Armstrong - Naturalism, Materialism and First Philosophy - 1978.pdf

8/11/2019 Armstrong - Naturalism, Materialism and First Philosophy - 1978.pdf

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N A T U R A L I S M , M A T E R I A L I SM A N D

F I R S T P H I L O S O P H Y

D.M. ARMSTRONG

I n t h e f ir s t s e c t io n o f t h i s p a p e r I d e f i n e a n d d e f e n d a

sp a t i o - t e m p o r a l a c c o u n t o f t h e g e n e r al n a t u r e o f re a l i ty . I c a ll t h is

d o c t r i n e N a t u r a l i sm . I n t h e s e c o n d s e c t i o n I d e f in e a n d d e f e n d

t h e so m e w h a t m o r e sp e c if ic , a l t h o u g h s ti ll v e r y g e n e r a l, d o c t r i n e

of Mate r i a l i sm o r Phys ica l i sm. ( I t ake i t t o be a sub- spec ies o f

N a t u r a li s m . ) H o w e v e r , i f w e d e fi n e o n t o l o g y o r f ir s t p h i l o s o p h y

a s t h e m o s t a b s t r a c t o r g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f r e a l i t y , t h e n i t s e e m s

t h a t n e i t h e r M a t e ri a li sm n o r e v e n N a t u r a l i sm i s a n o n t o l o g y . I n t h e

t h i r d s e c t i o n I sk e t c h v e r y b r i e f l y t h e o n t o l o g y w h i c h I f a v o u r .

U n l i k e t h a t a d o p t e d b y m a n y N a t u r a l i s ts a n d M a te r ia l is t s, i t a d -

mi t s bo th pa r t i cu la r s and un ive r sa l s . I t i s Rea l i s t i c , no t Nomina l -

i s t ic . I m a in ta in , i n pa r t i cu la r , t ha t on ly b y ado p t ing a Rea l i s t i c

( b u t n o t P l a t o n i s ti c ) a c c o u n t o f u n i v er sal s c a n t h e N a t u r a l is t a n d

the M ate r ia l i s t so lve the p ress ing p ro b lem s o f the na tu re o f causa -

t i o n a n d o f l aw - l ik e c o n n e c t i o n .

aturalism

N atura l i sm I de f ine as the doc t r ine th a t r ea l i ty cons i s t s o f

n o t h i n g b u t a s in gle a l l- e m b r a c i n g sp a t i o - t e m p o r a l sy s t e m . I t i s

c o n v e n i e n t h e r e t o d i s t i n g u i sh t h i s p r o p o s i t i o n f r o m t h e w e a k e r

c l a im t h a t r e a l i ty a t l e a st c o n t a i n s a s a p a r t a sp a t i o - t e m p o r a l

sy s t e m . I w i ll s a y so m e t h i n g i n d e f e n c e o f t h e w e a k e r c l ai m f i rs t ,

a n d t h e n d e f e n d t h e v i ew t h a t r e a l i t y is n o t h i n g b u t t h i s sp a t io -

t e m p o r a l s y s te m .

I t is d if f ic u l t t o d e n y t h a t a sp a t i - t e m p o r a l sy s t e m

appears

to

e x i s t . B u t , o f c o u r se , m a n y p h i l o so p h e r s h a v e d e n i e d t h a t t h i s

a p p e a r a n c e i s a r e a l it y . Le i b n i z is a n e x a m p l e . H e h e l d t h a t r e a l i ty

c o n s is t s o f t h e m o n a d s a n d t h a t sp a c e a n d t i m e a re i ll u si o ns , e v e n

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D M ARMSTRONG

i f i l l u s i o n s w h i c h h a v e so m e sy s t e m a t i c l i n k w i t h r e a l i t y . Le i b n i z

was a t l eas t a p lu ra l i s t. Bu t fo r Pa rm en ides , fo r Hege l and fo r

Brad ley , re a l i t y is no t a p lu ra l i t y bu t i s s im ply one . [he spa t io -

t e m p o r a l s y s t e m is a n a p p e a r a n c e w h i ch c o m p l e t e l y o r a lm o s t

c o m p l e t e l y m i s r e p re s e n ts t h e o n e .

I w i l l n o t sp e n d a n y t i m e c o n s i d e r in g su c h v i e w s , d e sp i t e t h e i r

i m p o r t a n c e . Th e a rg u m e n t s u se d t o e s t a b li sh t h e m a re a ll

a p r i o r i

I be l i eve tha t t hey can a l l be answered . Bu t in any case , a s an

Em p i r i c is t , I r e j e ct t h e w h o l e c o n c e p t i o n o f e s ta b l ish i n g su c h

resu l t s by

a p r i o r i

a r g u m e n t a t i o n .

B u t t h e N a t u ra l is t m a y s e e m t o f a c e a c h a ll e ng e t o t h e v i ew

t h a t t h e re is a sp a t i o - t e m p o ra l sy s t e m f ro m a so u rc e w h i c h

he m us t t ake m or e se r ious ly : f r om n a tu ra l sc i ence i t se lf . I t i s t he

i m p r e s s io n o f a n o u t s i d e r l ik e m y s e l f t h a t

s o m e

specu la t ions in

fu n d a m e n t a l p h y s i c s le a d t o t h e c o n c l u s io n t h a t , a t d e e p l ev e ls o f

e x p l a n a t i o n , sp a c e a n d t i m e d i s so l ve a n d r e q u i r e t o b e r e p la c e d b y

o t h e r , m o re fu n d a m e n t a l , p r i n c i p l e s .

H o w e v e r , I su g g e s t t h a t su c h sp e c u l a t i o n s n e e d n o t p e r t u rb

the Na tu ra l i s t . I be l i eve tha t he shou ld d raw the fami l i a r d i s -

t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n d e n y i n g t h a t a c e r t a i n e n t i t y e x i s ts a n d g iv in g a n

a c c o u n t o f t h a t e n t i t y i n t e rm s o f o t h e r e n t it ie s . I t is a v e ry

e x t r e m e v i e w to d e n y t h a t t h e w o r l d h a s sp a t i o - t e m p o ra l f e a t u re s .

I f in d i t h a rd t o b e l ie v e t h a t e v e n th e m o s t f a r - f e t c h e d sp e c u -

l a t ions in fundamenta l phys ics requ i re such a den ia l . Bu t i t i n -

v o lv e s n o su c h d e n ia l t o a s s e r t t h a t t h e sp a t i o - t e m p o ra l f e a t u re s o f

t h in g s c a n b e u l t i m a t e l y a n a l y z e d i n t e rm s w h i c h d o n o t i n v ol v e

a n y a p p e a l t o sp a t i o - t e m p o ra l n o t i o n s . T h e N a t u ra l is t , a s I h a v e

d e f i n e d N a t u ra l i sm , is c o m m i t t e d t o t h e a s se r ti o n t h a t t h e re is a

sp a t i o - t e m p o ra l sy s t e m . B u t M ~y i s h e c o m m i t t e d t o a s s e rt in g t h a t

s p a t i o - te m p o r a l i ty c a n n o t b e a n a l y ze d i n t e r m s o f n o n -s p a t io -

t e m p o ra l p r i n c i p l e s? W h a t i s n o t u l t i m a t e m a y y e t b e r e a l . I

su p p o se t h a t i f t h e p r i n c ip l e s in v o l v e d w e re c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t

f ro m t h e c u r r e n t p r i n c i p l e s o f p h y s i c s , i n p a r t i c u l a r i f t h e y i n v o l v e

a p p e a l t o m e n t a l e n t i t i e s , su c h a s p u rp o se s , w e m i g h t t h e n c o u n t

the ana lys i s a s a fa l s i f i ca t ion o f Na tu ra l i sm. Bu t the Na tu ra l i s t

n e e d m a k e n o m o re c o n c e s s i o n t h a n t i f f s .

C o n s i d e r , a s a p a ra l le l e x a m p l e , t h e a t t i t u d e o f M a t e r ia l is t s

t o w a r d s

p u r p o s e s

Th e re a r e so m e M a te r ia l is t s w h o d e n y t h a t m e n

a n d o t h e r o rg a n i sm s h a v e p u rp o se s . Th i s s e e m s t o m e t o b e a q u i t e

f o o li s h p o s i t io n t o a d o p t . M a t e ri al is m m a y b e t r u e - m y h y p o -

thes is i s t ha t i t is t rue - bu t i t is a specu la t ive doc t r ine . T he

e x i s te n c e o f p u rp o se s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i s a p l a i n m a t t e r o f f a c t .

Th e p ru d e n t M a t er ia l is t w i ll t h e r e fo re a rg u e in t h e fo l lo w i n g w a y .

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D M AR M ST R ONG

n u m b e r s a n d t r a n s c e n d e n t s t a n d a rd s o f v a lu e . De s c a r t e s ' s p ir i tu a l

s u b s ta n c e s i n t e r a c t w i th m a t t e r , a n d P e p p e r ' s t h i rd w o r ld i n t e r -

a c ts w i t h t h e s e c o n d w o r l d o f m i n d , w h i c h i n t u r n i n t er a c ts

wi th mate r ia l th ings .

Nev er the less , the re a re ve ry g rea t d i f f icu l t ie s invo lved in ho ld -

in g t h a t a n y o f t h e s e t r a n s c e n d e n t e n t i t i e s a c t u p o n th e s p a t i o -

t e m p o r a l s y s t e m .

F i r s t , the re a re log ica l o r concep tua l d i f f icu l t i e s . A g rea t many

o f t h e se e n t i ti e s a r e n o t t h o u g h t o f as c a p a b le o f c h a n g e . Th i s

h o ld s fo r t r a n s c e n d e n t u n iv e rs a ls , t h e r e a lm o f n u mb e r s a n d v a lu e s,

p ro p o s i t i o n s , n o n -e x i s t e n t o b j e c t s , p o s s ib l e wo r ld s a n d a b s t r a c t

c lasses . In many theo log ica l sys tems , God i s t aken no t to change .

Now in typ ica l cases o f causa t ion , one change brings about an-

o th e r . I t f o l lo ws th a t , i f t h e se e n t i ti e s w o rk c a u s a ll y i n t h e wo r ld ,

t h e y d o n o t w o r k i n th is t y p i c al w a y . H o w , t h e n , d o t h e y w o r k ?

C o u l d t h e y b e c o n c e i v ed o f a s susta ining c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s o f t h e

n a tu r a l wo r ld , o r a s e x e r t i n g so me s o r t o f s t e a d y , u n c ha n g in g

pressure u p o n i t wh ic h , wh e n c e r t a in c i r c u ms ta n c e s a r i s e i n n a tu r e ,

g ives r i se to ce r ta in e f fec t s? Such a no t ion i s pe rhaps ba re ly

poss ib le , bu t the ac tua l iden t i f i ca t ion of such a l leged causal opera-

t ion i s a ma jo r d i f f icu l ty . For ins tance , where sus ta in ing causes a re

p o s t u l a t e d in na ture h y p o th e s e s a b o u t s u c h c a u s e s c a n b e t e s t e d

by obse rv ing s i tua t ions w here the a lleged sus ta in ing cause is ab -

sen t . I f the a l leged e f fec t i s a l so absen t , the hypo thes i s i s sup-

por ted . Bu t no such ve r i f ica t ion i s poss ib le , even in p r inc ip le , in

the case o f unchang ing en t i t i e s .

In the Parmenides 133b-134e , P la to goes so fa r a s to ra i se

lo g i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r t h e c o n c e p t io n o f any re la t ion at a l l ( a n d s o

a f o r t i o r i a ca u s al o n e ) b e tw e e n th e F o rm s a n d s p a t i o - te m p o ra l

par t iculars .

Ev e n in t h e r e l a t i v e ly s t r a ig h t fo rwa rd c a s e o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n

o f s p i ri t u a l su b s t a n c e w i th ma te r i a l b o d y , c o n c e p tu a l d i f f i c u lt i es

h a v e b e e n r a is e d . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e im p o s s ib i li t y o f s p e c ify in g a n y

me c h a n i s m o r o th e r e x p l a n a t io n o f h o w th e s p i r i t a c t s u p o n i t s

b o d y h a s b e e n t h o u g h t t o b e a p ro b l e m . De s c a r te s h ims e l f , a s

ev iden ced in pa r t icu la r b y h i s co r resp ond enc e w i th P r incess Eliza-

b e th , t h o u g h t t h a t t h e a c t i o n o f s p ir i t o n m a t t e r in v o lv e d s o me

c o n c e p tu a l d i f f i c u l t y .

I n t h e c a se o f ma n y o f t h e p o s tu l a t e d t r a n s c e n d e n t e n t i t ie s ,

t h e r e n e v e r w a s a n y t h o u g h t o f c r e d i ti n g t h e m w i t h c au s al p o w e r

in th e na tu ra l w or ld . Poss ib le wo r lds , fo r ins tanc e , are no t th ou gh t

to a c t u p o n th e a c tu a l wo r ld . Bu t e v e n in t h e c a s e o f e n t i ti e s

o r ig in a l l y c r e d i t e d w i th p o we r i n t h e n a tu r a l wo r ld , c o n s id e r a t i o n s

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NATURA LISM MATERIALISM AND FIRST PHILOSOPHY

o f t h e so r t j u s t sk e t c h e d h a v e b e e n a n i m p o r t a n t p r e s su re to w a rd s

d e n y i n g t h a t t h e y h a d s u c h p o w e r .

I c o n fe s s , h o w e v e r , t h a t i t i s n o t u p o n t h e se c o n c e p t u a l

d i f f ic u l t ie s t h a t I , a s a N a t u ra l i s t, w o u l d p l a c e t h e m o s t w e i g h t .

In s t e a d , I w o u l d a p p e a l t o n a t u ra l s c i e n c e . I t s e e m s t o m e t h a t t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e n a t u ra l s c ie n c e s v e ry s t ro n g l y sug g e st s t h a t

N a t u re , t h e sp a t i o - t e m p o ra l sy s t e m , is a causally self-enclosed sys-

tem. We have ra the r good sc i en t i f i c reasons to be l i eve tha t , wha t -

ever occurs in th i s sys t em, i f i t has a cause a t a l l , i s caused so le ly

b y o t h e r e v e n t s (p ro c e s se s ,

etc .

i n t h e s p a t i o - t e m p o r a l s y s t e m . O f

c o u r se , t h i s p ro p o s i t i o n is n o t su sc e p t i b le o f st r ic t p ro o f . B u t in

t h e p re se n t s t a t e o f s c i e n ti f ic k n o w l e d g e , i t l o o k s a p ro m i s i n g b e t .

I n t h e p a s t , r e l ig i ou s t h i n k e r s th o u g h t o f G o d a s i n t e rv e n i n g

f r e e l y i n t h e sp a t i o - t e m p o ra l w o r l d . H e m i g h t g iv e v i c t o ry t o t h e

r i g h t e o u s o r a n sw e r p ra y e r s fo r r a i n i n d e f ia n c e o f t h e wa y th a t

ma t t e r s w o u ld h a ve sh a p ed i f t h e sp a tio -t e mp o ra l s y s te m h a d b e en

le f t to i ts own devices . But even those who s t i l l be l i eve in a

t r a n sc e n d e n t G o d a r e in c re a s in g l y r e l u c t a n t t o b e l ie v e t h a t h e a c ts

u p o n N a t u re i n t h i s w a y . Th e y h o l d t h a t h e c r e a t e d i t , a n d c r e a t e d

i t f o r a p u rp o se w h i c h is w o rk i n g i ts e l f o u t . B u t d o e s h e e v e r

i n t e rv e n e ?

C o n s i d e r , a g a i n , t h e D u a l i s t t h e o ry o f t h e m i n d . D e sc a r te s sa w

c l e a r l y t h a t , i f D u a l i s t I n t e r a c t i o n i sm w a s t o b e m a d e p l a u s i b l e ,

t h e n h e m u s t p o s t u l a t e p l a c e s i n t h e h u m a n b r a i n w h e r e p h y s i c a l

e v e n t s o c c u r r e d w h o se i m m e d i a t e c a u se s w e re , i n p a r t a t l e a s t,

sp i r it u a l h a p p e n i n g s . H e g u e s se d t h a t t h is h a p p e n e d i n t h e p i n e a l

g l a n d , b u t w e n o w k n o w t h a t t h e p i n e a l g l a n d c a n p l a y n o su c h

ro l e . W h e re , t h e n , d o sp i r i t u a l h a p p e n i n g s h a v e t h e i r i m m e d i a t e

p h y s i c a l e f f e c t s ? N o b o d y h a s c o m e u p w i t h a p l a u s i b l e su g g e s t i o n .

M o s t n e u r o p h y s i o l o g i s t s w o u l d b e a s t o u n d e d t o h e a r t h a t w h a t

h a p p e n s t o t h e b ra i n h a s a n y o t h e r c a u se e x c e p t e a r l i e r s t a t e s o f

t h e b ra i n a n d i t s p h y s i c a l e n v i ro n m e n t .

Y e t t h e c a ses o f G o d a n d t h e so u l a r e t h e t w o m o s t p la u s ib l e

c a se s o f t h in g s o u t s i d e t h e sp a t i o - t e m p o ra l sy s t e m a c t i n g u p o n i t .

( I t is n o t e w o r t h y t h a t t h e y a re th e t w o e x a m p l e s t h a t non-phi lo-

sophers w o u l d b e m o s t l i k e l y t o g iv e o f th i n gs o u t s id e N a t u re

a c t in g u p o n n a t u re . ) I f t h e a n t i -N a t u ra l is t c a se i s w e a k h e re , i t i s

f a r m o re u n p ro m i s i n g i n t h e o t h e r c a se s . S u p p o se , f o r i n s t a n c e ,

t h a t t h e re i s a t r a n sc e n d e n t r e a l m o f n u m b e r s . H o w sc i e n t i f i c a l l y

i m p la u s ib l e t o t h i n k t h a t t h is r e a l m , o r m e m b e r s o f t h is r e a l m , c a n

a c t o n b ra i n s

S o le t u s n o w e x p l o r e t h e o t h e r h o r n o f t h e d i le m m a . L e t us

a s su m e t h a t n o t r a n sc e n d e n t e n t i t y a c t s i n n a t u re . I m a i n t a i n t h a t

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th i s remedy i s worse than the d i sease . The an t i -Na tu ra l i s t goes

f rom a ho t f ry ing-pan in to a b laz ing f i re .

Th e a rg u me n t i s s imp ly t h i s . Th e s p a t i o - t e mp o ra l s y s t e m c e r -

ta in ly ex is t s . Whether any th ing e l se ex is t s i s con t rovers ia l . I f any

e n t i ti e s o u t s id e t h e s y s t e m a r e p o s tu la t e d , b u t h a v e n o e f f e c t o n

th e s y s t e m, t h e r e i s n o c o mp e l in g r e a s o n to p o s tu l a t e t h e m.

Oc c a m ' s r a z o r t h e n e n jo in s u s n o t t o p o s tu l a t e t h e m.

Natu ra l sc ience has made spec tacu la r advances as a re su l t o f

th e p o s tu l a t i o n o f u n o b s e rv a b l e e n t i t i e s . Co n s id e r m ic ro b e s , g e n e s,

a to ms , mo le c u l e s , e l e c t ro n s , q u a rk s a n d b l a c k h o l e s . Th e v a lu e o f

such pos tu la t ions i s a s tand ing rep roach to any pos i t iv i s t i c con-

c e p t io n o f n a tu r a l s c i e n ce . No w , c o n te m p o ra ry a n a ly t i c p h i lo -

sophers a re d eep ly a f fe c ted by the jus t i f i ed reac t ion agains t pos i -

t iv i sm. As a resu l t , the fash ionab le de fence o f t ranscenden t en t i t i e s

i s t o c o m p a re t h e m w i th t h e t h e o re t i c a l e n t i ti e s o f n a tu r a l sc i e nc e

o f the so r t jus t m en t ion ed . Fo r ins tance , ab s t r ac t c la sses (classes

o v e r a n d a b o v e t h e a gg re ga te s o f t h e i r m e m b e r s ) a re p o s tu l a t e d o n

th e g ro u n d th a t , b y t h e i r me a n s , we c a n e x p la in wh a t ma th e ma t i c s

i s a b o u t , m a th e m a t i c s wh ic h is i n t u rn r e q u i r e d fo r t h e t r u th o f

p h y s i c s , wh ic h e x p la in s t h e wo rk in g s o f n a tu r e . Th e j u s t i f ic a t i o n

fo r t h e i n t ro d u c t io n o f a b s t r a c t cla ss es is t h u s n o d i f f e r e n t f r o m

th e ju s t i f i c a t io n fo r t h e i n t ro d u c t io n o f e l e c t ro n s .

In fac t , however , the resemblance i s super f ic ia l on ly . There i s

th i s v i ta l d i f fe rence . A bs t rac t c lasses, to con t inu e wi th these as ou r

e x a m p le , p ro v id e o b j e c t s wh o s e e x i s t e n c e , p e rh a p s , c a n s e rv e as

th e truth conditions f o r t h e p r o p o s i t i o n s o f m a t h e m a t i c s . B u t t h i s

semantic f u n c t i o n i s t h e o n l y f u n c t i o n t h a t t h e y p e r f o r m . T h e y d o

n o t bring about a n y th in g p h y s i c a l i n t h e wa y th a t g e n e s a n d

e l e c t ro n s d o . I n wh a t wa y , t h e n , c a n t h e y h e lp t o e x p l a in t h e

b e h a v io u r o f p h y s i ca l t h in g s ? P h y s ic s r e q u ir e s ma th e m a t i c s . T h a t i s

n o t i n d i s p u t e . Bu t mu s t i t n o t b e p o s s ib l e t o g iv e a n e x p la n a t io n

o f t h e t r u t h - c o n d i ti o n s o f m a t h e m a t ic a l s t a t e m e n t s p u r e l y in t e r m s

o f t h e p h y s i c a l p h e n o m e n a w h i c h t h e y a p p l y t o ?

Co n s id e r , as a p a r al le l , t h e d i s p u t e i n t h e p h i lo s o p h y o f

p e r c e p t i o n b e t w e e n u p h o l d e rs o f t h e R e p r e s e n ta t iv e t h e o r y a n d

th e P h e n o me n a l i s t s . Th e fo rm e r t h e o ry p o s tu l a t e s p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s

beh ind the im m edia te ly pe rce ived sense -da ta , the la t te r g ives an

a c c o u n t o f p h y s i c a l r e a l i t y i n t e rms o f s e n s e -d a t a a lo n e . A l th o u g h

I r e j e c t b o th t h e o r i e s , I h a v e n o d o u b t t h a t t h e fo rm e r is b y f a r

t h e m o r e s a t is f a c to r y . S u p p o s e , h o w e v e r , t h a t w e w e r e to k n o c k

a w a y t h e c e n t r a l p r o p o f t h e R e p r e s e n t a t i v e t h e o r y a n d d e n y t h a t

p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s h a d a n y p o we r t o

cause

sense -da ta . The Repre -

s e n t a ti v e t h e o ry w o u ld t h e n b e a wo r th l e ss o n e . I t w o u ld b e a b a d

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j o k e t o s u p p o r t i t b y p o i n t in g o u t t h a t t h e p o s t u l a te d o b j e c t s a t

l e a s t p ro v i d e t ru t h -c o n d i t i o n s fo r p h y s i c a l -o b j e c t s t a t e m e n t s . I f ,

f u r t h e r m o r e , t h e o n l y p o s s ib le a l te r n a ti v e t h e o r y w a s P h e n o m e n -

a l ism , t h e n w e w o u l d b e u n d e r i n t e ll e c t u a l n e c e s s i t y t o a c c e p t

s o m e P h e n o m a n a l is t a c c o u n t o f p h y s i ca l - o b je c t s t a t e m e n t s . E q u a l -

ly , I sugges t, i f t he an t i -Na tu ra l i s t fails t o en do w h is t rans cen den t

poss ib i l i t i e s , numbers , c l a sses , etc. w i t h a n y t h i s -w o r l d l y p o w e r s ,

t h e n t h e y e x p l a i n n o t h i n g . W e m u s t i n si s t, a g a in s t h i m , t h a t

s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t p o s s ib i li ti e s, n u m b e r s , c l as s es

etc.

be g iven a

t h i s -w o r l d l y i n t e rp re t a t i o n .

W h a t t h e se i n t e rp re t a t i o n s a r e t o b e i s , o f c o u r se , a v e ry

d i f fi c u lt m a t t e r . I n t h e c a s e o f t h e s t a t e m e n t s o f m a t h e m a t i c s , f o r

i n s t a n c e , I d o n o t k n o w t h a t w e h a v e a c u r r e n t l y s a t i s f a c t o ry

t h is - w o r ld l y a c c o u n t o f t h e m . B u t t h e re s u r e l y m u s t b e s u c h a n

a c c o u n t . Th e i n c re d i b le u se fu ln e s s o f m a t h e m a t i c s in r e a so n i n g

a b o u t n a t u r e s e e m s t o g u a r a n t e e t hi s. I t m u s t t h e n b e c o r r e c t to

p re fe r su c h a n a c c o u n t t o o n e w h i c h p o s t u l a t e s p o w e r l e s s e n t i t ie s

o u t s i d e t h a t w o r l d .

I n P l a t o s Sophist the Elea t i c S t ranger sugges ts t ha t pow er i s

t h e m a r k o f b e i n g (2 7 4 D - E ) . I t h i n k h e is a t l e a s t t h is fa r

c o r r e c t : i f a t h i n g l a c k s a n y p o w e r , i f i t h a s n o p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s ,

t h e n , a l t h o u g h i t m a y e x i s t , w e c a n n e v e r h a v e a n y good reason to

b e l ie v e t h a t i t e x i s ts . L i k e a l l c o n t e m p o ra r y a n a l y t i c p h i l o so p h e r s ,

I r e j e c t t h e V e r i f i c a t io n p r i n c ip l e . B u t p e rh a p s t h e V e r i f ic a t i o n

p r i n c i p le d o e s g ro p e fo r a t r u t h : t h e E l e a t ic S t r a n g e r s p r i n c ip l e

w e a k e n e d i n t h e w a y t h a t I h a v e su g g e s t e d . A n d i f i t i s o n l y

sp a t i o - t e m p o ra l t h in g s w h i c h h a v e p o w e r t h e p r i n c ip l e b i d s u s

p o s t u l a t e n o o t h e r r e a l i t i e s .

I t s e e m s , t h e n , t h a t t h e a n t i-N a t u ra l i st w h o n e v e r t h e le s s a d -

m i t s t h e e x i st e n c e o f a s p a t io - t e m p o r a l r e a li ty m u s t t r y to e n d o w

h i s e x t r a e n t it i e s w i t h p o w e r t o a f f e c t t h a t r e a l i ty , o n p a i n o f

m a k i n g h i s p o s t u l a t i o n o t i o se . Y e t , i n t h e p re se n t s t a t e o f s c ie n ti -

f i c k n o w l e d g e , i t s e e m s i m p l a u s i b l e t o e n d o w t h e se e n t i t i e s w i t h

su c h p o w e r . I c o n c l u d e t h a t w e h a v e r a t h e r g o o d r e a so n s fo r

a c c e p t i n g N a t u ra l i sm .

I I

Materialism

I t s e e m s b e s t t o t a k e M a t er i al ism a s a su b - sp e ci e s o f N a t u ra l -

i s m . C o n t e m p o r a r y M a te r ia li sm c a n , o f c o u r s e, c l a im t o b e n o

m o r e t h a n t h e d e s c e n d e n t o f t h e M a t e ri al is m o f L e u c i p p u s , L u -

c re t iu s a n d H o b b e s . I f o l l o w J .J .C . S m a r t ( 1 9 6 3 ) a n d i d e n t i fy

2 6 7


8/16

D IVl A R M S T R O N G

c o n te m p o ra ry M a te ri a li sm o r P h y si c a li s m) w i th t h e v i ew th a t t h e

wo r ld c o n t a in s n o th in g b u t t h e e n t i t i e s r e c o g n iz e d b y p h y s i c s .

C o n te m p o r a ry M a te ri a li sm t a k e s a R e a li st ic vi ew o f t h e t h e o re t i c a l

e n t i ti e s o f p h y s ic s - m o le c u l e , a to m , fu n d a m e n ta l p a r t i c le a n d s o

on - and th en asse r ts tha t e ve ry th in g the re is i s w ho l ly cons t i -

t u t e d b y s u c h e n t i t i e s , t h e i r c o n n e c t io n s a n d a r r a n g e me n t s .

Th e N a tu ra l i s t , w e saw, has f ir s t to de fe nd h imse l f aga ins t the

o b je c t i o n t h a t , s o f a r f r o m b e in g t h e s o l e r e a l i t y , t h e s p a t i o -

t e mp o ra l s y s t e m i s n o t r e a l a t a l l . I n t h e s a me wa y , e v e n a f t e r

Na tu r a li s m h a s b e e n a c c e p t e d , t h e M a te r ia l is t m u s t d e f e n d h im s e l f

a g ain st t h e o b j e c t i o n t h a t , s o f a r f r o m th e t h e o re t i c a l e n t i ti e s o f

phys ics b e ing th e so le rea l it i e s , al l tha t i s rea l a re o rd ina r y m acro-

s c o p ic o b j e c t s . S u c h a v i ew is h e ld b y t h o s e w h o t a k e a n In s t ru -

m e n t a l i s t o r O p e r a t i o n a l i s t v i e w o f p h y s i c s . T h e y d o n o t d e n y t h e

t r u t h o f t h e p r o p o s i ti o n s o f p hy s i cs , b u t t h e y d e n y t h a t t h e

t r u t h - c o n d i ti o n s o f t h es e p r o p o s i ti o n s r e q u i re t h e e x i s t e n ce o f a n y

o f t h e

ent i t ies

w h i c h t h e p r o p o s i t i o n s a p p e a r t o n a m e . T h e p r o -

p o s i ti o n s o f p h y s i cs d o n o t h i n g b u t t e ll u s h o w m a c r o s c o p ic

o b je c t s b e h a v e .

Th e c r e d i t o f s u c h d o c t r i n e s is n o w d e s e rv e d ly l o w , as l o w a s

t h e c r e d i t o f P h e n o m e n a l i s m a b o u t o r d i n a r y m a c r o s c o p i c o b j e c t s .

On e s t r i k in g a rg u me n t , wh ic h I f i r s t h e a rd p u t f o rwa rd b y C . B .

M a r t i n , i s d r a wn f ro m p h y s i c s i t s e l f . Ac c o rd in g t o p h y s i c a l t h e o ry ,

m a c ro s c o p ic o b j e c t s c o n s i s t o f f u n d a m e n ta l p a r t i c le s as s o c i at e d

wi th e a c h o th e r i n c o mp le x wa y s . Bu t p h y s i c a l t h e o ry a l s o a l l o ws

th a t t h e s e p a r t i c l e s ma y e x i s t n o t s o a s s o c i a t e d w i th e a c h o th e r ,

a n d i t is th e o re t i c a l l y p o s s ib l e t h a t n o n e o f t h e m s h o u ld b e s o

assoc ia ted . In such a theo re t ica l ly poss ib le s ta te o f a ffa i r s the r e

w o u l d b e n o m a c r o s c o p i c o b j e c t s a l t h o u g h t h e r e w o u l d b e f u n d a -

m e n ta l p a r t i c le s . Bu t , i f ln s t ru me n ta l i s m o r O p e ra t io n a l i s m i s c o r -

rec t , th i s s ta te o f a f fa i r s shou ld be log ica l ly imposs ib le .

I b e l ie v e , t h e r e fo r e , t h a t we s h o u ld t a k e a Re a li s ti c v i ew o f

the en t i t i e s o f phys ics . We saw in d i scuss ing Na tu ra l i sm tha t to

a c c e p t t h e r e a l i ty o f t h e sp a t i o - t e mp o ra l sy s t e m d o e s n o t p r e c lu d e

th e v ie w th a t a d e e p e r a na lys is o f t h a t s y s t e m ma y y e t b e g iv e n i n

t e rms wh ic h d o n o t in v o lv e s p a t i o - t e mp o ra l n o t io n s . I n t h e sa me

wa y , o f c o u r s e , t o t a k e a R e a li s ti c vi ew o f p h y s i c s d o e s n o t r u l e

ou t the poss ib i l i ty o f reach ing a deep er leve l o f ana lys i s in te rm s

o f wh ic h a r e d u c t iv e a c c o u n t i s g iv e n o f t h e e n t i t i e s a n d p r in c ip l e s

c u r r e n t ly t r e a t e d a s f u n d a me n ta l .

Th e ma in d i f f i c u l t i e s p ro p o s e d fo r c o n t e mp o ra ry M a te r i a l i s m ,

a t a n y r a t e b y c o n te m p o ra ry p h i lo s o p h e r s , a r e t h o s e o f t h e a p p a r-

e n t irreducible intention l i ty o f m e n ta l p ro c e s s e s, a n d t h e a p p a re n t

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NATUR ALISM MATERIALISM AND FIRST PHILOSOPHY

irreducible simplicity o f t h e s e c o n d a ry q u a l it ie s . A w o rd a b o u t

each .

F i r s t, i n t e n t i o n a l i t y . G i v e n w h a t I t a k e t o b e t h e u t t e r i m -

p l a u s i b il i ty o f B e h a v i o u r i sm , t h e n i t s e e m s t h a t a M a t e ri a li s t m u s t

f o ll o w H o b b e s a n d i d e n t i f y m e n t a l p r o c es s e s w i t h s o m e s u b- s et o f

p ro c e s se s i n t h e c e n t r a l n e rv o u s sy s t e m . B u t n o w c o n s i d e r su c h

p a ra d i g m e x a m p l e s o f m e n t a l p ro c e s se s a s p u rp o se s a n d b e l i e f s .

Th e y h a v e t h e c h a ra c t e r i s t i c o f intentionality: t h e y p o i n t t o a

p o s s i b le r e a l it y - t h e t h i n g p u rp o se d o r b e l ie v e d - w h i c h m a y o r

m a y n o t e x i s t . B re n t a n o h e l d t h a t i n t e n t i o n a l i t y w a s a d e f i n i n g

c h a ra c t e r i s t i c o f m e n t a l p ro c e s se s ; a n d , m o re t o t h e c u r r e n t p o i n t ,

t ha t i t was an ir reduc ib le c harac t e r i s t i c . I f i n t en t iona l i ty i s i r -

r e d u c i b l e , t h e n M a t e ri a li sm i s f a ls e . ( I r r e d u c i b l e i n t e n t i o n a l i t y m a y

b e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h Naturalism. F o r su c h a n i r r e d u c i b l e c h a ra c t e r -

i s t i c h a s n o p l a c e i n p h y s i c s a s w e n o w c o n c e i v e p h y s i c s . Th e

M a t e r i a l i s t i s t h e re fo re c o m m i t t e d t o g i v i n g so m e reductive ac-

c o u n t o f t h e i n t e n t i o n a l i t y o f m e n t a l p ro c e s se s . S u c h a n a c c o u n t is

no t a l l t ha t easy to g ive .

A se c o n d o b j e c t i o n t o M a t e r i a l i sm i s p ro v i d e d b y t h e a l l e g e d

i r reduc ib i l i t y o f t he secondary qua l i t i e s , o r , a s Herber t Fe ig l ca l l s

t h e m , t h e r a w f e e l s . (H is p h ra se is so m e w h a t te n d e n t i o u s b e -

cause i t begs the ques t ion in favou r o f a subjectivist a c c o u n t o f

these qua l i t ie s . ) I f t he y a re i r reduc ib le , t hey fa l l ou t s ide the scop e

o f p h y s i c s . Th e y a r e , i n F e i g l' s f a m o u s p h ra se , n o m o l o g i c a l

d a n g l e r s . T h e y c a n o n l y b e l in k e d t o p h y s i c a l s t a t e s o f a f f ai r s b y

arb i t ra ry b r idge- l aws (Fe ig l 19 67) . (On ce aga in , i r reduc ib le second-

a ry q u a l i t i e s s e e m t o b e c o m p a t i b l e w i t h m e re Naturalism.

I b e l ie v e , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e c o n t e m p o ra ry M a t e ri a li s t c a n

a rg u e a g a i n s t i r r e d u c i b l e i n t e n t i o n a l i t y a n d i r r e d u c i b l e s e c o n d a ry

q u a l it ie s i n m u c h t h e s a m e w a y t h a t , a s w e h a v e s e e n , t h e N a t u ra -

l is t can argue aga ins t t rans cen den t en t i t ie s . The a rg um ent invo lves

p o s i n g a d i l e m m a p ara ll e l t o t h e d i l e m m a p o se d fo r N a t u ra l i sm .

D o e s i n t e n t i o n a l i t y , a n d d o t h e s e c o n d a ry q u a l i t i e s , b e s t o w a n y

c a us a l p o w e r ?

S u p p o se f i rs t t h a t t h e y d o b e s t o w c a u sa l p o w e r . I f t h e y d o ,

a n d i f th i s p o w e r is to b e d e t e c t a b l e , t h e n w h a t e v e r e n t i t ie s h a v e

t h e se p ro p e r t i e s w i l l , i n su i t a b l e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a c t a c c o rd i n g t o

d i f f e r e n t l a w s f ro m o b j e c t s w h i c h l a c k t h e se p ro p e r t i e s . En t i t i e s

l a c k in g t h e se p ro p e r t i e s w i ll s i m p l y o b e y t h e l a w s o f p h y s i c s . B u t

p a r t i c u la r s w h i c h h a v e t h e se e x t r a o r e m e rg e n t p ro p e r t i e s w i ll a lso

o b e y e x t r a o r e m e r g e n t l a w s .

I a rg u e d i n t h e p re v i o u s s e c t i o n t h a t t h e a n t i -N a t u ra l is t d o e s

b e s t t o b e s t o w c a u sa l p o w e r s o n h i s t r a n sc e n d e n t e n t i t i e s . I n t h e

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D M ARMSTRONG

same w ay , I t h ink th a t t he Na tu ra l i s t an t i -Mate r i a li s t w ho be l ieves

i n i r r e d u c i b le i n t e n t i o n a l i t y a n d i r re d u c i b le s e c o n d a ry q u al it ie s

d o e s b e s t t o t r e a t t h e se e x t r a c h a ra c t e ri s ti c s a s b e s t o w i n g p o w e r s .

Nev er the less , a s I no w pro cee d to a rgue , t o t ake th i s li ne i s t o

embrace a sc i en t i f i ca l ly implaus ib l e v i ew.

I t i s , o f course , be ing assumed a t t h i s po in t t ha t a Rea l i s t v i ew

is t aken o f t he theor e t i ca l en t i t i e s o f phys ics . Phys ica l ob jec t s wi ll

b e a r r a n g e m e n t s o f , s a y , f u n d a m e n t a l p a r t i c l e s a n d w i l l o b e y t h e

l a w s o f p h y s i c s . G i v e n c e r t a i n v e r y c o m p l e x a r r a n g e m e n t s o f f u n -

d a m e n t a l p a r t ic u l e s , h o w e v e r , c e r t a i n fu r t h e r p ro p e r t i e s o f t h e

c o m p l e x e s e m e rg e - t h e p r o p e r t y o f i n t e n t io n a l i t y a n d t h e s ec -

o n d a r y q u a l it ie s . C o m p l e x e s w h i c h h a v e t h e se fu r t h e r p ro p e r t i e s

a r e su p p o se d t o o b e y fu r t h e r l a w s b e s id e s th e l aw s o f p h y s ic s .

N o w t h e re s e e m s n o c o n c e p t u a l d i f f i c u l ty i n th i s su p p o s i t i o n , b u t ,

i n the l i gh t o f p resen t knowledge , i t seems sc i en t i f i ca l ly im-

p laus ib l e . I do no t c l a im tha t i t is as sc i en t i f ica l ly imp laus ib l e a s

t h e v i ew t h a t t h e sp a t i o - t e m p o ra l sy s t e m is n o t c a u sa ll y s e lf -

con ta ined . Bu t the Mate r i a l i s t seems to be p l ac ing a good sc i en t i f i c

be t i f he b e t s aga ins t t hese em erg en t l aws . Th ere i s l i t tl e ev idence ,

f o r i n s t a n ce , t h a t t he b r a in o b e y s a n y d i f f e r e n t l aw s f r o m a n y

o t h e r p h y s i c a l o b j e c t . Y e t i t i s t h e b ra i n , i f a n y w h e re , w h e re

e m e r g e n t l a w s m i g h t b e e x p e c t e d .

A t a n y r a t e , j u s t a s i n t h e c a se o f a n t i -N a t u ra l i sm , m a n y

an t i -Mate r i a l i s t s a re unwi l l i ng to c red i t t he i r ex t ra p roper t i e s wi th

b e s t o w i n g a n y e x t r a p o w e r . I n t e n t i o n a l i t y a n d t h e s e c o n d a r y q u a l i -

t ie s , t h e y c o n c l u d e , a r e e p i p h e n o m e n a l , g e t t in g a f r ee r id e u p o n

c e r ta i n c o n f i g u r a ti o n s o f m a t t e r b u t d o in g n o w o r k t h e m s e l ve s . I n

t h i s w a y a n ti -M a t er ia l is ts s e e k t o c o m p ro m i se w i t h M a t e ri a li sm . I

t h i n k , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e r e su l t i s o n l y t o c o m p ro m i se t h e i r an t i-

Mate r i a l i sm.

Th e a rg u m e n t a g a i n st t h is s e c o n d h o r n o f t h e d i l e m m a is t h e

sam e as tha t aga ins t t he an t i -Na tu ra l i s t . I f t hese charac te r i s t i c s fa il

t o e n d o w t h e p a r t i c u l a r s w h i c h t h e y c h a ra c t e r i s e w i t h c a u sa l

p o w e r s , t h e n , w i t h r e g a rd t o t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d , i t i s a s i f t h e y

d i d n o t e x i s t . Th e w o r l d g o e s o n e x a c t l y a s i f t h e y a r e n o t t h e re -

a n d n o t e t h a t t h e w o r l d s go i ng o n i nc lu d e s e v e r y t h in g t h a t

a n y b o d y says o r thinks W e c a n h a v e n o m o r e r e a s o n t o p o s t u l a t e

su c h c a u sa l ly i d le p ro p e r t i e s t h a n c a u sa l ly i d le o b j e c t s . F o r in -

s t ance , s ince the causes o f t he an t i -Mate r i a l i s t s be l i e fs , on ~ h i s

h y p o t h e s i s , a r e so m e t h i n g o t h e r t h a n t h e se a ll eg e d p ro p e r t i e s ,

t he re seem s no reaso n to ho ld the an t i -Mate r i a li s t be l i e fs .

In s t e a d , I su g ge s t, w e d o b e t t e r t o a rg ue i n th i s so r t o f w a y . :

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NATURALISM MATERIALISM AND FISRT PHILOSOPHY

( 1 ) T h e c a u s e o f a ll h u m a n ( a n d a n i m a l ) m o v e m e n t s li es s o l e ly

in p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s w o r k i n g s o l e ly a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l a w s

o f p h y s i c s .

( 2 ) P u r p o s e s a n d b e l i e f s , i n t h e i r c h a r a c t e r o f p u r p o s e s a n d

b e l ie f s , c a us e h u m a n ( a n d a n i m a l ) m o v e m e n t s .

: . ( 3 ) P u r p o s e s a n d b e l i e f s a re n o t h i n g b u t p h y s i c a l p r o c e s s e s

w o r k i n g s o l e ly a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l a w s ' o f p h y s i c s .

A g a i n ,

( 1 )

T h e c a u s e o f t he e x p a n s i o n o f m e r c u r y i n a t h e r m o m e t e r is

a l w a y s a p u r e l y p h y s i c a l o n e .

( 2 ) S o m e t h i n g ' s b e i n g h o t c a n c a u se t h e e x p a n s i o n o f m e r c u r y

i n a t h e r m o m e t e r .

9 . ( 3 ) S o m e t h i n g ' s b e i n g h o t is a p u r e l y p h y s i c a l s t a t e o f a ff a ir s .

( F o r t h e f i rs t o f t h e s e a r g u m e n t s s e e M e d li n , 1 9 6 7 . )

I n t h e c a se o f N a t u r a l i s m , w e s a w t h a t t h e a r g u m e n t s f o r i t

r e q u i r e t o b e s u p p l e m e n t e d b y g iv in g a t h i s -w o r l d ly a c c o u n t o f

s t a t e m e n t s w h i c h m a k e o s t en s i b le r e f e r e n c e to t r a n s c e n d e n t e n t i -

t ie s . T h a t t a s k is n o t e a s y , n o r d i d I a t t e m p t i t i n th i s p a p e r . I n

t h e c a s e o f M a t e r i a l i s m , s i m i l a r l y , w e r e q u i r e s o m e p o s i t i v e a c -

c o u n t , a t l e as t c o m p a t i b l e w i t h M a t e r i a li s m , o f t h e n a t u r e o f

i n t e n t i o n a l m e n t a l p r o c e s s e s a n d o f th e s e c o n d a r y q u a l i t ie s . T h i s

t a s k is n o t e a s y e i t h e r , a l t h o u g h I a m h o p e f u l t h a t i t c a n b e

a c c o m p l is h e d . M y o w n s u g g es t i o ns f o r a c c o m p l i s h in g i t m a y b e

f o u n d in m y ( 1 9 6 8 ) a n d ( 1 9 7 3 ) .

1 I I

First Philosophy

B u t i f w e m e a n b y a n o n t o l o g y , o r f ir s t p h i l o s o p h y , t h e

t h e o r y o f t h e m o s t g e n e r a l c a t eg o r i e s o f a ll - s u c h n o t i o n s a s

p a r t i c u l a r i ty , u n i v e r s a l i ty , n u m b e r , s u b s t a n c e a n d c a u s a l it y - t h e n

M a t e ri a li s m is n o t a f i r s t p h i l o s o p h y n o r e v e n is N a t u r a l is m . W h a t

is m o r e , N a t u r a li s m a n d M a te r ia l is m s e e m t o b e prima facie c o m -

p a t i b l e w i t h v a r i o u s d i f f e r e n t f i r s t p h i l o s o p h i e s .

H i s t o r i c al l y , h o w e v e r , t h e r e is a l i n k b e t w e e n N a t u r a l i s m a n d

M a t e r i a l i s m , o n t h e o n e h a n d , a n d Nominalism i n t e r p r e t e d a s t h e

d o c t r i n e t h a t n o t h i n g e x i st s e x c e p t p a r t i cu l a r s , o n t h e o t h e r .

N a t u r a l i s ts a n d M a t e r ia l i s ts ar e r e g u l a r l y t b u ~ .d d e n y i n g t h e r e a l-

i t y o f u n i v e r s a l s .

W h a t t h e s e t h r e e d o c t r i n e s a p p e a r t o h a v e i n c o m m o n i s t h e i r

c o m m i t m e n t t o E m p i r ic i s m , t o t h e m e t h o d o f o b s e r v a t i o n a n d

2 7 1


12/16

D M ARMSTRONG

e x p e r i m e n t , t h e m e t h o d o f t h e n a t u r a l s c ie n ce s , a s o p p o s e d t o t h e

a t t e m p t t o g a i n k n o w l e d g e b y a priori r e a so n i n g . Th e c e n t r a l

m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p o s t u l a t e o f n a t u ra l s c i e n c e i s t h a t k n o w l e d g e i s

n o t t o b e g a i n e d a priori . As Popper has ins i s t ed , sc i en t i f i c h y p o -

theses n e e d n o t b e su g g e s t e d b y e x p e r i e n c e . B u t t h e t e s t i n g a n d

v e r i f i c a t i o n o f h y p o t h e s e s d e m a n d s e x p e r i e n c e , o b s e r v a t i o n a n d a

s u b m i s si o n t o t h e f a c ts a s f o u n d . S in c e c o n t e m p o r a r y i f n o t p a s t

Mate r i a l i sm c l a ims to sp r ing ou t o f sc i en t i f i c re su l t s and p l aus ib l e

s p e c u l at io n s , it is c o m m i t t e d t o E m p i ri c is m .

I t i s t r u e t h a t M a t e r ia l ism h a s so m e t i m e s s e e m e d t o b e a n

a n t i-Em p i r i c is t d o c t r i n e . B o t h o l d e r a n d c o n t e m p o ra r y M a te r ia l -

i sm s a re d o c t r i n e s w h i c h i n so m e d e g re e m a k e r a p e o f t h e s e nse s ,

a n d h o l d t h a t i m m e d i a t e o b se rv a t i o n s g iv e b u t a f ir s t a n d im -

p e r f e c t c l u e t o t h e n a t u re o f r e a l i t y . H o w e v e r , M a t e ri a li sm is o n l y

a n t i-Em p i r i c is t i f w e i d e n t i fy E m p i r i c ism w i t h su c h d o c t r i n e s a s

P h e n o m e n a l i sm , P o s i t i v i sm , In s t ru m e n t a l i sm a n d O p e ra t i o n a l i sm .

Th e se d o c t r i n e s m a k e i m m e d i a t e o b se rv a t i o n n o t m e re l y t h e f i r s t ,

b u t t h e l a st , w o rd a b o u t t h e n a t u re o f re a l i ty . Th e y a r e e x c e s ses

o f E m p i r ic i s m .

S o t h e o n t o l o g i e s o f N a t u ra l ism a n d M a t e ri a li sm h a v e a n a t u -

r a l l i n k w i t h t h e e p i s t e m o l o g y o f Em p i r i c ism . N o m i n a l i sm , i t is

o f t e n f e l t, h a s a lso a n a t u ra l l i n k w i t h E m p i r i c ism . R e a li sm a b o u t

u n i v e r s a l s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i s o f t e n l i n k e d w i t h a priori r e a so n -

ing in pa r t i cu la r , w i th the a priori s c ie n ce o f m a t h e m a t i c s ) .

In m y v i e w , t h e re n e e d b e n o su c h l i n k s . N a t u ra l i sm a n d

M a t e r i a l i sm c a n n o t , o f c o u r se , h a v e a n y t ru c k w i t h t r a n sc e n d e n t o r

P la ton ic R ea l i sm. Bu t w hy c an no t Na tu ra l i s t s and M ate r ia l is t s

a c c e p t t h e m o r e m o d e r a t e d o c t r i n e o f universalia in reb us? A n d ,

fo r re l a t ions , universalia inte r res? W h y s h o u l d t h e y n o t a c c e p t

t h e v i e w t h a t p a r t i c u l a r s h a v e o b j e c t i v e p ro p e r t i e s a n d r e l a t i o n s ,

p ro p e r t i e s a n d r e l a t i o n s w h i c h a r e u n i v e r s a l s ? N a t u ra h sm a n d

M a t er ia l ism c o u l d t h e n b e i n t e rp re t e d a s v e ry g e n e ra l t h e o r i e s

a b o u t what proper t i e s and re la t ions par t i cu lars have .

I can no t t ake the t im e he re to d i scuss the d i f f i cu l t i e s fac ing

N o m i n a l i sm , b u t I a m c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e y a r e o v e rw h e l m i n g . N o

v e r s i o n o f N o m i n a l i sm c a n e v e r e x p l a i n t h e u n i t y o f the c l asses o f

p a r t i c u l a r s s a i d t o h a v e t h e s a m e p ro p e r t y , n o r g i v e a n y c o h e re n t

a c c o u n t o f r e la t io n s . F o r s o m e o f th e p r o b l e m s , s ee A r m s t r o n g

1 9 7 4 ) . S t i l l m o re d i f f i c u l t i s t h e a t t e m p t t o c o m b i n e N o m i n a l i sm

w i t h N a t u ra l i sm a n d M a t e r i a l i sm , fo r t h e n t h e re i s n o q u e s t i o n o f

ca l l i ng in new en t i t i e s , such as abs t rac t c l a sses o r mere ly poss ib l e

p a r t ic u l a r s , t o m a k e u p fo r t h e m i s s in g p ro p e r t i e s a n d r e la t io n s . I t

s e e m s t o m e , i n d e e d , t h a t , d e sp i t e t r a d i t i o n , it is i n t e l le c t u a l l y

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14/16

D ~ A R M S T R O N G

In t i f fs way, a p o s t e r i o r i R e a l i sm , N a t u ra l i sm a n d M a t e r i a l i sm

a re s e e n t o r e s t u p o n a c o m m o n i n t e l l e c t u a l b a s i s . Th a t b a s i s i s t h e

v i e w t h a t t h e b e s t g u id e w e h a v e t o t h e n a t u re o f r e a l it y is

p ro v i d e d b y n a t u ra l s c ie n c e . N a t u ra l i sm a n d M a t e ri a li sm , a l t h o u g h

of course s t i l l ve ry genera l t heor i es , t hen emerge as s p e c i f i c a t i o n s

o f

a p o s t e r i o r i

R e a l i sm : t h e y a r e v i e w s a b o u t t h e g e n e ra l n a t u re o f

t h o se p ro p e r t i e s a n d r e l a t i o n s w h i c h p a r t i c u l a r s a c t u a l l y h a v e .

M u c h r e m a i n s t o b e s a i d i n d e fe n c e o f , a n d i n e l a b o ra t i o n o f ,

a p o s t e r i o r i R e a l i sm , b u t l i tt le o f t h a t m u c h c a n b e s a id h e re . (F o r

s o m e t h i n g m o r e , i ts e l f th e p r e c u r s o r o f a la r ge r p l a n n e d w o r k , s ee

A rm s t ro n g 1 9 7 5 . ) I h a v e sp ac e o n l y t o i n d i c a t e , v e ry b r i e f l y , h o w

I t h i n k t h a t su c h a R e a l i sm g i v e s p ro m i se o f so l v i n g t h e p ro b l e m

w h i c h , i f i t

is

no t , a t l eas t

o u g h t t o b e

t h e c e n t r a l p r o b l e m w h i c h

faces a Na tu ra l i s t and a Mate r i a l i s t ph i losophy . T i f f s i s t he p rob lem

o f t h e n a t u re o f c a u sat io n a n d l a w - li ke c o n n e c t i o n .

Th a t t h e re i s a d e e p p ro b l e m h e re is v e ry g e n e ra l ly , if so m e -

t imes g rudg ing ly , admi t t ed by a l l Empi r i c i s t s . I t i s d i f f i cu l t , I

b e l ie v e i m p o ss i b l e , t o m a k e s e n se o f c a u sa l c o n n e c t i o n a p a r t f ro m

l a w - li k e c o n n e c t i o n , o r o f l aw - l ik e c o n n e c t i o n a p a r t f ro m so m e

s o r t o f u n i ve rs a l c o n n e c t i o n : c o n s t a n t c o n j u n c t i o n i n H u m e s

t e rm s . Causa t ion invo lves l aw, l aw invo lves regu la r i ty . So m uc h

se e m s to b e i n d i sp u t a b l e . B u t th e n t h e q u e s t i o n a r i se s w h e t h e r

c a u sa t i o n a n d l a w - l i k e c o n n e c t i o n i n v o l v e a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n

re g u l a r i ty . H e re t h e d i f f i c u l t y h a s b e e n t o s ee w h a t m o re c o u l d b e

i n v o lv e d . A t t h e s a m e t i m e , i t is a p ro fo u n d l y s c e p t ic a l d o c t r i n e

t h a t n o t h i n g m o re is i n vo l v e d , Th e u n iv e r se is su re l y m o re o f a

u n i t y t h a n H u m e t h o u g h t . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t is a s c e pt ic is m w h i c h

se e m s u n a b l e t o so lv e c e r t ai n t e c h n i c a l p ro b l e m s , i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e

w a y t h a t s t a t e m e n t s o f la w - li ke c o n n e c t i o n a p p e a r t o s u s ta i n

c o n t r a r y - t o - f a c t c o n d i t i o n al s t a t e m e n t s w h il e s t a te m e n t s o f m e r e

regu la r i ty do no t . Ye t t he Empi r i c i s t who i s a l so a Nomina l i s t i s

l o c k e d , o r , p e rh a p s b e t t e r , h u m e d , i n t o t h is s c e p t i c a l p o s i t i o n

wi th a l l i t s d i ff icul t ies .

I t h a s l o n g b e e n r e c o g n i z e d , h o w e v e r , - i t a p p e a r s t h a t P l a to

and Ar i s to t l e rea l ized - t ha t t he ac cep tance o f a Rea l i s t ic doc t r ine

o f un ive rsa l s is a t l eas t t he f i r s t s t ep to a so lu t ion o f t he p ro b le m .

I w o u l d t ry t o d e v e l o p t h e so l u t io n fu r t h e r i n t h e fo ll o w i n g w a y .

I d i s t ingu i sh f i r s t be tween f i r s t - o r d e r un iversa l s , wh ich a re

p ro p e r t i e s a n d r e l a t io n s o f o rd i n a ry , f i r s t-o rd e r , p a r t i c u l a r s , a n d

s e c o n d - o r d e r

un iversa l s . The l a t t e r a re the p roper t i e s and the

re l a t ions o f t he f i r s t -o rde r un ive rsa l s . S ince the a rgument to un i -

v e r sa ls f ro m m e a n i n g s h a s b e e n r e j e c t e d , t h e m e re a p p l i c a b i li t y o f

2 7 4


15/16

NATURALISM MATERIALISM AND FIRST PHILOSOPHY

v a r i o u s o n e - p l a c e a n d m a n y - p l a c e p r e d i c a t e s t o f i r s t - o r d e r u n i -

v e r s a l s d o e s n o t a u t o m a t i c a l l y e n s u r e t h a t t h e y t h e m s e l v e s h a v e

p r o p e r t i e s a n d r e la t io n s . B u t , a l t h o u g h I m a k e n o a t t e m p t t o a rg u e

t h e m a t t e r h e r e , I t h i n k i t c a n b e s u c c e s s fu l l y m a i n t a i n e d t h a t

t h e y d o h a v e c e r t a i n p r o p e r t i e s a n d r e l a ti o n s . H o w e v e r , t h e s e

s e c o n d - o r d e r p r o p e r t i e s a n d r e l a t io n s a re a ll o f t h e p u r e l y f o r m a l

o r t o p i c - n e u t r a l s o r t .

W i t h r e g a r d t o t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f u n i v e r s a ls , t h e r e w i ll b e s u c h

t h i n g s a s c o m p l e x i t y ( i n c l u d i n g , p e r h a p s , i n f i n i t e c o m p l e x i t y ) a n d

o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s . W h e t h e r c e r t a i n u n i v e rs a ls ar e o r a r e n o t ,

f o r i n s ta n c e , c o m p l e x , i s a m a t t e r t o b e d e t e r m i n e d a pos t er ior i .

A s f o r t h e re la t i ons o f u n i v e r sa l s , b e s i d e s th o s e o f in c l u s i o n a n d

o v e r l a p ( p a r t i a l i d e n t i t y ) , o n e u n i v e rs a l m a y n e c e s s i t a t e , p r o b a b i -

l i l y i n s o m e d e g r e e , o r e x c l u d e a n o t h e r u n i v e r sa l .

L e t u s c o n c e n t r a t e u p o n t h e r e l a t io n o f n e c e s s i ta t i o n w h i c h

o n e p a r t ic u l a r u n i ve r sa l m a y b e a r t o a n o t h e r . I t is n o t lo g i ca l

n e c e s s i t a ti o n . T h e r e la t io n w o u l d n o t o b t a i n i n e v e r y p o s si b le

w o r l d . F o l l o w i n g i n th e f o o t s t e p s o f m a n y o t h e r p h i lo s o p h e r s , w e

m a y c a l l i t na tura l n e c e s s i t a t i o n . I t i s t o b e d i s c o v e r e d a p o s t e r i o r i

b y t h e e x p e r i e n t ia l a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l m e t h o d s o f n a t u r a l sc i e n c e.

B u t i f s u c h a r e l a t i o n e x i s ts b e t w e e n c e r t a i n u n i v e r s a ls , th e n i t

e n t a il s a c o n s t a n t c o n j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n th e p a r t ic u l a r s f a il in g

u n d e r t h e s e u n iv e rs a ls . A p a r t i c u l a r f a c t a b o u t t h e c o n n e c t i o n o f

c e r t a i n u n i v e rs a ls l o g i c a l l y n e c e s s i t a t e s a g e n e r a l f a c t a b o u t t h e

c o n n e c t i o n o f ( fi r s t -o r d e r ) p a r t ic u l a r s . T a k e a n a r t i fi c i a ll y s i m p l e

e x a m p l e , a n d s u p p o s e t h a t t h e u n i v e r s a l b e i n g F n e c e s s i t a t e s b e i n g

G. Th i s non - log i ca l nec es s i t a t i o n en t a i l s t ha t , fo r a l l x , i f x is F ,

t h e n x is G . B u t t h e r e ve r s e e n t a i l m e n t d o e s n o t h o l d . I t m i g h t b e

the case t ha t , fo r a l l x , i f x i s F , t hen x i s G , bu t f a i l t o be t he

c a s e t h a t b e i n g F n e c e s s i t a t e s b e i n g G . I n t h e l a t t e r c a s e t h e r e

w o u l d b e n o m o r e t h a n a n a c c i d e n t a l u n iv e rs a l c o n j u n c t i o n o f

t h e t w o p r o p e r t i e s i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r s .

N o m i c o r l a w - li ke n e c e s s i t y I ta k e t o b e s u c h a r e l a t io n

b e t w e e n u n iv e r sa ls . C a u s al c o n n e c t i o n I t a k e t o b e a p a r t i c u l a r

( a n d v e r y c o m p l e x ) c a s e o f l a w -l ik e n e c e s s i t y , a n d s o t o in v o l v e

r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n u n i v e r s a l s .

I h o p e t h a t t h is m e r e l ig h t n in g s k e t c h o f a l in e o f t h o u g h t

i n d i c a te s s o m e o f t h e a t t r a c t i o n s t h a t a m o d e r a t e a n d a p o s t e r i o r i

R e a l is m h a s f o r a n E m p i r ic i s t l i k e m y s e l f . I t s e e m s t o m e t o b e

t h e n a t u r a l f i r s t p h i l o s o p h y t o c o m b i n e w i t h N a t u r a l i s m a n d

M a t e r ia l sm . B u t , m o r e t h a n t h a t , a p o s t e r i o r i R e a l i s m , e s p e c i a l l y

w h e n l in k e d w i t h a d o c t r i n e o f n a t u r a l n e c e s s i t a ti o n , f u r n is h e s a

2 7 5


16/16

D.M. ARMSTRONG

natural and fruit ful perspective from which to view the whole

dispute about the truth or falsity of these two very general

cosmological hypotheses.

UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY

SYDNEY

AUSTRALIA

REFERENCES

[1] Armstrong, D.M., A Materialist Theory of the Mind, Routledge, 1968.

[2] Armstrong, D.M.,

Belief, Truth an d Kno wledge ,

Cambridge University

Press, 1973.

[3] Armstrong, D.M., Infinite Regress Arguments and the Problem of

Universals , Australasian Journey of Philosophy, 53, 1974.

I ] Armstrong, D.M., Towards a Theory of Properties , Philosophy, 50,

1975.

[5] Feigl,

H., The M ental and the Physical ,

Minnesota University

Press, 1967.

[6] Medlin, B., Ryle and the Mechanical Hypothesis (Section 2), in The

Ide nt i ty Theory of Mind, ed. C.F. Presley, Queensland University Press,

1967.

[7] Popper, K.R., Objective Knowledge, Routledge 1973, Chapters 3 and 4.

[8] Smart, J.J.C.,

Philosophy and Scientific Realism,

Routledge, 1963.

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