Ark Globe Academy Post-16 Transition Work

Psychology A-Level

Summer Term

This pack contains a programme of activities and resources to prepare you to start an A level in Psychology in September. It is aimed to be used after you complete your GCSEs, throughout the remainder of the summer term and over the Summer Holidays to ensure you are ready to start your course in September.

If you have any questions about the work in this pack you may contact:

Ms Graham (j.graham@arkglobe.org)

Ms Zambon (a.zambon@arkglobe.org).

Book Recommendations

Keep calm and

study on…

Opening Skinner's Box: Great Psychological Experiments of the

Twentieth Century Lauren Slater

The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat Oliver Sacks

Bad Science Ben Goldacre

Video and Podcast Recommendations

In Opening Skinner's Box, Lauren Slater sets out to

investigate the twentieth century through a series of ten

fascinating, witty and sometimes shocking accounts of its key

psychological experiments.

Dr. Oliver Sacks recounts the stories of patients struggling

to adapt to often bizarre worlds of neurological disorder.

Here are people who can no longer recognize everyday

objects or those they love; who are stricken with violent tics

or shout involuntary obscenities; who have been dismissed

as autistic, yet are gifted with uncanny artistic or

mathematical talents. If inconceivably strange, these brilliant

tales illuminate what it means to be human.

Here Ben Goldacre takes apart anyone who published bad /

misleading or dodgy science – this book will make you think

about everything the advertising industry tries to sell you by

making it sound ‘sciency’.

Videos to watch online to understand issues and debates in

Psychology

Nature vs. Nurture debate:

Human and the blank slate Ted talk by Steven Pinker -

https://www.ted.com/talks/steven_pinker_chalks_it_up_to_the_blank_sl

ate

Holism vs. Reductionism

Are you more than your atoms? By Erica Carlson -

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fbU9l46Lz7c

More Ted talks on Psychology: https://www.ted.com/topics/psychology

AQA Tutorials that will help you have a strong start in year 12

Behaviourist Approach -

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xz56R0tBAvI

Cognitive Approach -

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zj_NuAdHq-k

Podcasts to listen to:

The Infinite Monkey Cage Episodes (available on Spotify and here:

https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00snr0w/episodes/downloads)

This is a BBC Radio 4 comedy and popular science series. Hosted by

physicist Brian Cox and comedian Robin Ince. It is described as a "witty

and irreverent look at the world according to science".

Ms Graham recommends the following episodes:

The Mind v the Brain

Science of Sleep

Science of Dreaming

Independent Research Activities

Use the information provided below and your own online searching

abilities to see what you can find out about each topic. Remember if

you are a prospective A level psychologist then you need to be able to

conduct independent study to further your knowledge about research,

issues and debates in Psychology. This will prepare you not only for A

level, but also for Higher Education and the workplace.

Activity 1: Is Psychology a Science?

1. Read this online article: https://www.simplypsychology.org/science-psychology.html

2. Read and annotate the following essay.

3. Define key-terms that you are unfamiliar with as you read through the essays.

4. Consider whether psychology should be classed as a science.

5. Write half an A4 page stating whether you consider psychology to be a

science. Make sure you justify your position.

Discuss arguments for psychology as a science

One argument for psychology being a science is that it uses deductive and

inductive methods. Philosophers would make observations and then produce

general statements about the world called ‘natural laws’. Popper (1959) suggested

that this form of gaining knowledge could never be used to demonstrate the truth

of knowledge. Knowledge could be verified, but never falsified. Popper’s principle

of falsification leads to the process of deductive science. The outcome of

experiments allows the research to accept or reject the null hypothesis and thus

accept or refine the theory that generated the hypothesis. This process of gaining

knowledge is called deduction, reasoning from the general to the particular.

One argument against Popper’s principle of falsification comes from Kuhn (1962)

who argued that the logical view of science (induction or deduction) did not

actually represent how science evolves. He claimed scientists generally collect

data that fits with the accepted assumptions of that science. Thus, scientists seek to

find confirming instances of their hypotheses rather than disconfirming them. This

supports the ‘publication bias’, where research supports a popular position is more

likely to be published (Dickersin, 1990).

A second argument to justify psychology as a science is that it uses scientific

methods. From this perspective, psychology can be considered a science, because

scientific methods are the preferred method of investigation. The laboratory

experiment has become the most dominant mode of investigation in psychology,

offering the psychologist the opportunities for control and prediction that are absent

in less ‘scientific’ methods. For example, Peterson and Peterson carried out a lab

based study where they had an IV and DV and were able to predict that the

duration of STM is less than 30 seconds. Plomin compared blood samples of super

bright pps with the blood of average pps. He found more of the super brights had

the gene IGF2R than the average pps (IV = IGF2R or not, DV = IQ). This work supports

the genetic argument and is scientific, tightly controlled, objective and reliable. This

again suggests that Psychology can be a science.

One weakness of using the scientific methods is that they lack validity. Psychologists

may use the scientific method but research has been criticised for lacking internal

and external validity. One major criticism of internal validity is because of demand

characteristics operating in the study. Demand characteristics create predictable

responses from the participants so that they don’t behave normally.

Asch’s study and Milgram’s study have been criticised for having low internal

validity. Asch’s participants must have been affected by the task and thus did not

believe it to be real. Also, Asch’s study involved conformity on a relative trivial topic

(length of lines) and this may not tell us much about conformity in other settings (low

ecological validity). Moreover, Orne and Holland criticised Milgram’s research and

said that his participants were responding to demand characteristics, as individuals

so not receive and electric shock for spelling a word incorrectly.

A second argument for psychology as a science is that Psychology embraces

explanations at different levels ranging from the physical to the sociological. One

could make a lesser claim that at least some levels of psychology are scientific, such

as research into the neurobiology of dreaming or the biochemical explanations of

schizophrenia.

A criticism of this approach is that Kuhn claimed that the paradigm was the key

feature of any science – what characterises any science is a shared set of

assumptions and a shared methodology. If psychology consists of different levels or

kinds of explanation, some of which are more scientific than others, then it cannot

claim to have a paradigm. Thus, while some levels of psychology are scientific,

psychology as a whole cannot claim to be a science. On the other hand, we might

equally point to Rose’s view that biology was a number of different paradigms.

In contrast, arguments against psychology as a science is that it is deterministic. The

basis of the scientific approach is that behaviour is predictable: there are cause and

effect relationships which can be discovered and these explain human behaviour.

However, the determinist view raises difficulties over freewill and moral responsibility,

which might lead us to reject the scientific approach as a way to investigate human

behaviour.

A counterargument to this is that science is not deterministic. There are methods to

incorporate free will into determinism. E.g., Heather (1976) came up with the idea

of liberal determinism, the view that behaviour is determined to the extent that

people act consistently with their character. It is easier to reconcile this view of

determinism with the idea of free will, because the liberal view allows for choice

(free will) within a range of options (determinism). OR Soft determinism by James,

which suggested mental activities are subject to freewill whereas physical states are

determined.

A second argument against psychology as a science is that it is reductionist. To

carry out a scientific test, we must be able to observe whatever it is we are

investigating. This may seem a straightforward requirement, but it is not always so.

E.g., there are many events such as fear and motivation that we cannot observe

directly. Instead, we observe something else that we feel represents the thing we

are really interested in. For example, we may choose to define or operationalise

fear in terms of some psychological change (e.g., pupil dilation), or motivation in

terms of questionnaire response.

A weakness of this argument is that there can sometimes be a problem with

operational definitions. The consequence of this is that psychologists often explore

the relationship between two things (e.g., fear and motivation) without ever being

able to measure either of these directly. Instead, our observations are always one

step removed from the phenomena (e.g., fear) that we are really interested in

studying. The result is that psychologists end up measuring something different from

their intended phenomena and reach false conclusions.

A final weakness is that psychology is not objective. Any subjective experiences

such as opinions or experimenter expectations are excluded from the investigation.

In this way, we can be sure that the results are not distorted because of the

subjectivity of the investigator. There are many difficulties with objectivity, e.g.,

observer bias – when the researcher observed behaviour, such observations are

affected by the observer’s expectations. Interviewer bias and experimenter bias

lead to changes in participant’s behaviour as a consequence of the researcher’s

expectations.

However, Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is derived from the observation that the

simple act of measuring a sub-atomic particle changes the behaviour of that

particle. Thus, true objectivity can only be an ideal of scientific research. The

concept of science as being objective is also challenged by those who point out

that science is as much a social activity as a mechanical application of correct

procedures (Jones and Elcock, 2001). The work of scientists is affected by prevailing

social attitudes and the day-to-day activities of scientists are affected by everyday

concerns.

Activity 1 Student Work: Is Psychology a Science?

Write half an A4 page stating whether you consider

psychology to be a science. Remember to justify your

position.

Activity 2: Who was Wundt and how did he contribute to

Psychology?

Use the information below, and any independent research you wish to conduct, to

write half an A4 page explaining Wundt’s contributions to psychology.

Wilhelm Wundt opened the Institute for Experimental Psychology at the

University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879. This was the first laboratory

dedicated to psychology, and its opening is usually thought of as the

beginning of modern psychology. Indeed, Wundt is often regarded as

the father of psychology.

Wundt was important because he separated

psychology from philosophy by analysing the

workings of the mind in a more structured way, with

the emphasis being on objective measurement and

control.

This laboratory became a focus for those with a serious interest in

psychology, first for German philosophers and psychology students,

then for American and British students as well. All subsequent

psychological laboratories were closely modelled in their early years

on the Wundt model.

Wundt's background was in physiology, and this was reflected in the topics with which

the Institute was concerned, such as the study of reaction times and sensory processes

and attention. For example, participants would be exposed to a standard stimulus (e.g.

a light or the sound of a metronome) and asked to report their sensations.

Wundt's aim was to record thoughts and sensations, and to analyze them into

their constituent elements, in much the same way as chemist analyses

chemical compounds, in order to get at the underlying structure. The school

of psychology founded by Wundt is known as voluntarism, the processing

of organizing the mind.

During his academic career Wundt trained 186 graduate students (116

in psychology). This is significant as it helped disseminate his work.

Indeed, parts of Wundt's theory were developed and promoted by his

one-time student, Edward Titchener, who described his system as Structuralism,

or the analysis of the basic elements that constitute the mind.

Wundt wanted to study the structure of the human mind (using introspection).Wundt

believed in reductionism. That is he believed consciousness could be broken down (or

reduced) to its basic elements without sacrificing any of the properties of the whole.

Wundt argued that conscious mental states could be scientifically studied using

introspection. Wundt’s introspection was not a causal affair but a highly practiced form

of self-examination. He trained psychology students to make observations that were

biased by personal interpretation or previous experience, and used the results to

develop a theory of conscious thought.

Highly trained assistants would be given a stimulus such as a ticking metronome and

would reflect on the experience. They would report what the stimulus made them think

and feel. The same stimulus, physical surroundings and instructions were given to each

person.

Wundt's method of introspection did not

remain a fundamental tool of psychological

experimentation past the early 1920's. His

greatest contribution was to show that

psychology could be a valid experimental

science.

Therefore, one way Wundt contributed to the

development of psychology was to do his

research in carefully controlled conditions, i.e. experimental methods. This encouraged

other researchers such as the behaviourists to follow the same experimental approach

and be more scientific. However, today psychologists (e.g. Skinner) argue that

introspection was not really scientific even if the methods used to introspect

were. Skinner claims the results of introspection are subjective and cannot be verified

because only observable behaviour can be objectively measured.

Wundt concentrated on three areas of mental functioning; thoughts, images and

feelings. These are the basic areas studied today in cognitive psychology. This means

that the study of perceptual processes can be traced back to Wundt. Wundt’s work

stimulated interest in cognitive psychology.

On the basis of his work, and the influence it had on psychologists who were to follow

him, Wundt can be regarded as the founder of experimental psychology, so securing

his place in the history of psychology.

Activity 2 Student Work: Who was Wundt and how did he

contribute to Psychology? Write half an A4 page.

Activity 3: The importance of statistics

1. Watch the following three webinars on inferential statistics and take

detailed notes.

2. Using your knowledge gained from the videos answer the question

below the three video links. Research Methods - Interpreting Inferential Statistics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WsV1QDmfujk

Research Methods - Levels of Measurement (Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, Ratio)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xMxU5hh5HRM&t=4s

Research Methods - Choosing Inferential Statistics

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h-hFvrlF-04

Calculations example of Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test

Psychologists were interested in knowing whether a group of students’ ability to

memorise words was because of the ear that they used to hear the words during

listening tasks. In order to investigate this, participants were individually presented

with an audio recording of a list of words. These were randomly presented to the left

or right ear. Participants gave two sets of scores – words remembered correctly from

the left ear and words remember correctly from the right ear. When the mean and

standard deviation were calculated, it was found that the data was positively

skewed which suggested that the data was not normally distributed. As a result, a

Wilcoxon’s was used to examine the difference between each ear and to see if the

difference did not occur by chance.

Based on the information from the scenario above. Give three reasons

why Wilcoxon’s test was used (contextualise your answer).

1.

2.

3.

Activity 4: How can we influence behaviour?

1. Watch the following tutorial on behaviourism. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xz56R0tBAvI

2. Read the abstract from Epstein et al., 2016 below and explain how

behaviourism (and reinforcement in particular) could explain

these findings.

Epstein et al., 2016

Abstract: One way to increase choice of healthy over unhealthy behaviours is to

increase the cost of less healthy alternatives or reduce the cost of healthier

alternatives. The influence of price on purchases of healthy and unhealthy foods

was evaluated in two laboratory experiments. In Experiment 1, thirty-two 10- to 12-

year-old youth were given $5.00 and allowed to purchase multiple portions of a

healthy food (fruit or vegetable) and a less healthy food (higher-fat snack). The price

of one type of food varied from $0.50 to $2.50, while the price of the other type was

held at $1.00. Increasing the price of a type of food reduced purchases of that type

of food, but did not lead to substitution with the alternative type of food. In

Experiment 2, twenty 10- to 14-year-old youth were given $1.00, $3.00, and $5.00 to

purchase healthy and unhealthy foods. The price of each food was raised and

lowered by 25% and 50%. Raising the price of healthy or unhealthy foods resulted in

decreased purchases of those foods, and income available interacted with price

to predict the pattern of substitution of alternative foods. These results show the

potential for controlled laboratory studies of price and food purchases, and show

that the substitution of healthier for unhealthy food is related to available money.

Purchases of Food in Youth. Influence of Price and Income. Available from:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7400139_Purchases_of_Food_in_Youth_I

nfluence_of_Price_and_Income [accessed Jun 15 2018].

Explain how behaviourism (and reinforcement in particular) could

explain these findings.

Activity 5: How can we explain depression?

1. Read the information below on schemas (part of the cognitive approach) and

depression.

2. Conduct independent research online.

3. Explain how negative self-schemas may account for how an individual

develops depression.

A schema is a cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret

information. Schemas can be useful because they allow us to take shortcuts in

interpreting the vast amount of information that is available in our environment.

However, these mental frameworks also cause us to exclude pertinent information

to focus instead only on things that confirm our pre-existing beliefs and ideas.

Schemas can contribute to stereotypes and make it difficult to retain new

information that does not conform to our established ideas about the world.

Schemas: A Historical Background

The use of schemas as a basic concept was first used by a British psychologist named

Frederic Bartlett as part of his learning theory. Bartlett's theory suggested that our

understanding of the world is formed by a network of abstract mental structures.

Theorist Jean Piaget introduced the term schema, and its use was popularized

through his work. According to his theory of cognitive development, children go

through a series of stages of intellectual growth.

In Piaget's theory, a schema is both the category of knowledge as well as the

process of acquiring that knowledge. He believed that people are constantly

adapting to the environment as they take in new information and learn new things.

As experiences happen and new information is presented, new schemas are

developed and old schemas are changed or modified.

Schema Examples

For example, a young child may first develop a schema for a horse. She knows that

a horse is large, has hair, four legs, and a tail. When the little girl encounters a cow

for the first time, she might initially call it a horse.

After all, it fits in with her schema for the characteristics of a horse; it is a large animal

that has hair, four legs, and a tail. Once she is told that this is a different animal called

a cow, she will modify her existing schema for a horse and create a new schema

for a cow.

Now, let's imagine that this girl encounters a miniature horse for the first time and

mistakenly identifies it as a dog.

Her parents explain to her that the animal is actually a very small type of horse, so

the little girl must at this time modify her existing schema for horses. She now realizes

that while some horses are very large animals, others can be very small. Through her

new experiences, her existing schemas are modified and new information is learned.

While Piaget focused on childhood development, schemas are something that all

people possess and continue to form and change throughout life. Object schemas

are just one type of schema that focuses on what an inanimate object is and how

it works. For example, most people in industrialized nations have a schema for what

a car is. Your overall schema for a car might include subcategories for different types

of automobiles such as a compact car, sedan, or sports car.

Other types of schemas that people often possess include:

Person schemas are focused on specific individuals. For example, your schema

for your friend might include information about her appearance, her behaviours,

her personality, and her preferences.

Social schemas include general knowledge about how people behave in

certain social situations.

Self-schemas are focused on your knowledge about yourself. This can include

both what you know about your current self as well as ideas about your idealized

or future self.

Event schemas are focused on patterns of behaviour that should be followed for

certain events. This acts much like a script informing you of what you should do,

how you should act, and what you should say in a particular situation.

What Is Depression?

Depression is a common and serious medical illness that negatively affects how you

feel, the way you think and how you act. Fortunately, it is also treatable. Depression

causes feelings of sadness and/or a loss of interest in activities once enjoyed. It can

lead to a variety of emotional and physical problems and can decrease a person’s

ability to function at work and at home.

Depression symptoms can vary from mild to severe and can include:

o Feeling sad or having a depressed mood

o Loss of interest or pleasure in activities once enjoyed

o Changes in appetite — weight loss or gain unrelated to dieting

o Trouble sleeping or sleeping too much

o Loss of energy or increased fatigue

o Increase in purposeless physical activity (e.g., hand-wringing or pacing) or

slowed movements and speech (actions observable by others)

o Feeling worthless or guilty

o Difficulty thinking, concentrating or making decisions

o Thoughts of death or suicide

Activity 5 Student Work: Explain how negative self-

schemas may account for how an individual develops

depression. Include any independent research you

completed.

Answer the above question in the space below.

Activity 6: How does our brain and nervous system

influence behaviour?

1. Read the below information on the biological approach to psychology.

2. Read this outline and evaluation of Brain Plasticity and Functional Recovery (a

very current and interesting area of Biopsychology that you’ll learn about at

A level):

https://www.tutor2u.net/psychology/reference/biopsychology-plasticity-

and-functional-recovery

3. Conduct independent research into studies that use brain scanning

techniques (such as fMRI and EEGs) to observe brain activity and behaviour.

4. What are the strengths and weaknesses of explaining human behaviour from

a biological perspective? Outline and explain two advantages and two

disadvantages of using this approach to explain human behaviour.

What assumptions do biopsychologists make?

Psychologists from the biological approach assume that behaviour and experiences

are caused by activity in the nervous system of the body. The things that people

think and feel, say and do are caused, one way or another, by electrochemical

events occurring within and between the neurones that make up their nervous

system, particular those in the brain. Many biopsychologists also agree that

because the development of the brain is determined (at least partly) by the genes

a person inherits, that behaviour may be influenced by genetic factors.

Furthermore, because the genes we inherit are the result of evolution, many

biopsychologists think that behavioural and psychological characteristics may have

evolutionary explanations.

How do biopsychologists explain human behaviour?

Biological psychologists explain behaviour by trying to relate it to the

functioning of the brain and nervous system. The brain can be subdivided

into many different areas and structures and biopsychological explanations

often focus on which brain areas are responsible for which types of thinking

or behaviour and how they connect with other functions and brain areas. For

example, biopsychologists believe that language in humans is governed by

two areas of the cerebral cortex, Broca’s area, which controls the production

of speech and Wernicke’s area, which controls the comprehension of

speech. These ‘speech centres’ are connected to a variety of other brain

areas including those involved in thinking and in auditory working memory.

Other biopsychologists focus more on the role of genetic influences in

particular types of behaviour. For example, it is widely believed by

biopsychologists that schizophrenia, a psychological disorder involving a

range of symptoms including hallucinations, delusions and disorganized

thinking and speech, is at least partly the result of inheriting a faulty gene or

genes. These genes are thought to influence the development of the nervous

system, making it vulnerable to malfunctioning in certain ways that produce

the symptoms of the disorder.

Biopsychologists believe that chemical processes in the brain can be an

important influence on behaviour. The brain relies on a large number of

chemicals (called neurotransmitters and hormones) to send signals between

neurones. Too much or too little of any of these chemicals can result in over-

or under-activity in various parts of the brain, which results in changes to

thinking, feeling and behaviour. For example, some researchers have shown

how behaviour can be affected by altered levels of sex hormones. Increased

testosterone leads to increased risk-taking, whereas increased oxytocin leads

to increased nurturing and social responsiveness.

How to evaluate studies

Generalisabiliy - basically, can the findings of the study be generalised to the

general population? Here are some questions to consider when writing about this…

where was this study conducted and can it be generalised to other countries?

how large was the sample size?

how many males and females took part in the study?

were the participants of varied ages?

Reliability - if the study were to be repeated, how likely is it that you’d get the same

results?

how much control did the researcher have over the experiment?

was is it a lab, field or natural experiment?

were there any extraneous variables?

were these allowed to develop into confounding variables?

Applications - how can a study be used to support theories?

does it provide evidence for a specific theory?

can the information be used to explain a real life phenomenon?

Validity - how likely is it that the independent variable influenced the dependent

variable? (Alternatively, you can look at ecological validity, which refers to how

closely the study resembles real life - personally I find this easier.)

what other variables were present?

(was it a lab, field or natural experiment?)

(are the activities carried out in the experiment something the participants

would do in their everyday lives?)

(how familiar were the participants with the environment the study was

conducted in?)

Ethics - did the researches stick to the ethical guidelines?

did participants give informed consent?

could participants be at risk of psychological harm as a result of the

experiment?

were participants deceived during the study?

Example of how to evaluate the biological approach:

The methods used by the biological approach give its studies a high degree

of reliability, validity and scientific credibility, which is enhanced by its focus

on objectively observable phenomena rather than subjective experiences.

An objection to the biological approach would be its use of animal models

as a basis for understanding human behaviour: given that each animal’s

nervous system reflects its unique evolutionary niche and history, it might not

be possible to draw clear conclusions about human behaviour from studies of

other animals.

Outline and explain two advantages and two disadvantages of using this

approach to explain human behaviour.

Activity 7: Is behaviour influenced by our nature or our

nurture?

1. Watch the following Ted talk ‘human nature and the blank slate’ by Steven

Pinker and write notes on the influence that nature and nurture have on

behaviour.

https://www.ted.com/talks/steven_pinker_chalks_it_up_to_the_blank_slate

2. Read the information on the nature/nurture debate below.

3. Conduct independent research into at least two behaviours (i.e aggression,

schizophrenia etc.) that are mainly due to nature and two behaviours that are

predominately influenced by nurture.

The nature versus nurture debate is one of the oldest philosophical issues within

psychology. So what exactly is it all about?

Nature refers to all of the genes and hereditary factors that influence who we

are—from our physical appearance to our personality characteristics.

Nurture refers to all the environmental variables that impact who we are,

including our early childhood experiences, how we were raised, our social

relationships, and our surrounding culture.

Even today, different branches of psychology often take a one versus the other

approach. For example, biological psychology tends to stress the importance of

genetics and biological influences. Behaviourism, on the other hand, focuses on the

impact that the environment has on behaviour.

In the past, debates over the relative contributions of nature versus nurture often

took a very one-sided approach, with one side arguing that nature played the most

important role and the other side suggesting that it was nurture that was the most

significant. Today, most experts recognize that both factors play a critical role. Not

only that, they also realize that nature and nurture interact in important ways all

throughout life.

A Closer Look at the Nature vs. Nurture Debate

Empiricists take the position that all or most behaviours and characteristics result

from learning. Behaviourism is a good example of a theory rooted in empiricism. The

behaviourists believe that all actions and behaviours are the results of conditioning.

Theorists such as John B. Watson believed that people could be trained to do and

become anything, regardless of their genetic background.

Examples of Nature vs. Nurture

For example, when a person achieves tremendous academic success, did they do

so because they are genetically predisposed to be successful or is it a result of an

enriched environment? If a man abuses his wife and kids, is it because he was born

with violent tendencies or is it something he learned by observing his own parent's

behaviour?

One example of an empiricist theory within psychology is Albert Bandura's social

learning theory. According to the theory, people learn by observing the behaviour

of others. In his famous Bobo doll experiment, Bandura demonstrated that children

could learn aggressive behaviours simply by observing another person acting

aggressively.

Even today, research in psychology often tends to emphasize one influence over

the other. In biopsychology, for example, researchers conduct studies exploring how

neurotransmitters influence behaviour, which emphasizes the nature side of the

debate. In social psychology, researchers might conduct studies looking at how

things such as peer pressure and social media influence behaviours, stressing the

importance of nurture.

How Nature and Nurture Interact

What researchers do know is that the interaction between heredity and

environment is often the most important factor of all.

In psychopathology, many psychologists argue that both a genetic predisposition

and an appropriate environmental trigger are required for a psychological disorder

to develop; this is set out in the diathesis-stress model. The diathesis is the biological

vulnerability such as being born with a gene that predisposes you to develop a

disorder. However, the disorder will only develop if there is an environmental

‘stressor’ to trigger it. Evidence to support the diathesis-stress model comes from the

Finnish Adoption Study, which compared 155 adopted children whose biological

mothers had schizophrenia, with a matched group of children with no family history

of schizophrenia. The researchers also assessed the quality of parenting through

questionnaires and interviews. They found that the group with schizophrenic mothers

had a 10% rate of schizophrenia, but they also discovered that all of the reported

cases of schizophrenia occurred in families rated as ‘disturbed’. When the family

environment was rated as ‘healthy’, even in the high-risk sample (mother with

schizophrenia), the occurrence of schizophrenia was well below the general

population rates. However, the environment was not the sole cause, as the low-risk

children from ‘disturbed’ families did not develop schizophrenia – so the

environment alone was not enough to trigger the disorder. This research provides

strong evidence that schizophrenia is best explained by looking at an interaction

between genetic inheritance and environmental triggers, in this case, family

environment.

Activity 7 Student Work: Include details of your

research findings in the space below.

Activity 8: Are we more than our atoms?

1. Watch the TED TALK - are you more than your atoms?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fbU9l46Lz7c

2. Read through the information on holism and reductionism.

3. If psychology is considered a science, is psychology inherently reductionist

or holistic? Write half an A4 page justifying your answer.

1. Reductionism & Levels of Explanation: Reductionism is the belief that human

behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into simpler component parts.

Those who take a reductionist position believe that the best way to understand

behaviour is to look closely at the parts that make up our systems, and then use the

simplest explanations to understand how they work. Reductionism is based on the

scientific assumption of parsimony: the idea that complex phenomena should be

explained in the simplest terms possible. Parsimony is similar to the idea of Occam’s

Razor, which was established by William of Ockham in the 14th century. Like

parsimony, this theory states that one should not make unnecessary assumptions

and that the answer to a problem is often the simplest.

2. Holism: Holism comes from the Greek word ‘holos’, which means ‘all’, ‘whole’ or

‘entire’ and is the idea that human behaviour should be viewed as a whole

integrated experience, and not as separate parts. Gestalt psychology adopts a

holistic approach to perception: when we perceive something in the real world, we

do so as a whole rather than as a collection of bits and pieces. What we see only

makes sense when we consider the whole image, rather than the individual

elements that make up our vision. Consequently, some cognitive psychologists also

take a holistic approach. For example, within the area of perception, visual illusions

demonstrate that humans perceive more than the sum of the sensations on the

retina. (If you examine the image on the right, what you will instantly perceive is the

outline of a cube. However, there is in fact no cube in the image and your mind has

created a cube due to the position and configuration of the black shapes).

Activity 8 Student Work: If psychology is considered a

science, is psychology inherently reductionist or

holistic? Write half an A4 page justifying your answer.

Activity 9: Understanding the idiographic versus the

nomothetic approach

1. Read the definitions for the idiographic approach and the nomothetic

approach.

2. Read the evaluations given and decide whether each paragraph has

followed the PEEL structure (Point, Evidence, Explanation and Link).

3. For the evaluation paragraphs that have not followed this structure, re-write

the evaluation paragraph so that it follows the PEEL structure.

1. The Idiographic Approach:

The term ‘idiographic’ comes from the Greek word ‘idios’, which means ‘own’ or

‘private’. Psychologists who take an idiographic approach focus on the individual

and emphasise the unique personal experience of human nature. This means they

favour qualitative research methods, such as the case study, unstructured interviews

and thematic analysis which allow an in-depth insight into individual behaviour. The

idiographic approach does not seek to formulate laws or generalise results to others.

2. The Nomothetic Approach:

The term ‘nomothetic’ comes from the Greek word ‘nomos’ which means ‘law’.

Psychologists who take a nomothetic approach are concerned with establishing

general laws, based on the study of large groups of people, and the use of statistical

(quantitative) techniques to analyse data. This means that experiments,

correlations, psychometric testing and other quantitative methods are favoured

among nomothetic researchers.

Evaluation paragraph example of PEEL structure

Point: There are numerous strengths of taking an idiographic approach, and

a case study method is a powerful tool for evaluating psychological theories.

Evidence: The case of Patient KF (Shallice and Warrington, 1970) exposed a

limitation of the Multi-Store Model of Memory, by providing evidence that our

STM comprises of at least two components (auditory and visual memory) and

not one, as stipulated by Atkinson and Shiffrin.

Explanation: Consequently, a single case study can generate further research

into a particular phenomenon (e.g. memory), which contributes to the

development of new theories that further our understanding of human

behaviour.

Link: Therefore it is evident that taking an idiographic approach can enhance

the understanding of certain psychological fields and thus its use should be

encouraged within the psychological community.

Evaluation paragraphs - Read the evaluations paragraphs and decide whether

each paragraph has followed the PEEL structure (Point, Evidence, Explanation and

Link). For the evaluation paragraphs that have not followed this structure, re-write

the evaluation paragraph so that it follows the PEEL structure.

While case studies can highlight a flaw in psychological theories and prompt

further research, the case study method and other qualitative methods are

extremely time-consuming. Freud’s case study of Little Hans consists of almost

150 pages of verbatim quotes from Little Hans’ father, as well as detailed

descriptions of the events in Little Hans’ life. Freud did go on to create universal

theories of personality development during childhood; however, these were

based on limited and unrepresentative case studies that many psychologists

would discredit.

As nomothetic approach is viewed as scientific, it is useful for predicting and

controlling behaviour. For example, biological psychologists take a

nomothetic approach when explaining obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

and claim that OCD is caused by higher levels of dopamine and lower levels

of serotonin. Drug therapies such as SSRIs are developed on the basis of

nomothetic research and work by redressing a biological imbalance (Soomro

et al., 2009). SSRIs are used to treat OCD and increase the availability and

uptake of serotonin, thus reducing the anxiety associated with OCD, which

helps to improve the lives of people suffering from this condition.

Holt (1967) argues that the ideographic/nomothetic distinction is a false

distinction. Many approaches in psychology take advantage of both

approaches and therefore the two approaches can be viewed as

complementary rather than contradictory. For example, while cognitive

psychologists typically take a nomothetic approach and create general laws

of cognitive processes (e.g. the Working Memory Model), they also take

advantage of the idiographic approach when using case studies to provide

evidence for a particular theory (e.g. Patient KF, Shallice and Warrington,

1970). In reality, many research studies make use of both approaches, and it

could be argued that the distinction between idiographic and nomothetic is

meaningless and that psychologists should employ both methods depending

on the nature of the research question.

Activity 9 Student Work: For the evaluation paragraphs

that have not followed this structure, re-write the

evaluation paragraph so that it follows the PEEL

structure. Use the space below.

Activity 10: Should we be carrying out ‘socially sensitive’

research?

3. Read through the information on socially sensitive research.

4. Some psychological research is considered socially sensitive, research one

socially sensitive study published within the last 20 years (you can select any

study as long as it links to psychology).

5. Write half an A4 page explaining why your chosen study is considered socially

sensitive and explain whether you think that the knowledge gained from that

study justifies it being carried out.

Socially Sensitive Research Sieber and Stanley (1988) used the term social sensitivity

to describe studies where there are potential social consequences for the

participants or the group of people represented by the research. Sieber and Stanley

(1988) identified four aspects in the scientific research process that raise ethical

implications in socially sensitive research:

1. The Research Question: The researcher must consider their research question

carefully. Asking questions like ‘Are there racial differences in IQ?’ or ‘Is intelligence

inherited?’ may be damaging to members of a particular group.

2. The Methodology Used: The researcher needs to consider the treatment of the

participants and their right to confidentiality and anonymity. For example, if

someone admits to committing a crime, or to having unprotected sex if they are HIV

positive, should the researcher maintain confidentiality?

3. The Institutional Context: The researcher should be mindful of how the data is

going to be used and consider who is funding the research. If the research is funded

by a private institution or organisation, why are they funding the research and how

do they intend to use the findings?

4. Interpretation and Application of Findings: Finally, the researcher needs to

consider how their findings might be interpreted and applied in the real-world.

Could their data or results be used to inform policy?

Activity 10 Student Work: Write half an A4 page

explaining why your chosen study is considered

socially sensitive and explain whether you think that

the knowledge gained from that study justifies it being

carried out.