Art of Logical Thinking in 3rd Dimension

7/28/2019 Art of Logical Thinking in 3rd Dimension.

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he Art o Logical hinking

iv

Copyright

YOGB y R L. C, H, MO 65672

© 2011 YOGB y R L. C

A d. E d ud 2011

isbn: 978‑1‑61183‑216‑7 (p)

isbn: 978‑1‑61183‑217‑4 (epb)



v

Contents

C I..........................................................................................................R.

C II. .....................................................................T P O R.

C III. ................................................................................................ T C.

C IV................................................................................T U C.C V. ...............................................................................C d Im.

C VI. ..............................................................................................................m.

C VII. .........................................................................T M m.

C VIII................................................................................................... Judm.

C IX..................................................................................................P.

C X. ..............................................................................Immd R.

C XII. .......................................................................R y Idu.C XIII.....................................................................Ty Ad Hy.

C XIV....................................................M d Hy.

C XV. ............................................................................Ddu R.

C XVI. ...........................................................................................T Sym.

C XVII.......................................................................V O Sym.

C XVIII. .....................................................................R By Ay.




vi



1

The Art of Logical

Thinking




2



3

Chapter I.

Reasoning.

“

R

easoning” is dfd : “T ,

x uy ; uy

my um; um,; ; du, du,

um.” S y: “T d reson m

m. I mm d u du

d y du u m

d, d m , d y d

m m m u d.”

By mym u md m j d md ,

u “ m” u d m

m mx d m

d d u. B y: “I

md; uy u

d thought‑knowedge , d m sense‑knowedge.

I my dd m m u; m m ud y …

du, d u ud u m d

y.” T ‑md uy dd: “I du

d, ides d thoughts. A ide m du




4

xd d d ;

thought m du m

m d. T d udd ; d d d. T u

;

u d y u. I

u, ts , mmd judm, d gener

truths ud ws d uses , dd m u ;

y u xioms , ‑d u, d

u dd m m y , d theorems.”I yu d ,

y mdd d y M’ y

x u

“d y y u

.” A J y m : “Ny‑

u udd m quy ud

y d , yz, m, m y d m f

d . I d y ,

y ud y , N! Ty ud y ;

I um dud

d . Y, y, y

mu .”

S, yu d um yu d—

y uy yu y

, d yu mu : ‘T

qu. W y , quy

u mjy y. My

m d f, d

u d y. Sm md mjy y

, ud d d y

m m. T

y d d m, u



Reasoning

5

u d d y

d m

u. T m m ud d u, d y y d y m m

uy. T m d d u

du xm, d y d my d

uy. Puy fd

d d fd d d

y muud. M y d m u

muud qu.I d y my y

d . A my ,

d m, d ymm mu, u

x d u d

d mu d u m d.

Ad, m y, m y

mu d u u d mu u m d. O

m y d d dd

d d um d.

O d d um

m quy uy, m d

d d,

m dud u m y uqu u.T u , ud

d u , u

y y m,

, d d xd . O

muu ud x,

d d d xd x “

my .” T u y u ud d.T, y ud u u

d y,

m ud y d u,




6

d , ‑qud my,

ddd d m.

J y : “ d ,, m u d ; u

u , d u d,

d d, Ld B d, . A ,

m mm m

my. Y, d, m m

d d d my. T m

m md qu d, u y uu, u u ,

d m m , d d

m d md m. I u

u d m, y ud

dy m m m . I u

u u y d u m d d,

d u m d m. Bu d d d S. P my , d

, d u y u

y . Bu md’ y, d u

y , d d my md

. T d

xy m m. W

, I d, mu , u d u du d

d u, d d

y dy y d mu.”

I um u md

d y u u

md, , m m, dd u

d dm du. W d, m, d y u d

yy, d m dd

y u N Pyy. N m

m x‑ md, u



Reasoning

7

j d m m uj

u md m

du du dm‑, u d udd udy

working prinipes L R.




8



9

Chapter II.

The Process Of Reasoning.

T

he processes R my d m u

, :

I. Abstrtion , y m drwing o d setting side m j, , quit

or ttribute , d m d j u. F

, I ion quy strength , d m

quy y d ddy

m— m strength u m m

m, dd — I bstrted

quy; bstrtion ; d u‑d bstrt ide. Sm d

d , d “ m fm

y.” A B y: “T d, u my d

d m.” O u d A

u ttention d u u u

quy xu , d d.

x m d j udd. S Wm Hm y: “W

u m u md , m,

, fu, z, ., d m .

T my d Md A. T




10

d md ddu j,

d quy u. T y

d z ; z dd dd , u; u

d z.”

II. Generiztion , y m

m C G Id. I d

d mm qu j, d

, d m d u m

oneption md d ud m . AG Id C d m u d

ud qu u d

u, d dy my d y

u ss. F , my

prtiur ide m prtiur ,

y u . H my G Id

horse , ss , d y horse u d y horse

udd . Te expression o Generiztion

or Coneption is ed Conept.

III. Judgment , y m m

j, , , d u

m dm. Tu my

m horse d nim , d m m m judm

: “A horse nim ;” m horse d ow , d

dm, m judm: “A horse

ow.” Te expression o judgment is ed Proposition.

IV. Resoning , y m m

j, , u

d j, . Tu my () mmm m; () mmm; () ,

thereore , m; u

m : “A m.” T m

udm , ,



he Process O Reasoning

11

m j u u d y m

d j. Te ntur orm o expression o

this proess o Resoning is ed Sogism.I u

mym Ay d

Sy, y. Ay m j

u u , qu .

Sy m m qu,

j u m . T

ud R. A y y; Gz C y

y; Judm y y;

R “ y u Idu,

u u m Ddu.

T R; viz., (1) Idu

R, u m u

u; d (2) Ddu R, u u m u.

Indutive Resoning d y d u

m u u. F , m u u

ddu m d d u “A

m mu d;” m d

m mu, my “A

m mu.” Idu R dm known to the unknown. I y y

. I d m u .

Dedutive Resoning d y d u

u m u. Tu m d,

J Sm, m, mu d; , m

mu, u

ud d m mu.Ddu R y

y .

M y Idu R: “T du md

d




12

u u

d. B xd uy

md, d y u B . … Idu, ,

y u u

, u m m

. I d, du

y ud u

ddu u ,

u m u m um m.”

Rd Ddu R, y: “Ddu

R y

y qu, strting rom dmitted or estbished

premises.” B y: “T u m

u dd m d u.

Sm u, xm mm .Sm m dd m du. … Sm m

my y, y

. My y d y

ud u ddu ;

y , y ; . R

m y u , L dd

d dd y um y.”

H u dd Idu d

Ddu R d : “M fd

u u x, , mjor

premises m u d u. By

du xm m u u um

ddu . W ud , xmd, wi obe the sme gener

ws. … T m, ‘A ud,’ d d

um d xmd. I

y y , ud x d



he Process O Reasoning

13

ud. … A Idu fd m

d thus given us mjor premise , d dduy

y y m .”

T Ddu R

dd u d.




14



15

Chapter III.

The Concept.

I

n consiering , mu y

u my xm

d u md m md . I u

y d u, d u

d d m d d ud

, u, y, y d d d

du d dd .

T f

d onept.A m y. P. Wm.

Jm y: “T u y m , dm,

d ud, d dy umy d uj

du d oneption ,” T f

, :

I. Presenttion. B my md mu

f m m md. I m , nim ,

mu f d m, y d

m—, d; , , , , , . W mu

d m m m




16

my dud y mmy—d

md. I d my u nim

ud d y d m], ud m m u .

Ady y m u

y. T u

uy . I

u d m

d d u . Wu

mym , m y; d u

, m md m

d. A S Wm. Hm d: “A

, , m u y

y x u,

u qu y x . … A,

, u u , y md m

dy y. … I u

u .” Ad S B. Bd d: “I ,

mu m ,

u d x md

d ddu.” Ad D. B y: “T

y md y d d u .”

II. Comprison. F P

Cm. W u nim

um u‑, u d

m. W m ,

, m m u.

By du m d d. W m

d d d; m

m x; d d m

; d my m ,



he Concept

17

. W u d

, m , d

y md d. T u ddu m , m

d d fd. T uy Cm d

du ; y d d yz,

y, m, . F y m y

dd “R y d y m u d

f u m; d

m u; d y uy ; x m, x,

xud, , x, .” P. Wm Jm y:

“Ay u d

y du, m ’ mzy d

d. Ad d du

m . B

m mu j d m u md , ud um, y

ud m.”

III. Abstrtion. F Cm

A. T m “A” ud yy

m: “T m umu

qu y j, u

m uj d . O, d u m um

j m u .

T A .” bstrt

“ .” I A u

d nims , zd u

d d m u

d ddu, d d m quy m, d, d , bstrt , d,

u quy d. I

d z m, quy

z m qu, d d m




18

z . Tu d u d

z u m, y m dy. I

m y my quy , ,y, d quy

d f. I udy, xm d

qu u quy

m qu ;

qu u u u quy ud

d. I xm d um

, f qu possessed in ommon y um ; d d

qu not ommon m.

F ; d m,

md quy m‑ d u‑

d mm y um m;

u m m

Mrsupii , um d mm. I m yu u

m d, udd z d d, d

u d ud u y

m. L, my d

pent , d yu

u m m, d y m

œu ud. T m dud y quy ud P Mmm. T P

Mmm ddd u u, y A

qu m d, : T

Edentt , u, u , ‑,

md, .; Sireni , ‑md m d

m d “,” m

‑, m, du, .; Cete , my, u f‑ , y

mmm, yu y u

‑m, m , , d,

.; Ungut , d m, u ,



he Concept

19

, , , mu, m,

d, , , .; Hroide ,

m d m d m, y ‑ xm;

Proboside , ud m, my d y

u m ; Crnivor , ‑,

d y u u‑m d ; Rodenti ,

; Insetivor , d; Cheiropter ,

f‑d; Lemuroide , mu,

my, u uy x; Primtes , ud my, , m‑,

, , mz, ‑u d M.

I yu

my ommon quit

f, d quy uj A

d u u m. Fu d

A dd u; , my Crnivor , ‑,

my ddd y u A ,

, , , d, , , d, . I

, mu f m m A

d m m d‑my; d ,

d m m ‑my.

H y A: “I A, d u y m m u d,

um m, d d y qu mm

. A

m qu xu .”

IV. Generiztion. A m A

Gz. Generiztion : “T

z m ; j m ud mm m, d

; xd m u ; du

u; u

d .” A B y:




20

“T md, , m um d generize

d, y u m m d

m m .” Ud d A u A my

Gz u u m, d

u, u, u u‑m. F m

my d u‑m

md u ddu; d

m u. Gz y

Cf, m qu in ommon. T y

things in ertin generized ss must possess the prtiur

quit or propert ommon to the ss. Tu

m Crnivor mu ; d

Mmms m y d yu.

A H y: “W u j qu

genus , . W j , weknow tht ertin quities wi hve gener ppition to

them .”

V. Denomintion. F y u

Gz Cf, Dm.

By Denomintion m “ m d y

m.” A m ym y m

u y m d m mu u. O, my dd

be xd . A

ym, , b, , x , d , y u m

u y d dy, my u

d ym mu m dy ud y

d m m ymzd.

I mu u “horse” ud u df m, y

m u m d

. O, mu u

xm d.



he Concept

21

A H y: “A d u m,

my u md u m u

d , d ud , my m u d d ,

md.” M y: “A m d ( d)

du u m u

m u d m

.” Sm d m ym our

ides o things , m;

d m ym m. I u m dd my u

m d udd d d y

u .




22



23

Chapter IV.

The Use of Concepts.

H

aving observe ,

u d u d mu . A

f ud du mu ,u d y mmy

d .

F , d ,

d d y m “nim” . T m

y , u ymz y y

f z. Bu, d

m md d dd f z d m. , dy, “m”

d d , ,

my , d m ud d

nims m u m . L ,

m “m” d y d

u, m md d

u u. O, m d m, m u u. T d my

m “d” d m, d dy m

dog d qu d u

m. L, m m d y‑,




24

m d d u “d” u

m y d. I u d m

qud my d u y “d” m m

uy udd d y

md. Tu m P.

I m y d m m u m

u “m” d d d , men

d‑d d ‑d. Su d ud y m

“m” u d qu ju md. A d, d u

F u m m Em ,

dumy, d‑d d , d Em

d d mu ; d E

u m m Fm my,

d Fm d qu. I m y my

Am yu Em y “D’yu ” d Em y ju: “Fy!”

A y Em m. I m y,

yu E , m d

uy, m m Am

‑d, ‑d d ‑d, y “W, I

;” “I ;” d “Du ;” y d m

m. T W m, d y E

d u W Bu, quy

mu. I m y, W

md B dy

d uu d d d uduy d

B d Em m.

H y: “A N d y d d quy white fmy mddd mn. H

dy f m, d ud

m m u ’ qu md

d d m . I



he Use o Concepts

25

d ud Id Cm,

ud ud u . A x, d

m d , d quy drunkenness fmy fxd mn. A y , u

, trustworthiness m. A

y, u u m u

dd m dm u m , y

m ud u ud u

udd . H dy

y m d m d m , y udd

m dd m’ d. W md

m, y d md u. T m

dy d m d y d

y d mmdy d

. I mu md m u

uj du u ; f y md y y; x my u,

y m, y uy md,

d mu, md d

, quy mu ddd

y.”

L u d m d

m d u . W f, , ud m m

mu md. Ou d dd

d j, qu d . T

m j d

u . W m j

j d u md, m d d

d y d d f m jd d dm . T

j uy d, um

d j d d

. A d x d d,




26

d j d d m m d mx.

T d’ y

mu m xd du. T y,

qu j d d m d. T

y . T

y, u m d

y m d y, d u m d

d j. I m

u qu dd y m d y, du m ud, m

y d u u

. Tu m f horse

m , f m

qu d m

; yz u qu ,

zd u m, u dd d u , qu d

; yz, d j u

d qu, m

the horse s he is , qu. O u,

d qu d ,

dd u yzd —u

horse d.O u u m d u

zd d u,

y d uu,

uy xd ddu. T

uu, md, uuy d d

u, x dy y

, udy, m uy d

uy y. S y d d dd

u , m u

dud uy u qu



he Use o Concepts

27

, m y, d . Sm

md y mu d m,

ud m u f yzd md. O d m mu d

y, ud quy u d

d y m d m

qu j. T u m

d, m m

m my d y y

; m y m . I

d m d y u, u

qu my md.

A ,

md, md d y

qu mm. Ad, ,

d z m f, um qu . T d m

u z d f d d

d , ud m m md,

u fy m j j

d md u‑

. A B y: “Gz d .

T d dd ; dd ;

d d u d. W u u m

u ; m ; m

. B d u

j, m m d .

H md um , m m

dd ddu d z m . Wm m , d u

d u d , Being .

H d z, my dd

dd y u d.”




28

Fm z, y,

m u m u gener onepts. Sm

d u dud y m m “,” d m

“” . B y : “T

du z d d onepts. W

dy dud md m d

d u . … A

d. I

mm . I m m ddu m

. Tu my qudruped

u‑d m, u d d

y u m; my tringe m

, u d d y u

. T md f xy

y u j, u m my u. T my ud horse, bird, oor,

nim , .”

S my d d d

onept d ment imge. T d, d

onept nnot be imged , y du

. I m ud

d d udd d , d d u .



29

Chapter V.

Concepts and Images.

A

s we d, md—

ud uj m m. T m

x ud umd d y md

dud m m m. Bu y

dx m qu m

d .

F , yu d nim.

Yu yu m yu y , nim. Yu

z m yu d yu udd m u d .

Bu yu m m m , nim.

Wy? Bu y m m yu m m ud

u some prtiur nim m

qu m. Yu d

d m u nims. Ad,

u, yu not piture o nthing tht tuexists u, u d m

qu m. I x— ym

m x, u .




30

A B y: “A d y

m. T d m

u. I , z fxd y m, u u.” Ad H y: “I

m m y u m

ddu m. T m m df

u ud d m m. A m m

ud mn d u , d , y

y, d . T

ddu u mn ud dy . I m m , mu y, d,

, u , m

‑. A y d u ‘ppe’

md. H d u ‘ , d‑d,

d d, .’ T y ud

m dy, u m

y.”S m m mu u

u d ddu qu, d

m u u , onept d mu

y ss quities— , qu

. T d “

d … mm

.” Ad “ d” d ud. A u mu m u ,

m d u

. W my u mn , u u M

. A du

m thing , u y ide o ss o

things. W u ud d u

udd d, d .

Bu, ud my

m, u some prtiur representtive o

ss my d md m n ideized



Concepts an Iages

31

objet , ,

m , d

zd. T dzd j,, —y perepts dud y

mmy. I m, , y

u y, y

dzd j. O, y d

m d d mm m.

A H y: “W ud dy

u , qu, m ddu . A m

x ddu. Wu

m ud d x d y d

. A m

df m j, fd ,

, y . … T , ,

m y d u ruit ; u d z ddu y d

m. A um md my

d u , d u d

, u

d m.”

I my ud xd d

d perept d onept. T d m y dd. A : “ j

; d.” A

: “ m .” B m

d: “A perept m du ;

onept m d mm u

. A perept m u j; onept

u, u . A perept dd yu; onept dd y y . T

m uuy d y m,

md, it n on be thought.” Tu m

perept u d; u




32

u m y horse

m.

I d pereption d oneption , my d uj

ppereption , m d y my md y,

u dy d z y

m d u my . A my

dfd : “ md y m;

md y .” T d

d mdd zd— , pereivedin new sense , y uy qud d

md. H x : “

d dy .” I

ddu d quy ,

d quy , m

m y d m d. Bu ppereption

ddu d d y d ux d , mm d , d

um. F , m y y md

d d ‑y, mm. T

f ‑y , y ud: “T ud m

d m.” “Gd m, M. C,” d

y. T x m d: “T f .” “Gd

m, M. ,” d y. A d, “I ’ qu’ u .” “Gd m, M. Hu,”

d y.

T m d m y d “u.”

T u m . T

m u d , d

m . T m

m du . A j m ddd;

dy z, m uu f j

; m, m u. Ad

, d u u x



Concepts an Iages

33

ddu. I m y

m my qu dy

. Ou , x, jud, ., u.

Ad , mu u onepts dmd

y y u m , u my y

u . W y y

u , u d d ud y

u u m d d. F fd

dy y m m dddu. Oy u md ud m u

.




34



35

Chapter VI.

Terms.

I

n logic d onept d term y d,

u u u m d

d. T d d, d m , d onept y d

ide md, d term y d word

m d — ym . I

u Dm, “

m d y m” f

m . Ad mjy

d u zd d d . A B y: “ ddu

u d m u ud m

d dd m; md ud m

md ud m. Ny dy

d u u u. T

ddu dud y u m, x

d , my . M j md y y mm u; y u x

; u dj d mm qu, d

u d d d qu. T




36

y d u, d m

d , d x d.”

I d term myd d n wordor words whih onstitute onept. T d onept

myd y subjet o thought , u

d ymz . T onept , uj

u, m m d term

d my ym x. I mu

mmd term d y u

d, my d myd d , mm u

ud y u term. F u

d uj d u ,

my : A term is the outwrd smbo o onept;

d : Te onept is the ide expressed b the term.

T Ddu L,

my: m, P d Sym. T, d m d

f Ddu L. U

udd m, x udd

ud Ddu R. A J y:

“W j m m P;

j P , m um

. … W ud y u u y m d y d

u . du d um

mu u y u,

u L m . Bu, d udd

m y, we ought rst to ern ext wht term

is, nd how mn kinds o terms there m be ; x

u d d d . Ad

my y d m d

um d ym.”



ers

37

N, m ud ym

x , d m

j , u d d d d m, f dd

y u.

A term my y um u, u

dj my u u. Tu , “

u,” f m u “;”

d m dj “u.” Ad

, “T K Ed Em Id,” m, md u, “K Ed”

f m d “Em Id” d

m. T , “T y B Muum

d,” f

d u on two terms ; f m “T y

B Muum,” u, dj,

df d ; d m, “ d,”

u, dj, , d

. T u ud y J,

dd: “A m, , my y um

u, u dj, ,

d ju qud j m ; [ y

m u, m u j, , j.” (A u, : “

x m x, m

mm.”)

T f f m dd m

, viz. , (1) Su m; d (2) G m.

A Singur erm m d j,

. Au d y j, , my md d; my md

u d m, . T

Su m, u y m d u

j, : “Eu; M; S;




38

S; f m; d; f u;

K Ed; B Muum; Cmm

Pu W; m Cy N Y.” I d xm , Su m

d u m, f , m

u , d uy

d dduy. A Hy y: “Oneness o kind

y d u Su m, u individuit ,

uy, ddu .”

A Gener erm m , m , d y ddu j, um

j, m d,

md u j m

d. F , “; m; d; mmm; ; fu;

d; m,” . Hy y, d G m:

“I m d m j, d

y m d. T m m d u .”

A f m dd m

, : (1) C m; d

(2) Du m. Hy y f: “T

d d u d

m d d m. I y d

d Su d G m, y du.”

A Coetive erm d

d j, m

m d, whih oetive whoe is onsidered s n individu ,

u md y ddu j,

. Tu m: “m;

; my; my; d; ; my; ;; ; m; ;” . C

m, u y d , m

, dd ddu.



ers

39

A Distributive erm m d eh nd ever

individu objet, person or thing in given ss. F xm,

m: “m; qudud; d; mmm; ; dmd;.” A Hy y: “G m y du.”

A: “I m d

ss d oetive . … Ty ud

m d ss C m.”

A f m dd m

; (1) C m; d

(2) A m.A Conrete erm m d df j,

uj d x,

d my dd uy x y,

: ; m; mu; d; ; ; .,

u u d ud y u,

: “uu, , , uu, d,” .

A Abstrt erm m d u, quy y onsidered s prt rom the objet, person or thing

d x, : “uy;

dm; y; d; u,” . A

, qu x in themseves ,

u d u y

j, d . Tu “Buy,”

u my beutiu things ; “Vu,” u my uu , .

A ttribute or quit onrete xd

djetive ; d bstrt xd noun ; ,

“uu” d “uy,” y, “uu” d “u,”

y. T d my ummd u : A

C m the nme o thing or o quit o thing

expressed s n djetive nd s mere quit ; A m m quy , expressed s

noun nd s “thing” in itse .

C m my ud C m

A m, d u f y




40

m Mixed erms , m: “m;

; y;” .

A f m dd m : (1) Positive erms ; d (2)

Negtive erms.

A Positive erm m d qu,

: “d, um, , qu, , ,” .

T m d quy dd y

m .

A Negtive erm m d quy, : “um, , u, u,

‑du,” . T m den

qu, sserting

quy. Ty y u d m.

J y: “W my uuy N m y

y u‑, ‑, ‑, ‑, ‑,

y d ‑.” Hy y: “T uu ym N m in, un, ess, dis, , n, nti, mis, d

mm de , d non d not.” J dd: “I E

u , y m u

N m xy d , dj

d u ud . Ju onvenient

inonvenient ; m, ‑m; , ; d ;

u ud , ‑u; y, y;, ‑. Bu my N m ud

dm ud, d m,

m m y u ‑, ‑,

P m. Ady, fd dy y

N m mu myd.”

T md uy y: “Smm m

d my m m d .T mu d undressed d ‑dd,

‘ d.’ B m

‘dd,’ u u d d m.”



ers

41

Sm u u d u f,

, y Privtive erm ,

d qu d y j, , : “d, dd, d, d,” . Hy y

m “ P m d N m

m.” A y Nego‑positive

erm , d “ quy xd

m,” : d, um, u,

. T md dd y

m u “y ” dy df, d , P d N,

u u u ud.

T m j f y

md . ., d Innitted erm , d

m d y

y j, xd

d P m. T m d , d .

Exm m ud : “‑I, ‑m,

‑, um,” . Hy y m: “Ty

y, , zd y , u

u m y , fy

u d md.”

A f m dd m , : (1) Au m; d (2)

R m.

A Absoute erm m d qu

j, d dd u y

y j, : “m; ; ; u;” .

T m m be d my m, u not

neessri d y .A Retive erm m d neessr

m, : “; ; m; du;

; u; m; ;” . Tu m




42

“d” x “,” vie vers. T

m m x d m.

Hy y f: “R mu u ddu

d m’ m, Au m

u y qu uj u

y d.”

Sm u y m higher nd ower ;

brod nd nrrow. T f m d

d x m. F , y, ddu u m

. T u , d

m. T m

, d . A d y

m broder m; d m

d m u, m m

nrrower . By m, broder m ud d higher term , d d

ower terms. Tu nim ud d d

m d, u ud . B

y: “S md y u mm

u ddu, u m u d

ddu. T u u d

ontent ; ddu m u extent.”Ady, u ud j

m d extension ; u ud

u qu d . I u

qu extension m,

intension ; intension , extension. W

udd m y d m

ddu d m, ommon qu ; d m mm ,

ddu. A B y: “T mn

m extension poet, ortor sttesmn , m

m ddu; d intension , mu y d



ers

43

d u , d m d

u m mm mn.” I m y

m nim qu xdd ud um ddu y d d d

d qu; , , m, d, y,

, , m, , . Ady

mu m ud y qu mm

m, y dd. T df

m m intension , : “ Anim. A

, u , y y, d uy m.”

A u df

nim : “ u , d, .”

H y: “ Anim y , y d

x. T qu mm m, u

um m. u m

m extension , ud m y m,m m u , m m

. W d x

m, horse , ddu , qu m

umu.”

T m m d d d

u, y d z d

d d m zd y u d y dd m u

u. A B y: “Gz

u: y m m

m m u. … Ny dy

d u u u. … T

z “ . Hd

m d, u jud udy y , d ud u

yd y d. Judm, x

m m, ud m; d du

m m ym ud




44

ud. N u ud d m

u, u u m ; d u

du ddu ud .T f ud md; d d

ud d y d .”



45

Chapter VII.

The Meaning of Terms.

E

ver ter mening , ontent , m u

. T d d m

md my ud, ym mening m, mening x y

md udd . udd

m m, u m

ud, u udd ud m

d d u u

ym u.

E m menings , (1) u , j m d;

d (2) qu, u j,

qu m d.

F , m book , f

m d

book , d d m

u qu m , d , d, m, , . N y

u book , u y

m m mu book. Ad ,

I book mu d qu.




46

Ad, I m d qu u,

I mu book. A J y: “I y, y dy

m du m: m d, … m, y d y,

qu d u impied .

L y um m

extension m; um qu

u md intension.”

T x d m d

u . T f d extension m xd y

m, Genus d Speies , y. T f

intension m xd y m,

Dierene, Propert d Aident , y.

Genus m d: “ j

; m x ; u

d d .”Speies m d: “ m j

u, d m u md;

d x uj

y mm m x .”

A uy y: “T m speies d genus my

d m mm m my, ,

dd ddu, d ddu dd. Tu

ddu, G, M,

M ddu Am.” J y:

“I d m y

d , d dy

ddd m m , genus , d

m ddd, speies.” Anim genus mn speies ; mn , u, genus

Cusin speies ; d Cusin , u, m

genus Sortes m . T ud mu

d u ogi m m genus d



he Meaning o ers

47

speies u m m Nu Hy. Eh

ss is “genus” to the ss beow it in extension; nd eh ss

is “speies” to the ss bove it in extension . A xm d inm speies ,

u uddd, “S”—

mu y ddu j,

. A xm

summum genus , u,

y, , ,

“, x, y, u, u, f, um,” . Hy y: “I y u summum

genus , my df um inme

speies. A md m xm

mm d subterns , ,

d y d.”

P f

intension m, fd:Dierene , m d: “T m m y

dud m u;

f .” Tu dierene

N d Cu; um

dierene d d qudud; m d

dierene d m

, . Hy y: “W du j m d dierenti. I m

dd mm qu d dm

ddu ud u.”

Propert , m d: “A u quy y;

uy y.”

Tu propert du m . Tu

propert N ; u propert qudud; m propert .

Tu dierene my y

.




48

Aident , m d: “Ay quy um

my my , dy ;

, d y u j, .” A, , d ,

m d d —

ident . O, my d

, u mjy d—

d idents d

properties. Wy y: “ Aidents L

d— d . I ident u m, , ud

m u d ; , y,

Sd ident d m,

, , y dd,

.”

A m f m

m, fd md “Df.”Denition m d: “A x d

m.” I L m ud d y

properties d dierenes m y

d. T u d df. F

, d Re Denition , Wy

df : “A df x u

y u m.” T d PyDf, : “A df md y um u

uy , u u, m, .,

.” A Logi Denition , : “A df

u d d. Tu dfd ‘

d ,’ str u, d wndering u

d d dy .” A Aident

Denition : “A df ident qu .”A Essenti Denition : “ df properties

d dierenes j, .”

C dm Df d

Ex, : “A denition ;



he Meaning o ers

49

expntion m. T denition d df

m x f; u

u y d; expntion d myud df d u; m dm

m d ud d u

m y m; dm umd

du x.”

Hy x x

Logi Denition , m

m L. H :“T u u L Df :

1. A df ud u

dfd.

2. A df mu m d dfd.

O df d iruus in deniendo.

3. T df mu xy qu

dfd.4. A df ud xd u, fu,

muu u.

5. A df mu m.”

A df y qu m

Ay d Sy.

Ansis m d: “T y

u m, qu, d u.”I d y df j,

, f y yz d

d d d.

U qu, d u y d

uy d, y df j .

Snthesis m d: “T j u

m ; L: md y m, md u y.” I

df mu y j

u qu, d u,

dd y y; d yzd




50

m, dd , df

j xd y m.



51

Chapter VIII.

Judgments.

T

he irst

C m C. T d

Judm, m dm .

Judgment L dfd : “T m

md , d,

j , mx mx, d

u y d ,

m d . Judm

m .”W u md , y

m m , d u

u d m dm. T

m d d , L, d

Judgment.

I y Judm mu

xmd d md. T m mu d Judm d m dm. F

, , horse d nim. W

xm d m , d fd

m m. W fd




52

horse udd nim d ,

: “Te horse is n nim.” T m

greement d , , Positive Judgment. W m horse d ow d fd dm

m, x m

Judm : “Te horse is not ow.” T Judm,

dm d Negtive Judgment.

I u m

horse d nim fd d

nim d f, horse , d ud . T m qu, y,

u, “ m .” W my, , ud

prt d d y:

“m m .” Smm

qu , : “M m.”

I Judm y y

P d N. W m horse d nim , mu y

dd is m, is not

m.

T m Judm y d

y H, : “W d , y

ud y u. Id m

uu . W m ‑d y, m . U judm

d d ddd y

u, m d d d. W

m d d m, u

d . I d d, ud

, ud d, ud

m d. A , u u ,d dy . T

y d d d

. u f, d d

, ‘D m d d. Yu mu



Jgents

53

Amz.’ T y d jd

drinkbe ’ d. A m

d udum, muu m d u d, u

d d y judm. S d

d d mud;

d um dd; u d d

d judd d mud d

um. T mm md judm

m d d d u. … Judm uz d. T u

u u’ mx, d dud

m m d dud d uzd y

. … Fuy judm

y d m , ,

md dm; d uy d

u fd qu my d u u.”

Judm my y y ;

d my . W m

d , ,

y m. W m

, y. W

m qu x, y y. Tu m : “A

m,” judm y; m

: “m m ,” judm y;

m : “ m m,” judm

y y.

B y: “I judm y. A

judm u d d u y. T, , uf

. Su y m m y;

u‑ mm y,




54

mm y d mm y

y.”

T m uy : “T md dd ogi judgment. Sy , , y

md md judgment.

dm d, , jud. Ey

d d judm

x. T md u jud;

jud. Even in orming the notions whih judgment ompres,

the mind judges. Ey m u judm m : m , m

mm u u m; d m

judm. I u u ‘Ey d

judm; y judm xdd .’ T d

judm, y m x

u, dm qu, du d

m , d primitive or pshoogi judgment.”I L Judm ; i.e. , Judm

y Ex d Judm y I. W m

horse d nim fd

horse d nim d judm

“ horse is n nim” my dd Judm

y Ex. I m m

horse the quit o nimit , d u quy horse , my y “the horse is n nim ,”

judm my dd Judm y I.

B y: “B Judm ; md

my judm y x y . T

md y x uuy m u.”

W Judm xd d d

P. T m u d m,m d Judm d d,

d m “” my y ud

d judm . Bu u

x d u y d :



Jgents

55

“ A Proposition is Judgment expressed in words.” I x

, d P,

m xdd d uj Judm xd P, d m

d d . Ju uj

C d m y d , d

uj Judm d P. I

, , m m

d d x d. I

md.




56



57

Chapter IX.

Propositions.

W

e have f Ddu R

C. T d

P.I L, Proposition : “A , ,

m dy m; md

x xdd qu d

mmd.” Hy df P : “y m

d m .”

Exmpes o Propositions ud :

“T ;” “ m;” “C y;” m m m

d; : “A z;” “ ;”

“ f;” ., d m

m.

T Prts o Proposition : (1) Subjet ,

m md dd; (2) Predite , the

something md dd d Subjet ;d (3) Copu ,

Suj d Pd.

I P: “M m,” m mn

Suj; m n nim Pd; d d is ,




58

Cu. T Cu y m m to be ,

d, m P;

d m xd, P. T Cu y dy xd y

d is is not , ., u d xd m

m m. F , y “ u,”

m “ u.” I m y, my m

Pd m, : “Gd ,” y m”

Gd x.” I m , P d,

Pd f d, d Suj , :“Bd m;” “S u.” I u

judm mu ud dm m,

d d m m.

A Afrmtive Proposition Pd

frmed Suj. A Negtive Proposition

m Pd d Suj

denied. Exm .

A f P dd m

, (1) C; (2) Hy; (3)

Dju.

A Ctegori Proposition m

d md u quf,

: “M m;” “ ,” . T d my true , u m md y

m y.

A Hpotheti Proposition m

d md dd u d,

um u, : “I

‑, d;” “ d dm,

xd,” . J y: “Hy P myy zd y d ‘;’ u

duu y y d mu m dy

. … W my y y ‘ d,’



Propositions

59

d ‘dm ud xd,’ u d u

d ‘.’”

A Disjuntive Proposition “my ,” d uuy ju “,”

mm “,” : “L

d;” “A ud d;” “A

u, d u.”

A f P dd m

: (1) U; (2) Pu.

A Univers Proposition whoe quntit Suj d d

Pd. F : “A m ,” y md

m y ,

some m u m x. I m y

P: “N m mm” U,

univers deni.

A Prtiur Proposition m d Pd y prt or portion

Suj, : “Some m ,”

“Some m ,” m

d d whoe Suj. O

xm : “A ew m,” .; “mn ,” .; “ertin

,” .; “most ,” .

Hy y: “T U P, my xd, , ever, eh, n, nd whoe d

qu m. T Pu P

dj quy, u some, ertin, ew,

mn, most u d t est prt .

T uj Du m P

dd y m y L, d Hy y:

“ mu m dm my, y, u d u

d y .” Sm u m,

“Quf m P,” u d

u m “Du.”




60

T df L m, “Du,” : “T

du u d ;

mym m u x; m u x, ud f

.” A m P distributed

myd u ; y, when it is empoed

so s to pp to eh nd ever objet, person or thing inuded

under it. Tu , “A m,”

m horses dud; d , “Sm

ud,” m horses dud. B xm du subjet

. Bu d my my

dud. F , , “A

m,” d, nims , dud,

, not used in its uest sense , nims horses—

some m d, ,

d, nims , ud u d “not distributed.” T y m: “A

some m.”

T mmd

d Du m P,

B x : “Du y

m x, u mm my

dmd y u. Tu y, ‘M m,’ m men , d m m dud. Bu y

‘B y y,’ m, ‘ ’ u

‘m .’ T test o distribution m

‘eh nd ever.’ Tu y ‘m m,’ u

d y m m.”

T Ru Du m P

:1. A universs du subjet.

2. A prtiurs d du subjet.

3. A negtives du predite.

4. A frmtives d du predite.



Propositions

61

T u d u . T

f u qu u, uj

univers , whoe subjet d; uj prtiur on prt uj

d. I d u,

y negtive whoe o the predite mu

dd uj, , y: “Sm nims

not horses ,” horses u m

uj, d u distributed. I u u,

my dy m d is not denied uj, ,

y : “H m,” d m

the nims , u y my prt or portion

m—, d; nims ,

dud.

I dd m P

P Denitive or SubstitutivePropositions , Suj d Pd xy

x d . F , ,

“A tringe pogon o three sides” m

; , my uud .

H m “uu.” T m “df” m

m d

y dene . A df xd md m , u

uj d d y qu .




62



63

Chapter X.

Immediate Reasoning.

I

n the Judm mu m

d m dm. I

R m md d m judm, u u m ddu

d judm.

T m m Immd

R, y m ddu

m impies . Sm dfd :

“resoning without midde term.” I m

on one proposition is required or the premise , d m m u ddud dy d u

y m y m .

T md myd m

R ; (1) O; (2) C.

Opposition x m

uj d d, u d quy quy,

T L O :I. (1) I u u, u u. (2) I

u , u . (3) I u ,

. (4) I u u, .




64

II. (1) I u, . (2)

I , d. (3)

C u, u my .III. (1) I u‑ , u.

(2) I u‑ u, d

. (3) Su‑

, u my u.

IV. (1) I d u, .

(2) I d , u. (3)

Cd u , u y u d .

I d md , ud ud

mz m m, dd y

:

P

U

Pu

Am (A)

N (E)

Am (I)

N (O)

Exm : U Am (A): “A m

m;” U N (E): “N m m;” “Pu

Am (I): “Sm m m;” Pu N (O):

“Sm m m.”

T xm

ud y d d xm u :

(A) “A A B.”

(I) “Sm A B.”

(E) “N A B.”



Ieiate Reasoning

65

(O) “Sm A B.”

T u m

, :A d E yd ontrries. I d O sub‑ontrries ; A

d I d E d O d subterns ; A d O d I

d E yd ontrditories.

A udy , d ym x

m, y m L

O d u ,

C m u .T , d Squ O,

myd y u

u :

D I C T O

R I E SC O

N T R A -

D I C T O

R I E S C

O N T R

A -

CONTRARIES

S U B A L T E R N S

SUB-CONTRARIES

S U B A L T E R N S

A E

I O

Conversion mmd y

m

d uj d uj

d; d d: Conversion

is the trnsposition o the subjet nd predite o proposition.A B : “P judm onverted

uj d d u m

u judm m

judm.” T , u m




66

C, d C;

d Cd.

T L C : “N m mu dud C dud Cd.” T

m u ud md

dd .

T d C; viz: (1) Sm C;

(2) C y Lm; (3) C y C.

I Simpe Conversion quy

quy. I Conversion b Limittion quy dm u u. I C y N

quy d u quy. R

f d ym d

, my d d

md C u d

; :

Te Univers Afrmtive (ym A) d y Lm, y quy m

u u. T d “dud”

d, mu du y

y “.” Tu mu ,

“ m m” (A), “m m m” (I).

Te Univers Negtive (ym E) d y Sm

C, quy quy. F m “E” dud, y my

dud u

. Tu “N m m” d : “N

m m.” “E” d “E.”

Te Prtiur Afrmtive (ym I) d y

Sm C quy

quy. F m dud “I,” m my dud , d mu

m “I.” F ; : “Sm m m”

d , “Sm m m.”



Ieiate Reasoning

67

Te Prtiur Negtive (ym O) d y

C y N, quy d u

quy. Tu : “Smm m,” mu not y “m m

m,” d ud du men d,

dud d. Ad , we

trnser the negtive prtie rom the opu to the predite

d m “I” d y Sm

C. Tu “Sm m m”

“Sm m ‑m” m y (ym C) : “Sm ‑m

m.”

I ud, , d

Fudm L Tu d d y

u, :

Te Lw o Identit , : “T m quy

y m quy , m d d u.”

Te Lw o Contrdition , : “N

m m d d .”

Te Lw o Exuded Midde , : “Ey

mu ; mdd

u.”

O , P. J, d uy, y: “Sud dm f u m d m.

A um my xd ‑d

d; d mu y

y u

y.”

C XI.

Idu R.Idu R, d,

d u m u u,

m u . Tu, m x

ddu d d u u




68

d y m ud d

d , d m d, d ,

du u “A m mu d.” O, m x u d m

xd ujd , m

uj , d quy my y

du u : “A m xd

ujd .” I d u

d y y Idu R m

udm m Ddu R.A , , Idu d

Ddu R, y dd—

u .

J y Idu R: “I Ddu R

qu my u d m

d Pm, d u

d Cu. W y ud fdu y u, u

y wht propositions re true when other ones re true. A

y dd ud d dedutive

beuse we dedue, or ed down the truth rom premises to

onusion. I xdy m udd

ddu y, u m m

m m udd indutive inerene , y u m d

d ud u.” H y: “M

fd u u x, ,

mj m m u d u.

By du xm m u u um

ddu . W ud

, xmd, y m . … Oy d d,

j fd, mj m

md, ddu myd.”



Ieiate Reasoning

69

S my , u my

d y m, d y

y y d y m Ddu R, y u Sym. T u

A d m d uu f

d md md Ddu R,

u y m Nu

, f d, d m

d. T md f md

, Idu I, d mu 1225–1300. R B f

mu f u y

d xm u j ud

d. H md my d y . H

y dd y G d m udd

y , d u my u

m d y u d .Ld F B, d u m m G,

d Novum Orgnum my x

d d Idu R d

f u. A J y: “Idu qu y

m u

m d d. Su d

du, du quy, d, uy d y d ,

u .”

T Four Steps in Indutive Resoning , d y J,

:

First Step.—Pmy .

Seond Step.—T m y.

Tird Step.—Ddu .Fourth Step.—Vf.

I Idu R

y sntheti proess , u

d m d u u u




70

u md, m d

ud m . A B y: “T u ud

y md ; m u d d m uy

d u. Idu u u

m — y .” I

Idu R y

sending proess , u d m u

; u u u u; m

, d, m .

B y Idu R: “T du

ddu y . Idu d Ddu

, . Ddu d

u u m u; Idu d

u m u u. T

y u. Ddu m u;Idu m u . Ddu

y ; Idu y . Ddu

dd — m u

u; Idu d — m

u . Ty d Ddu

my d y u, Idu my

d u.” Hy y: “T y df . I uu

Ddu. N, ddu d

m u u, m

d u, m u . Idu, ,

y dfd m u

, m d , m

u. Smm du d m u. T ud m ddu, y

, m u ,

ud. T m y mu .

Bu y m m. Ddu is



Ieiate Reasoning

71

resoning in whih the onusion is ontined in the premises.

T ud ud d mm y

yd m y du m. I , , my

du the proess b whih we go beond the

premises in the onusion. … T m

d m m

d m. I

yd m; T , u, d

u my du, ju d dm ddu. Ty tht the onusion

sh represent the sme gener kind s the premises ,

y d d. Bu yd

m known d.”

T xm my yu d

Idu R:

First Step. Pmy O. Exmpe: W u mgnets m ud u

ttrt iron. Ou m d m

my d : “A, B, C, D, E, F, G, ., d X, Y, d Z,

mgnets , d , d

d m, ttrt iron.”

Seond Step. T M Hy. Exmpe: U

d xm, d, dy xm Idu R, : “W u

my, u ,” jufd m

y u, y

u , u, u:

“ A m .”

Tird Step. Ddu R. Exmpe: P u

m d d x du md xm, y

ym, : (1) A m ; (2) Tis thing

m; (3) Tis thing . I




72

y xm Ddu R: “W u

u .”

Fourth Step. Vf. Exmpe: W d y u u m,

u . I m

d u y

d some m d not ;

u judgment d u “” m

u d not m. I , u

xm, d xm y. I u m does ,

fd u y d u judm.



73

Chapter XII.

Reasoning by Induction.

T

he ter “Idu,” u, dfd

: “() T d

; d () ddu m ; () mm y ud

m d .” M y: “Indution , ,

md, y

u u , u

m m .

I d, Indution y ud

u ddu , u , u m u

m um m.”

T Bsis o Indution xm : “Wht is true o the

mn is true o the whoe.” E, uy,

xm m md m, : “T

d my m

d, d m d.”T xm Idu u

Nu’ d m u, dy d

uniorm. I um Nu d m

qu, xm mu , d du




74

mu u. A B y: “Idu

md dd u d m

. T dd d u m u; d m u y

Nu’ .” Sm u d

umy Nu’ u intuitive

u, u . O d

indutive u, d y x d

y y . W d d

umy u m, d m y umy uu d u.

T u um x d

Idu, my: (1) P Idu; d (2) Im

Idu. O, u m, m myd y d

u d .

Peret Indution d

u m ; , ddu j,, m mu

d umd m Idu. F ,

knew positive B’ d, d m

J, P, M, Lu, C, Wm, My d

Su, y; d d y m

d d d d ; , , d my

generizing d : “J, P, M, Lu, C,Wm, My d Su, B’ d,

d d d ,” ud d, d

du u: “A B’ d d

d d .” I d we inude

in the proess on wht is stted in the premise itse , d

d xd u du yd u d

u d. T m Idu mmd “L Idu,” u

y, u y x. By m

u d Idu , ,

u m mfd m um. I u



Reasoning b Inction

75

dm , m m u

u u.

I duy, u m m du :

Imperet Indution , mm d “P

Idu,” y m du

um u uy

u y uy

, d y . I

the onusion extends yd d u d. I m Idu mu

uy my mm: “W u

my u ”— , mu ssume ,

u know y u x, u u

iner m xm x.

T u d my y u u

, u P Idu, u u d u

u um u

d.

I d u Idu

R d f

J, md d , m

m d dy mdd, d m f d y m

u. L u d u .

First Step. Pmy . I u

x d

d mm u , j,

d , qu my

z d du y Idu R. I y u m y

C d , j, d ,

my z m u. I

dd d C,




76

my udm m m

d qum C. C

udm m . I d du fd du, mu m, d

u quy m. T d

d j ud d,

m. C

m mu d my , d

m f du d u dud.

A H y: “T mu f m.Su m ruit. W mu f

d d u—y, , qu, um,

u, , f, , . B x

, mu m d d u m

u d u. I uy

u, d u mu d. Py

m; u my d ud xmd. W u d d, du u

uy. N ud fm d u

ud.”

I Pmy O, fd

y d d

ud u. T y :

I. By Simpe Observtion , md u u . I y

m d; mm ;

m ; m, .

II. By Observtion o Experiment ,

d

u. A experiment : “A , , y;

, , dd d m uu, , m d ud

u .” H y: “ d my experiments

experiene.” J y: “Exm

m m; my, u



Reasoning b Inction

77

d. T d

xm m d. I

f , y mu m yd uy d, m

xm my u . … I

u d f xm, y

u d y u d

. … I ud m u m

xm du , d u u

u u u. Experiments on give us the ts upon whih we m terword reson. … Exm

my , d y y u

m d . Te

gener rue is tht the sme uses wi produe the sme eets.

W ,

dd y y , d my y

. … W y d xm d uud m u,

mu fd m u

m um. … I d my, m u

d xm, u d

m uu, mu m

z. z d

m. u , d u u u

. I qu mu judm d z

y, u y dd u um d

u .”

H f Idu R

Pmy O, u d x

my d d d qud y O d Exm.




78



79

Chapter XIII.

Theory And Hypotheses.

F

ollowing Jevons’ f, fd Sd

S Idu R d “T M

Hy.”A Hpothesis : “A u,

ssumed or tken or grnted d d u

qu;

umd d, u d,

u ddu qu.” I

Hy my d possib or probb

true , d not ertin true ; u working ssumption , u mu d y d . T

um my y use ,

ws . A y, d y my

ud m , d

Ty.

A Teor : “A fd y; y

d , y, u .” A uy y“Teor d hpothesis. A theor udd

d dd

d. A hpothesis my um u

ud u m, u d




80

u u uy . Myy, y

u y ud y mu

d.” B y: “W y x ,

d d x, d fd, d m

y. Tu y u ,

C y ym, uduy y

, ., y m y. T

m m uuy myd

du y; u mu dmd y ud . Ddd y

d ; d uy y

mm d y.”

T y ud u y umu

d d. I f my y y

md dd P Idu,

“ L Idu. I d y mz m um. T xm

d, d‑d d B, md u

, x md. I qu xm d

d y j m

y md. Hm y du

uy d y u. I d

xd u x. I mm .

F m m y y

d y m m Im Idu, y

m u, d

x, d m u du m

xm Idu R. T uj

Cu. J y: “T u d, d, m y .

P m mu duy u udd

u m, u y m



heor An Hpotheses

81

yd the things tht must exist beore in order tht the event

sh hppen terwrd.”

Cu u d du dm. T f du y : I. T u my

u u x, d udd; II.

Cu jy, du d

dm u y d u; III.

O u, mdy u my

u u; IV. O my ud y

u; V. T use my u ‑ u.

M mud u

y u , ‑d du.

T : (1) T Md Am; (2) T

Md D; (3) T Md Rdu; d ( 4)

Md Cm V. T df

u y A :Method o Agreement: “I, j y

u u ,

dud, d j y

u .”

Method o Dierene: “I, ud u

, d ud u

, y

u, my y

ud u .”

Method o Residue: “W y m fd u

m u md,

my u du y d.”

Method o Conomitnt Vritions: “W d md y

qu, y m m d u d

.”




82

A dd: “W ud

m d, d y

m u, d d , d d

du u.”

J u u :

I. “W quy

xmd , y rue or disovering whih

re uses nd whih re eets , : W mu y

quy , m m d m , d y

ju m m, y eet.”

II. “W y uy d quy,

simpe rue, b oowing whih we n judge whether hnges

re onneted together s uses nd eets , : T

xy qu m d

d .”III. “I y du x

m y z,

when we nnot be sure tht the things resembe eh other in

the importnt points. … U ud d u? W

m u . T y

d y u du .

H md , mu m y um, m y d. T

mu dduy; d y ddu

my , u

m ddu uu . … I du

jud my, d my , y m

m m y, u m

m y m. Te on rue u i things resembe eh other in ew properties

on, we must observe mn instnes beore inerring tht these

properties wi ws be joined together in other ses.”



83

Chapter XIV.

Making and Testing

Hypotheses.

The oler d y u y.

I , m u,

u m y m

m u y d—

m uy y

y— possibe reson. W m

? L u d m. B y: “Ty d .

Ty u m y ,

m u. W d

; d the mind thinks the w. By

, md m

u du m m.

My y u hpp intuition o the mind. Ty u L P ‘ u,’

P uuy d ‘ d u u.’

T m y qu u md, y




84

y, m, m

d u m, d d .”

T ud T N Pyy m m y—“ md

”—u

Suu Md, Suu Md.

(S um Suu Md .) N

y d y x d

yy d d, u d

uj d qu m B;d m my dd

m y. S Wm Hm dd

y m mm qu

dy Du Oy. H d dd

uj, u u u. Bu, fy, u dy

uddy “ u” , d

u z udm mm m. B, ud Sy

Cmy, fd d xm

d m d dm

u uy d u u u

; u, d, m m “

d,” , “ m y.” I d my

m , m ududyuy uj d uu. D. Hud md

“Suj Md” duy, d

uy d dy ddu, u

my my m , d

dy y.

I qu m Tm

: “T ym my mmzd m O qu

d u md d u

u d, d d dd y

, d xmd , ‘I



Making an esting Hpotheses

85

um!’ W N , y

qu d u md, ‘Wy d y

d !’ I d d ym ; N d O d y

d u udy z u um

d m, d m m m;

d d d‑u d , m

dy, m u, ud ud

dy . Bu

; O u y , N d

u u d d

. … T dy G, dd

dm O dd m,

dd mmd ,

x y d ,

dy md d u . Bu G

m m xu dy u

m, d du

d . … A d, d

dy, u uud, G’ d

O’ . G d u y ,

d u m, m ud d . O d md m

y m y;

d d qu y.”

I mu ud, , y

fd u m Suu,

y u . O y my

m , y y . TSuu m— my

du u d m ud . Bu

uy y u m

. A W y: “ y u




86

m y y u .” K

d d y y d

’ fy d . A B y: “E y my

u f , y my d m

u. T u u m

y d ud erth , d

y, ., d u y

u . S ‘y ’ my,

md my , u ‘xd’udd . Ad , Tm y, “ y

‘Nu uum,’ d

my uy dd d. E

d ,

; u

x, .

T y , m m, m ddd y.”

H y d d y : “M

mu y my m du d

d; u d d du md

m x. A d x

d m. Bu ,

u d . H d , , fd u y u y . H du

y. H d d uy um

d m u u. Fm x

ud, m my u

y f, my

y. A m my ud um

d ud m . H ud u , u d m, d ud. T

d , m uu y y m

m du u. My d

d md; u mm m m.




87

I y d .

Ndy d d , d

dd y u. B , , ud Au.”

B y d y y: “T

y y um

d m. x. T um

d m y u ,

u u u. … I

m y ud d, u

um m . … I d y

y mu u

d m. I umu d d,

d uj uy d qu

m d,

u dd u, d y d fd. Tu y ‘dy ’

x u u dy d

d uy u. T y D.

W d my f

y. Sm , , M d ,

m d y y, mu

y x d m, u y u

m. … T m f dd

. By , d y

ud fd.”

J y: “I u (f), d

m ddu dy d,

y d , m d xm, fd u

y u. I m d

dm u ddu d u ,

m y y , d




88

mu . I d du m

mm u y

m d. W d y m u , mu

um y . W mu m

ddu m ud u um, d,

, u y u, ,

m m d u . W

y y u my

u, y u d ud d dd, m

y u . … Smm

qu d y

m , uzzd

. … W u y, d

, d d m

y d , u mmdy u dd. m y

u d .”

I m d verition

y md

u “” . T ts my

d m ,

ts d y ddu . T my d d u y

u. Tu y “A m m,”

my dduy d

y mn mu d . T

u y u eh nd ever mn m my

uj d xm. I fd m

d d, d u y; y m ( “” )

m, u y d. T

ddu : “I ‑d‑

u d u‑d‑u ; d u




89

; ‑d‑ u

d u .” T um xd

d Hy P ( CIX), d m

uj Ddu R. T J d,

“Ddu R Td S Idu R,

d d Vf”, dy dd.

H y: “A Idu fd m

d u u mj m, my d dedutive

y y m . Idu d ddu

dy‑md mj m. … Ddu ,

m quy u u. … Oy

d d, j fd,

mj m md, dedution myd.”

I , d

d R ud m—Ddu R.




90



91

Chapter XV.

Deductive Reasoning.

W

e have

, y, (1) Idu

R, dy u mu u; d (2) Ddu R, dy

u u m u.

A d, Ddu R

d u u m u. Tu m

u mdd “A

m,” dd

dy “D ,” ddu u u : “D m.” O,

ddu u u m

u, : “A mum d ; uu

mum; , uu d .” A ddu

um xd ddu ym.

J y d d u: “H

d ; u f , d m

. W u m ,

iner or reson , d d md. R u

u u u u




92

. I y dd ud

d , ud

my qu. Bu d u mum my y d y y ,

d u m d dy

, mum d , u y

d u u u uu

u d . o reson, then, is to get some knowedge

rom other knowedge.”

T ud z Ddu R y n nti proess , u

d yz u u

u— u udd

—d m “ u

u u.” Tu u

“A m m,” udd u u

“J Sm m”—J Sm dd m. W ddu u u u J Sm

m u u “ m.” W yz “ m”

d fd J Sm u . T,

“Ddu m ; ,

y .”

T ud z Ddu R

y desending proess , u d d m u u; m

; m d . A

B y: “Ddu dd m u

u, m , m u m, .

G , y ddu dd

ud , ;

d m u my d d d u m.”

T u ud Ddu

R dd y. T mjy

m Idu R, d u x,



Dective Reasoning

93

d xm. F xm ,

ud uuy u : “A m”

u d uy udd d m . N u udy ud “D

.” N ud , u u udy, x

d xm uuy : “A mum

d ;” “ uu mum;” d

“, uu d .” E , mu

u uu y mum, u

u. G u d not intuitive ,y y m, u d u u x

x .

T u d intuitive y

m u. H y : “Sm y

m d d u

du ddu; z u

mm j, u y . Ud d u d fd

u : W j d

mmdy m , x d

. W d u m. W

d ; qu

m qu ;

, immedite , uy, z u m. Am d m

u u u. … W y ‑d,

uy. T xm mm

d d u.”

A u, , dy u

u d u, u u. Ty m

u d m d , d “u” my u d

reprodued b memor or heredit. Ty d

intuitions m d m my

x , ddu, m




94

m d y uu

ddu. H d : “T

u . I yu du y, u , d m u . T

y m

du. Ty d

d y u x. T d

qu ud d md d

u mdfd uu, y. T

d d u x. … T m u u d

m y. G um u

y jd ; , u

m y qu.

T dy d m

dy md y

dy y, u m u.”

A u my y.

Hy m “Fudd ud y

u; umd d, u d,

u ddu qu.” T

y d y ud

u ddu . Hy u u m umd d d

Ddu R, d u

u ud m. Ty , ,

u m um, u u

um dd u y x, xm d

Idu R. T L G my dd

y, d y u Idu Rd u muud d m.

T Primr Bsis o Dedutive Resoning my d

u xm, m d u m

, d d : “Whtever is true



Dective Reasoning

95

o the whoe is true o its prts.” O, u

xd : “W u u

u.” T xm u ud uDdu R. I u u dy

ddu um. I d

m “T uu d ,”

jufd m m y

‑d , xm, “W u

u u.” I “mum”

d , u, “ uu” mum,mu d . A () m,

d xm, D (u ) mu

m.

T xm d u m

d . F : “W my md

dd , my dd md ;”

m dy dd m ud y Hm d: “W , d ,

, d , d

.” A mud d Dum :

“W dd my y y

m dud, dd m

d u ddu d ud .”

T m Ddu R, m d u xm : “W

u u .” T m

mm d Mm R, u

m myd mm. I xm d

: “T qu m ,

qu .” I

myd mm. Tu: “x qu y; d y qu 5;, x qu 5.” O ‘ d m: “A qu B; B

qu C; , A qu C.” Tu m

, dy m Ddu R,

y medite , , md u mdum d




96

, “ md u

d.”

B : “T y mm my d : F,

d df, y, d x quy.

Sd, df, d d

y, x, d du u. Td, xm m

d u y m ‑d

d y u. Cm x d y

y , u mu uy u.O, d y, u df d xm

m ym, u y.

T uy m

u dd u.”

I u, yu

m J y d d .

J y: “T m u u u my um, my d

m ud y u mmy

. T u whtever is true o one term is true o n

term whih is stted to be the sme in mening s tht term. I

d, my y substitute one term or nother i we

know tht the reer to ext the sme thing . T du

m m, d d d m m. T um u

ud u ym, u u

d m ; my, , m

m; d , d m m. Bu y m

ud u I , u my

u ‘m m’ d ‘ ’. A my um

my xd y. Gd m; d m. A u; ,

, u.”

T m m uy y: “W xm

uy u y , ud



Dective Reasoning

97

in ever se to onsist in putting one thing or term in pe o

nother, to whih we know it to hve n ext resembne in

some respet. W u d d, d u m d d

; u the true prinipe o resoning m be ed the

substitution o simirs, or the pssing rom ike to ike. W

m m

‑, d m. W

x , u ; y

y , u , u y , .”




98



99

Chapter XVI.

The Syllogism.

T

he thir d —

yd C d

Judm— y y m“R,” m, , ud ud

d f . T

m j,

, u d j, .

A, , () mmm m;

() mmm; d () , thereore ,

m. T m udm m j u

u d y m d j. T

u m x d

“Sym.”

T x

um m Sym mu udd

m Sym. T y m y d, u

mm uzzd y md df

d m u. L u u

j, A, B d C, y. W m C




100

d B, u m f. W

A d B; d

C d A. W u (1) “Aqu B; d (2) C qu A”. T x

“ A qu B, d C qu A, mu , y,

tht C equs B.” T d medite

m, immedite. C d B md

dy mmdy, u dy d u mdum

A. A u d medite B d C.

T m d j u, x . I m

udm m m . A B

y: “T m mm

m j u d.” T

u um xd d

Sym. Wy y : “A Sym um

xd m u m m uu x , u

y d m m.” B y: “A

d uy xd m

ym. I du d ddu ,

d m d. I

m um u qu

.”I d u d u Sym my

y udd, d

yu d ‑ “Ru

Sym,” udd

m Sym .

T Ru Sym d Sym

peret Sym, y:I. Tt there shoud be three, nd no more thn three,

Propositions. T : (1) Conusion ,

d; d (2 d 3) Pm, m

Cu, d d Mj



he Sllogis

101

Pm d M Pm, y. W my udd

m y xm xm:

Mjor Premise: “M m;” ( “A B”).Minor Premise: “S m;” ( “C A”). T:

Conusion: “S m” ( “C B”)

I Sym, xd

d ym, y d, u u mu

y m. Ad, , m

u, mu u u. Wy

y: “A Sym d d uy m m; u d

, Sym d d u Fy,

d m; u dd

d d u Sm.”

T Ru I y — Mj

Pm, M Pm, d Cu— dd

m Sym. I m three mu m m m d

u. T m m ud

u m m Sym,

u m Sym.

II. Tt there shoud be three nd no more thn three erms.

T m (1) T Pd Cu; (2)

Suj Cu; d (3) Mdd m muu m,

m Cu.

T Predite o the Conusion d Mjor erm ,

u x. md

m. T Subjet o the Conusion d Minor m

u m x md

m. T Mj d M m d Extremes. TMdd m Exm.

T Mjor erm d Midde erm mu

Mjor Premise.




102

T Minor erm d Midde erm mu

Minor Premise.

T Minor erm d Mjor erm mu Conusion.

Tu T Mjor erm mu Pd

Cu; Minor erm Suj Cu;

Midde erm my Suj Pd o either o the

premises , u must ws be ound one in both premises.

T xm m m

y:I Sym: “M m; S m;

S m,” m: “M,”

Mj m; “S,” M m; d “M,”

Mdd m; :

Mjor Premise: “M” (midde term) m (mjor term).

Minor Premise: “S” (minor term) m (mjor term).

Conusion: “S” (minor term) m (mjor term).T u “on three” m

m two terms

u mdum third term. T must m;

more m, m ym

d .

III. Tt one premise, t est, must be frmtive. T,

u “m d.” A d,

d d,

m m. I u Sym d : (1)

“M not m;” d (2) “S not m;”

ud m Cu, S ws ws not

m T ud

m, d Cu ud ddudm. T, m mu m.

IV. I one premise is negtive, the onusion must be negtive.

T u “ m d d

d m, y mu d .” Tu u



he Sllogis

103

Sym d : (1) “M not m;” d ( 2) :

“S m;” mu u N Cu

: (3) “S not m.”V. Tt the Midde erm must be distributed; (tht is, tken

univers) in t est one premise. T “u, ,

Mj m my md

Mdd m, d M m

; d uy mm Mdd. m,

d quy mm ud .” T

u u mmy “TUdud Mdd,” d Fy dmd y

. I Sym md xm

, “Mn m,” y m “ A m,”

, M u . Ly

“A m m,” m S

“ m” ( some m) mu quy

u M. I Sym, d, d: “Some m m,” ud S must m—

m m . A m y

m (1) W ; (2). B

; (3) B mu W. T m re

m “W some ; B some ; d

“ .” A xm : “M d; d

d; , m d.” I xm “d” dud “ d” u my ‑dud

“some d.” T ym, , d

u, mu . Ty u ym, d u

.

“distributed ,” Mdd m mu Suj

U P, Pd N

P; “undistributed” mu Suj Pu P, Pd Am

P. (S P.)

VI. Tt n extreme, i undistributed in Premise, m not be

distributed in the Conusion. T u ud




104

d u m u

fd m. I ud m u :

(1) “A m; (2) m ; (3) m m.” T u ud d, u

m nim dud u, (

d ) dud

m ( d m ).

A d , y Sym y

x ym d d y.

T dd u my d d.Ay ym d u,

m f x u

d.

T wo Derivtive Rues o the Sogism :

VII. Tt one Premise t est must be Univers. T u

“m u m u d.”

VIII. Tt i one premise is Prtiur, the Conusion must be prtiur so. T u y u u

d m u m.

T d D Ru my

d y Sym m. Ty

u, d y ym

m ud m u

.



105

Chapter XVII.

Varieties Of Syllogisms.

T

he athorities L d u d

ud y d

m, m dd d um, d the nineteen moods

o the sogism. T fd y d

d the our gures , fu my y

mdd m m. L

d d uu ud

d jd u d

m m ud d d ym. W , y

u uj u, d u y

y ud uy mz

m d L Sym d

dm y y

um ym, .

I my dy u d x ompete y m md, d u .

I mm u m m ym,

dy x, m m d y

d . A ym m uxd




106

mm d Enthmene , m m “

md.” F , : “W ,

y,” mj m “A y” md uxd. A “P

m, By m,” m

m “By ” md uxd. J

y d uj: “Tu Sm

Mu, Bud

m d u, d u u f.

‘Bd mu: y my.’ T ujd d u d,

y ‘T mu d.’ I dy

understood ‘A my d,’

ym, d u , m: ‘A

my d; A mu

my; T, mu d.’ T

y d ym.”W fd y d: “beuse, or, thereore,

sine ,” m m, my um,

d uuy ym.

W d P,

my, (1) C P,

m d md u

quf; (2) Hy P, m d md dd u

d, um, u; d (3) Dju

P, md d terntive.

T m d u

m m .

Ad, dy ym x

m m m. Tu, C Sym y

; Hy Sym

m y ; Dju Sym

dju mj m.



Varieties O Sllogiss

107

Ctegori Sogisms , m mm

d, dd u

, d mjy xm ym d. I C Sym

m d md y, d u

quf, d u

m . I ym

d d umd m u

d , d, y mu

u , d m mu C u.

Hpotheti Sogisms , y, m

m y m

m dd, “,” m u.

Hy y : “O f u, y

dy, u u ,

u d mj m dmd. T qu

dd u m m m. T

d mj m dmd

u m du , d m m

uuy m y d mj. Cquy,

md m y um

y m qu m u mj m d u

u d d,

y f dy d .”

By j y dy

Hy P. F :

“I Y d y; Y does

d; , Y y.” O: “I dogs u ,y qudud; d do u ; d

re qudud.” T Hy Sym my

m ; , y my

yy frm yy den. T




108

m Hy Sym d

qu (d uuy d

“”) d Ad. T mj m uuy u dd. T dd

, d u

ud d um, d Cqu.

Tu, xm: “I d u ”

Ad; d md : “y

qudud” Cqu. T Ad dd y

m d m : i, supposing, grntedtht, provided tht, though, hd, were , .,

d m u m d “i .” T

Cqu d m.

J d m Ru regrding

the Hpotheti Sogism:

I. “I Ad md, qu my

md. I Cqu dd, Ad my dd.”

II. “Ad y m qu, dy

d. T y u

d m md mj m m not be

the on one dm qu.” T

xm “Am Cqu:” “I , y

udd; y is udd; , is rining .”I u, y my udd, d my not

. T y m xd

ym, : “I A B, C D; C is D; , A B.”

T y dy Ad y

xm: “I Rdum ud uu; Rdum

not ; Rdum is not uu.” O, xd

ym: “I A B, C D; A not B; C is not D.” Iu Rdum my uu u . J

xm : “I m d

, uy udd uj; u J J

uy udd uj; , d




109

.” A, “I mxd m;

ud not mxd ; d not m.”

J y: “ m qu d m d, d d

u ym, d udud mdd

m. … dy d y u

u ym, d m dud

u m.”

Hy Sym my uuy y dud

d C Sym. A J y: “I y,y d ym d m

m uy dd. It is mtter

o the onveniene o stting the propositions.” F ,

d y: “I Rdum , ud uu,”

my y “C Rdum ud uu;” d y:

“I , y,” my y “T

y.” Hy Rue or Conversion u: “Rd d y

uj , d qu

y d . I

m y m ;

d y y umu.”

T d ym, Te Disjuntive

Sogism , x d dym mu f d m ud Ru Sym,

d d . N y d u

y Ru, u m dy ym

my y. A J y: “I ud m

u d um mu y u

ym, d. Oy

um m y m mdd m, d ym, d y

u. A my um dy u

u; u my d um,

m udd y u




110

y. O m d um

Dju Sym, u d y u

ym, y y m ym.”T Dju Sym dju

mj m. T dju

u dju

mj m m m. A

dju , , “

d uj ju

“or ” (mm md y “either ”) . A : “L or d;” ,”A either

ud d;” , “A u, d,

u.” T d jd y “” d

A, m d my

, d u my

, m other .

T Rue regrding the Use o Disjuntive Sogisms :“I m dd, my

md.” Tu y “A B C,” “A B

C,” my den B u m C. Sm u

d “I m , mu dy

md,” u uy dud y

u. I ud m d u

m “” : “A either B C,” u m m u.

Bu : “A B or C,” my y both

being true. J , xm

: “A M Ju‑‑‑P, My,

Sdy M,” u d

Ju‑‑‑P my m m

My. H : “A m ydy i there be suh dierene between them tht

the oud not be true t the sme time.” I ud m

m m u, xm

y J u , d “T




111

uy ” u

d.

A Diemm d ym Mj Pm m . Wy df : “A

d ym m d

mj, d dju m.” T muuy

xu Mj Pm,

md dm , d u

“ dmm.”




112



113

Chapter XVIII.

Reasoning By Analogy.

W

hat is d R y Ay m

my m , d

mjy u m quy my. I m m y z d u

x “ y d

um.” T m ud

dfd “Rm ; m y

d um du my

udd.” B y: “Ay u y

m m u, y m m

u.”

J Rue or Resoning b Anog , : “I

m m my , y

y m m .” O

d m : “W

m u, m

u;” d “I u, y

u.”




114

T d z y du,

d y y. I du z u : “W

u my u ;” u y :“ m mm

mm.” A J y m: “R y Ay

d y d m d d

‘Gz.’ W mn things m

ew properties , u u m y Gz. W

ew things m mn properties ,

y.” Iu Ay, my y A fd qu, u d , b, , d, e, , g,

y, d fd B qu, ., d , b,

, d, e, y, , my y y

qu d mu B.

B y m : “T

dy d . A y,

, y d d u yd , d

u, d is yd . S,

d m , , u ,

ud d y u .

I y y D. Bud ud m

m , d uquy

m dd, u ud .” H y: “I um

mu dd y dd m.

… T d u u u. I

ud um, mu d m

x u . … T udy y my

md y d d u

. W y md du d, u u

dy md uy , m d

md, u u

, u u y uu.”



Reasoning B Analog

115

Bu ud mu ud d

u mm m R y Ay. A

J y: “I my R y Ay ud y u ud. I m uu m

md. Cd mm d y d

u , y y

, u , m m ,

ud d m. Pu d

y m mum, y y

umd m. I Ny mum dm , d ; u I ud

d d m d , I mud y

, d d d d

d m m . T y m

y y. E u m m

y m d. T d y , d

d u y yu d u , u.” H

y: “My muud, d x

u x m. T mjy

y ju y

dd m dd

mu. … T dy d mu d

m , .” By: “T um m Ay u, u

d. Tu Am ,

Au , u,

y . S u J Sm d

d dud, Hy J d

dud, ud du . … Cu

d d m y quy u.”Rd Rue or Resoning rom Anog , J y:

“T y y u u

u y y y. T y u

; m y m ,




116

m y y m ,

y y d d. …

I d u u u, u fd m y, u u y

d . I y

m m u u

u ddu du. Bu y y

d u d ; y u .

W u y u

x y d, d d . … W fd y

y ddd u, u m u

quy u d qu,

y my du d ddu .”

A m , B y: “T m

y, m du, ud ud u.

I u mu dd , u my d y. T m

, m m , dd

y y. y, mu

y u y u;

m. H y d y

d y. I my d y, u y. W mu, ,

u y m y u u

d u y u d xm,

y u du m

du.”



117

Chapter XIX.

Fallacies.

A

Fallacy is: “A uud um md u,

, d qu,

y ; um yud, u y u; u m ,

, d y

md d; y.”

I Ddu R, m F;

my, (1) Fu Pm; d (2) Fu Cu.

W d u.

Fious Premise n unwrrnted ssumption o premises. O m mm m d Fy

“Begging the Question ,”

um udm m dd;

u um d;

um y d, u

. I m mm m dy

m u , uy d y, d d u m mj m

um, d y m . T

um d y

mm the premise hs been mere ssumed , u




118

d u d m y “i .”

O my d u y m m “T

m md ,” u um d d u u m

“d qu” u ud m.

Hy d xm m y

“Cu d S ud ud.” P

dmdd d d “ qu”

: “Gd u ud ud; Cu d

S d u; , Cu d S ud ud.” T “Gd u ud

ud” u, my umd d .

T ud , d dd

du f, u d

some d u my ud, “”

u ud .

“B Qu” m giving nmeto thing , d um expined

. T y qu my —y

y expin y my y m. A xm

d d d x y

ud u y y “u

.” O x

u y “u .” M m dum y du dum. T

y : “N m y x ;

m m .” “Y, y,”

j , “u u, yu , y

.” T y y : “A u

u yu md

u.” J y: “T m qu y, ,

mm d y my m my

d m, d u u

u d u, mu dmd. W m



Fallacies

119

u m m uj m,

, y, u

‘um,’ d ud d.H ym:

“N um ud d; J R’

um: T, J R’ ud

d.

“T qu m; u dy m

m um. ‘Um’ m wht

sportsmn shoud not do. T ud umy df wht ws

unsportsmnike.”

A m “B Qu,” d

, d “R C.” I m

y um

; , u u m. F :

“T m u u; d uu .” O, “I m u umm; d

umm u m.” O “H d x,

u m d.”

B y: “Tu u y d u

d d mu, d mu d

u y dd y x y,

. S u u U, u d y Gd, d u

u u mu udd y Gd,

y y. u ‘ dmd

y m’ d df m

‘ u ,’ u

d . P mm u

mmy u m my, d dm my m mmy.” I d

d , u y

. Hy y: “T y R C u

my um mmd u




120

dy d. … W u du my

mmd u y dy. I y d

y u yym x m d y d .” W d

Vu C ud u ym

ud ym, u

m ud f origin sogism.

Fious Conusion n unwrrnted or irreevnt

ssumption o ogi onusion. T my m

y m :Shiting ground ,

y my m d

d. I um u m

mu y d; u

m d Su mu

.

Fious Questioning , m dqu d, d d

. F : “Yu m zd

mmuy, m ‑ ud ?” “Y.”

“T, yu ‑ m d u

z mmuy?” A qu d

d m

d u . F , qu d z

d: “H yu d yu m!” A

“Y” “N,” u qu. ud

d , d

m, ud m.

Prti Proo , d

ud d . F, u u m uy

du y my

.



Fallacies

121

Appe to Pubi Opinion , jud

u d judm . I

d um y qu. I um, d .

Appe to Authorit, or Reverene , d

u ud u

judm . F :

“W u ‑d‑, d mu ;”

“I m A d;” “I

d y m ud y, , ;” “Wu d mu u.” A d my

, u y , d

um.

Appe to Proession , md ,

,

judm. Tu my u y

ud d, u d , y, m . T

um ud y , d

d m y. Bu d um

y , u my

m, my d d

— jd.

Appe to Gener Beie , md u , u m my uud

y . T qu mm, u um. T

mm my u, y . A

u um ud ud

, . A ‑uy ud

D. dy ud d. I

y y y u. Appe to Ignorne , md

my m

y y. I uy um

: “S‑d‑ mu u, beuse ou nnot prove tht




122

it is not.” A B y: “ u m

d, u x md

x, d y Hum y. T fd d y

.”

Introdution o New Mtter , d Non Sequitur ,

m dud u

m. Hy xm : “A

m rtion ; S m; , S

nobe.” D M m mx xm:“Ey Su ; T Cu Ed

y E u Ed; , u

d u u ud.”

O , m m

md, :

F o Ambiguous erms , d m

m d ud du u um. A J y: “A d d m is re two

words.”

Conusion between Coetive n Gener Menings o

erm , J y: “I ud uy ud

u u B Muum Ly

u m u K Ad, y

u u . By ‘ B Muum Ly,’ m tken together . T

my u d, d

um u x

d.”

Arguing rom the Coetive to the Gener , y

u u m u

u , u y . J y: “ A d m my

u , u ud u ever

d m ud u dd.



Fallacies

123

W d m ; u

u my m m.”

Unertin Mening o Sentene , m u d u um my . J y: “T

umu y mu :

Bu m no ; d no t

; , n .” H y

u punning “.”

Proving the Wrong Conusion , m

u u md, u m m d. J y: “T

d Im, d

d , d m d ;

d thirt d not m d

. Equy d m d

m, d d, ‘I m m; I m

.’”F o Unsuessu Argument , md

u beuse ertin rgument hs ied

the opposite onusion is proven. T y qu mm,

y ju. O d

, d juy u

mu . T y u,

y y third x. I m ibi ju y. T

u m ibi d

u u ud. Od

y u md ibi d

ju ud m d d

m. Y, ,

dy y u . A J d:“No number o iures in ttempting to prove proposition re

disprove it.” A d u my d

m m; i. e. , “ .”




124

A Viotions o the Rues o the Sogism u ,

my y m ym

m u.T , uy m,

d d nme ,

my ‑ u, d y

dd uy. Sm

umd my y m m, u

md my d

mm . A udd udm L R u x d um , d

u udd m u mmz

nmes ‑ ud d

d.

I dd d Ddu

R, m

Indutive Resoning . L u y d m.Hst nd Fse Generiztion mm y .

P mm qu ddu

, d my ddu

mu m qu. quy mm

y. Em Ud S

u u u

m m m duu z d Am , d u

d ddu,

. Am d mm m

. A y u uy d d

uy z. A B y:

“N y ud d u u

umu du d.”Fies o Observtion u m md

m my md :

(1) Creess Observtion , x d ;

(2) Prti Observtion , y



Fallacies

125

, m md, d u m

m d m ;

(3) Neget o Exeptions nd Contrditor Fts , x d dy d, y

udu m d ; (4) Assumption o

Fts , um u

uu; (5) Conusing o Inerenes with Fts ,

m u.

Fies o Mistken Cuse u m um

u, , m xm: Substituting the Anteedent or the Cuse ,

um m d use

. Tu m um

use dy, u preeded ;

m u u d

; u d d

d used d, u d y y d y dd;

d u Pd y d

uud m . Sm ydy

qu ju md.

Substituting the Smptom or the Cuse ,

um use m m ymm, d

u. um m m use d, ud mm y

d. W md y ud

um ‑ u Cz, d

m d . P d um

d d, uses

y, uu d dm d,

. O m u, qu , um u y,

m um m. O,

dud , m .




126

Te F o Anog um m

dy, x. W

. B y, : “I y y y ; m y

mu m Gd m uju jud.”

I u, ud yu

d m J, x m:

“I m md ,

d, orret resoning onsists in substituting ike things or

ike things , d u u m m d

m. O d, inorret resoning onsists

in putting one thing or nother where there is not the requisite

ikeness. I u u ddu d du

u jud u

y y m m .”

inis.



Bibliography

A, Wm W. Te Art o Logi Tinking or Te Lws o Resoning .

C, IL: T P Cmy, 1909.

Documents

Art of Logical Thinking in 3rd Dimension