(Automatic Leakage Measurement System) - Butler Group · If you want to use CLI in the ALMS configuration, you should also connect a GPS receiver (see Chapter 5 “Automatic ... -

StealthExplorer + ALMS

StealthExplorer + ALMS(Automatic Leakage Measurement System)

All rights reserved. This document contains information proprietary toKABELKOM. No part of this publication may be used, reproduced, stored ina retrieval system, or copied in any manner without the prior writtenpermission of KABELKOM.

The information in this user’s manual is subject to change without notice.

The detailed information about software and copyright is present on the CD (license).The software described in this manual is delivered under a license agreement. Thesoftware may be used or copied only in accordance with the terms of the agreement.

Translation and translation copyright by KABELKOM Sp. z o.o.© Copyright 2003All rights reserved.Internet: http://www.kabelkom.plE-mail: [email protected]

Internet: www.kabelkom.pl E-mail: [email protected] Page 1/36


Table of Contents

1. Installation.............................................................................................................3

2. The first running of application (configuration)..................................................4

3. Cooperation with the meter. Meter file loading and viewing..............................7

4. Auto tests.............................................................................................................17

5. Additional tools....................................................................................................22

6. Automatic Leakage Measurement System – ALMS..........................................24

6.1. CATV leakage measurements..............................................................................................25

6.2. RF electric field intensity measurement................................................................................29

6.3. Visualization of results........................................................................................................31

7. User support........................................................................................................36



1. Installation

Install the software from the attached CD, running “setup.exe” file. After successfulinstallation unpack the file “keys.zip” with hardware keys and copy the files (“1.key”, “2.key”,“3.key”, etc.) into the folder where software has been installed (usually C:\ProgramFiles\KABELKOM\StealthExplorer). Before the first execution of software check the versionnumber of your meter firmware. In case of:

- SDA it should be the version 2.8 or later,- CLI/MS it should be the version 6.6 or later.

The required meters’ firmware versions can be found on the attached CD.

In the version 1.6 or newer the application requires the addition of the proper “alias” ofdata bases. The example of the configuration with the alias “SV” is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1. Data base information window

NOTE: Software works ONLY with the meters having the serial numbers identical with thoseprinted on the cover of the installation CD.



2. The first running of application (configuration)

Run the file “sv_pl.exe” (double-click the icon “StealthExplorer” on the desktop) andselect your language by double-clicking the left mouse button on the list (Fig. 2).

The language can be chosen from the system command line or by the modification of the shortcut(Fig. 3).

Fig. 2. Selecting the language version

Fig. 3. Modification of the shortcut Internet: www.kabelkom.pl E-mail: [email protected] Page 4/36


The main window of the program opens (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. The main window of StealthExplorer

Select the Configuration menu (Fig. 5) or press the “Configuration” software buttonin order to set the proper COM port for communication with your meter (“Ports” --> “RS232” -->“Comms” option), the meter type (“Meter” option – Fig. 6), the measurement units (“Unit”option), the application in which CLI files will be viewed (“CSV” option), and the COM port forcommunication with a GPS receiver (for CLI meters – “GPS” option). The physical presence of theGPS receiver must be confirmed by ticking the checkbox “GPS on/off” (Fig. 7).

Fig. 5. The Configuration menu



Fig. 6. The Configuration menu with the “Meter” option

The configuration window is shown in Fig. 7.

Fig. 7. The configuration window

CSV files can be opened in many applications. We suggest Excel or OScalc (theOpenOffice package). You can select the proper application choosing the CSV button (Fig. 7 and 8).



Fig. 8. Selecting the application for CSV files

After completing the configuration, you can close the configuration window. The new configurationwill be saved as default.

3. Cooperation with the meter. Meter file loading and viewing

Software is ready for use after setting the configuration. You should now connect yourmeter to the computer. Use the data cable from the ALMS package or attached to the meter (if youdo not have any cable, contact your ACTERNA representative). Remember to match the COM portnumber of the computer with the COM number set in the configuration window. If you want to useCLI in the ALMS configuration, you should also connect a GPS receiver (see Chapter 5 “AutomaticLeakage Measurement System”). To initialize the connection with the meter, select the option“Start” from the Functions menu or press the button “Start” (CTRL+S – Fig. 9) in the mainwindow. You can stop the transmission with the option “Stop transmission” from the Functionsmenu. Remember to switch on the meter before you start the transmission.

Fig. 9. The Functions menu with the “Start” option and the “Start” button

If the configuration is correct, after a few seconds the meter parameters appears on the screen(Fig. 10).



Fig. 10. The meter parameters

If the serial number and the meter type does not appear on the screen, there is no data transmissionor the wrong meter type has been chosen. Please check the data cable (connect it firmly), meterconfiguration (the data transmission rate must be equal to 19200 – the options “Ports” --> “RS232”--> “Speed” in the Configuration menu), and the meter type.

If you want to have an access to the files saved in the meter memory, select the option“File list” from the Functions menu (CTRL+P) shown in Fig. 11 or press the button “File list” inthe main window.

Fig. 11. The “File list” option and the software button “File list”

In the left application window you will see the list of the available meter files (Fig. 12).

NOTE: If the number of files of a given measurement mode type (e.g., spectrumanalysis) is greater than 10, the list will show only the first 9 files. If you want to see more files,save the files from the list on the hard disk and then remove them from the meter memory.



Fig. 12. The window with the meter file tree

The meter files can be processed in many ways. Highlight the file on the file tree andpress the right mouse button to access the menu (Fig. 13). You can choose the following options:

“Download file list from equipment” – refreshes the window and the file list.

“Save file (meter-->HDD)” – saves the marked file on the disk. If you choose more than one file,you have to confirm the file name each time before saving.

“Save file (meter-->HDD)[multi]” – saves many files on the disk. If a file with the same nameexists on the disk, it will be automatically replaced with the new one.

“Delete file from meter” – removes the marked file from the meter memory.

The files saved in the computer can be seen in the window placed in the middle of the screen (Fig.14). You can perform the following operations on the files saved on the hard disk (after highlightingthe file click the right mouse button – Fig. 14):

“View (text mode)”- the file is shown as a text file.



“Graphical View”- allows viewing of the file (for example, the intermodulation files). If you select achannel plane file, the plan editor will be automatically opened. If you select a CSV file, theapplication defined by the user during the configuration will be executed.

“Send channel plan to meter” – the selected channel plan will be sent to the meter.

“Rename file”- changes the name of the selected file.

Fig. 13. The file list with the file options

“Delete file”- removes the selected file from the computer.



Fig. 14. The file menu for the meter files saved on HDD

The figures below present the view of various file types:

- spectrum analysis file (Fig. 15),

- PathTrak file (Fig. 16),

- TILT file (Fig. 17),

- the channel plan (the version for SDA meters – Fig. 18)

- the channel plan (the version for CLI and MS meters – Fig. 19).



Fig. 15. The view of the Spectrum Analysis file

Fig. 16. The view of the PathTrak file



Fig. 17. The view of the TILT file

Fig. 18. The view of the channel plan for SDA meters



Fig. 19. The view of the channel plan for CLI/MS meters

The channel plan editor for CLI/MS has many helpful features and options not availablein the editor for SDA:

- channel finding option (frequency),- removing of idle (not active) channels option,- improved edition of the plan,- possibility of easy modification of the basic parameters (Fig. 20):

- the file “defaulta.txt” is responsible for the value of the audio offset,- the file “defaultbw.txt” is responsible for the typical values of the channel bandwidth,- the file “defaultbn.txt” contains the channel names,- the file “defaultbf.txt” contains the channel frequencies.

In both editors you can save the channel plan choosing the option “Save” or “Save as” from the“File” menu. The option “Close” closes the channel plan editor window.



Fig. 20. An example of the auxillary files of the channel plan editor

In the file view mode (SCAN, TILT, SPECTRUM, CSO/CTB, ZERO SPAN file types)you can use the markers A, B, and C. The number of the markers depends on the file type. Toactivate the marker, mark (darken) the proper field, choose the required place on the graph, and thendouble-click the left mouse button. The marker will be placed in the selected point. Additionally,there is some displayed information about the signal level, frequency, or the channel name (dependson the file type – Fig 21). If the number of active markers is greater than one, the difference betweensignal levels and frequencies of the points shown by the markers is also displayed (delta markers –Fig. 22).



Fig. 21. Marker information

Fig. 22. Delta marker information

In the Graphical view mode (which is available after clicking the right mouse button ingraph window) the you can choose the following options (Fig. 23):

“Export file *.csv (Excel)”- exports the file (e.g., spectrum analysis graph) to a CSV format,

“Save as *.jpg” – saves the screen as a JPEG file,

“Copy to clipboard” – copies the screen to the clipboard,

“Print” – prints the screen on a default printer.

“Show mouse cursor” – shows information about the level and frequency at the point currentlyshown by the cursor (pointer).



Fig. 23. The graphical view menu

4. Auto tests

Software allows performing automatic measurements (auto tests) with the PC. To runauto tests of the signal level, C/N, or HUM, select the option “Configure automaticmeasurement” from the Measurement applications menu (Fig. 24).

Fig. 24. The Measurement applications menu



Select the same channel plan as in your meter. Now you can select the required optionsin the “Configuration auto” window (Fig. 25). The auto test will start after pressing the “Run”button.

Fig. 25. The window “Configuration auto”

After the completion of measurements, the results are displayed in the window shown inFig. 26.

Fig. 26. The window “Measurement results” with available options



After pressing the right mouse button, we have an access to the options described below.

The option “Export *.csv” exports the measurement results to a CSV format file.

The submenu “Save as *.scan” has the following options:

“Only TV carriers”- exports the results to a SCAN format file,

“CN”- exports the results to a CN format file.

“Video&audio (mono)”, “Video&audio (stereo)” – allows to attach to the SCAN file the resultsof the audio carrier measurements (this file type as a standard contains only video carriermeasurements).

The function „Spectrum” allows remote viewing of the selected frequency bandwidth(Fig. 27).

Fig. 27. Remote viewing of the spectral analysis results (the option “Spectrum”)

The result of the spectrum measurement is shown in Fig. 28.



Fig. 28. The graphical results of the spectrum measurement

NOTE: In order to run auto tests, StealthExplorer must be executed from the systemcommand line without any additional commands or attributes.

The “Configure automatic measurement (schedule)” function (Fig. 29) allows theautomatic performing of measurements and saving data to a CSV or HTML type file. If you installthe WWW server (APACHE), you can have a remote access to the files. The configuration requiresthe correct COM port number. You should also choose the measurement modes you want to use andthe proper channel plan. If you are interested in the HTML format file, activate the option “Save asHTML”. When you finish the configuration and exit it, the parameters are automatically saved in theconfiguration file. To begin the auto test, run StealthExplorer from the icon on the desktop. If youdo not choose the language version, after 10 seconds the automatic measurements will start.

Fig. 29. The option “Configure automatic measurement”



The file in the HTML format is saved under a default name „index.html”. The file canbe easily modified in any way and saved during configuration (the software button “Saveconfiguration” and the checkbox “Save as HTML”). Each configuration HTML file should havethe line

“<TABLE></TABLE>”.

The data will be saved as a table. An example of the test.html file is listed below.

<HTML><HEAD>

<META HTTP-EQUIV="CONTENT-TYPE" CONTENT="text/html; charset="><TITLE></TITLE>

</HEAD><BODY BGCOLOR="#008080"><P ALIGN=CENTER><FONT SIZE=4 STYLE="font-size: 16pt"><B>AutoMeasurement</B></FONT></P><P ALIGN=LEFT><FONT SIZE=4 STYLE="font-size: 16pt"><B>Location:xxxxxxxx</B></FONT></P><TABLE>“The table will be placed here” </TABLE><P ALIGN=LEFT><BR><BR></P></BODY></HTML>

Examples of the file „test.html” and „index.html” can be found in the folder “Pliki_pl” (C:\ProgramFiles\KABELKOM\StealthExplorer\Pliki-pl).

The option “Manual measurement – SDA” allows manual setting of SDA parametersfrom the PC keyboard.



5. Additional tools

StealthExplorer has some additional tools that may be helpful during measurements.They can be found in the Tools menu (Fig. 30). One of them is “Calculator (digiCheck)” and“Calculator QPSK>QAM64”. The former tool allows the optimization of digital signalmeasurements (it improves the measurement accuracy), the latter calculates the Symbol Rate (SR) ofQAM-modulated signals from the SR of QPSK signals.

Fig. 30. The Tools menu with the “Calculator (digiCheck)” and “QPSK-QAM64” options

The function „Chart” (Fig. 31) quickly compares two arbitrary measurement results inSCAN, TILT, SPECTRUM, and AUTO TEST modes. The menu with this option appears on thescreen after clicking the right mouse button. The series are described as follows: “Series 1” – videocarrier, “Series 2” – mono audio carrier, “Series 3” – stereo audio carrier, etc. The maximumnumber of series is 5.

You can save the results as a *.csv file (option “Export file *.csv”) or as a JPEG file(option “Save as *.jpg”), copy the graph to the clipboard (option “Copy to clipboard”) or print ona default printer (option “Print”).



Fig. 31. The submenu “Chart” in the graphical view menu

Fig. 32. The example of the “Chart” window



6. Automatic Leakage Measurement System – ALMS

From among many functions of StealthExplorer, the very useful one is the measurementof the RF field, for example the leakage from the cable TV networks or the field around FM and TVtransmitters (propagation measurements). A GPS receiver allows saving the results with thegeographical coordinates, so it is possible to perform mobile patrols over the large areas.

Measurement is performed in the configuration called ALMS. ALMS consists of:- ACTERNA’s Leakage Tagger LT1000 or LST1700,- leakage meter CLI-1450 or CLI-1750,

- StealthExplorer software with activated ALMS function,- GPS receiver with NMEA protocol – communication via RS232 or USB port,- calibrated measurement antenna,- PC (laptop) with at least two RS232 ports or USB ports with RS->USB converters (werecommend ATEN converters).

To get your ALMS ready for action, first connect firmly the CLI meter and the GPSreceiver to the computer. Remember that the cable connections must be robust and resistant tovibrations made by the vehicle during mobile patrols.

NOTE: Configure properly your meter before measurements!!! Refer tothe meter user’s guide (leakage measurement mode).

After meter configuration run StealthExplorer. The “GPSstat” dot in the main windowshould continuously change the color (Fig. 33). If the color does not change, there is no transmissionbetween the PC and the GPS receiver. In this case check the configuration menu (“GPS on/off”checkbox and the COM port number) and/or the setup menu of your GPS receiver (NMEA formatof transmitted data).

Fig. 33. The “GPSstat” button (green color means data transmission, red color – no data transmission)

If you want to begin measurements, select one from two options from the Measurement



applications menu (Fig. 34):

Fig. 34. ALMS options in the Measurement applications menu

- “Leakage + GPS” – measures the leakage from a CATV network in the band 115 -140 MHz,shows the tagger detection (the antenna must be connected to the 50 Ω leakage input of themeter),

- “FMtilt” – measures the RF field in the band 5 - 860 MHz (the antenna must be connected tothe 75 Ω TV input of the meter).

6.1. CATV leakage measurementsBefore starting measurements, enter the frequency of the TV carrier in the window “RF

leak and GPS position” (the carrier is modulated by the tagger at the headend). This value will betaken as default during the next measurements. Now you can start the measurement by pressing the“Start” software button (Fig. 35). Remember to connect the antenna to the 50 Ω input.

Fig. 35. The “Start” button

The meter will automatically select the leakage mode after pressing the button “Start” (Fig. 36).

Fig. 36. The meter screen in the Leakage mode



The dot „Meter” in the main window should periodically change the color to green(Fig. 37), otherwise there is no transmission between the meter and the PC. In this case check theconfiguration menu (COM port, data rate) and the data cable.

Fig. 37. The green “Meter” dot showing transmission between PC and the meter

If transmission works correctly, you can start the periodic data saving by pressing thebutton “Interval” (Fig. 38). You can stop the measurement by pressing the button “Stop” and thenclose the window “RF leak and GPS position” by pressing the button “End”.

Fig. 38. The button “Interval”

The time between two moments of data saving can be adjusted from 1 s to 30 s in the field“Measurement interval” (Fig. 39).

Fig. 39. Adjusting the time between two consecutive moments of measurement data saving

The data is saved in two files: with *.leak extension in the GPS folder and with *.csvextension in the RFLEAK folder (both folders in the C:\ProgramFiles\KABELKOM\StealthExplorer). The name of the file is given automatically as the hour and dateof measurement beginning.The measured value of the leak on the screen (Fig. 40) is refreshed after the interval time in the field“Measurement interval”.



Fig. 40. The ALMS leakage measurement window with the leak magnitude

Software displays the measurement units and the leak threshold violation. The thresholdlevel and the units should be entered in the meter menu. The displayed information contains:

- the level of the measured leak,- threshold violation indication (Fig. 41),- the tagger presence indication (Fig. 41).

If the signal level is higher than the threshold value or the tagger is detected, thecomputer can generate an audio alarm. To activate the audio alarm, choose the “Sound” checkbox(Fig. 41).

Fig. 41. The “Sound” checkbox. Red color indicates that the signal is above the threshold or the tagger has been detected.

The computer displays the additional information based on the data received from theGPS receiver (Fig. 42). This information contains:

- the current geographic position (latitude and longitude),

- the number of visible GPS satellites and their approximate signal levels,- the numbers of the satellites taken for position calculation (correction).

If the GPS position is not calculated correctly, the GPS field changes the color to red(Fig. 42) and the PC generates the low pitch sound.



Fig. 42. GPS information. On the left – red color indicates that the position is not calculatedby the GPS receiver (too low signal level, too small number of visible GPS satellites). On the

right – green color indicates that the position is calculated correctly.

The graph at the bottom of the window “RF leak and GPS position” (Fig. 43) showsthe tendency of the leak magnitude changes. Red color indicates that the tagger has been detected,yellow color indicates that the tagger has not been detected.

Fig. 43. The graph showing the leak measurement history

If you tick the checkbox “Multiple measurement” in the “RF leak and GPSposition” window, the certain number of leak measurements will be displayed in the “Signal level”window. The number of measurements can be entered in the field “Number of measurements”.After finishing of the measurement series, the average value, the minimum and the maximum valuesof the leak will be displayed below that window.



Fig. 44. The leakage measurement/ALMS window

6.2. RF electric field intensity measurement

The “FMTilt” option (Fig. 45) can measure the electric field intensity levels of up tofour frequencies (carriers). The function works correctly if the carrier level is higher than 40 dBµV(-20 dBmV).

First, in the window “RF level” you should enter the frequencies you want to measure(the fields F1 – F4) and choose them by ticking the appropriate checkbox near the frequency value.



Fig. 45. The “RF level” window

You should also enter the antenna factor of the measurement antenna for eachfrequency (the fields AF). The problem of antenna calibration is beyond the scope of this manual. Ifyou have any doubts, please contact KABELKOM.

Now you can start the measurement by pressing the “Start” software button and laterthe “Interval” button. The level measurement of one frequency takes 1 s (you can increase themeasurement speed if you choose only 1 or 2 frequencies). During the measurement the dots abovethe bars change the color to green. If you want to stop the measurement, press the “Stop” button.The window will be closed after pressing the “End” button. The level is shown in the form ofvertical bars and as a numeric value below each bar. You can also observe the current position(longitude and latitude) of the antenna.



6.3. Visualization of results

When you finish the measurements, you can visualize the results on a map. Select the“Draw route, GPSsim “option from the Tools menu. The window “GPS rs232 loop, route view”appears on the screen (Fig. 46).

Fig. 46. The window “GPS rs232 loop, route view”

Press the „Load results” button. The first file must be a *.fmtilt file (if you want todisplay the FMTilt results) or *.rfleak (if you want to display the leakage results). The window “GPStilt/leak” will automatically browse the GPS folder. Highlight the file you want to open and click the“Open” button. After loading the first file, the “GPS tilt/leak” window appears again. If you areloading the leakage results, the folder RFleak will be browsed, otherwise the folder FMtilt will beopened. Highlight the required file and click the “Open” button. The file name should be exactly thesame as the name of the previously loaded *.fmleak or *.rf leak file.

To display the measurement results, press the “Draw the route” button. It may takeseveral seconds for the computer to complete this operation (the larger file size, the longer time).The window “Route” opens (Fig. 47).



Fig. 47. The “Route” window

Now you must load a map of the area where the ALMS measurements were done. Themap should be saved as a bitmap or a JPEG file. We suggest to use black-and-white maps. Press the“Load the map” button. The “Open” window appears. Select a file containing the proper map andpress the “Open” button. The map is displayed on the screen after several seconds (the time dependson the file size). Adjust the size of the map by pressing the “Zoom” button. You can access it at anytime if you press the “Scale” button.

In the next step you should match the scale of the route path with the map. To do this,use the field above the “Route width” field to increase or decrease the route size (you can also usePgUp, PgDn and Up-Down arrow keys). The route width can be adjusted in the field “Routewidth”. If the route line is wider, it helps to move the route with the mouse.

It is necessary to move the beginning and the end of the route to the points on the mapwhere the measurement started and ended. To do this, double-click the beginning of the route(marked as a blue line). The arrow pointer will change to the cross pointer. Move this pointer to therequired point on the map and then double-click again. The beginning of the route will be shifted tothat point. The procedure of adjusting size and shifting the starting point is iterative and requires



many consecutive repetitions of the described steps.

If you use a GPS receiver with an USB port, tick the checkbox “GPS USB”. If you tickthe “TAG” checkbox, all points where the tagger signal was detected will be displayed in the colorchosen in the pop-up menu below the checkbox.

You can display the measurement results as a multicolor route line. Choose the“Gradient” button and click the checkbox “Gradient” (Fig. 48). If you click and darken the“Automatic” circle, the color scale (displayed at the top of the window) will be set automaticallyaccording to the maximum measured value. You may move the beginning of the route in the„Gradient” option (in the same way as in the „Scale” option), but you should clear the “Gradient”checkbox at first.

Fig. 48. The “Route” window after pressing the button “Gradient”

If you enter a limit value in the field “Manual” and darken the “Manual” circle (Fig.48), all points with the leakage level higher than the entered value will be displayed as blue points(the default color can be changed in the list box menu below the limit field). If you click and darkenthe “Standard” circle (Fig. 48), the fixed standard color scale will be applied (useful for resultcomparison) the clipboard, change the size of the map or print it on the default printer. You can print



the whole map on one sheet of paper (option “Print all in one”) or on many sheets (option “PrintMultipage”).

Pressing the “Level” button we can choose a given route point on the map using thepointer. The leak (RF field) maximum, minimum and average values for that point will be displayedon the screen. After pressing “Show level” button the window “Chart: level, position” appears(Fig. 49). If you indicate the point on the chart, in the lower left corner you will see the part of themap corresponding to the level pointed out by the cursor. You can see the same enlarged part of themap after pressing the “Level” button on the top of the window (next to the “Map” button).

Fig. 49. The window “Route” and the window “Chart: level, position”

The map can be saved as a *.gpscli file. Choose the “Save-load” button, then press“Save” and enter the file name. If you click the right mouse button, the menu with some optionsappears (Fig. 50). Using these options you can save the map in a bitmap or JPEG format, copy themap to the clipboard or change the size of the map.



Fig. 50. The menu with the map saving options

The maps in the *.gpscli format can be loaded and viewed later. To do this, choose theoption “View map and route” in the Tools menu. In the “Open” window select the required fileand press the “Open” button. The chosen map appears on the screen.



7. User support

If you have any problems with software, any questions or suggestions concerningour product, please contact us:[email protected]+48 33 8185555

The up-to-date version (upgrade) is available on our Web side www.kabelkom.pl.Connect the computer to the network, run StealthExplorer and choose the “Application update”option from the About menu. The default Web browser window opens with our WWW site address.Save the file with the update, unpack it and replace the files in the C:\Programfiles\KABELKOM\StealthExplorer with the new files.

StealthExplorer works with Microsoft Win95(B),Win98, ME, Windows NT 4.0, Windows2000, WindowsXP. We recommend Win2000 and WinXP due to higher work speed (filetransmission).

Microsoft and Windows are registered trademarks of Microsoft Corporation. Windows 95/98/ME/2000/NT/XP are trademarks ofMicrosoft Corporation.

Product names mentioned herein may be trademarks and/or registered trademarks of their respective owners/companies.

NOTICE

THE MANUFACTURER OR RESELLER SHALL NOT BE LIABLE FOR ERRORS OR OMISSIONS CONTAINED INTHIS MANUAL AND SHALL NOT BE LIABLE FOR ANY CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, WHICH MAY RESULTFROM THE PERFORMANCE OR USE OF THIS MANUAL AND SOFTWARE.


Documents

(Automatic Leakage Measurement System) - Butler Group · If you want to use CLI in the ALMS configuration, you should also connect a GPS receiver (see Chapter 5 “Automatic ... -