Mark Louie D. LopezCollege of SciencePolytechnic University of the Philippines

ION AND OSMOTIC

BALANCE

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

HOMEOSTASIS

Maintaining relative stable

environment for animal cells

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

HOMEOSTASIS

The problem….

How do animals maintain an ionic and

osmotic balance in a wide variety of

environments?

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

TYPES OF ORGANISMS

Osmoregulators:

Animals that maintain an internal osmolarity different from the

medium surrounding them.

Osmoconformers:

Animals that maintain an internal osmolarity similar to the

osmolarity of the surrounding medium.

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Gain of water and

salt ions from food

and by drinking

seawater

Osmotic water loss

through gills and other parts

of body surface

Excretion of

salt ions

from gills

Osmoregulation in a saltwater fish

Excretion of salt ions

and small amounts

of water in scanty

urine from kidneys

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Excretion of

large amounts of

water in dilute

urine from kidneys

Osmotic water gain

through gills and other parts

of body surface

Osmoregulation in a freshwater fish

Uptake of

salt ions

by gills

Uptake of

water and some

ions in food

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

SALT EXCRETION

The rate of transfer for water and salts from an

environment depends on:

• Surface area of animal

• Size of gradient

• Permeability of the surface

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

EVERY ANIMAL HAS ITS OWN UNIQUE WATER PROBLEM

• Frog skin is very permeable to water

• Reptiles, birds and many mammals have

impermeable skin

• Other mammals perspire and lose water through

their skin

• Insects have a waxy cuticle that is impermeable to

water.

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Nitrogenous bases

Nucleic acids

Amino acids

Proteins

—NH2

Amino groups

Most aquatic animals,

including most bony fishes

Mammals, most amphibians,

sharks, some bony fishes

Many reptiles (including

birds), insects, land snails

Ammonia Urea Uric acid

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• Animals that excrete nitrogenous wastes as

ammonia need lots of water

• They release ammonia across the whole body surface

or through gills

AMMONIA

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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• The liver of mammals and most adult amphibians

converts ammonia to less toxic urea

• The circulatory system carries urea to the kidneys,

where it is excreted

UREA

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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• Insects, land snails, and many reptiles, including birds,

mainly excrete uric acid

• Uric acid is largely insoluble in water and can be

secreted as a paste with little water loss

URIC ACID

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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THE NEED FOR EXCRETORY ORGAN

• The role of excretory organs is to

balance the gains and losses of

substances, so that if a particular

substance is in excess in body fluids,

its excretion is increased, and if its

concentration is reduced, then its

excretion is reduced.

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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TYPES OF EXCRETORY ORGAN

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Contractile Vacuole

Contractile vacuoles are the excretory organs of

the coelenterates and the protozoans. The

contractile vacuole cannot really be considered as

an excretory organ in the sense that, say, the

kidney is; rather it is an excretory organelle.

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TYPES OF EXCRETORY ORGAN

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• ProtonephridiaProtonephridia are excretory structures which exist as

closed, or blind-ended, tubules and which do not connect

with the coelomic cavity. The cell which forms the tip of the

blindended tube is ciliated. If it contains a single cilia it is

called a solenocyte, whereas if it contains several cilia it is

called a flame cell.

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TYPES OF EXCRETORY ORGAN

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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TYPES OF EXCRETORY ORGAN

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Metanephriadia

Metanephridia, sometimes called nephridia, are the organs

of excretion found in many annelid worms. Metanephridia

are defined as excretory organs which have a ciliated

opening to the coelom called the nephridiostome and which

end in pores which open to the extemal environment, called

nephridiopores.

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TYPES OF EXCRETORY ORGAN

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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TYPES OF EXCRETORY ORGAN

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Malphigian Tubules

Malphigian tubules are the excretory organs of the insects.

The precise number of these structures present in an insect

will vary from just a few to many hundreds. Malpighian

tubules have a closed end which lies in the fluid -filled cavity

known as the hemocoel, and an open end which opens into

the gut between the midgut and the rectum.

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TYPES OF EXCRETORY ORGAN

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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VERTEBRATE NEPHRON

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• The principal excretory organ of the vertebrates is

the kidney, the functional unit of which is the

nephron. The typical mammalian kidney consists of

about one million nephrons.

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BODY COMPARTMENTS

• Intracellular

• Extracellular

• Interstitial – between cells

• Intravascular – in blood vessels

• Trans cellular – in specific spaces

• CSF (brain), synovial space (joint), pleural (lungs), pericardial

(heart), peritoneal (abdomen) – sometimes composition

differs from plasma

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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TOTAL BODY FLUIDS

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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FLUID MOVEMENT

All other blood vessels have

no movement of fluid except

at the capillaries. Why?

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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FLUID MOVEMENT

• Movement of fluid is only at the level of capillary,

because it has a single layer only, in contrast with

other blood vessels which have at least 3 layers

• Movement of fluid and other electrolytes are limited

to capillaries where blood exchange happens by

the process of diffusion

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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MOVEMENT THROUGH VESSEL ENDOTHELIUM AND CELL MEMBRANE

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Cell membrane Na+K+ATPAse = K+

intracellular and Na+ extracellular

• ECF volume is determined by Na+

• Most cells are permeable to water which

moves by osmosis

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MOVEMENT THROUGH VESSEL ENDOTHELIUM AND CELL MEMBRANE

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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MOVEMENT THROUGH VESSEL ENDOTHELIUM AND CELL MEMBRANE

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY ECF ICF

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HYPOTONIC CELL CONDITION

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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HYPERTONIC CELL CONDITION

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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ISOTONIC CELL CONDITION

• same concentration of impermeant solutes

between cell and the solution

• will not shrink nor swell

• e.g. 0.9% NaCl; 5% glucose solution

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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KIDNEY FUNCTION

MAIN FUNCTION: Maintaining

balance

• Regulation of body fluid volume and osmolality –

it can conserve or regulate ions and electrolytes.

• Regulation of electrolyte balance

• Excretion of waste products (urea, ammonia,

drugs, toxins)

• Regulation of acid-base balance

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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KIDNEY FUNCTION

• Production and secretion of hormones

• Erythropoietin – triggered by hypoxia (↓ O2)

• Renin - released when there is low blood flow to kidneys

• Renin Angiotensin-Aldosterone System – for long term

regulation of BP

• 1,25 hydroxyvitamin D3 (calcitriol)

• regulation of Ca2+

• Hydroxylation reactions (at position 1: kidney, at position 25:

liver)

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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RENAL SYSTEM-FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY

• excellent blood supply

• it receives 20% of Cardiac Output (1L/min) because its

major role is to remove waste and regulate electrolyte

balance

• 0.5% total body weight

• process plasma portion of blood by removing

substances from it, and in a few cases, by adding

substances to it

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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NEPHRON: FUNCTIONAL UNIT

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Total of about 2.5 million in the 2 kidneys.

• Each nephron consists of 2 functional components:

• The tubular component (contains what will eventually

become urine)

• The vascular component (blood supply)

• The mechanisms by which kidneys perform their

functions depends upon the relationship between

these two components.

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NEPHRON: FUNCTIONAL UNIT

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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NEPHRON: FUNCTIONAL UNIT

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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NEPHRON ACCORDING TO LOCATION

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Juxtamedullary nephron (20-30% of all

nephrons)

• Long U shaped loop of Henle

• Large corpuscles with relatively large blood flow

• Efferent arterioles with small diameter

• Continues to a primary capillary network and to

the vasa recta

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NEPHRON ACCORDING TO LOCATION

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Cortical nephrons

• Short loop of Henle, does not go deep into the

medulla

• Peritubular capillaries

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NEPHRON ACCORDING TO LOCATION

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Both cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons

eventually have tubules which end up in the

collecting duct

• Peritubular capillaries and vasa recta return

toward cortex and empty into the cortical

veins

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NEPHRON ACCORDING TO LOCATION

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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NEPHRON SEGMENTS

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Glomerulus

Proximal Tubule

Loop of Henle

Distal Tubule

Collecting Duct

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URINE FORMATION

Glomerular Filtration

Tubular Reabsorption

Tubular Secretion

URINE

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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URINE FORMATION

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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URINE FORMATION

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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GENERAL PRINCIPLE FOR URINE FORMATION

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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GLOMERULAR FILTRATION

• Glomerulus is made up of capillaries surrounded by

epithelial lining called the Bowman’s capsule

• Filtration of blood works like a sieve which allows

everything to pass through except cell and proteins

• GFR is very high: ~180L/day

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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GLOMERULAR FILTRATION

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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GLOMERULAR FILTRATION

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Components of plasma cross the three

layers of the glomerular barrier during

filtration

• Capillary endothelium

• Basement membrane

• Epithelium of Bowman’s Capsule

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GLOMERULAR FILTRATION

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Capillary endothelium

• Fenestrated (has pores), freely permeable to water and

small solutes and most proteins

• 50x more permeable than other capillaries

• not permeable to RBC, WBC and platelets

• retard filtration of large anionic protein into Bowman's

space (presence of glycoproteins [negatively charged] on

surface)

•

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GLOMERULAR FILTRATION

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Basement membrane

• net negative charge

• negatively charged proteins can’t pass through

(like charges repel)

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GLOMERULAR FILTRATION

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Epithelium of Bowman’s Capsule

• Parietal and visceral layers

• Podocytes – filtration slits allow molecules with a size of

<60kD to pass through

• Sialoproteins in podocytes are negatively charged

• size selective barrier that keep proteins and

macromolecules that cross basement membrane from

entering Bowman's space

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GLOMERULAR FILTRATION

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Podocytes

• The long processes, or "foot projections," of the

podocytes wrap around the capillaries, and

leave slits between them. Blood is filtered

through these slits, each known as a slit

diaphragm or filtration slit.

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GLOMERULAR FILTRATION

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Podocytes

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GLOMERULAR FILTRATION

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Therefore, the ability of a molecule to cross

the membrane depends on:

• Size (<60kD)

• Charge (should not be negative)

• Shape

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GLOMERULAR FILTRATION

ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

Glomerular filtrate is similar to

plasma, EXCEPT it has no plasma

proteins and cells - it is NOT URINE

YET!

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

GLOMERULAR FILTRATION RATE

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

COMPARISON OF PLASMA-FILTRATE-URINE

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Active processes: primary and secondary

• Na + -K + ATPase

• Na + -H + antiport

• H+ pump

• Na+K+ 2 Cl - ATPase

• Cl - - OH - antiport

• Passive processes

• diffusion of Cl, K

• Osmosis of water

MECHANISM OF TUBULAR ABSORPTION AND SECRETION

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

ABSORPTION AT PROXIMAL CONVULATED TUBULE

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

ABSORPTION AT PROXIMAL CONVULATED TUBULE

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Almost all filtered glucose, and amino acids are also

reabsorbed by the proximal tubules by Na+ co transport

• Cl- reabsorption is passive; follows the secondary

active reabsorption of Na+ in order to maintain electrical

neutrality.

• Reabsorption of water is passive as a result of the

osmotic force created by the reabsorption of NaCl

• Extremely high water permeability of the proximal tubule

is essential for its nearly isosmotic volume reabsorption

ABSORPTION AT PROXIMAL CONVULATED TUBULE

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

ABSORPTION OF SODIUM

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

ABSORPTION OF GLUCOSE

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

ABSORPTION OF UREA

• The body does not secrete all the urea filtered

• Urea is responsible for the medulla’s hyperosmolarity.

• Occurs lesser than passive Cl- reabsorption

• Occurs due to a concentration gradient produced by the

osmosis of H2O

• Urea however is not as permeable as H2O, thus there is a

need to use urea transporters at times

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

ABSORPTION OF WATER

OBLIGATORY FACULTATIVE

IN PROXIMAL TUBULE IN DISTAL TUBULES

water follows reabsorbed solutes,

primarily glucose and Na+,

due to the osmotic gradients that are

created between the filtrate and the

intracellular fluid of the renal tubular

cells.

the permeability of distal tubule and

collecting duct cells to water is

controlled directly by anti-diuretic

hormone (ADH). ADH is secreted

from the hypothalamus during times

of dehydration.

Na+ level in the blood is controlled

by aldosterone, therefore, is a major

control of water balance as well.

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• 65-70% of the filtrate electrolyte and

water

• 100 % of glucose & amino acids

ABSORPTION AT PROXIMAL CONVULATED TUBULE

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• As filtrate passes along the tubule system

(mainly in distal tubules) of the nephron in

the kidney;

• the transport is powered by ATP hydrolysis

• the regulation of this ATP hydrolysis is

influenced by a variety of hormones

including the renin-angiotensin.

TUBULAR SECRETION

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• The removal of a variety of physiologically

significant ions or molecules, which are

either metabolic wastes (H+, nitrogenous

wastes, etc.),

• Electrolytes ingested in excess of body

needs (K+, HPO4-2, SO4-, etc.),

• Toxins (including many drugs), from the

blood plasma into the filtrate/urine

TUBULAR SECRETION

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Reabsorption

• Osmosis -- water

• Active transport

• sodium ions glucose

• amino acids

• Secretion

• hydrogen ions

• ammonium ions

• urea

• creatinine

SUMMARY OF ABSORPTION AND SECRETION IN PCT

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Descending limb

reabsorbs –osmosis of

water

• Ascending limb – active

transport of Na, K, Cl

• Secretes - urea

LOOP OF HENLE

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Countercurrent Multiplier Effect - the overall

process by which the loop of Henle, and in

particular the thick ascending limb, generates the

hyperosmotic medullary interstitial gradient

• Countercurrent Multiplier mechanism:

• Purpose: increase the osmolality of the interstitial fluid and

concentrate urine

• The blood vessels and the renal tubules aids the countercurrent

multiplier mechanism

• The osmotic gradient is maintained through passive

countercurrent exchange in the vasa recta

LOOP OF HENLE

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Countercurrent Exchanger – occurs in the vasa

recta and aids the countercurrent multiplier

mechanism; maintains the medullary interstitial

gradient (prevents it from being dissipated as

blood flows throw the vasa recta)

• Vasa recta – highly permeable to H2O and solute; removes

excess water and solute which are continuously added to the

medullary interstitium by the loop of Henle

• Like the loop of Henle, it forms a parallel set of hairpin loops

within the medulla, thus countercurrent flow also occurs

LOOP OF HENLE

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Reabsorbs by osmosis -- water

• Simple diffusion

• bicarbonate ions

• urea

• Secretes -- hydrogen ions

DISTAL CONVULOTED TUBULE AND COLLECTING DUCT

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• Responsible for the production of HYPERTONIC

and a HYPOTONIC URINE by the kidneys

• Osmoreceptors - cells within the hypothalamus, which are

sensitive to changes in osmotic pressure of the blood.

• Nerve impulses from the hypothalamus stimulate

the posterior pituitary to produce ADH when the

osmotic pressure of the blood rises.

OSMOREGULATION OF URINE

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

• As a result water loss in the kidney is reduced

because ADH is secreted

• When water intake is low or water loss increases, the kidneys

conserve water by producing a small volume of urine that is

hyperosmotic with respect to plasma.

• When water intake is high, a large volume of hypoosmotic urine

is produced.

OSMOREGULATION OF URINE

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

1. Increased insensible water loss or decreased

water intake

2. Increased blood osmolality

3. Osmoreceptor stimulation

4. ADH release by posterior pituitary

5. Stimulate insertion of water channels in collecting

ducts (CD)

6. Increased water reabsorption

FORMATION OF HYPEROSMOTIC URINE

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

1. Increased water intake or decrease insensible

water loss

2. Decrease blood osmolality

3. No stimulation of osmoreceptor

4. No release of ADH

5. Decreased water reabsorption at CD

FORMATION OF HYPOSMOTIC URINE

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

SUMMARY

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

VASOPRESSIN (ADH)

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

HORMONES AFFECTING URINE FORMATION

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ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY

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