by analyzing theinitial conditions. ) Fig. I

Urban planning has been determining future demands on urbanspaces by measuring particular values for a long time. This approach

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lu tunstf'i d with the coming of the 20th century. During the IndustrialRevolution, many cities experienced almost totally unplanned expansion.Experts noted their functional deficiencies. The planning approach de-veloped as a response was particularly strongly represented in the 1960s,as the emergence of computers enabled extensive data processing andmade advance planning of urban development with precision look likea realizable goal. The role of the urban planner also changed, with theunaccountable master builder becoming a rational engineer who woulddiagnose the city and then prescribe developmental planning measures.However, all efforts toprecisely predetermine a city's development failed.Today, urban development processes are considered far too complex andcontradictory to be understood and extrapolated in their entirety. Despitethis realization, urban planning and urban analysis remain indispens-able, but they are not used to plan every detail of urban development.Instead, they provide a basis for integrating diverse individual develop-ments into a single planning scheme. With urban planning increasinglyfocusing on existing infrastructure, urban analysis has ak ey role. Beforea need for action can be discovered and appropriate stabilization meas-ures can be put in place, existing urban structures must be analyzed. Ur-ban analysis does not precede urban planning in a fixed, self-containedprocess; rather, they are both elements in a continuous process. > Fig. 2

Cities are generally perceived in a very different way by differentparties. Factors like the emotional ties of residents to their neighborhoodor their place in the local society of a certain neighborhood are incom-prehensible to outsiders. Conversely, faults in urban design etc. may beof only minor importance to local residents. The urban planning processregularly involves serious conflict between urban planners and residentsor users of the city due to their different perceptions and evaluations of acity. Initial conflicts are unavoidable, but if handled properly they repre-sent a chance to develop a deeper understanding of the situation withinthe space under observation, spurring residents to look beyond the contextof their own neighborhood and giving urban planners an insight into thatneighborhood's social mechanisms. > Fig. 4

Urban analysis Urban analysis describes or analyses particular factors relevant tourban planning, in whole cities or i n smaller areas within cities. Aesthetic,spatial. social or economic factors are recorded and represented in thestudy, which goes on to describe the interactions between these effects- which, however, cannot be assessed or described in f ull because the cityand its users interact in a reciprocal system. Urban analysis is thereforeconfined to abstract, model interpretations of the city or its individualareas. > Fig. 3


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THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES OF URBAN ANALYSIS

Acity can be represented as a tangible, perceptible spatial phenom-enon, without precisely analyzing or describing its causative factors. Con-versely, a city can be seen as the field of activity for scientifically measur-able factors, without reference to its spatial dimension. Spatial analysesgenerally avoid both of these extreme approaches, instead describing acity as an interaction ofdifferent effects, but all with spatial implications.The main reference point is usually the perceptible city - urban analysiscannot exist without reference to tangible, perceptible phenomena.

AESTHETIC OBSERVATION:THE VISIBLE CITYAmajor part of urban analysis is the visual perception of a city; i.e.

the recording and interpretation of visually perceived urban structures.We generally perceive a city without recognizing the mechanisms of per-ception, yet the task of describing a city is inseparable from the act ofperceiving it.

Perception is a learned communication process. In this context, per-ception means the understanding of visual information. We can only un-derstand phenomena that we have already perceived. This involves gener-alizing from one or more recurring characteristics, previously learned byand therefore known to the viewer. Individual characteristics may vary orchange over time, but the general characteristics must remain constant forthe phenomenon to be recognized.

Urban analysis may be part of a formal planning process. Inthe con-text of public development programs or urban renovation or renewal, anurban analysis may be implemented according to specific requirements.In general, however, the implementation of an urban analysis is not stand-ardized; i.e. its extent and degree of detail must be decided based on theindividual situation.

Communication structures our environment. When we accept namesfor things, we are unconsciously using a pattern to perceive our surround-ings. This is also a condition for being able to perceive. In this sense, thehuman sensory organs do not transport all stimuli to the brain. Instead,like a filter, they classify, selecting from the full range ofavailable sensorystimuli in a data-compression operation.

\\Note:Resthetics (from the Greek ci t hes i : percep-tion) originally meant the study of beauty.Resthetics in the scientific sense includes allmechanism s of h um an p e rc e pt i o n.

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The process of determining names and terms is not learned discretely,but is inscribed into a culture in the form of language and perpetuatedby the collective memory. The structure of our perception is based uponlanguage. Language-based categories determine the differences (a selec-tion process) and connections (a construction process) that we perceive,evaluate and interpret in our surroundings. This is largely an unconsciousprocess, making it difficult for us to believe that different people perceivetheir surroundings differently, depending on their experience and habits.> Fig. 5

Many of the terms we use group together very different urban fea-tures into a single category. This is like the way we perceive a human face.Rather than remembering all the individual features, what we notice isthe overall impression created by the combination of those features. In asimilar way,when we perceive a city,we compare it to many patterns withwhich we are familiar. We expect a town square, a historical church ortown hall in the center of a city, for instance. In actual fact, this cognitivepattern is an idealized composite seldom seen in reality, where town cen-ters are made up of many different phenomena, but we use our standard,familiar pattern to pick up on those parts of the overall composition thatconform to the schema. Those parts that do not fit the pattern are sup-pressed by the perception process. If these elements form the dominantimpression, then we do not perceive the city center, for instance, as beinga city center. > Figs 6 and 7

It follows that we recognize only those phenomena that can be ab-stracted, based on what we already know. Or, to put it another way, weperceive only the phenomena we expect. As perception is a cultural phe-nomenon, urban structures may be perceived very differently by peoplewith different cultural backgrounds.

Urban analysis may confirm familiar perception patterns by under-scoring certain phenomena as being particularly typical. However, it canalso help people to recognize new phenomena or connections by explainingthe rules governing perception.


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\ \ Note:Morphology is the science of shapes ond forms.Urbon morphology describes the form of citiesand residential estates and their processes offormatio n.

Fig.8:SCience explains phenomena that lie outside the structure ofperception.

SCIENTIFIC OBSERVATION:THE INVISIBLE CITYA host of individual phenomena interact to produce our aesthetic

perception of a city. Scientific methods, on the other hand, analyze indi-vidual aspects, with no claim to providing a general explanation ofthe cityas a phenomenon. The smaller the area under consideration is, the moreprecisely it can be described. Scientists use this method to explain phe-nomena that lie outside the structure ofperception or are not perceptibleby the senses. While perception unites factors in an overall impression,science deconstructs the overall impression to discover the individual fac-tors. For instance, characteristics ofa district can be traced back to demo-graphic features ofits population without these phenomena being tangiblyperceptible. > Fig. 8

INTEGRATIVE OBSERVATION:THE LOGICALCITYMorphological descriptionUrban morphology describes the spatial characteristics of city struc-

tures and explains the conditions and causes behind them, including, forinstance, the cultural, political or topographic context. Urban morphology,therefore, often follows a cause-and-effect pattern, with particular circum-stances creating specific spatial structures.

Defined volues Scientific urban analysis is based on assessing and interpreting de-fined values. The resulting measurements are usually interpreted by com-paring them with measurements from other survey areas or timeframes.Analyzing statistics, such as the age or employment status of the popula-tion, is a typical example. The interaction of all active values in an urbanspace cannot be scientifically investigated. Individual aspects, however,can be described precisely, as exact measurements and comparative valuesare available.

Urban morphology involves intensive study of historical urbanground plans, i.e. the distribution of streets and building plots, usuallybased on a fundamental distinction between planned and non-planned ororganic cities. Other criteria include the density and distribution of thebuildings, the situation and hierarchy of streets and squares, the propor-tion of open spaces to built-up areas, and the placement of significant

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around 1600 aroun d 17 50 around 19 00

buildings in the city's ground plan. Individual structural features are oftenstudied, including:

_ Development structure: individual buildings, block buildings androws_ Access structure: streets, commons, squares and bridges

_ Open space structure: open space and bodies of water

While individual buildings have a comparatively short lifespan, theground plans of cities are generally very slow to change. Street plots inparticular possess great inertia. Historical cities therefore contain thetraces ofmany different eras. While street plans often date from the found-ing of the city, most buildings will have been replaced or modified manytimes, so that the remains ofmany different eras, all of which arose underdifferent circumstances, are jumbled together within a city. This meansthat morphological urban analysis may provide many explanations withina single city. ) Fig. 9

\ \ No te :R nolys is of urbo n m orphology co n reve ol thelogic of an area b y investigating the condi-tions and causes of its characteristics.

III

Analysis of building styleAnalysis of building style compares the formal composition ofbuild-

ings and urban structures from different eras (historical styles). regions(regional styles). or cultural movements. In rare cases, individual archi-tects or municipal building officers originate a style that characterizes acity. Style is always created bythe culturally active minority, so t hat ratherthan being urban space's primary shaping force itis anintellectual. formalexpression of traditional building experience.

The study of style does not necessarily explain the cause of eachstyle. Even so, particular worldviews or construction technologies can helpto elucidate a style, giving the subject applications beyond decoration.

Analyzing styles often helps us to work out the age of buildings orurban structures. Not every era, however, has its own distinctive style. Of-ten, several different styles were used simultaneously, or there were longtransitional phases between stylistic eras. Determining style and date oforigin is often made more difficult by the redesign ofhistorical buildingsand changes to the city's ground plan, so that stylistic analysis often relieson detailed historical analysis. ) Fig. 10

Analysis of functional patternsMost methods of analysis describe urban structures as a conse-

quence of other circumstances, reasoning that social, climatic, economicor cultural conditions bring about particular spatial urban structures.

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spatial structure, causing misunderstandings that produce social tensions.Recognizing functional patterns requires intensive study of the space andits use.

Spatial experience and emotional attachmentPhysical and spatial sensations are both bodily and social experi-

ences, making them fundamental to all human experience. All spatialexperiences refer back to these fundamental experiences. Buildings areassociated with people, and ensembles of buildings represent the relation-ships of people with each other. Associations are stored as experiences,and awaken positive or negative feelings. ~

Analysis of functional patterns assumes that this works both ways: aswell as social and cultural activities creating spatial structures, spatialstructures have implications for social and cultural behavior. One mightsay that spatial structures act as a catalyst for the social activities of theurban space's users.

Spatial structures are perceived in an emotional context, and spatialsituations are associated with lifestyle. A place may be remembered, forinstance, because of a particularly pleasant event, with an unimposingplace remaining in the memory because a future lifepartner was seen therefor the first time.

Individuala n d co ll e c t i v ee x p e r i e n ce s

Many of these emotional links are based on individual experience,and therefore play no part in urban analysis. However, spatial situationscan also stir emotions in society at large or in certain social groups. Insome cases, a spatial situation can even produce opposite emotions in twodifferent social groups, thereby creating conflicts.eadability

.f spatial_tructures

We are not born knowing the social behavior appropriate to givenspatial structures. It is learned, like a language, and is tied to a culturalcontext. Any changes to spatial structures must therefore preserve theirreadability if the relationship between place and behavior is not to bedisrupted.

Such places usually stand out from their surroundings. In generalthey are either particularly exposed places, like viewing platforms, orboundaries between two very different spatial structures, like riverbanks.Such locations are often spatially marked, creating a symbolic emphasis.In urban analysis, emotionally significant places must be recognized anddocumented. ) Fig. 13

-9One of the key functional pattern schemas of a city designates public

and private spaces. Avaried repertoire ofspatial structural characteristicsencodes public or private city space. Forinstance, a square with a centralmonument encircled by shops declares itself to be public. ) Figs 11 and 12

The association between social behavior patterns and certain spa-tial structures are very long-lived, but even so, new functional patternscan arise. New functional patterns usually arise by analogy with alreadyfamiliar systems.

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Functional patterns may be tied to particular social or cultural mi-lieus, so that spatial codes can only be read by members of a certain socialclass or cultural group. As a consequence, members of different groupsmay have a different idea of the social behavior appropriate to a certain

\ \ Example:This sys tem also applies to the ground p lan s ofbui ld ings , m aki n g th e furn ish ing s a n d l oc a ti on sof ro om s wi th a speci f ic pu rp o se re adab le eve nto people using them for the first time. Roomsare full of codes that link to certain behav-iors. Violating the rules by disregarding thiscode is socially prohibited.

\\ Example:Memorials relating to the two World Wars canproduce very contradictory emotions in people,bec ause they arou se bo th so rrow and gu ilt .

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IMPLEMENTATION

PREPARATION ANDPLANNING PHASESIn theory, a surveyed area contains endless volumes of information,

allowing a corresponding amount of analysis to be done. In practice, cer-tain systems have become established within which analysis takes place.These systems can be divided up under the headings history, housing ge-ography, and social structure. > Chapter Methods of analysis

Defining the subject matterThere are two reasons for conducting an urban analysis:

_ Toreveal the overall picture: This means using urban analysis toobtain an overall picture of the area of investigation or of a wholeurban area. Observed mistakes often trigger an urban analysis.These may include mass vacancy, poor building maintenance ormajor population fluctuations. The aim ofthe urban analysis is toreplace suspicion with a definite diagnosis. In this case, severalmethods will be used on the area under investigation.

Micro and macro levelsCities are perceived on different levels. People usually have detailed

knowledge of the area surrounding their home. In parallel with this, theyincorporate the area into wider contexts without reference to detailedknowledge of these wider surroundings. This network is oriented on struc-tural elements such as green corridors, the course of rivers or major trafficroutes. Conspicuous places provide points of reference within it. Everylocation is therefore integrated into spatial structures on both the microand the macro levels. Neither of these levels is autonomous. Instead, thetwo different levels overlap within any specific location.

_ Toprovide an answer to a specific issue: This means analyzing spe-cific features - for instance, the condition of existing residentialbuildings, the population's social situation, or the urban planningcompatibility of a prospective building project. In this case, theevaluation must provide conclusions onthe initial question.

Urban analyses are not formal or standardized procedures. Thismakes defining the subject matter before beginning an analysis indis-pensable. It is important to choose the right methods of analysis based onthe reason for conducting the analysis. Failing to appropriately define the

\\Note:Housing geography describes both the spatialstructure and the internal functions of theare a un der inve s tig at io n. The mo st im po rtan telements ore the functional structure, accessstruct ure , open spa ce and gree n stru cture, andcons tr uction and deve l opm en t s tr uctu re .


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FIg 16:Wh e n a n a l y z I n g t he a r ea o f I nv e s t I g a -t I o n n e ar b y a r e a s mu s t a l so b e t a k e nI n t o a c c o u nt .

subject matter can lead either to inadequate results or to collecting infor-mation that is of no use to the urban analysis. Arough impression of thesituation within the area ofanalysis is therefore needed before the subjectmatter can be established.

Scale and spatial demarcationAnyinformation gained from an analysis is subject to scale. For in-

stance, information relating to individual buildings may be relevant to asingle building plot but useless for analyzing the whole city. It is not thatsmall-scale analysis will always give an inaccurate picture of the area ofinvestigation; it is simply that to provide useful results it must be seen inthe wider city context. Anoverload of too much large-area information - adata graveyard - can distort findings onthe area's relationship with thewider context. Compressing the data obtained into keypoints is an impor-tant part ofurban analysis.

Scale and degree of detail depend on how far the area under investi-gation extends; i.e. the larger the scale, the smaller the area of investiga-tion. However, no planning area is autonomous. It will have many connec-tions and reciprocal relationships with the surrounding areas, the city as awhole, and even the wider region. Any urban analysis therefore has to lookbeyond the area under investigation and take into account its integrationinto the city's structure. ) Figs 16-18

Continuation and monitoringContinuing the analysis involves building onthe investigation at par-

ticular intervals. Continuations may involve the same methods of analysis,or expand onor modify them. This can lead tothe analyzed facts experienc-ing a change in emphasis.

The smallest unit for a whole-city urban analysis is a building plotor neighborhood (scale 1:20,000 to 1:5000).This means that any analyzedcharacteristics must be seen in relation to this spatial area. Where the areaunder investigation is a single neighborhood, the smallest units are gener-ally buildings and plots. Analyses involving a survey ofonly a few charac-teristics generally include a higher degree of detail. ) Figs 14and 15

\ \ N o t e :In this case, bui ld ing plot describes aho u s i n g d ev el o p me n t e n c l o s e d b y r o od s o r o t he rstructural elements.

\ \ N o t e :An area of investigation' 5 spatial integrationsituation may have a positive impact - in thecase of nearby recreational facilities, forinstance - but it may also create conflicts, asin the case of an industrial concern emittingfumes near a res idential area.


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Monitoring in an urban analysis context means long-term observa-tion of the area under investigation, usually by surveying a constant setofvalues at regular intervals, comparing the results, and comparing withother areas of investigation, or comparing several areas of investigationwith regard to certain values. Typical surveyed values include the numberof inhabitants and the demographic and social population characteris-tics.

that, when preparing and setting an agenda for an urban analysis, thefactors analyzed and the expertise needed must be clearly set out. In prac-tice this involves setting up a working team or dividing the work betweenpublic planning authorities and specialist planners. Urban planners, ar-chitects and housing geographers usually supervise the main stages of anurban analysis, investigating land use, transport, housing and construc-tion structures. Specialized analysis may require, for instance, transportsystem planners or historians. Open space and ecological issues are gen-erally handled by open space planners or landscape architects. Biologists,meteorologists and geographers make specialized contributions on theopen space and ecological situation. If analyzing the social structure ne-cessitates extensive surveys or statistical work, social scientists will haveto be included. Participation initiatives will require moderators.

OBTAINING AND PR OCESSING DATAUrban analysis involves obtaining extensive amounts of data. Per-

mission to access these materials must be agreed or arranged as early asthe availability and capability ofthe relevant authority will permit.

Urban analysis involves collecting and processing very differentform of data:

Data in paper form, such as printed reports and plansDigital data, such as planning documents, text and image files

_ Information gained from personally visiting the site> Chapter Workingin the area under analysis

_ Information from conversations with third parties> Chapter Workingorking with other specialist plannersIt is often impossible for a single specialist planner to conduct an ur-

ban analysis, as many aspects require specialized knowledge. This meansin the area under analysis

\\Note:So that resu lts can be com pared, m on itor ingdemands c le ar ly e stabli sh a ss es sment f ac torsand worki ng me thod s. I t t her ef ore g ener al lyu ses onl y st andar di zed val ue s. Compara bi lit y o ft he su rv ey ed ar ea s shou ld a lso b e c hecked .

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\\ Tip:Wh en estab lish ing a working group , area s ofresearch should be clearly demar ca ted t o ovo idredundancy. If necessary, the chronologicalsequence of the analysis should be firmlyestablished, as the results produced by onespecialist planner may have implications foranothers evaluation,

\\ Tip:Befo re be gin nin g an u rb an an alysis , it shou ldbe established whether there will be any chargefor providing or preparing necessary datamaterials, and who should be liable for this.

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Ifan urban analysis isto bepublished, someone must check the copy-right status ofthe materials used, which should be identified in the publi-cation. Data protection laws apply to the publication ofpersonal data. Thedata protection authorities responsible should be contacted so that rulesfor dealing with these materials can be agreed.

Historical informationHistorical maps, publications on the city's past and chronicles are

important reference works for a historical analysis. It is generally a goodidea to talk to city archives and libraries. In smaller cities, these servicesare often provided by honorary appointees. They will however only pro-vide a collection of historical materials such as photos and local publica-tions, rather than scientifically prepared information. The evaluation ofsuch historical raw materials is very labor-intensive, and is usually onlyrequired inthe case of a scientific investigation.

Maps as a basisScale maps are an essential practical tool in any urban analysis.

Maps may provide information or be a medium for contextualizing the dif-ferent results ofanalysis. There are no national or international standardsfor maps as a basis for urban analysis, meaning that the availability andtechnical quality of the materials have to be checked at the beginning ofthe analysis. Because they may use different projections, not all sets ofmaps are compatible. This means that they cannot always be used withinthe same document. Maps for urban analysis use are usually produced anddistributed by state bodies.

Topogrophicolmop

A topographical map shows geographical features and spatial ob-jects onthe earth's surface. The contour lines in particular make this kindofmap useful for an urban analysis ..Scales of between 1:5000 and 1:50,000are used for urban analysis purposes. Maps are generally available as

\\Note:If the area under investigation containsobjects of cultural significonce (buildings orlocations) or listed ground-level features,then authorities responsible for listed struc-tures will usually be able to provide detailedrecords a nd e xp er ience.

\\Note:The display style of a topographical map makesit easily accessible to the general public. Itcan therefore be included in public projectswi thout modifying the disploy.

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digital data grids. Tosome extent, groups of objects or geographic features> @ can be provided as layers, each printed with one set of data. > I 'ig. 19

Reol estote mop The real estate map is used as a basis for the geodata, enabling nu-merous connections with other specialist data. The real estate map is thevisual part of the land register, showing the ownership of all parcels ofland.

Thereal estate map shows spatial and topographical features as wellas plots ofland. Its inclusion ofextensive information onobjects and landplots makes the real estate map particularly interesting tourban analysts.Real estate maps note particular attributes of plots and objects, e.g. landuse or number of stories in buildings. Identical or similar objects are or-ganized using the precise definitions in an object catalogue. These are ar-ranged into separate layers, sorting the map's content by subject. The realestate map is also part of the land register map information system - i.e.the database contains extensive data on the area in addition to the realestate map's visual information. > Fig. 20

Real estate maps are kept digitally by land registry offices and canbe edited by others if converted into vector files. Before referring to thereal estate map, it should be ascertained what object and plot-related in-formation it can provide. Conversely, it may be necessary to narrow downa large amount of available data.

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erialhotogroph

etoiled mops

eoinformationystems

The usual file formats for transfer into a CAD(Computer Aided De-sign) system are *.DXF(Drawing Interchange Format) or *.DWG(Drawing,a file format from the Autodesk product range). If files from the land reg-istry information system are to be transferred, other data formats mustbe used.

Aerial photographs are available taken vertically or at an angle. Non-distorted true to scale vertical images - called orthophotos - are oftenused, as these are comparable to other map materials and can thereforebe used in combination with them. Together with real estate maps, aerialphotographs can provide important information on object coordinates. Inparticular, this helps to pinpoint green infrastructure. Aerial photographsare also an effective way of illustrating analysis results because they canbe easily understood by lay people. > Fig. 21

Depending on the area of investigation, an urban analysis may re-quire large-scale detailed maps. For instance, utility companies will beable to provide maps showing underground supply lines.

commonest providers of data records are public bodies, but private con-cerns are increasingly providing spatial data records. One's own surveyresults can be incorporated into the GIS system as well as external data

> @ records. > Fig. 22eoinformation systems (GISsystems) are used to manage and vi-sualize spatial data. Many evaluations can be made based on them. WithGISsystems, the emphasis is generally on s toring extensive bodies of digi-tal data in the form of databanks and making connections between themthrough evaluation rather than expressing information in maps. The refer-ence values for these connections are spatial features, which are recordedgraphically in geometric form - as with a CADsystem. These drawings areusually based on standard maps such as the topographical map.

Field computers Field computers allow standardized survey results to be collateddigitally onsite. The results being entered can be assigned to the correctlocation by clicking on a touchscreen showing a map or by matching withcoordinates calculated by an integrated GPS (Global Positioning System)receiver. AGISsystem evaluates the submitted data. > Fig. 23

Conducting an urban analysis using a GISsystem requires extensiveprior research. The availability of compatible sets of data is very impor-tant. Data transfers from other systems can lead to data being lost duringformatting, necessitating time-consuming manual inputting of data. The

Existing plans and analysesAreas under investigation have often been previously subjected to

planning and analysis. These materials must be evaluated in the light ofcertain restrictions, and of other information. Formal planning worksset out regulations on, for instance, the type and extent of land use for

\\Note:If the real est at e map covers a large area,it moy be 0 good ideo to exchonge test doto(extrocts) before submitting 0 finol set ofdoto.

\ \ Note:Real estate maps are technical maps withl im ited relevonce to loy people. They must beextensively revised grophicolly before they conbe used to i llus trat e analysis results.

\\Note:The use of GIS systems for long -t erm o reoobservotion (monitoring) is porticulorlyinteresting, as the inclusion of the mostup-to-dote sets of doto mokes it relotivelyeasy to create new evaluations and evaluativemops.

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construction, the situation of any feature for which the immediate sur-roundings must be kept clear, or the extent of flood-risk areas. Some-times specialist assessments are available, analyzing particularly im-portant factors in the area of investigation and its surroundings. Theseinclude: evaluation relevant to the area of investigation, a new census area has to

be marked out._ Ecological specialist articles containing information on existing

valuable green infrastructure >Chapter Analys is of open space and greenstructure

This demarcation must be done by administrative departments, be-cause external experts do not have access to data on residents. In orderto satisfy data protection requirements, data sufficient for building up asmall-area picture can be provided only after extensive agreements havebeen reached between urban analysts and the authorities responsible.

Sound protection reports dealing with noise pollution - existing oranticipated in connection with planned projectsTransport reports analyzing existing traffic pressures and the ca-pacity of existing transport facilities, networks and systems> Chap-

Chapter Analysis of landuse structure

When analyzing the population structure, it is particularly useful tosupplement surveys restricted to specific reference dates with studies ofdevelopments over time, and compare them with other survey areas, mak-ing it essential to have access to suitable comparative data.

ter Analysis of transport structureRetail reports analyzing the retail structures of the survey area

Any relevant information from the available reports will be incorpo-rated into the urban analysis. Its interactions with other factors and itsimplications for future urban planning will be investigated. Depending onits importance, this information will be represented in a scale map.

lata andtatistics onr e s iden t s

@ @In general. administrative authorities are required to carry out regu-lar analyses of the population structure. This involves analyzing the wholepopulation of districts or statistical survey areas under certain headings.The area of investigation for an urban analysis is generally not identi-cal with any of these statistical survey areas, making the possibilitiesfor applying the data to a specific investigation area limited. To make an

\ \ Note:In practice, all existing plans an d a nalysesare requ este d fro m the re leva nt authorities inthe early stages of an urban analysis. Manyplanning texts can be downloaded from theInternet (see Fig. 24).

\ \ Note:The term censu s area describe s a con ti nuousarea for which particular characteristics suchas the overage ag e of re siden ts o r the num berof home s ca n be ass ign ed.


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35

Parties to the onsite visit will generally evaluate their own notes.More extensive surveys, however, involve assembling an editing team. Inthis case, a standard way of listing analysis results must be agreed uponto preclude subsequent misunderstandings. Standardized questionnairesare particularly suited to this.

WORKING IN THE AREA UNDER ANALYSISTaking an inventory in the fieldField work in the area of investigation is an essential part of urban

analysis. Most analysis results can only be obtained by recording the exist-ing situation on-site. Spatial qualities and atmospheric impressions onlybecome apparent to an urban analyst visiting the area of investigation. Itmay be necessary to view the area at different times of day, or on differentdays of the week.

Youwill need to have suitable documents prepared for textually andgraphically recording the information gained from the site visit. The vol-ume of information recorded and the nature of the spaces involved willvary depending on the dimensions and degree of detail of the analysis.The documents must be appropriate to the volume of information and thespatial relationships involved. Unsuitable documents with excessive notescan turn the subsequent evaluation into a labor-intensive piece of detec-tive work. > Fig. 25

Topographic or real estate maps are used to record the onsite visit.Different scales are used depending on the dimensions and degree of detailof the analysis:

_ For recording housing geography features, real estate maps with ascale of 1:1000are generally used. When preparing these maps, anylayers that are not relevant to the site visit should be left out.

_ For analyzing the urban integration situation, topographical mapsor aerial photographs with a scale of between 1:5000and 1:20,000are suitable.

_ For recording plot or building level data, real estate maps with ascale of 1:500 are used. Larger-scale maps tend to result in paperformats that are too large to handle easily in the field. It may bea good idea to combine the map and the survey sheet, with themap allowing individual objects to be pinpointed and the surveysheet allowing analysis results to be listed. The survey sheet willbe created as a standardized questionnaire, to prevent any surveycriteria from being overlooked during the inventory. > Fig. 26

\\ Tip:To prevent any information gaps in the sub-sequent evaluation, the site visit must bepreceded by thorough preparation. Such an errormay result in time-consuming extra research,porticularly if long traveling distances o reinvol ved.

Cameras are generally used to document the area ofinvestigation. Itis often a good idea to note the places where photos were taken on a map,to allow the photographs to beput in a spatial context during subsequentanalysis.


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Citizen participation, contact with local operatorsResidents have extensive detailed knowledge of their own neighbor-

hood. Others active in the area, such as business people and those whorun local initiatives, will also have knowledge of local conditions and howthey affect people. These sources of information should be included in anyanalysis.

Specialistconsul tat ions

Regulated contact with residents can be achieved using a series ofmethods. This is useful for assessing the impact on people within the areaof investigation of all the factors and conflicts involved, rather than forgaining detailed information on the locality.

e s i en t s 'e e ti q Aresidents' meeting is a frequently used method ofcitizen participa-tion, usually with little preparation. In practice, residents' meetings where

no specific action is discussed have a low perceived level of impact onthe residents and are therefore not well attended. Organizing a residents'meeting is therefore only recommended where both specific measures andgeneral plans ofaction are to be discussed. It is also a good idea topresentresidents with the first urban analysis evaluations, to provide an objectand structure for the subsequent discussion. Assome residents will avoidthe public exposure of meetings, this method will not produce a represen-tative sample of residents. The meeting place chosen should always havea low associated inhibition level - i.e. should be within the investigatedarea.

,dividuol...Jblico ns ulat ion

Preparing, carrying out and evaluating an individual public con-sultation is very time-consuming, and they are therefore only included inurban analyses that require an extensive social structure analysis. Indi-vidual consultations and their evaluation require the assistance of socialscientists.

Individual consultations may take the form of narrative interviewsor standardized questionnaires. Standardized processes make it easier

\ \ Tip:Avisit to the site will generally resultin spontaneous contacts with residents. Suchmeetings should not be avoided - carefulinquiries may provide useful information.

to evaluate the results. Mass-mailed questionnaires generally have a lowresponse rate. They do not provide a representative cross section of thepopulation structure either.

Conducting several specialist consultations allows a large body oflocation-specific specialist knowledge to be gathered in a relatively shorttime. Specialist consultations are discussion groups focusing on specificsubjects, with specialists inthe relevant field invited toattend. Participantsgenerally include specialist representatives from the relevant authoritiesplus those active in the area under discussion. These may be people work-ing for welfare organizations, voluntary workers or representatives of lo-cal entrepreneurship.

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METHODS OF ANALYSIS

Urban analysis of a particular area may include investigations of oneor more issues, e.g. different land uses and transport organization in thearea of investigation. As already stated, these sectoral analyses are simplyabstract, partial representations of the reality. In practice, however, theysimplify the analysis process, as the complex interplay of all values cannotbe recorded or presented. At the same time, any urban analysis should noteas many interactions between these sectoral analyses as possible. Put sim-ply, urban analyses begin by dismantling the area under investigation likea motor, and then use the knowledge of the individual parts thus gainedplus their interactions to put it back together again.

Urban analysis is not formally regulated, and so there are unlimitedways of carrying it out. For this reason, only the sectoral analysis typesmost commonly used in practical town planning are included here.

HISTORICALANALYSISHistorical analysis inquires into the causative events for the cre-

ation and composition of the analyzed area, or significant influences onit. Events in recent history may therefore also be significant. Historicalanalysis is not limited to identifying the stylistic roots of existing urbanstructures. It records and interprets events that had implications for thespatial development or the area of investigation. > Figs 27and 28

There are two possible fields of reference for a historical analysis:

_ The area of investigation as a whole: This involves evaluatingwhich historical events and circumstances have influenced theoverall structure of the area of investigation.

_ The area of investigation as the sum of its parts: This involvesresearching individual structural features to determine whetherthey are or were typical of particular developments.

Historical events include spatial measures such as the building oftown fortifications or reconstruction after a fire. Many historical events,however, have implications for the area of investigation's spatial develop-ment without themselves being specific spatial measures. For instance,economic circumstances such as aboom or decline in the regional economymay have affected the area of investigation's spatial development.

:: 38

R ec o rd in gin d i v i d u a lfeatures

Whether the area of investigation will be analyzed as a whole or onthe level of separate plots is generally decided by the number ofhistoricallysignificant buildings. In a plot-by-plot analysis, buildings are assessed in-

. dividually, and any historically relevant features documented. Buildingsare usually assessed according to a standardized catalog of criteria, then- if possible - assigned to various building types. Commonly used criteriainclude the building's age, and the extent and state of preservation of anyhistorical stylistic features. The next step is to mark these buildings on amap based on their features. This helps to ascertain the spatial distribu-tion of different building types in real space and the number of groups ofsignificant buildings. > Figs 29 and 30

I n t e r a c t i on sin the area ofinvestigation

In some rare cases, the spatial characteristics of an area of inves-tigation can be explained by a historical event. This would be the case,for instance, for a comprehensively planned neighborhood built within alimited period of time. More usually, however, an area of investigation'sspatial characteristics have been influenced by several different eventsand circumstances. These events will generally have occurred at differ-ent times, leading to repeated remolding of the area of investigation, andleaving traces on various places within the area ofinvestigation (buildingsfrom different eras). Different events may have molded a single place, withone set of circumstances overlying another (e.g. 1950s buildings withinthe ground plan of a medieval town). The density and distribution of ana-lyzed features will show whether the area of investigation's development

39


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Land useintensity

can be traced back to a small number of historical developments and cir-cumstances, or whether a very diverse historical development pattern liesbehind its present characteristics.

Context beyondthe area ofinvestigation

Historical analysis involves working out the relationship of the areaof investigation to surrounding areas or to the city as a whole, to under-stand its context within the development of the city. It must also be ascer-tained whether the area of investigation is typical of the overall develop-ment of t he city, or whether it has played a special role in history.

Recordingindividualfeatures

Conclusion Thorough historical research is particularly important in areas sig-nificant to the city's planning history. However, areas initially consideredto have no historical significance may reveal typical development processesin the course of ahistorical analysis, demonstrating aspects of the area of

\\Note:When examining the area of investigation asa whole, historical mops are generally usedto analyze historical development. Due todifferences in scale and reproduction. thesecannot usually be compared with modern-daymaps.

\ \ Note:Land use intensity often correlates with con-struction density, meaning that the results ofthe building and settlement analysis should becompared with the results of the use structureanalysis.

4

investigation's identity and ongoing development. When interpreting his-torical analyses, it is important to keep to describing the facts that haveclearly influenced the area of investigation's development. Discursions ongeneral city history, e.g. succession, documentary references or town twin-ning arrangements, can be excluded from an urban analysis, as they gener-ally have no influence on the properties of an area of investigation.

ANALYSISOF LANDUSE STRUCTUREAnalysis of land use structure involves investigating the real usesthat exist or predominate within the area of investigation and the inter

relations of different uses.

Land use intensity can be described using statistical values. Aratiois created from all the area of investigation's compiled characteristics. Oneapplication of this is to calculate the proportion ofsurface area under different land uses by expressing the proportion of the overall surface areataken up by each individual use. However, features may also be documentedin this way - the number of workplaces, for instance. Land use intensitycan also be described as a density value. This involves calculating the rolationship of certain features to units of surface area. One frequently useddensity value is population density relative to settled area.

Analysis of land use structure involves determining real use relativeto spatial units. A spatial unit in this context may be an open space or abuilding. If the facts are being recorded by area, and the area is occupi dby a building, the building's function is the determining factor for its usntype. For instance, if the building on the site contains apartments, thouthe designation will be residential regardless of any open space near thoplot.

Analyses of whole cities or investigation areas of comparabl si~(establish land uses for whole building plots (or neighborhoods). i.e. arcrucontaining several plots. Asthese spatial units often have no homogenousland use structure, they determine the predominating use instead. Districtland use structure analyses are generally done plot by plot, i.e. detcrmi uing the land use of every plot, or the number of plots in a particular IUllduse area. This involves recording the surface area used for traffic and grO( IIspaces as well as built-up plots.

Analyses of land use structure may be restricted to recording hullrling use, leaving open space use to the analysis of open space and nl'( 011structure. This division of labor is particularly suitable when lanel IIH Iii

'II


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being recorded story by story. Such highly detailed analyses are usuallyonly applied to small areas of investigation. > Figs31and 32

Land use is generally researched by visiting the site, i.e. visually.However, much information can be gained from real estate map data. Insome cases, authorities may provide data on surface area use from theirGIS systems. > Chapter Obtaining and processing data Another useful source of in-formation is the directory of firms kept by some business associations.There is however a risk that the postal address of a business is within thearea of inves-tigation, but not its production sites. C o m m e r c i a l

The land uses present within an area of investigation can be dif-ferentiated to varying degrees depending on the degree of detail needed.Subsequent division of the results into headings and subheadings is rec-ommended. > Fig.33

Res i den t i a l Generalized residential functions can be differentiated bythe build-ing structures, e.g. detached, semi-detached and row housing, or multi-story apartments with open or closed building forms. Special residence~ - such as sheltered housing and homes - are shown separately, asthey make particular requirements of local suppliers and transport con-nections.

42

Re s i de n t i a l b u i ld ln U 1a s p or t o f a r o w

~~~~i~ ~ r 6 u d i n o r ,( op en bui Idi rq fO lm M ul ti -stc rya p a r tm e n t bU ild iO / ,(closed building 0 1 )I n d i vi d ua l h o u s e s

M i x e d co n s t r u c ti o na r e a sC o m m er c ia lco n s t r u c t io n r co - ,

O th er r ou t e s / r oo d

Pa r k i n g ar e a s

Retoilofe v er y d ay go o d s

Commercial land uses are differentiated according to tho dOP'1I1of disruption they cause - i.e. their compatibility with residontiul IUlI(Iuse:

_ Industrial trade creates the greatest degree of disruj Lion, 1l111i IIItherefore confined to planning-regulated industrial dis trict.._ Trade encompasses all commercial land uses. These exist mu iIlly IIIplanning-regulated industrial districts. They include manu I'liol.lI I'ing, haulage and storage, wholesale, city depots and crult 0111.1'prises.

_ Non-disruptive trade includes types of business comput.i hlo wll.hresidential land use, Most of these are in the service 01 l'oWII IIOltors.


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The servicesector The output of the service sector is non-material, and depends on di-rect contact between people. Service sector trade can therefore be differen-

tiated according to the degree of dealings with the public:

Customer-oriented service sector trade describes facilities thatregularly deal with the public, such as travel agents or leisure ser-vices

_ Non-customer-oriented service sector trade includes offices

Publicamenities

Service sector operations may also be suppliers, meaning that sup-ply and non-supply service sector operations can be differentiated. Servicesector operations with a supply function include doctor's surgeries andoffices of postal and parcel services.

Retai I>~

Retail describes businesses that sell products to the end user. Bycontrast, wholesale dealers sell to sellers.

Hotel andcatering

In a district-level analysis, retail facilities for everyday essentialsare additionally identified because they are important local amenities forresidents. Local providers of everyday essentials should not be fartheraway (as the crow flies) than a 500 mradius (for a goodlocal amenity situ-ation) or 700 m (for a satisfactory local amenity situation) from any placeof residence. Everyday essentials include groceries and everyday luxuryitems, drinks and health care and grooming products. Services such asdoctors' surgeries and post offices may be included in the evaluation ofthe local amenity situation.

Entertainmentvenues

Plant

Mixed land use Mixed land use describes a combination of residential and other- usually residence-compatible - land uses. Different combinations - forinstance, residential and restaurants, residential and offices - can bedifferentiated, depending on the degree of detail of the urban analysis.

Transport

Identifying different degrees of combination to show whether residence 01commerce is the dominant land use is also common.

Public amenities are public facilities open to all - particularly killdergartens and daycare facilities, churches, cultural facilities and authorities. Open-air facilities such as play areas and cemeteries may also b (recorded as public amenities.

Leisure and social facilities may be public amenities, but may also borun bycommercial concerns. Depending on their nature - public or private- they may be evaluated as public amenities or customer-oriented servicesector commerce.

Catering includes all facilities offering catering services, e.g. restaurants, snack bars, cafes, liquor stores and ice-cream parlors. Hotels inelude guesthouses with service.

Facilities intended for entertainment and relaxation, such as discosand amusement arcades, are entertainment venues. As they generally cre-ate a fairly high level of disruption, they are treated as a separate categoryin urban analysis.

Plant includes facilities or buildings used to regulate and maintainvarious types of supply for the urban area or to control particular commercial processes. These include gas regulator stations, transformer stations,and sewage plants. Many of these facilities are surrounded by protectionzones, i.e. a certain distance must be maintained between the plant andsurrounding land uses.

Transport structure analysis differentiates between different typesof road or different financial responsibilities for roads. In either case, landuse structure analysis can also provide findings on transport facilities.

Transport-related constructions, such as rail stations and bus terminals, may be recorded as such, or listed as public amenities.

\\Nate:Retail can be subdivided according to manydifferent criteria, for instance the marketingt ype ( se lf-service, supermarket, specialistshop, specialist market etc.), centrality, areaserved, branch group, and shopping area .

Open-space uses Important open-space uses, generally included in analysis of op IIspace and green structure, can be incorporated into the analysis of landuse structure instead. They include parks and play areas, which can hnclassified as public amenities.

Vacancy Vacancy is a run tiounl dort etoncv. Moss va arrey generally ind lcat.nxthat an area is unuuructlvu, IHlilidly( \11 1) t .o urhnn planning disruptions ( II


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Other land uses Unusual uses that occur only once or rarely within the area of inves-tigation are generally identified and labeled individually in the evaluationplan, to avoid lengthy and confusing keys on maps.

Granulat ion

Con text beyondthe area ofinvestigation

46

mistakes. It is difficult to establish and prove vacancy, partly because it isnot always obvious to the eyeand partly because it takes long-term obser-vation to know how long buildings have been vacant.

Vacancy in residential and commercial buildings are differentiated,as these often have different causes and require different measures. It isalso wise to differentiate between part of a building and awhole buildingstanding vacant. > Fig. 34

Garages, shelters and similar facilities can be recorded as secondaryfacilities.

The main task ofland use analysis is to investigate subdivisions withcomparable land use types and thereby determine granulation. Recordingthese main areas is particularly important for identifying any disruptionsbetween different land use areas. Land uses each produce their own levelof disruption, but also an entitlement to protection. High land use gra-dients - neighborhoods with very different protection requirements anddegrees of disruption - generally lead to conflicts, while shallower use gra-dients - neighborhoods with similar protection requirements and degreesof disruption - have low conflict potentials.

An area's granulation reflects land use distribution and the area 01 investigation's land use balance. This relationship also expresses the pu I'pose and centrality of the area ofinvestigation in the broader urban COiltext. Categories are generally based on the different planning area typos,e.g. > Fig. 35

_ Purely residential areaResidential area with a limited number of residence-compatiblnworkplacesMixed area

_ Inner city and city centerCommercial areaIndustrial area

_ Special area

When investigating subdivisions with comparable land use types,the areas adjoining the area of investigation must also be considered, asthese can also be the cause of disruptions or protection requirements.

Co nc l u s io n During the final evaluation, the purpose ofthe area of investlgntlunmust be taken into account, to determine which findings harmonize w lf.hthat purpose, and which contradict it. > Chapter Interpretation and illu i,I'IIi,I fIcentral task of land use structure analysis is to reveal any land lIHO CIlIIflicts. A distinction must be made between the cause, e.g. incornputlhhcombinations, and the effect, e.g. increased vacancies. > Fig. 36

\\Note:Aside from judg ing by app eara nces, vacancy canbe deduced from buildings electricity use.This meth od in vo lves the energy supply compa-nies, and is there for e rar ely practical.

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\\Note:Traffic pressure is calculated by relatingthe incidence of traffic to a time interval.Rveroge doi ly t raffic is the value most com-monly used. T hi s i s cal cu lat ed f or i nd iv idua lsections of rood. The graph shows the dif-ferences in pressure on these sections at dif-ferent times of the day and times of the week.

\ \ Note:The road network can also be differentiated bythe bod ies f in an cially responsible for them,e.g. motorways, na ti on al ro ads, state roods,district roads, local roads and privo te Yocds.However, this method would inadequately d u r o entiote a small area of investigation's I'oo( fl

Transport can be analyzed according to many differenL st runturulfeatures. In urban analysis, it is mainly differentiated accord illg to 1.1111type of transportation used, i.e. motorized traffic, local ubI I'llJHJJJul'Land foot and cycle traffic.

ANALYSISOFTRANSPORT STRUCTURETransport structure analysis investigates existing transport facil-

ities in the area under investigation and the connection and integration ofthe area ofinvestigation into transport networks. In this context, roads arepublic spaces as well as transport constructions, making them critical toperception of the area of investigation. Road design should therefore alsobe the object of urban analysis. Often characteristic features can be identi-fied for each road. It makes sense to record the standard of improvementsto each part of the road network. These represent both the capacity anduser-friendliness of the various areas of road, e.g. ) Fig. 37

Motorized trafficMoving t raffic The first step in analyzing moving traffic is to rank the roads ill I.lto

area of investigation according to their capacity, e.g. ) Fig. 38

~ Expressway / trunk roadMain traffic route

~ Connecting roadMain collector roadDistrict access road

_ Other road significant for transport_ Agricultural and forestry routes

Proportion of road width to adjacent buildings_ Division of road .space into driving lanes and side areas_ Type, shape and size ofroad spaces

Road furniture and surface materials_ Lighting apparatus and lighting types

This kind of analysis determines the area of investigation's I'(liidtransport network structure. In most cases, all i ts roads form a hiururohlcal network; i.e. the traffic in the network is unevenly distributed. I{Olidtypes are based on a kind of division of labor. Heavily used roads COi : IItrate the traffic, while moderate to low-use roads distribute it. PUI'I./i1 1,1111network can be assigned functions based on their traffic I J O SH U 10: 1:1111nection (heavy load), access (moderate load), and stopping (low prOfIHIII'()'

> @ Deviations from this schema tend to lead to confli.cts.

A highly detailed analysis of transport structure will require aspecialist engineer. Transport reports suitable for urban analysis pur-poses may already be available. As well as analyzing types of transport(passenger or freight), purpose of transport (shopping, professional orleisure journeys etc.}, and distances (source traffic, destination traffic,internal and transit traffic), these are likely to contain data on trafficpressures.

Dal'mant t ro f f ic Parked vehicles (and non-functional vehicles) arc doscr-ihnd 11ft clOI'mant traffic, An urban analysis generally notes the prnvlsiou IIlIrIIIpl,lIlwdensity of' public parkine spaces. Public parking S pOC OA muv Ilo 10111111 1111

48


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~ M ain traff ic route

~ Connecting roodMa in c ol lector rood

b _ _ J D istrict access rood

public roads or in designated collection facilities (ground-level car parks,underground garages, or multi-story car parks). These are managed in dif-ferent ways, ranging from non-paying parking space, to timed parking, toa charge for parking. ) Fig. 39

Different land uses in an area of investigation cause different park-ing space requirements. This means that the spatial location of parkingspaces in relation to different land uses is of interest as well as parkingspace provision.

Co ntex t beyondth e a rea ofi n v e s t i g a tio n

Transport structure analysis involves the area of investigation's in-ternal access network as well as how the area ofinvestigation is integratedinto the road traffic network of the city or region as a whole. This meansdetermining the shape of any transport network within which the area ofinvestigation is contained - a radial or ring system, for instance. An areaof investigation generally has traffic networks that cover different units ofdistance overlapping within it. Long-range transport systems are a direct

50

M on.-Fr i. 10.00 -18.00Sot. 10.00-14.00

1 hou r H on .-Fr i.So t.8.00- 11 .007.00 -10 .00

Imeans of transport to beyond the area of investigation, but also bUldoll IIwith traffic headed elsewhere, with the associated fumes and notsc (lIil,sions. Depending on where these networks and functions com LOllot.lllll'spatially, they may lead to disruptions within the area of invostlgutlou.) Fig. 40

\\ Not e:Upta ke intensi ty is inv es tiga te d wi thin a rep-resentative time period. Th is in vo lves calcula -ting the nu mber o f occ up ied pa rk ing spa ces inrelo tio n to the to tal numb er. Rn occupancy rat egraph show ing the degree of use over the courseof a day or w eek can al so be compiled.

II


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r----] M a i n t r a ff i c r o u t e[----1 C on n e c t i n g r o o d-0o i l r o u te

Local public transportLocal public transport describes short-distance passenger services

accessible to all. These generally follow routes and schedules. Analysis oflocal public transport investigates the availability of and service at stops,and the network's structure. A distinction is made between different localpublic transport systems:

_ Railbound systems (regional trains, suburban trains, city railways,subways, trams)

_ Scheduled bus system_ Other systems (e.g. on-call shared taxi, citizens' bus)

The provision of stops is an important factor. A maximum distance of300 m from the relevant residential and working areas (as the crow flies)represents good network access, while a maximum of 500 m represents

52

1:0111t b yo ndIII (II n o orIliv. I 11101011

satisfactory network access. This analysis should take into account, .Opographical conditions, existing pedestrian facilities (e.g. pedestrian tI'1II1f1ings) as well as spatial barriers that require a detour. The level o r impruv:ments (e.g. lifts serving rail platforms, high curbs in relation L low 1'1001'technology) also affects accessibility.

The quality of local public transport depends significantlv Oil 1'1'1quent service at stops, as well as the network speed. Punctuul ltv, 1'11111lIII'scheduled connections, long running hours and mechani .ms 1'01'HIHIllilllll1up public transport (e.g. bus lanes and automated prioriLy 1'01'or.n l ptllllllltransport at traffic lights) are important measures or qualiLy wht II(1Illilyll.ing local public transport. ) Fie.41

The area of'fnvcst.igation may be coru.ai n d within II cun l.rullv Ill'ontod 01' decentralized network. ontra lizcd n tworks huvo II NIIIIIIIIlIIilli


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where passengers can change for other route lines or transport systems.Decentralized networks have several nodes. Many networks fall somewherebetween these two systems. The upshot of all this is that when assessinglocal public transport the area of investigation's spatial proximity to thesenodes is as important as the number of stops it contains.

Foot and cycle trafficDepending on the degree of provision in the area of investigation,

pedestrian and cycling facilities may be independent elements or simplyparts of the network.

Analyses of the footpath system only include independently man-aged footpaths, with walking routes along the sides of roads only includedin very detailed transport structure analyses.

Ananalysis of cycle traffic will generally record all cycling facilitffi,and distinguish between cycle paths along the side of roads, cycling zones(marked routes within general traffic lanes). independent cycle paths, andcycle roads etc.

The improvement standard of the pedestrian and cycle network andits safety systems are the major factors determining connection quality be-tween different parts of the area of investigation and its surroundings. Forthis reason, the nodes of all facilities for conducting cycle traffic shouldbe recorded, not just the safe crossings (e.g. crossings at intersections andother ground-level crossings). Areas that are particularly inconvenient ordangerous should also be named. All land uses within the area of investi-gation that represent points of origin or destinations for various forms oftransport should also be recorded. ) Fig. 42

Context beyondthe oreo ofinvestigation

Footpaths and cycle paths connecting the area of investigation withits surroundings or with neighboring districts are ofparticular interest tourban analysis. For analyses of whole cities, or of areas of investigation ofcomparable size, it is a good idea to divide the pedestrian and cycle routesinto leisure and everyday networks. While leisure networks generally rep-resent access to regional recreation facilities, everyday networks are basedon reaching the foci of urban activity as quickly as possible.

Concluding observations on transport structure analysisDifferent land uses have different access needs - i.e. they require

transport systems and facilities of different dimensions. The task is to

54

. .

L - ~ t Con trolled cro s il iOI


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All networks should be assessed for whether they support spatialorientation by being readily comprehensible and easy to remember. Goodorientation increases network users' comfort and sense of security. >Fig. 43

ANALYSISOF OPEN SPACEAND GREEN STRUCTUREAnalysis of open space and green structure analysis has two maintasks:

1.To represent open-space infrastructure elements and their rightto protection under species protection and ecology law. Urbananalysts do not generally perform their own ecological analyses,instead taking any information relevant to the area of analysis'spatial development from external specialist reports.

2. Toinvestigate the use and aesthetic quality of open space and theinteractions between open space and the housing structure. Thespatial qualities of the green and open space structure are person-ally surveyed and evaluated by urban analysts.

Spac er el a t e df e a tu re s

Like a land use structure analysis, open space and green structureanalysis records all real use ofopen spaces. Unlike land use structure ana-lysis, the object of the process is the use of the open spaces on the plotsinvolved. The type of open space represented by each individual spaceis recorded. As the subject matter overlaps with land use structure, thislabor-intensive process is often left out of urban analysis, in which case

56

; Area af. : investigation

p o c o

the main features of analyzing open space and green structure art :;illiplydifferentiated. These spaces are differentiated primarily by thoi I' nwiu l'ship, recording> Fig. 44

_ Public open spaces, e.g.public parks, fairgrounds, wators idu PI'OIIlenades, bodies of water

_ Public open spaces associated with certain fac i U tics. (J. g. 11(:1111111and kindergarten playgrounds, zoos.o o I . . I i< . . w .< . ::. , J , I ' ' ' ' ' '' ' ' ' '' ''' ' 'C J : l .. 'i ' ' ' '- '' J ; L ''' '' ' ' ' ' ''' '., e.g. the inner courtyard o r un lIl)lll I.11I11I1 .complex, an office building's open Sp'J esl?riya , e.g. r, rdons, comp any l:round H

.


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Structuralelementswith a spatialp r e s en c e

Evaluatingfeatures

Protectionzo nes andprotectede l em e n ts

0 I

Landscapes are generally only differentiated by open space type inthe case of a whole-city analysis. The following are recorded:

_ Cultivated space (e.g. farmland, pasture, vineyards)_ Woods (e.g.protected woodland, recreational woodland)

Other spaces (e.g.moorland, marsh, bodies of water)

As well as recording open spaces, open space and green structureanalysis also records natural structuring features that have a particulareffect on the space around them. These structural features include:

Notable solitaire trees and groups of treesLinear structures such as avenues of trees or hedgesGreen corridors

Spatial features of the green and openspace structure are hard todesignate on a map using a standardized key, a~so many of them are highlyindividual. When documenting analysis results, it is therefore a good ideato use spatial sketch plans or abstract icons. ) Fig. 45

The first step in analyzing open and green structure is to evaluatethe intrinsic value of individual features. Elements that have particularsignificance in one or more of the following four categories are evaluated:

_ Historical significance: significant garden architecture or culturalhistory elements (e.g.historical parks and elements of the culturallandscape)

_ Spatial experience: spatial qualities, such as the interplay of plant-ing and open space or the cumulative effect of open space and to-pography

_ Recreational value: areas with special recreational functions (e.g.parks and municipal woods near housing areas)Functional value: uses of open space and green structure are im-portant as part of surface area-related land use recordingProtection value: elements of the open space and green structureprotected by law

An inventory of all protection zones and protected elements takenfrom the relevant planning documents and specialist reports must be in-corporated into the urban analysis:

Protected zones where particular land uses are prohinited: Pro-tection of animal and plant life, landscape characteristics (e.g.

conservation areas and protected landscapes), and proteci.inu 01'drinking water resources and fresh air corridors

_ Protected infrastructure elements: Protection of individuu I 1110ments for animal and plant life, such as solitaire trees, hedg( /I 01'banks

For an urban analysis, all protected zones and protected elnnu Iii,relevant to the area of investigation's urban development are pin pu lnunlon a scale map. > Fig. 46

\\Note:Th e re creatio na l va lu e of op en space s va r iesoccarding to land use intensi ty. Open spocesclose to settlements often hove mony vi sitars.whereas continuous count rvs i ho ploporlio n-ally fewer visitors.

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I n t e r a c ti o n s int h e a r e a u n d e ri n v e s t i g a ti on

The interaction of open space and housing structure is the most in-teresting part of open space analysis. The proportional surface area and thespatial distribution of each type of open space can be determined from aninventory ofopen spaces. Calculating this enables us to determine the degreeof provision of specific recreational spaces for the area under investigation.This is generally according to the population of the area of investigation.

Residential estates with many small units on the edge of cities gener-ally have houses with gardens, reducing the need for public open spaces.Closed, heavily built-up inner-city estates, on the other hand, have a greaterneed for public recreational space.

Co n t ex t b e y o n dt h e o r e a ofi n v e s t i g a ti o n

When analyzing open space and green structure, the area of investi-gation's integration into its surroundings and into the city as a whole mustbe recorded. Ofparticular interest are the spatial connections between theindividual green spaces and green infrastructure elements, and how thearea of investigation's open spaces connect with their surroundings.

6

)

Open space and green structure may have characteristic geometrio.for instance a ring or central corridor system. These geometries often oVOI'lap - e.g. in a concentric open space system. > Fig. 47

Small connective elements and narrow green corridors may also hoimportant in this context. Analyzing the integration situation also revcu IIIwhether open spaces outside the area of investigation are providing iI.Hresidents with recreational space. The following are recorded:

_ The integration of housing into the landscape, connections botween housing and open space, access to recreational spaces nonI'housing

_ Green connective elements, e.g. avenues or grass verges_ The interplay of open space and topography, e.g. green rivcrbunku

or planted embankments_ The spatial effect of green infrastructure elements, e.g. sol iLa i1'011,

rows or groups_ Landscape profile, e.g. open or closed landscape

The qualities of many open space and green structures are only I'llvealed in interaction. These networks are often incomplete, with glipN III'spatial barriers. For purposes ofgeneral planning orientation, th G0110ol.ing lines and corridors that only partially exist when tho analysis iH1 1 1 1 11 1 1should be record d.

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Recordingindividualfeatures

G ranulation

62

ANALYSISOF CONSTRUCTIONANDHOUSINGSTRUCTUREConstruction and housing structure analysis investigates the area of

investigation's spatial composition, describing development characteris-tics and the construction development-open space relationship.

Construction and housing analyses can be conducted to varying de-grees of detail. For a plot-by-plot analysis, the structural features ofeveryindividual building are recorded based on a standardized catalogue andentered on a map. This degree of detail is necessary in urban analysesfocusing onhistorically significant features, for which the following struc-tural features might be recorded: > Fig. 48

_ Number of stories and building size (degree of construction satu-ration)

_ Building type (e.g. grouped houses, block, ribbon development)_ Building form (e.g.closed or open building form)_ Roof shape (e.g. pitched roof, hipped roof, flat roof)_ Building orientation (e.g.with front or gable facing the street)_ Access system (e.g. apartments with stairway access, block with

outdoor-corridor access, block with inner access)_ Added stylistic elements (e.g.ornamentation, beam decoration)_ Building construction (e.g. solid construction or with a facade)_ Age, construction era_ Ownership situation (formof rental or ownership, diversified hold-

ings or large-scale operator)

this case, the degree of uniformity is used as the differentiating I'U(:t,)I',Areas may, for instance, be listed as:

_ Compact block structure dating from the turn of the 20th CO li lU 1Y_ Largely compact block structure from the turn of the 20th CO il turv,

the 1950s and the 1960s_ Open development structure with buildings from all periods

The plot-by-plot analysis is used to identify subdivisions contain-ing similar structural features, separating the area of investigation intosectors according to housing structure and original construction phase.This is generally done on the basis of building size and type and the age ofthe development. It is easiest to do this for areas with homogenous urbanplanning, i.e. subdivisions with unified development. Typical developmentstructures include:

Construction and housing structure analysis often dispensed wl l.hthis time-consuming individual assessment of buildings. In I.liiH (:(1110 ,subdivisions with similar housing structures are given at th ou i.fl 0 t lna city with a mixed structure, this requires relevant practical kn ow lr Fig. 49

_ Closed block development_ Open ribbon development_ Compact ground-level construction_ Freestanding apartment complex_ Family home development \ \ N ote:Fu rth er in format ion on ur ban developm ent typ es

is given in asics rba n u ildi ng lo cks byThor sten BO rkli n and M ichael P eterek, Birk-hcuse r V erla g, Ba se l 2008.

It is harder to differentiate areas with a non-uniform, apparentlychaotic structure, which often make up most of the investigation area. In


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S p at i a le x pe ri e n c e

Urban spaces are created by the interaction of numerous buildings,or rather by the interaction of buildings with open spaces. These spaceshave very different characteristics, e.g. > Figs 50 and 51

_ Demarcation: spaces with closed or open character (clear demarca-tion or gradual transitions)_ Geometry: Spaces formed by geometrical edges (e.g. by buildinglines) or by irregularly positioned buildings

_ Proportions: Relationship of buildings to open spaces, differentdensities and extents

Conversely, it is also necessary to identify imperfections and disrup-tions within the composition.

64

- I . ~rl. - . .-_r .___ 1 1 . . _ . , . : F J I . r II I J . I . L - II ---- _ ,.. -11. _FIg. 50:Op e n d e v e l o p me n t s t r uc t ur e w l t h l r r e g u -l a r l y p o s l t o n e d b U l l dl ng s d e f l n l ngt he s pa c e

FIg .51:P r ed a m n a n t l y c l o s e d d e v e l o p me n t wi t hb u i d in q Li n e s

C o n t e x t b e y o n dt h e o r ea o fi n v e s t i g a t i on

Construction and housing structures are usually influenced by sputial structures and structural elements that extend beyond the area or illvestigation. This often reveals the intrinsic logic of a housing structureand assists navigation within the city. Typical relationships include:

Topography and housing structure: specific housing structu r c Abuilt on topographically different areas (e.g.large buildings on levelground, smaller-unit housing structures on less level ground)Orientation on a central space: certain housing characteristics illcreasing as a center is approached (e.g. increased housing densityin the center of town relative to the periphery).

Exceptions to these rules are often described as disruptive, but mayalso be particularly exposed buildings or spatial elem-ents that have irnportant roles as landmarks.

Co n c l u s i o n Analyzing the construction and housing structure provides inforrnution on the function of the area of investigation. This can best be douoby comparing the construction and housing structure analysis w.ith til(results of the land use structure analysis. Adense inner-city neighborhoodwith mixed land use structures generally takes on supply functions forother city neighborhoods. Due to their dense ground plan, however, I.liOHOalso place greater demand on public recreational spaces, whicb may IIO(Ito be provided outside the area of investigation.

ANALYSIS OF SOCIAL SPACESocial space analysis looks at the interaction of space with populu

tion tructure, identifying urban areas within which population u n c i HJlIItillI stru ture features are relatively constant. Socia] space tlllulYH(H 111 (


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generally conducted by social scientists, with urban analysts comparingthe most important findings from their reports with other urban analy-sis results. This process creates insights useful to urban social planning,highlighting the spatial and topical keypoints for urban development andfor the general social interest. > Fig. 52

Type and exten tof s u r v e y e dc ha r a c t e r i s t i c s

Worki ng methods There are no universally established social space methods of analy-sis. Two different ways of posing the initial question, and two differentworking methods, are possible:

_ What is the spread of particular features of the population?_ Which specific population features exist within a particular spa-

tial area?

area of investigation for urban analysis, however, is generally not. idon 1 .1 01 1 1with an existing statistical area. Referring to existing observations willtherefore produce only an inexact picture of the situation with in t.hl 1 11 '1 IIofinvestigation. > Fig. 53Ananalysis tailored to the area of inves tigul.iriu IIIvolves requesting data from the relevant census authority. This rnouns uuudata availability, technical implementation, and data protection should IHIdiscussed at the outset.

The simplest form of social analysis involves recording tho populution. Byrecording the population on a series ofreference dates, 1 ulutluudevelopment can be recorded.

By calculating the number of inhabitants relative to spatiul 1 1 1 11 1 11 ,specific densities can be determined - the housing density (numbur 0 1 ' 1 1 1habitants per hectare of occupied space) or the occu an (U V( I ltllnumber of residents per home).

Referri ng toexistingev a l u a t i o n s

In practice, city administrators continuously observe the populationstructure and its development within the boundaries of the city. As a rule,the individual statistical areas are based onadministrative boundaries. An

\ \ Note :There a

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Basics - Urban Analysis