Assessmentand Analysis Guides Interests/early childhood development/Ass… · control; coordination; sensorypercep- on instrument inconsistent; copya cross anda circle; scribble tual

APPENDIX A

Assessment andAnalysis Guides

f

The following assessment and analysis guides include selected examplesof developmental patterns that can be extracted from child develop-

ment textbooks, educational psychology textbooks, and books and journalarticles addressing specific areas of development and curriculum . Refer-ences are given at the end of each guide.

Remember that some children may skip steps in the sequence . Othersmay stay at one level for a period of time . Use the guides following the cau-tions and suggestions in Chapters 7 and 8 .

Appendix A-1 : Assessment and Analysis Guide: Large Muscle Develop-ment

Appendix A-2: Assessment and Analysis Guide: Small Muscle Devel-opment

Appendix A-3: Assessment and Analysis Guide: Cognitive Develop-ment-Knowledge Base

Appendix A-4: Assessment and Analysis Guide: Cognitive Develop-ment-Memory

Appendix A-5: Assessment and Analysis Guide: Cognitive Develop-ment-Logical Thinking

Appendix A-6: Assessment and Analysis Guide : Language Develop-ment-Oral Language

Appendix A-7: Assessment and Analysis Guide: Language Develop-ment-Written Language

Appendix A-8: Assessment and Analysis Guide: Personal-Social Devel-opment-Personal Development

Appendix A-9 : Assessment and Analysis Guide: Personal-Social Devel-opment-Social Development

222 Appentfix A

Figure A-1

Assessment and Analysis Guide: Large Muscle Development

Examples of Things to Look For Developmental Pattern

Walking : Placing one foot in front of By 2-3 years most children can walk in a heel-toe progressionthe other while maintaining contact with arms in opposition ; up and down steps with one footwith floor . leading, then with alternating feet (3 yrs) .Watch for: heel-toe progression ; By 3-4 years most children can walk backwards; a straightplacement of arms as child walks path i 1 "wide) ; up and down short stairs with alternating feet ; a(smoothly in opposition to feet) ; balance beam (2-3" high) with help .length of stride ; balance . By .4-5 years most children can walk on balance beam (2-3"Walking on a straight line is easier high); up and down ten or more stairs alternating feet withthan on a curved line ; forward is hand rail ; on a circle .easier than walking backwards ;

By 5-6 years most children can walk in time to music ; acrossspontaneous is easier than in rhythm

balance beam (2-3" high); up and down ten stairs alternatingto music or a drum beat .

feet ; use roller skates .

Running: Placing one foot in front of By 2-3 years most children can run (length of stride, balance,the other with a brief period of no and smoothness begin to improve) .contact with floor. By 3-4 years most children can run more smoothly (evenWatch for : placement of arms (should stride but may lack mature arm movements and form) . A fewmove smoothly in opposition to the children can turn, stop suddenly, or run around objects easily .feet, should not flail around, should By ,4-5 years most children can run with improved form,not be stiff) ; balance ; fluidity ; speed ; speed, and control (stopping, starting, and turning withoutability to start and stop with balance ; falling) .ability to run and turn with balance . By 5-6 years most children can run in an effective adult

manner (arms across midline in rhythmic pattern, elbow bentat a right angle) ; combine run and jump .By 6-8 years most children can run with longer stride ;coordinate run with other motor skills (e .g . kicking) ; increasedspeed and agility .

Jumping: One or two foot takeoff, By 2-3 years most children can jump off a step with both feet ;landing on both feet . jump in place with minimal crouch, may land on one or bothWatch for: takeoff and landing, feet (one foot ahead) .including placement of the arms on By 3-4 years many children can jump well in place ; jump overtakeoff, landing, and as the jump is a small object leading with one foot .being made (arms aid in jump and By 4-5 years most children can jump well in place; crouch fordon't flail around) ; bending of knees a high jump of 2"; do standing broad jump of 8-10" . A few(should not be stiff) ; balance and children can jump over a barrier.fluidity . jumps increase in distance By 5-6 years most children can jump over barriers ; make aand height . lumping down is easier

vertical jump; do a running broad jump .than jumping up onto something.

By 6-7 years most children can jump rope in a simple pattern;jump onto a target .By 7-8 years most children can do jumping jacks ; jumprope in complex patterns ; a standing broad jump with deepcrouch (arms swing further back behind body and continueuntil body is fully extended, and synchronized); jump andcatch ball .

Hopping: One foot takeoff and By 2-3 years most children cannot hop; make irregular stepslanding on the same foot, instead of a hop. Some children attempt a hop.

continued


Watch for : takeoff and landing ; By 3-4 years most children can hop once or twice on preferredplacement of arms (arms swing and leg (by 3) ; execute ten hops in a row on preferred leg .aid in takeoff and landing, no By 4-5 years most children can hop a distance of 5' .flailing) ; isolation of the hopping By 5-6 years most children can hop distance of 16' ; use armsside ; balance ; fluidity (should not be in opposition to feet ; use either foot .stiff) ; preference for one foot . F

By 6-7 years most children can hop onto small squares .By 7-8 years most children can hop in an alternate rhythmicpattern (2-2, 2-3, or 3-3 pattern) .

Galloping: Step (walk) leap with By 2-3 years a few children attempt a gallop .same foot leading . By 3-4 years most children perform a shuffle step (side step) .Skipping : Step (walk) hop in rhythmic By 4-5 years most children step hop on one foot . Some gallopalternation . fairly well with preferred foot .Watch for : patterned use of the feet ; By 5-6 years most children gallop fairly well (not proficiently) .use of arms (should move smoothly, Some children can skip .no flailing) ; coordination ; balance ;

BY 6-7 Years most children can skip with ease .ability to sustain the pattern .

Kicking : Moving an object by striking By 2-3 years most children kick with leg stiff, straight leg, andit with the foot . little body movement .Watch for: stance ; standing on two feet, B y 3.-4 years most children kick with lower leg bent onstepping forward with balance (older backward lift and straight on forward swing .children may be able to move forward By 4-5 years most children kick with greater backward andseveral steps and kick) ; movement of forward swing; use arms in opposition to legs ; step into ball .kicking leg ; balance on contact with By 5-6 years most children kick using mature pattern ; kickball and follow-through ; placement of through ball with arms synchronized ; kick ball tossed into airarms (no flailing) ; fluidity ; coordination with straight leg .of nonkicking side (no extraneous By 6-7 years most children run and kick in stride .movements) .Early kicking with stationary ball, then BY 7-8 Years most children kick proficiently and accurately ;ball rolling directly to child (can't shift intercept a ball ; adjust kicking to height of ball ; can aim ball .position), then ball rolling and childmeets it.

Throwing : Using hands and arm to By 2-3 years most children face target and use both forearmspropel a object through the air- to push ; throw with little or no footwork or body rotation ; mayoverhand or underhand . lose balance while throwing .Watch for: smooth fluid motion of By 3-4 years most children throw overhand or underhand withthrowing arm ; coordination of one arm fairly well ; use some body rotation ; may release ballnonthrowing arm (no extraneous too early or late .movements) ; balance ; stance ; By 4-5 years most children throw proficiently for longerrotation of body (older children also distances, with more mature overhand motion (at elbow) ; maylean slightly backwards) ; step forward prefer overhand or underhand .as object is released ; follow-through By 5-6 years most children throw in a mature pattern ; stepof throwing arm ; whipping motion of forward ; improved accuracy ; fluid follow-through .the arm on release ; arc of throw .Early throwing, no weight transfer . BY 7-8 Years most children tfYrow overhand with whippingSmaller balls are easier to throw . motion (lean body back in preparation) ; underhand with

explosive release .

224 Appendix

Figure A-1

continued

Adapted from : Berk, 1994 ; Corbin, 1980 ; Gallahue, 1982 ; Kaplan, 1991 ; Poest, Williams, Witt, & Atwood, 1990 ;

Schiamberg, 1988 ; Schirmer, 1974 ; Sinclair, 1973 ; Thomas, Lee, & Thomas, 1988 ; Weeks & Ewer-Jones, 1991 ;

Weikert, 1987 ; Wickstrom, 1983 ; Williams, 1991 .


Catching: Using hands to grasp or By 2-3 years most children stop rolling object with hands;capture an object thrown through air . stand with arms stiff; may close eyes, arch body away ; closeWatch for : stance (balanced, can arms after object hits body .move and catch) ; placement of the By 3-4 years most children hold arms out straight, stiff witharms (trap against body or grasped hands facing object ; trap against body . Catches bounced ball .with hands , ; following of object's

underBy 4-5 years most children hold arms flexed at elbows ; trap

path with eyes ; positioning self against body . Some children catch with hands.object; adjusting hand position to By 5-6 years most children try catching with hands ; may stillsize of object .

trap ; follow trajectory of ball better . About half of the childrenAt the beginning, catches involve a

can catch with hands.ball rolling on ground . Large balls areeasier to catch . Child may show more By 6-7 years most children are moderately proficient ; flex

mature catching with large balls . elbows with hands forward; make contact with hands; mayjuggle object .

By 7-8 years most children can catch with hands, littlejuggling ; judge trajectory fairly well ; move into position ; adjusthand position to size of object .

Perceptual Motor Abilities: Body, By preschool most children can identify parts of the body; claptime and time awareness, directional a simple rhythm ; still lack spatial and directional awareness .awareness, ability to move based on By 6-7 years some children can mimic demonstratedwatching and listening to a model . movements presented in a sequence (clapping pattern) ; useWatch for : ability to clap to a steady verbal directions to execute a simple movement sequence ;beat; walk, jump, hop, gallop, or skip walk to the beat of a musical selection.to a beat or to music; control of body Most children have trouble memorizing a sequence ofwhen moving (no extraneous movements.movements) ; sense of external space(doesn't walk into things, bump intopeople when moving) ; mimicmovements of another person ;perform a movement after listening toverbal directions .

Physical Fitness: The child's physical By 5 years most children can exercise vigorously for 10-15state after vigorous exercise and the minutes without needing to stop .ability to sustain vigorous exercise . By 8 years most children can exercise vigorously for 15-20Watch for : sustained enthusiastic minutes.performance of the movements; theamount of time a child spends invigorous exercise ; child's reaction tobeing tired (shortness of breath,absence of strength) .

.Assessment and Analysis Guides

225

Figure A-2

Assessment and Analysis Guide : Small J1luscle Development

continued


Manipulation/Manipulatives: Ability By 2-3 years most children place simple geometric shapes into manipulate with hand and fingers. puzzle ; string large beads ; turn pages of book ; work 4-pieceWatch for: dexterity; flexibility ; puzzle ; use pegboard with large pegs ; stack small woodenprecision and control ; coordination ; blocks ; do a fingerplay (fingers not independent) ; roll,sensory perceptual integration ; hov, , squeeze, and pound modeling clay .child stacks, moves, and rotates By 4-5 years most children can string small wooden beads;objects; which fingers are used ; fluid work a 5-piece puzzle ; use pegboard with small pegs ; usefinger movements (no false starts, no fingers more independently ; make balls and use tools withusing chest or table to aid in modeling clay (use cookie cutter) .manipulation, one finger or group of By 5-6 years most children can work a 12-piece puzzle ; buildfingers not sticking out in an complex structures with small blocks ; braid ; use fingersawkward manner) ; preference for independently in fingerplays ; attempt a pinch pot, coil pot, orright or left hand (one hand will be "sculpture ."more coordinated) . By 6-7 years most children can build complex structures with

small interlocking blocks; make a pinch, coil pot, or sculpture.By 7-8 years most children can swing a hammer accurately ;sew and knit .

Self-Help Skills : Ability to eat, dress, By 2-3 years most children can eat with spoon ; hold cup inand take care of self . one hand ; put on a coat (unassisted) ; unbutton clothes .Watch for: grasp of eating utensil ; By 4-5 years most children can eat correctly with fork ; buttoneating without dropping or getting and unbutton clothes; zip zippers haltingly; put coat onfood all over clothes/face ; size of hanger .buttons, how many fingers used, By 5-6 years most children can button/unbutton clothes ; zipability to button/unbutton ; zippers; eat with knife and fork ; dress/undress ; comb andzipping/unzipping . brush hair ; tie shoelaces.

Scissors, Paste, and Glue: Ability to By 2-3 years most children snip paper easily (cuts at edge ofuse scissors, paste, and glue . paper) ; scissors and paper held incorrectly ; use large globs ofWatch for: dexterity ; precision and paste or glue with little control .control; coordination ; sensory By 3-4 years most children make one full cut with scissorsperceptual integration; thumbs-up (cuts one length of scissors) ; hand position may be incorrect;grasp of scissors ; thumbs-up grasp of make two full cuts (two lengths of scissors); have troublepaper; scissors held straight as cut is cutting on straight line ; use globs of paste or glue but havemade, no twisting or tearing of paper, more control ; use index finger to apply paste.straight not jagged edges, hand By 4-5 years most children cut on a straight line and a cornerholding paper moves along as other (90-degree angle) moving paper hand forward ; use correcthand cuts ; control of amount of paste hand position ; keep paste and glue in right spot and use(no excessive globs) ; use of fingers or reasonable amount .stick to spread paste. By 5-6 years most children can cut on a curve; cut out simple

geometric figure ; cut interior angles (inside angle less than 90degrees) ; cut out obtuse and acute angles ; cut out a complexfigure from a magazine ; use scissors and paste/glue to makedesigns.

Figure A-2

continued

Adapted from : Ashton-Lilo, 1987 ; Beaty, 1994 ; Berk, 1994 ; Guerin & Maier, 1983 ; Kaplan, 1991 ; Levine, 1995 ;Linder, 1993 ; Mowbray & Salisbury, 1975 ; Papalia & Oids, 1996 ; Schiamberg, 1988, Schickedanz, Hansen, &Forsyth, 1990 ; Schirmer, 1974 ; Schwartz & Robinson, 1982 ; Thompson, 1986 ; Weeks & Ewer-)ones, 1991 .


Use of Writing Instruments: Ability By 2-3 :ears most children grasp writing implements withto hold and use pencils, pens, whole hand or fist ; jab at paper; make scribbles withcrayons, markers, and paint brushes . movement of whole arm ; copy vertical and horizontal lines.Watch for : dexterity; precision and By 3-=1 years most children try a three-point grasp but positioncontrol; coordination ; sensory percep- on instrument inconsistent ; copy a cross and a circle ; scribbletual integration ; grasp of instrument with spots of intense color; use horizontal and vertical lines,(whole hand or three-point finger crosses, and circles in pictures .Grasp) ; grasp should be firm (should By 4-5 vears most children use correct hand grasp but positionnot be too tight or too loose) ; position on instrument still inconsistent; copy a square and some lettersof hand on instrument (should not be (from first and last name); draw suns; draw human figures, atoo close to the eraser/top of pencil/ head with facial features (placement of eye, nose, mouth maypen or too close to point/paper) ; type not be correct) ; draw human figures with stick arms and legsof marks (stabs at paper, fluid and facial parts in correct place; scribble with repeatedscribbles, or careful formation of lines, features and on a horizontal line (looks like writing) ; scribblesuch as in letters or a figure with a leaving space between "words ."stopping and starting place) ; child

By 5_6 years most children can form written letters (manydrawings (human face, stick figures,

inverted or mirror images); color between lines; draw buildings,features placed correctly, detail in

cars, and 'boats (proportions incorrect-people are larger thanfeatures,res, and addition of scenery, such

the buildings) ; trees and flowers; draw with correct proportions ;as houses, animals, trees, grass, and incorporate letters into scribbling ; write letters of first namethe sky) ; proportionate size of figures

(may not write letters in a line); write letters of last name (mayin drawing (house should be bigger

not write letters in a line) ; draw rectangle, circle, and square .than child) ; repeated features inscribbles (do scribbles look random or By 6-7 vears most children hold pencil with fingertips ; draw

like attempts at writing?) . triangles; follow simple mazes; copy most letters (some stillinverted , ; form words with letters (words may run together ;words may begin on one line and end on another) ; writeupper- and lowercase letters and numbers 1-10 .By 7-8 years most children can : space words when writing;print accurately and neatly ; copy a diamond correctly; beginto use cursive writing .

Assessment and Analysis Guides

227

Figure A-3

Assessment andAnalysis Guide: Cognitive Development-Knowledge Base

continued


Basic Concepts By 4-5 years most children know the concepts big/little,Watch for: how much a child knows tall/short, long/short, high/low, wide/narrow, thick/thin,prior to instruction ; use of knowledge deep/shallow, on, next to, in, outside, inside, down, and up .base when learning ne\v information ; Most children likely to make errors on underneath, below,quantity and quality of information ; over and under. Some children know full/empty, light/heavy,use of concept at receptive level (point bottom/top/middle; first, second, third; rectangle, triangle,to, place object, nod in response); circle, line .concept used at expressive level (tellname of); spontaneous use.

Color Concepts By 4-5 years most children know red, green, black, white,Watch for: ability to point to a color orange, yellow, blue, pink, brown, purple ; most color nameswhen asked ; state color name when by 5 years.asked; spontaneous use of colorconcepts and names. Infrequentlyused color concepts are acquiredlater than those frequently used .

Math Concepts By 4-5 years most children can match objects one to one;Watch to see if child can: match distinguish more/same/not as much as/less than (withoutobject for object (one-to-one counting) ; tell which of two objects is same/longer/shorter,correspondence) ; distinguish lighter/heavier, full/less full . Some children have ordinalmore/same/not as much as/less than principle (smaller numbers first, larger last); cardinal principle(without counting) when comparing (last number = total number); abstraction principle (can countsmall groups such as three objects to any objects) ; understanding that order of objects counted doesa group of five objects ; rote count (up not matter; rote and meaningfully count to 6 .to what number?) ; count By 5-6 years most children can count 20 objects; count on ameaningfully (up to what number?) ; number other than 1 (5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10) ; recognize and writecount starting on a specific number ; numbers from 1 to 10 ; use rulers, scales, cups to measurerecognize written numbers . (but cannot state numerically which is longer/shorter,Note : There is disagreement about heavier/lighter) .the benefits of rote counting or By 6-7 years have an intuitive grasp of number ; formalmemorizing number charts . instruction in mathematics has begun. Consult curriculum

guides and texts on mathematics development.

Scientific Concepts By 5-6 years most children know simple scientific conceptsWatch for: simple descriptions of based on observable world (people, animals, plants, seasons,scientific phenomena ; use of and weather) ; something about the concepts of heat, levers,scientific vocabulary ; use of earth and heaven, gravity, gears, life, and death.complexes and concepts .

Social Studies concepts and Only geography and history are given as examples .complexes associated withgeography, history, and economics .

228

Appendix A

Figure A-3

continued

Adapted from : Baroody, 1993 ; Berk, 1994 ; Boehm, 1991 ; Castaneda, 1987 ; Clark & Clark, 1977 ; Cole & Cole, 1995 ;DeVilliers & DeVilliers, 1978 ; Dutton & Dutton, 1991 ; Flavell, 1963 ; Forman & Kaden, 1987 ; Hinitz, 1987 ; Kamii &Rosenblum, 1990 ; Kaplan, 1991 ; Mussen, Conger, Kagan, & Huston, 1990 ; National Council of Teachers ofMathematics, 1989 ; Papalia & Olds, 1996 ; Schiamberg, 1988 ; Schultz, Colarusso, & Strawderman, 1989 ; Seefeldt,1977 ; Wadsworth, 1978 .


Geographical Concepts By 5-6 years most children can understand own position inWatch for: use of spatial concepts to space relative to another thing or person (near to me, far fromdescribe position of objects relative to me, etc.) ; knows words to express spatial relationships ; knowsself; use of maps (recognize relative what a map is ; can identify roads and buildings on a simpledistances and map conventions- map.boundaries, roads, distance).

History : Concepts related to time By 4-5 years most children know before/after,Watch to see ifchild can: tell a story yesterday/today/tomorrow ; can identify or tell the sequence ofusing pictures ; tell time, use time events in a story; can arrange a picture sequence in order; canconcepts ; distinguish between distinguish immediate past from long ago but cannotimmediate past and long ago; identify distinguish differences with the concept of "long ago" ; canconcepts related to the continuity of identify family tree (grandparents, parents, self, and siblings) ; ishuman life . aware of family traditions for birthdays and holidays .

Assessment and _Analysis Guides

229

Figure A-4

Assessment and Analysis Guide: Cognitive Development-Memory

Adapted from ; Beihler & Snowman, 1991 ; Berk, 1994 ; Berliner & Rosenshine, 1987; Brown, 1991 ; Bukatko &Daehler . 1992 ; Clark & Clark, 1977 ; Corno, 1987 ; Gage & Berliner, 1992; Grabe, 1986 ; Kaplan, 1991 ; Mussen,Conger, Kagan, & Huston, 1990 ; Papalia & Olds, 1996 ; Phye & Andre, 1986 ; Resnick & Resnick, 1992 ; Schiamberg,1988 ; Slavin, 1997 ; Steinberg & Belsky, 1991 ; Winne & Marx, 1987 ; Wittrock, 1986 .


Attention Be aware of cultural differences in the way children signal theyWatch for: ability to point to or are paying attention.identify differences between two By 2-6 years most children can concentrate and attend whenpictures ; contusion between letters (b interested ; scan something visually to search, but notand d) ; sense used to take in systematically ; discriminate letters with vertical and horizontalinformation (looking or listening) ; lines (Evs . M) and right side up versus upside down (M vs . W) .signs of attending; ability to block out Most have some trouble attending when asked (if task is not ofdistractions ; ability to attend when inherent interest); recognizing and responding appropriately toasked; different levels of attention the teacher's cues to attend ignoring distractions (color, move-(concentrates more on certain tasks ment, loudness) ; discriminating letters that are mirror images (dor at certain points in a task-is there and b, p and q) ; shifting attention from one task to another ora pattern?); ability to vary attention concentrating more on certain tasks or aspects of a task .based on the material to be learned B y 7 years and older most children can control attention; scan(focus more on items that are not systematically ; vary attention (although not as well as 12-year-known or that were missed) ; response olds); discriminate between letters; recognize and respond toto teacher cues to attend (verbal cues most teacher cues to attend . Some children may needsuch as "Look up here," "Pay significant teacher help to maintain and focus attention orattention," or nonverbal cues such as need coaching on interpreting subtle teacher signals forpointing at something) ; the cues child attention.notices ;confusing "this" and "that"when reading) .

Memory Strategies By 2 years most have a memory span of two items, use namingWatch for: amount of information and looking as early strategies .remembered ; number of spontaneous By 3-4 years most children show recognition for 50-plusstrategies used ; response to suggested items ; know scripts of familiar routines ; begin to use somestrategies ; description of strategies . rehearsal ; memory span of 3 to 4 items .Strategies are: By 5-6 years some children can use rehearsal strategies ; useRehearsal-repeats information over simple organization ; state when task is easy or hard toand over, copies it (older children remember .only).Organization---sorts or groups items

By 7-8 years most children can use rehearsal strategies ; use

(rearrange the spelling list so thatorganization . A few children can use elaboration

similar words are together). Organizingspontaneously .

objects in semantic categories (using Training in rehearsal, organization, and elaboration will

words) rather than associations (what improve ability to remember even for 2-year-olds .

goes with this) is more mature . The use of new strategies requires constant adult coaching

Elaboration-makes connections and (telling child which strategy to use) .relationships between new informationand prior knowledge and experience("I saw a frog just like that one at thezoo" ; "That word looks kind of like'thin' except it has a k at the end").

23 0

Appendix A

Figure A-5

Assessment and Analysis Guide: Cognitive Development-Logical Thinking


Symbolic thought : Ability .t o Information about the manipulation of roles as a part ofmanipulate and use symbols in symbolic thought is in Figure A-9 under Sociodramatic Play .thinking . By 2-3 years most children can use language as a tool forWatch for: use of language as a tool thinking ; engage in symbolic play (use object to stand forfor thinking ; use of an object to stand something else or play different roles) . Some children canfor something else (doll is a baby); make representational drawings .plays different roles; representational By 4-5 years most children can engage in representationaldrawings (drawing of a specific thing drawing. Some children can use written symbols (write name,decided on in advance) ; use of some numbers) ; make and interpret graphs with help fromwritten symbols as a tool for thinking teacher.(will make marks to signify a pattern, By 6 years and older most children can use written symbols;writes words) ; use of graphs to

make and interpret graphs .symsymbolize numbers .

Classification : Ability to sort and By 2-6 years some children are not systematic or consistent ingroup objects . use of attributes to form the group. Most can classify based onWatch for: ability to sort and re-sort one attribute ; place objects in a series by one attribute ; make aspontaneously; with properties given simple line pattern (ABABAB) . A few can classify based on twoby teacher; by a single property (size, attributes simultaneously (large blue, small blue, large red,color, shape); by many properties small red) ; classify subgroups once groups are formed ; make asimultaneously; by similarity (all complete line pattern (AABBCCAABBCC orbuttons, all blocks) ; by all-some (all ABCCABCCABCC) .same object but different color) ; into By 6-8 years most children can classify based on multiplea series (big, bigger, biggest) . attributes ; understand relationship between broader classesChildren may state attribute ; use of and subclasses (objects can belong to several classes at thesame principle to add new objects ; same time) ; classify based on two attributes at the same timecreate a simple pattern; create a (2 x 2 matrix).complex, extended pattern.

Problem Solving: Use of available Children of all ages benefit from teacher guidance and helpinformation, resources and materials when solutions do not work.to achieve a goal . By 3-6 years most children can use scripts to solve everydayWatch for: scripts (expected problems ; generate hypotheses (may be intuitive, not logical) ;sequences of events developed from use analysis ; make comparisons; evaluate ideas; identifypast); analysis (identify components, problems ; use formulas, rules of thumb, and trial and errorfeatures, processes, arguments, spontaneously.events); comparisons; inferences By 6 years and older most children make inferences based on(draw conclusions, make predictions, logical rules; tell if they need more information; makepose hypotheses, make educated psychological inferences (8 and older) ; use formulas, rules ofguesses) ; evaluation of ideas; thumb, think aloud strategies, work backwards strategies ; useidentification of the problem. Children trial and error, and break large problems into smaller ones .may use formulas (math formulas,specific "recipes") ; rules of thumb

With teacher support children 5 years and older can engage

(strategies or estimations that havein metacognitive skills such as thinking about the

worked in the past but don't

Figure A-5

continued


231

Adapted from : Beihler & Snowman, 1991 ; Berk, 1994 ; Charlesworth, 1992 ; Clark & Clark, 1977; Cole & Cole, 1995;DeVries & Kohlberg, 1987 ; Dutton & Dutton, 1991 ; Flavell, 1963 ; Gage & Berliner, 1992 ; Ginsberg & Opper, 1988;Kamii & Rosenblum, 1990 ; Kaplan, 1991 ; Mussen, Conger, Kagan, & Huston, 1990; Papalia & Olds, 1996 ; Phye &Andre, 1986 ; Schiamberg, 1988 ; Schultz, Colarusso, & Strawderman, 1989 ; Slavin, 1997 ; Steinberg & Belsky, 1991 ;Tharp & Gallimore, 1988 ; Wadsworth, 1978 .


guarantee a solution) ; think aloud problem-solving process, asking clarifying questions, planningstrategy (talk problem through aloud) ; a solution, reflecting on learning, errors, and understandings .work backwards strategy (start withthe end or a possible solution firstand work backwards to see if thismatches the givens) ; use trial anderror (try one solution and when itfails try another) ; break problem intoa number of smaller problems .

Conservation : All conservation tasks By 2-6 years most children cannot conserve ; will state oneinvolve objects with the same object or group of objects is (more, longer,physical attributes (number, mass, bigger) . Current research suggests that preoperational childrenweight, length, area, volume) that are can conserve number with four or fewer objects, but may notrearranged in front of the child to be able to justify or explain their answers .look very different. By 6-8 years most children can conserve number, length,Watch for: response to Piagetian tasks liquid, and mass ; typical justifications are : "You didn't add anyor way child plays with quantity or or take any away" ; "You just moved them and if you movedamount ; justification for answer; them back there would be the same " ; "It doesn'tnumber conservation (the number of matter how you arrange them" ; "They just look different, butobjects does not change when objects they are the same "are arranged differently-one set in apile and one set in a row) ; length (thelength does not change even thoughobjects are arranged differently) ;liquid (the amount of liquid does notchange even though the liquid is incontainers that look different-onetall and thin and the other wide); mass(the amount of clay in two balls doesnot change even though the balls lookdifferent-one is a ball and the otherrolled into a snake) .

232

Appendix A

Figure A-6

Assessment andAnalysis Guide: Language Development-Oral Language


Phonology : Ability to pronounce By 2-3 years children may repeat initial consonant vowel inwords and to understand speech multisyllabic words (gege for cookie) ; delete unstressedsounds . syllables (nana for banana) ; replace fricatives' hissing soundsWatch for: pronunciation and with stop consonants (tea for sea, tay for say) ; replace liquidenunciation ; deletion of sounds (nana sounds (I and r) with glides (w or j)-(wed for red, yewwo forfor banana) ; substitution of sounds yellow, jap for lap) ; reduce consonant clusters (pay for play,(dis for this) . tain for train) ; pronounce vowel sounds and p (pin), b (big),

m (mama), w (want), h (house) correctly .By 4-5 years most children have few mispronunciations; stillreplace liquid sounds, pronounced (dog), k (cat), g (gone),f (feet), n (no), ng (swing) .By 5-6 years most children are 90% intelligible ; havemastered most sounds, including sh (ship), s (sit), ch (chip),v (very), r (run), ! (lamp) .By 7-8 years most children are 100% intelligible ; canpronounce z (zip), th (this, thin), j (jump), zh (sure) .

Semantics: Understanding word and Receptive level/comprehension vocabulary much larger (forsentence meaning. The type of example, 3-4 years receptive = 1,500 words, expressive =concepts understood are discussed in 600-1,000 words).Figure A-3 . By 2-3 years most children understand possessives, commonWatch for: Use and understanding of verbs, adjectives ; understand function of many common nounswords and sentences ; literal versus ("What do you write with?")abstract meanings ; use of jokes and By 3-4 years most children follow complex three-stephumor. commands; interpret words literally ("She's a cold person,"

meaning she feels cold) .

By 4-5 years most children understand polite forms (Wouldyou like to sit down?), passive voice.

By 5-6 years most children understand indirect speech acts("It's cold outside," meaning it's cold next to the window),words less literally ("She's a cold person," meaning she doesnot express affection) ; jokes based on phonologicalambiguity-play on sounds ("What do you call a cow that eatsgrass? A lawn-moo-er").

By 6-7 years most children appreciate jokes based on puns ordouble meanings of words-lexical ambiguity ("What did thegrape say when the elephant stepped on it? It just let out a little'wine' ") ; understand the difference between promise and tell,ask and tell.

Syntax : Ability to use the rules of By2-31h. years most children use present progressive tensegrammar to produce sentences . (-ing) ; prepositions (on, in); plural nouns (dogs) ; verb "be" withWatch for: number of words used in adjective ("He is fun"); prepositions (in, for, from, with, to) ;an utterance; types of words used noun phrases ("The book of dogs") ; articles (a, an, the) ; regular(nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, past tense (walked) ; third-person regular present tense (heand adverbs) ; verb tenses used reads it) ; irregular present tense (has, does); contractions with

Figure A-G

continued


23 3

Adapted from : Berk, 1994 ; Blank, Rose, & Berlin, 1978 ; Bukatko & Daehler, 1992 ; Cazden, 1972 ; Charlesworth,1992 ; Clark & Clark, 1977 ; DeVilliers & DeVilliers, 1978 ; Faw & Belkin, 1989 ; Gage & Berliner, 1992 ; Genishi, 1987,

1988, 1992 ; Kaplan, 1991 ; Lindfors, 1987 ; Locke, 1993 ; Locke, 1993 ; Menyuk, 1988 ; Messer, 1995 ; Mussen, Conger,Kagan, & Huston, 1990 ; Owens, 1992 ; Petty, Petty, & Salzer, 1989 ; Schaefer, Staab, & Smith, 1983 ; Schiamberg,1988 ; Steinberg & Belsky, 1991 ; Tough, 1977 .


(present, present progressive, simple "be" (He's tall); overregularizations, such as wanted, fellded,past, complex past, future); use of footes, mens, and mouses . Some children use negations (-n't,negatives (not, -n't); types of questions not) ; questions ("What is he doing?" "Where is she going?") .asked (simple: "What are you By 3-4 years some children can use complex sentences withdoing?" ; tag questions : "This is yours, and and wh clauses (what, who, why, where, or when) ("Iisn't it?") ; coordinating conjunctions don't know where it is") . Most children use question formssuch as andto join two sentences with inverted auxiliary verb ("What are you doing?"),("The car was red and it made a lot of negations (-n't, not) .noise"); verb phrases ("He wanted to By 4-5 years most children use three- to four-syllable words ;eat dinner") ; embedded clauses ("I more adjectives, adverbs, and conjunctions; four- to six-wordknow he went home") ; indirect sentences. Ask meaning of words.object-direct object constructions By 5 years and older most children use long complex("Taylor gave me the toy"); passive sentences (more than six words) ; clauses ("The man who livedvoice ("The gingerbread man was

next door") ; pronouns with referent ("After he ate, Bill wenteaten by the fox") ; infinitive phrases

home") ; passive voice with more than one attribute ("This is("Marcia is easy to please") ; pronoun

taller and thinner") ; indirect requests ("Can I interest you inand referent ("When he liked you, he

some cake?") ; a variety of semantic structures to express thewas nice") .

same idea ; use grammar consciously and can describe whysomething is or is not correct (metalinguistic awareness) .

Pragmatics : Ability to engage in By 2-3 years children can sustain conversations for two turnseffective and appropriate (respond to previous utterances) ; change tone of voice whenconversations with others . playing "baby" ; use language as a tool (i .e ., make a request,Watch for: the number of times child get attention of others, assert rights) .takes turns talking; appropriate turn- By 3-4 years most children sustain conversations for three totaking (doesn't interrupt, distract) ; four turns ; understand intent of indirect requests for action ;sensitivity to listener's needs revise speech when asked (primarily by pointing) ; ask others to(clarification of unclear utterances) ; clarify ambiguous sentences; change speech used whenadjustments in speech with context playing stereotypic roles (doctor, mother, father) ; use some(peers, teacher, younger children, or slang; more adept at using language as a tool ; use polite forms ;when playing different roles) ; manner monitor conversations and intrude comments ; project beyondof introducing new conversation topics present and create images for play .(gradually or abruptly); ability to By 5 years and older most children carry on complexunderstand humor, irony, and sarcasm; conversations (six turns or more); change conversation byuse of different forms of speech, such modifying topic gradually; use slang with peers ; use deferenceas polite forms ("May I please have when making requests from adults ; use subtle cues in speechsome?"), indirect forms ("Would you to adjust to, convey, and maintain social status ; adjust speechmind if I looked at it?"), and slang depending on need of listener (can judge when to add more("Sure thing, radical dude") . detail) ; are sophisticated at using language as a tool .

234

Appendix A

Figure A-7

Assessment and Analysis Guide : Language Development-Written Language


Book Handling Skills : Use of books in By 2 years most children hold a book right side up ; identify thean appropriate way. beginning/end ; turn pages ; elicit others to share and readWatch for : book held right side up books.with front facing reader ; ability to By 3_g years most children identify and "read" the cover;identify beginning and end; page make comments about who "wrote" the book ; try "reading"turning without bending or ripping aloud/read aloud.pages; requests to "Read me a story."

Understanding the Function of Print : By early preschool most children talk about "reading"; identifyUnderstanding that print stands for or some print symbols in context (Coke logo on a can) ; retoldmeans something . stories may lack detail and correct sequence ; may think youWatch to see if child can: identify "read" pictures, not print .print symbols (logos, trademarks, or By late preschool most children talk about reading in greatersymbols, such as "don't walk" sign) ; depth; know one reads words, not pictures .distinguish between pictures and By kindergarten and early elementary most children knowwords in a book ; understand that reading occurs without pictures ; identify print symbols out ofwords are being read (as opposed to context (McDonald's logo on a paper bag) ; retell stories withpictures); explain the purpose of detail and accuracy (elaborate on the characters, providereading (to tell a story, tell you details, such as dress, tone of voice; can "read" familiarsomething) ; retell a story using the books) .book as a prop .

Knowledge of Letters and Words: By early preschool most children can recognize letters in ownAbility to identify letter names and name, names of friends, or print symbols (Barbie logo) ; givethe sounds letters make and read the names of five to ten letters; confuse some letters, such assimple words . dlb, mln, plq.Watch to see if child can: identify By late preschool most children can identify a rhyme or give aletters in own name or in words; say rhyming word; give the name of many letters ; still confusethe names of letters ; identify some letters .uppercase and lowercase letters; By kindergarten to early elementary most children identify andidentify the sound a letter makes (can say the name of most letters but still confuse some letters; knowpull words apart into component letters have sounds and identify the sounds ; identify words thatsounds, give a rhyming word or aword that begins with sound,

are the same (dog, dog) ; identify words that begin with the sametapout the sounds) ; identify what a word

letter (tap, tip) ; identify beginning sounds ; identify endingis (tap out the words in a sentence, sounds ; tap out sounds in a word; use sound skills to analyzepoint to words) ; read simple words

unfamiliar words ; have some sight words; can match spoken to(own name, familiar logos, and written word; use context and picture cues to self correct words.concrete nouns) ; read simple books

By 7 years most children make automatic self corrections ;with repetitive word patterns . begin to read silently ; have a sight vocabulary of high

frequency words; have improved fluency.Sense of "Story": Ability to tell, retell, By early preschool most children tell and retell stories that areor complete a story. a collection of arbitrary ideas, arranged arbitrarily; told inWatch for: lists of events recalled vignettes ("Goldilocks saw bears . She ate something. I don't(isolated incidents or integrated like hot things .") ; a collection of actions in a repeated patternstory) ; story structure (introduction, ("He went outside, he went inside . He went to. . . .") ; scripts ofnumber of characters, a problem to everyday events ("She wakes up and goes outside to play") ;be solved) ; description of climax (was contains characters acting at random ("The fox liked grapes so

he cooked them . The gingerbread man stood up and ran away .

Figure A-7

continued


23 5

Adapted from : Applebee, 1978 ; Barbour, 1987 ; Berk, 1994 ; Bertelson, 1986 ; Clay, 1991 ; Daniels, 1992 ; Gentry, 1982 ;Goodman, Goodman, & Hood, 1989 ; Mason & Stewart, 1990 ; McGhee & Richgels, 1990 ; Morrow, 1990 ; Peterson,1995 ; Petty, Petty, & Salzer, 1989 ; Raines, 1990 ; Rhodes & Shanklin, (1993) ; Schickedanz, 1986 ; Sulzby, 1990 .


goal attained?) ; accuracy (follows The fox went to get the gingerbread man .") . Retold stories areoriginal exactly, partially) . not always accurate, bearing some resemblance to original .

By later preschool to early elementary most stories are sequencesor descriptions centering on one character and children discussall events relative to that character ("She went home, she walkedaround, she ate her dinner . Then she took some jewelry and putit on . The prince came and she got married."); about a characterwho has a problem and overcomes . Retold stories are muchmore accurate and come close to original .

Writing Forms: Attempts at By 2-3 years some children make no distinction betweenproducing writing. scribbling for writing and drawing. Most children identifyWatch for : differentiation of scribbles scribbling as writing versus as drawing; may ask adults to writefor drawing and writing ; scribbles on pictures-beginning dictation .with repeated features and horizontal B y 3-4 years most children write letters in their name ; makeorientation; scribbles mixed with letters incorrectly (i .e ., some E's sideways or upside down,letters; use of pictures to illustrate multi-legged E's, R's are lines and circles, b is written as a d) ;story; writing own name ; writing scribble with a pattern (repeated elements, horizontalcomposed of letters (random letters organization, spaces for words) ; may make strings of lettersor representing words) ; number of from right to left or left to right, random strings of letters inletters in invented spellings (one or drawings, scribbles and letters intermixed .more, such as cn for can, nstfor B y 4-7 years many children begin inventing spellings usingnest) ; distinguishable words. one letter for each word; one letter per syllable ; one letter per

phoneme (letter sound) within the word . Some childrenbecome interested in conventional spelling (ask teachers toshow them how to spell) .By 6-9 years most children incorporate vowels into inventedspellings; leave space between words; string words together(some string several phrases together); use lower- anduppercase letters ; use some punctuation (not always correctly) ;use more conventional spelling ; and use simple sentences,sentence fragments, and run-on sentences. Some children canwrite simple paragraphs and lengthier sentences .

Reading of Own Writing: Ability to By early preschool many children state that they are notread story dictated to an adult or writing or may refuse to tell you what they are drawing . This iswritten by child . acceptable .Watch for : amount of language use By late preschool to early elementary many children don't use\vhen rereading (a clause or phrase, a the writing strategies to reading writing ; may use phrasesdescription, letters, or a story/exact ("from here") or describe picture ("That's my mom"); may haveinformation) ; dialogue over the a dialogue over the picture (Teacher : "and what is this . . . ."picture; ability to retell words (tells Child : "He's a frog") ; may retell story exactly from memory;story again) ; ability to read words. track to print (name written letters or match printed words with

speech) ; have trouble generating a strategy to read words theycan't remember . Some read the actual words.

236

Appendix A

Figure A-8

Assessment and Analysis Guide : Personal-Social Development-Personal Development


Self-Concept : Child's description of By 4-7 years most children distinguish between inner selfself. (private thoughts, imaginings accessible only to child) andWatch for: ability to distinguish outer world; describe self in terms of concrete characteristicsbetween private thoughts and (name, physical appearance, possessions, typical behaviors-imaginings and public ones ; what I can do, or temporary states-how I feel at this moment).descriptions of self in terms of By 8 years and older most children describe self in terms of :concrete characteristics; descriptions psychological characteristics and traits (honest, trusting),of self in terms of psychological and emotional characteristics and traits (happy, get angry easily,emotional disposition . moody), increasingly complex combination of characteristics ;

use social comparisons; attribute stable personalitycharacteristics to self and others .

Self-Esteem: Evaluation of self- By 4-6 years most children evaluate self-esteem in terms ofconcept. Can be high where child social acceptance ("Do people like me?") and competence ("Isees self in a positive light, is satisfied can do ") ; tend to rate selves extremely high on allwith own strengths and accepts own aspects.weaknesses . Can be low where child By 7-g years most children evaluate self-esteem in terms ofsees self in negative light . cognitive/academic competence (i .e ., math, reading), physicalWatch for: descriptions of self in prowess (sports), and social self-worth (good person, funnyterms of social acceptance, compe- person); display global sense of self-esteem ; show a decline intence, physical prowess, academic/ overall self-esteem at this age because unrealistically highcognitive competence, and social assessments are adjusted . After a period of decline, self-esteemself-worth ; positive or negative rises again .evaluations of own characteristics.

Achievement Motivation : Tendency By 3-5 most children recognize success and failure and beginto evaluate one's performance to attribute causes ; tend to choose easy tasks ; are "learningagainst a standard of excellence . optimists"-overestimate their own abilities and underestimateAdaptive motivation style: strive for task difficulties ; believe they can learn if they try harder ; needsuccess, desire to do well, and select help setting realistic, reasonable short-term goals .challenging but not impossibly By 5 years and older many children more realistically viewdifficult tasks . their abilities and other levels of achievement; compare ownWatch for: efforts to achieve mastery; performance to that of other children by 5-6 years; set highselection of challenging but not levels of aspiration for selves ; feel anxiety about failure;impossibly difficult tasks; mastery continue to be learning optimists until 7 years; need helpefforts in all subjects/areas . setting realistic, reasonable short-term goals. Some have

adaptive mastery-oriented styles (attribute success to highability, failure to lack of effort, like challenges) ; can developpatterns of test anxiety .

Figure A-8

continued


237

Examples of Things to Look For

Emotional Development : Child'sability to feel, describe,and regulateemotions . Ability to identify emotionsin others .Watch for : feelings expressed indifferent situations (pleasant orstressful situations) ; ability torecognize and label the emotions ofself and others with words : "I feelhappy ." "He looks sad ."

Developmental Pattern

By 3-5 years most children can describe basic emotions(happy, sad, scared) ; exhibit pride, envy, and guilt by 3 years ;can learn through social referencing (reading the emotions ofothers) ; recognize facial expressions (sad, happy, angry,surprised, and fearful) ; begin to mask or hide emotions by 3 ;describe cause and consequences of emotions; decline inseparation distress and other attachment behaviors .By 6 years and older most children use multiple cues toevaluate the emotions in others ; recognize that the cause offeelings can be internal and not visible to another person ;know that someone may hide feelings ; can suppress feelings,such as anger ; know emotions fade with time and can becontrolled by thoughts ; understand mixed emotions by 8 years(can feel happy and sad at the same time) .

Adapted from : Barnett & Zucker, 1990 ; Berk, 1994 ; Bukatko & Daehler, 1992 ; Cole & Cole, 1995 ; Curry & Johnson,1990 ; Damon, 1977 ; Eisenberg, 1982 ; Johnson, Christie, & Yawkey, 1987 ; Kaplan, 1991 ; Ladd, 1990; Masten, 1989 ;Mergendoller & Marchman, 1987 ; Mussen, Conger, Kagan, & Huston, 1990 ; Papalia & Olds, 1996 ; Rogers &Sawyers, 1988 ; Samuels, 1977 ; Selman, 1981 ; Steinberg & Belsky, 1991 .

23 8

Appendix A

Figure A-9

Assessment and Analysis Guide: Personal-Social Development-Social Development


Peer Relations: The type of For all ages, group size influences group interaction . Fewer

interactions children have with than five is the optimal size for children under 5 years . Five is

age-mates . optimal size for children 5 years and older. Peer acceptance is

Watch for: amount of positive associated with positive emotional adjustment at all ages .

interactions (turn-taking, sharing, By 3-4 years most children have interactions marked by fairlyconversations, initiations, and ( high rates of positive and negative exchanges; engage inresponses) ; negative interactions parallel, solitary, and some associative play ; begin to balance(aggression, rejecting the requests of leading with following others ; engage in simple turn-taking .others); parallel play (play next to but By 4-5 years most children have higher rates of positive thannot with another child) ; solitary play negative interactions ; longer verbal exchanges (some turn-(play alone) ; associative play (play taking); reciprocal, coordinated interactions ; engage primarilywith other child but theme of play and in associative play with some parallel, solitary, androles not coordinated); cooperative cooperative play ; engage in rough-and-tumble play .play (play with others with common

By 5 years and older most children have high levels of positivetheme and planned roles) ; hysica and-

interaction ; engage primarily in cooperative play with sometumble play interactions (pl parallel, solitary, and associative play ; engage in rough-and-play that ends in a positive exchange

tumble play ; have peer interactions governed by social normsand not aggression) ; helping behavior

such as sharing and helping; are better at sustaining(do they ask first, or just jump in and

conversations (turn-taking) ; are more sensitive to others' needs;start helping?).

are concerned about being lonely .

Friendships : Special sustained rela- Sensitivity and intimacy are features of all friendships but not

tionship with one or two other people . verbalized by younger children . At all ages, children give more

Watch for: children who seem to play positive reinforcement, have more interactions, and are more

together more often, choose each emotionally expressive with friends . Children use all six

other, and talk about being friends ; processes of friendship formation by 4 years.length of relationship . Is it momentary By 2-6 years most children have friendships that are(for time children are next to each momentary and fleeting (whomever child is playing with atother) or stable (persists over weeks, that time is a friend) ; have disagreements over territory andmonths, years) ; child's understanding space ; solve disagreements by leaving or aggressive behavior .of what it means to be a friend . After By 5-7 years most children describe friendship as concretebeing asked howto make friends, and activity based, affirmed by giving and sharing thingshow does the child respond? (friends do the same thing) ; have friendships that are notSix social processes are related to fleeting, but not long-term either ; have disagreements whenfriendship formation : communicate one child will not compromise ; solve disagreements byclearly (ask for clarification of leaving or giving in ; tend to have same-sex friends.unclear messages) ; exchange By g_12 years most children describe friendship as trust andinformation (ask questions of each intimacy, sharing of feelings, and providing mutual supportother, exchange information and (friends share personal problems); have longer-termideas) ; establish common ground relationships than earlier; have disagreements over jealousy,(find something both enjoy or can breaking trust, or gossiping behind back ; have disagreementsdo); resolve conflicts successfully that do not end the friendship ; must acknowledge trust was(compromise, negotiate) ; show broken to repair friendship ; are more likely to expresspositive reciprocity (respond to disagreements with friends than other children .other's ideas and requests); discloseinformation about self (share innerfeelings, solicit feelings from others) .

Figure A-9

continued


239

continued


Perspective Taking : Ability to take By 3-5 years most children fail to distinguish between ownthe role or position of another person interpretation and another person's (I like cookies so everyoneand take more than one perspective likes cookies) .at a time . By 4-7 years most children realize that other people haveWatch for: situations in which the different perspectives, thoughts, and feelings because they arechild describes one or more in different situations or have different information .perspectives ("He wanted the toy . I By 6-12 years most children are aware that each person hasdidn't want to give it to him") ; , different perspectives ; know that what other people thinkresponses showing child can take influences their own perspective ; can adopt another person'sanother's perspective ; discussion of perspective and anticipate her reaction .perspectives of characters in stories ;recognition that others may think orfeel differently ; anticipation ofanother's thoughts and feelings ;placing self in different roles andevaluating from each perspective .

Empathy : Child's ability to feel the Modeling and direct teaching all have a positive influence onsame feelings and respond to the empathy at all ages .feelings of another person . By 3-5 years most children respond empathetically to othersWatch for: situations in which child based on self-interest or simple empathetic feelings (withouthelps another person ; situations in adopting other's perspective, but just feeling for other person) ;which child talks about needs of offer help to another person and give it even if it is not wanted .another ; child's response to By 6 years and older most children have feelings of empathyempathetic statements made by based on stereotypic images of good and bad and concern foradults or other children ; child's approval (people will think I am a good person) ; haveresponse to questions about "why we empathetic responses imagining what another person ishelp other people" ; response to feeling; respond to the intensity of others' feelings ; ask if helpstories about empathy . is needed before acting .

Social Problem-Solving Skills: Ability By 2-5 years most children use some strategies, but these areto generate and implement a number impulsive and based primarily on own needs;of possible solutions for social By 6 years and older most children generate more solutionsproblems . than younger children do; have strategies that take intoWatch for: situations in which account the needs of others ; generate solutions based onchildren have disagreements and coordination of needs; can interpret social cues better thanhow conflicts are handled ; responses younger children do ; evaluate probable effectiveness of ato typical classroom problems ; strategy better than younger children do; enter social group bynumber and type of strategies (mainly merging with others (observe what others are doing, copymeet own or consider other's needs) ; members of group, make positive comments, enter socialability to merge with rather than group) .disrupt social interaction .

Aggression : physical-hitting, Extreme aggression is a highly stable trait for both boys andpushing, kicking ; verbal-name girls (likely to be highly aggressive at 10 years, associated withcalling, teasing, putting down ; peer rejection, poor achievement levels, school dropouts, andinstrumenta-fighting over a toy, delinquent behavior) . Highly aggressive children may

240

Appendix A

Figure A-9

continued

Adapted from : Arends, 1988 ; Asher & Renshaw, 1981 ; Barnett & Zucker, 1990; Berk, 1994; Bukatko & Daehler, 1992 ;Cole & Cole, 1995; Damon, 1977 ; Eisenberg, 1982; Gottman, 1983; Howes, 1980 ; Johnson, Christie, &Yawkey, 1987;Johnson, Johnson, Holubec, & Roy, 1984; Kaplan, 1991 ; Ladd, 1990; Masten, 1989; Mergendoller & Marchman, 1987 ;Mussen, Conger, Kagan, & Huston, 1990 ; Nourot & Van Hoorn, 1991 ; Papalia & Olds, 1996; Pepler & Rubin, 1991 ;Rogers & Sawyers, 1988 ; Selman, 1981 ; Slavin, 1997 ; Steinberg & Belsky, 1991 ; Trawick-Smith, 1988 .


territory, or attention ; hostile- misinterpret social cues and read aggressive intent into mostdesigned to injure another person . social interactions (neutral or friendly) .Watch for: type of aggression ; a By 2-3 years most children exhibit primarily physical, instrumen-pattern to behavior (with whom and tal aggression ; are aggressive with children they are interactingwhen aggression occurs) ; reasons for with . Boys instigate and receive more aggression than girls .the aggression . ` By 4-5 years most children engage in some verbal and

physical aggression ; engage in less instrumental aggression .Some engage in hostile aggression .By 6 years and older most children engage in less aggressivebehavior than younger children ; are verbally aggressive (teasing,name calling, taunting) ; engage in some hostile aggression .

Functioning in Learning Groups There is no known developmental pattern for this area .Watch for: General social skills and However, many of the behaviors are related to advancedability to form cooperative group; stay levels of perspective taking, empathy, peer relations, andwith the group, volunteer ideas to social problem solving described above. In addition, theothers ; support and acceptance of child's cognitive level and level of language development alsoothers' ideas (use praise, no criticism influence the child's ability to learn in cooperative groups . Theof individuals) ; give diplomatic quality of cooperative learning in preschool will be veryreasons for not using ideas; take different from that found in elementary school . Youngerresponsibility for own work; resist children will require much more coaching in exactly how todominating group or doing other's state criticisms, for example, because they may not know howtasks; energize group when motivation to word their opinions in an acceptable manner .is low; set/call attention to time limits;summarize ideas (seek accuracy, askfor elaboration, discuss reasoning) .

Sociodramatic Play : Acting out Less mature sociodramatic play has a few roles with a feweveryday and imaginary roles. actions and objects; children use statements and descriptionsWatch for: number and type of roles; of play when talking about and during play ("I'm washing thenumber and type of actions dishes"; "This is my house").performed ; number and manner of More mature play has more roles (several at the same time,use of objects (uses one object to be switching back and forth-plays the mother and the baby) ;another-a block becomes an actions (intricate, series of actions-goes outside, hunts forairplane ; imaginary play-pretends to berries, comes back, makes dinner) ; objects (more props aresweep with a broom); discussion of used or "pretended"); complex discussions (tell story-"Weplay (makes statements, describes live in another time, like the future . They don't use cars") ;actions, tells story, prompts action, prompting of actions, and proposals about pretending ("Let'sproposes pretending); expression of say you're the good guy and you have a best friend, that'semotions (enacting forbidden actions, me") ; changes in emotional tenor (more forbidden, unpleasantunpleasant scenes, or actions and situations and action-consequence sequences-"She stealsconsequences-hurts people and the jewels because she is very bad and then she gets caught bygoes to prison); use of rules in games the police") .(plays tag with rules) . Rule-based games and play appear at about 6-11 years.

Documents

Assessmentand Analysis Guides Interests/early childhood development/Ass… · control; coordination; sensorypercep- on instrument inconsistent; copya cross anda circle; scribble tual