ATIF MEHMOOD LECTURER (RADIOLOGY) INSTITUTE OF PARAMEDICAL
SCIENCES KHYBER MEDICAL UNIVERSITY PESHAWAR
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Behavioural sciences A branch of science (as psychology,
sociology, or anthropology) that deals primarily with human action
and often seeks to generalize about human behavior in society
Behavioural science is a branch of the sciences which is concerned
with the study of human and animal behavior The term behavioural
sciences encompasses all the disciplines that explore the
activities of and interactions among organisms in the natural world
It involves the systematic analysis and investigation of human and
animal behaviour through controlled and naturalistic observation,
and disciplined scientific experimentation.
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Difference between behavioural sciences and social sciences The
term behavioural sciences is often confused with the term social
sciences. Though these two broad areas are interrelated and study
systematic processes of behaviour, they differ on their level of
scientific analysis of various dimensions of behaviour. Behavioural
sciences abstract empirical data to investigate the decision
processes and communication strategies within and between organisms
in a social system. This involves fields like psychology, social
neuroscience and cognitive science
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In contrast, social sciences provide a perceptive framework to
study the processes of a social system through impacts of social
organisation on structural adjustment of the individual and of
groups. They typically include fields like sociology, economics,
public health, anthropology, demography and political science
Categories of behavioural sciences Behavioural sciences includes
two broad categories: neural Information sciences and social
Relational sciences.
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Information processing sciences deals with information
processing of stimuli from the social environment by cognitive
entities in order to engage in decision making, social judgment and
social perception for individual functioning and survival of
organism in a social environment. These include psychology,
cognitive science, psychobiology, neural networks, social
cognition, social psychology, and social neurosciences On the other
hand, Relational sciences deals with relationships, interaction,
communication networks, associations and relational strategies or
dynamics between organisms or cognitive entities in a social
system. These include fields like sociological social psychology,
social networks, dynamic network analysis, agent-based model and
microsimulation
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Why study behavioral science? By studying this you will be able
professionally explore the activities of and interactions among
organisms in the natural world. You will be involved in the
systematic analysis and investigation of human and animal behaviour
through controlled and naturalistic observation. Basically if you
love to investigate human behaviour, and why they do what they do,
then this field is for you...
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Bio-Psycho-Social Model of Health Care and the Systems Approach
The biopsychosocial model (abbreviated "BPS") is a general model or
approach posessing that biological, psychological (which entails
thoughts, emotions, and behaviors), and social factors, all play a
significant role in human functioning in the context of disease or
illness. Indeed, health is best understood in terms of a
combination of biological, psychological, and social factors rather
than purely in biological terms.
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This is in contrast to the traditional, reductionist biomedical
model of medicine that suggests every disease process can be
explained in terms of an underlying deviation from normal function
such as a pathogen, genetic or developmental abnormality, or
injury. The concept is used in fields such as medicine, nursing,
health psychology and sociology, and particularly in more
specialist fields such as psychiatry, health psychology, family
therapy,clinical social work, and clinical psychology
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The biopsychosocial paradigm is also a technical term for the
popular concept of the "mindbody connection", which addresses more
philosophical arguments between the biopsychosocial and biomedical
models, rather than their empirical exploration and clinical
application The biopsychosocial model of health is based in part on
social cognitive theory The biopsychosocial model implies that
treatment of disease processes, for example type two diabetes and
cancer, requires that the health care team address biological,
psychological and social influences upon a patient's
functioning
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Model description and application in medicine In a
philosophical sense, the biopsychosocial model states that the
workings of the body can affect the mind, and the workings of the
mind can affect the body This means both a direct interaction
between mind and body as well as indirect effects through
intermediate factors The biopsychosocial model presumes that it is
important to handle the three together
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Implications Consider biological, psychological, and social
factors Relationships are significant to health Patient and doctor
Patient and family, friends, others Keep people healthy rather than
wait to treat them when they become ill.
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Challenges Poverty as underlying issue Lack of resources,
education Behavior and/or lifestyle Misuse of antibiotics Gaps in
immunizations Lack of access to healthcare New diseases and
re-emerging strains
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Biopsychosocial Model of Disease Biology Age, sex Disease state
Genetics/heredity Physical symptoms Meds/drugs/addictio n
Psychology Attitudes/beliefs Mood state Behaviors
Religiosity/spirituality Social Support: formal/informal Roles:
work/family/peers Physician-patient relationship Socioeconomic
status Environment School/work place Church Social norms / cultural
norms Community / Health services Neighborhoods / National economy
Mass media Policy / laws
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Normality vs. Abnormality Normality The absence of illness and
the presence of state of well being called normality. The condition
of being normal; the state of being usual, typical, or expected
Abnormality A physical malformation; deformity Deviation from the
typical or usual; irregularity ( According to Morgan & King)
Abnormality is the significant deviation from commonly accepted
patterns of behavior, emotion or thought".
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NORMALITY As we have seen, normality means different things to
different people at different times in different settings. If, as a
soldier, we shoot someone in wartime we may receive a medal; if we
shoot someone in peacetime we will be put in prison. If we lose our
job and someone close to us dies then it is normal for us to be
unhappy and depressed. In fact if we were not unhappy and depressed
it would be abnormal. Therefore we have to look at emotions and
behavior in the context in which they occur
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Characteristics of a normal mentality, person 1. Efficient
perception of reality They have a realistic view of their strengths
and weaknesses They know what they have the ability to do and what
they cannot do. They have a realistic Perception of what is
happening around them and their reactions to those events
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2. Self knowledge They have an understanding of WHY they do
things and WHY they have certain emotions. None of us has complete
Insight into our feelings and behavior but normal people have more
Insight than the mentally ill 3. ability to control behaviour
Occasionally normal people may act impulsively [Without thinking]
but normally they can control DRIVES such as aggression
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4. Self-esteem They know their own value and feel happy with
their achievements and abilities. They feel accepted by those
around them. They may wish that they were more handsome or
intelligent but they don't allow these ideas to rule their lives.
They know that though they may not be handsome they have a nice
personality or, that though they cannot be a university professor
they are doing a useful job which brings in money for the family to
live on. Mentally disordered people often feel that they are
worthless and not accepted by other people. They may blame society
or other people for their feelings of worthlessness and
Rejection
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5. Able to form close relationships NORMAL people are able to
form close and satisfying friendships and relationships. They are
aware of other peoples feelings and beliefs and adapt to them.
Mentally disordered people often think only of their own problems
and are unable to care about other peoples problems [they are often
Self-centered]. Sometimes they do not want to form close
friendships because at some time in the past they were emotionally
hurt by the breakup of a relationship
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6. Productivity They are able to channel their energies into
work' and social life. They are enthusiastic about their lives and
enjoy activities. Mentally disordered people often feel chronically
tired and each day is an obstacle to be suffered, not enjoyed.
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Criteria often used in defining abnormality 1. Deviation from
social norms Every society has certain standards [or Norms] of
behavior that it expects. Such things as the way we dress,
politeness, bad language are subject to certain rules [often
unwritten]. However, Social Norms are different in different
societies. Eating in public during the day at Ramadan would be
regarded as a deviation in the Emirates and would be punished. It
would not be a deviation in a non-Islamic country.
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2. Maladaptive behaviour Behavior is abnormal if it is
Maladaptive ie: it has an adverse [bad] effect on the well-being of
the individual or society. For example a person who is so
frightened of crowds that he cannot leave his home or a person who
drinks so much alcohol that he cannot live a normal life.
Individuals who are violent and aggressive have a bad effect on
society. They may release their aggression on the roads and cause
traffic accidents or indulge in crime.
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3. Personal distress In this criteria one would look at the
person's subjective [internal] feelings rather than their
[external] behavior. They may feel unhappy, depressed and agitated.
They may be unable to concentrate or sleep. They may hide these
feelings from others and their behavior may appear normal. There
may be the "Smiling Depression" where an individual is very
depressed but hides that depression from family and friends. Often
the first that his family know of the depression is when he
attempts to kill himself.
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Perception The ability to see, hear, or become aware of
something through the senses The way you notice things, especially
with the senses The ability to understand the true nature of
something An idea, a belief or an image you have as a result of how
you see or understand something She showed great perception in her
assessment of the family situation There is a general public
perception that standards in schools are falling.
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Perception: is a process by which individuals organize and
interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to
their environment.
Factors that Influence Perception The Object of Perception:
some things in our environment tend to attract attention
Backgrounds and Surroundings our surroundings at the moment of
perception will affect our perceptions The Perceiver we each bring
unique experiences and personal points of view to each
situation
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What is attention?
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SIMPLIFIED DEFINITION OF ATTENTION Attention is a cognitive
process whereby you direct and maintain awareness of stimuli
detected by the senses and use that information to make decisions
and choose responses. You continually receive information about
your internal and external environment through your senses. You can
not be aware of all the sensory information coming into your
senses. Perception occurs when you attend to sensory information
Decision-making and response selection require attention directed
toward key perceptual informant.
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What are the two (2) dimensions of attention?
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DIMENSIONS OF ATTENTION width of attention (broad or narrow)
broad focus would attend to a large number of stimuli at the same
time narrow focus (e.g., golfer lining up a putt) direction of
attention (internal or external) internal focus is directed inward
on thoughts and feelings (e.g., monitor your bodys responses and
mental skills). external focus is directed to events happening in
the environment (e.g., evaluating playing conditions)
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What is attentional capacity and how does it impact
performance?
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ATTENTIONAL CAPACITY You have a limited attentional capacity.
Controlled Processing occurs when athletes consciously focus on
performing the sport skill (e.g, focusing on the mechanics of how
to execute a tennis serve) Controlled processing is slow,
conscious, deliberate, step-by-step and attention- demanding
process.
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Automatic Processing when you perform a skill without conscious
attention thought. Automatic processing is fast, holistic, occurs
below the conscious level, and is not attention demanding (e.g.,
can dribble in traffic while looking for an open player to pass
to).
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What is selective attention?
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SELECTIVE ATTENTION Selective Attention is the process of
attending to some information coming into our senses and ignoring
or screening out other information. Experts must be able to select
the correct cues from countless irrelevant and competing stimuli
(e.g., information to focus on when returning serve).
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What is concentration and what is the concentration
paradox?
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CONCENTRATION: SUSTAINING ATTENTION Concentration is the
ability to sustain attention on selected stimuli for a period of
time. Concentration can easily be broken by... external
distractions, our own thoughts and feelings, planned psych out
strategies, and the intense energy demands of intense
concentration.
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CONCENTRATION ROADBLOCKS Factors that interfere with quieting
or parking the mind include... excessive thinking stress, pain, and
fatigue.
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How can you improve your concentration?
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CONCENTRATION IMPROVEMENT GUIDELINES 1. learn to manage stress,
2. recognize energy demands of concentration, 3. practice
concentrating 4 experience the skill 5 direct attention away
fromdistracting thoughts and feelings 6 think non judgmentally
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Memory Memory is the process in which information is encoded,
stored, and retrieved (Recovered). From an information processing
perspective there are three main stages in the formation and
retrieval of memory: Encoding or registration: receiving,
processing and combining of received information Storage creation
of a permanent record of the encoded information Retrieval, recall
or recognition: calling back the stored information in response to
some cue for use in a process or activity
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Memory and Its Processes Memory - an active system that
receives information from the senses, organizes and alters it as it
stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage.
Processes of Memory: Encoding - the set of mental operations that
people perform on sensory information to convert that information
into a form that is usable in the brains storage systems. Storage -
holding onto information for some period of time. Retrieval -
getting information that is in storage into a form that can be
used.
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54 Studying Memory: Keyboard (Encoding) Disk (Storage) Monitor
(Retrieval) Sequential Process
Sensory Memory Sensory memory - the very first stage of memory,
the point at which information enters the nervous system through
the sensory systems. Iconic memory - visual sensory memory, lasting
only a fraction of a second. Capacity everything that can be seen
at one time. Duration - information that has just entered iconic
memory will be pushed out very quickly by new information, a
process called masking.
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Short-Term Memory Short-term memory (STM) (working memory) -
the memory system in which information is held for brief periods of
time while being used. Selective attention the ability to focus on
only one stimulus from among all sensory input.
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Short-Term Memory Maintenance rehearsal - practice of saying
some information to be remembered over and over in ones head in
order to maintain it in short-term memory (STMs tend to be encoded
in auditory form). Duration of STM - lasts from about 12 to 30
seconds without rehearsal. STM is susceptible to interference
(e.g., if counting is interrupted, have to start over).
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Long-Term Memory Long-term memory (LTM) - the system of memory
into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less
permanently. Elaborative rehearsal - a method of transferring
information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful
in some way.
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Amnesia The loss of memory is described as forgetfulness, or as
a medical disorder, called amnesia Retrograde amnesia - loss of
memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss
of memory for the past. Anterograde amnesia - loss of memory from
the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new
long-term memories (senile dementia). Infantile amnesia - the
inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3
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Whole Learning: Studying an entire package of information at
once, like a poem Part Learning: Studying subparts of a larger body
of information (like text chapters) Recitation: Summarizing aloud
while you are learning Rehearsal: Reviewing information mentally
(silently) Selection: Selecting most important concepts to memorize
Spaced Practice: Alternating study sessions with brief rest periods
Massed Practice: Studying for long periods without rest periods
Lack of sleep decreases retention; sleep aids consolidation Hunger
decreases retention Some Ways to Improve Memory
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Thinking Thinking can refer to the act of producing thoughts or
the process of producing thoughts. Thought can refer to the ideas
or arrangements of ideas that result from thinking, the act of
producing thoughts, or the process of producing thoughts Thinking
or cognition refers to a process that involves knowing,
understanding, remembering and communicating.
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Thinking allows humans to make sense of interpret, represent or
model the world they experience, and to make predictions about that
world. In spite of the fact that thought is a fundamental human
activity familiar to everyone, there is no generally accepted
agreement as to what thought is or how it is created.
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Different Types of Thinking 1. Critical thinking - This is
convergent thinking. It assesses the worth and validity of
something existent. It involves precise, persistent, objective
analysis. 2. Implementation thinking is the ability to organize
ideas and plans in a way that they will be effectively carried out.
3. Conceptual thinking consists of the ability to find connections
or patterns between abstract ideas and then piece them together to
form a complete picture
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4.Innovative thinking involves generating new ideas or new ways
of approaching things to create possibilities and opportunities.
5.Intuitive thinking is the ability to take what you may sense or
perceive to be true and, without knowledge or evidence,
appropriately factor it in to the final decision.
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Theories and Models of Thinking Behaviorist Theory Behaviorists
view thinking as something that produces a measureable change in an
individuals actions. Since thinking takes place as a result of
reacting to external stimuli in this model Pavlovs famous
experiment about dogs salivating when they would hear the dinner
bell ring is an example of behaviorist theory Cognitive Theory
Cognitive theorists such as Piaget and Gagne argue that thinking
and learning are internal mental actions that take place in the
brain and include sensory perception, processing of information,
applying and combining information, and memory
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Humanist Theory In the humanist model, the purpose of thinking
is to fulfill an individuals potential. As such, the acts of
thinking and learning are always personal, not institutional. Also
known as whole child theory, humanists advise that the purpose of
education is to develop a self-motivated, autonomous individual who
can think and learn on his own
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Cognition The word cognition comes from the Latin verb cognosco
(con 'with' + gnsc 'know'), 'I know' so broadly, 'to conceptualize'
or 'to recognize' The mental process of knowing, including aspects
such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment That which
comes to be known, as through perception, reasoning, or intuition;
knowledge In science cognition is a group of mental processes that
includes attention, memory, producing and comprehending language,
learning, reasoning, problem solving, and decision making
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Cognition is a faculty for the processing of information,
applying knowledge, and changing preferences Cognition, or
cognitive processes, can be natural or artificial, conscious or
unconscious It encompasses the mental functions, mental processes
(thoughts), and states of intelligent entities In cognitive
psychology and cognitive engineering, cognition is typically
assumed to be information processing in a participants or operators
mind or brain
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Stages of Processing Stages of Processing: The steps required
to form, use, and modify mental representations in a cognitive
task. Perhaps perceiving, encoding, remembering and retrieving
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The mind is a complex machine an information processing machine
It uses Hardware (the brain) Software (mental images or
reperesentations) Information input to the mind comes via bottom-
up processing (from the sensory system) Information is processed in
the mind by top down processing via prestored information in the
memory Output is in the form of behavior
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Levels of Cognition Bloom's Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain Bloom
identified six levels within the cognitive domain, from the simple
recall or recognition of facts, as the lowest level, through
increasingly more complex and abstract mental levels, to the
highest order which is classified as evaluation.
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Knowledge is defined as remembering of previously learned
material. Knowledge represents the lowest level of learning
outcomes in the cognitive domain. Verbs: arrange, define,
duplicate, label, list, memorize, name, order, recognize, relate,
recall, repeat, reproduce state. Comprehension is defined as the
ability to grasp the meaning of material. Verbs: classify,
describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate, locate,
recognize, report, restate, review, select, translate Application
refers to the ability to use learned material in new and concrete
situations Verbs: apply, choose, demonstrate, dramatize, employ,
illustrate, interpret, operate, practice, schedule, sketch, solve,
use, write
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Analysis refers to the ability to break down material into its
component parts so that its organizational structure may be
understood Verbs: analyze, appraise, calculate, categorize,
compare, contrast, criticize, differentiate, discriminate,
distinguish, examine, experiment, question, test. Synthesis refers
to the ability to put parts together to form a new whole. This may
involve the production of a unique communication (theme or speech),
a plan of operations (research proposal) Verbs: arrange, assemble,
collect, compose, construct, create, design, develop, formulate,
manage, organize, plan, prepare, propose, set up, write
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Evaluation is concerned with the ability to judge the value of
material (statement, novel, poem, research report) for a given
purpose. The judgements are to be based on definite criteria.
Verbs: appraise, argue, assess, attach, choose compare, defend
estimate, judge, predict, rate, core, select, support, value,
evaluate.
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Don't know, what we learned
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Copyright 2005 by South-Western, a division of Thomson
Learning. All rights reserved.
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Communication Communication (from Latin commnicre, meaning "to
share" ) is the activity of conveying information through the
exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech,
visuals, signals, writing, or behavior. It is the meaningful
exchange of information between two or more living creatures. One
definition of communication is any act by which one person gives to
or receives from another person information about that person's
needs, desires, perceptions, knowledge, or affective states.
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Communication may be intentional or unintentional, may involve
conventional or unconventional signals, may take linguistic or
non-linguistic forms, and may occur through spoken or other modes
Communication requires a sender, a message, and a recipient The
communication process is complete once the receiver understands the
sender's message
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Characteristics of a good Communicator having good listening
skills being able to communicate in a way that is clear and concise
Effective communicators also know their audience. Good
communicators are not afraid to ask for clarification if something
was not clearly stated. They also are aware of the body language of
their audience and keep eye contact with them as much as possible
to make sure they are understanding.
