Are Independent Learners “Empty Vessels” or “Intellectual

Robinson Crusoes?”Independent Learning and Student

Development

C-M Bernier, Dejan Djokic and Peter Spelt

Learning Set Advisor: David BurnsTuesday 11th January 2005

How Students Learn: Implications for Teaching.

Sixth Learning and Teaching Conference

Reasons for Independent Learning -

“Good learners have to be creative” • PRACTICAL• Increased student numbers

in H.E. institutions• Developments in

technology and web access• Financial pressures upon

students necessitating part-time work

• Expectations of Employers for transferable skills in graduates

• INTELLECTUAL• Autonomy in active learning• Assuming responsibility for

learning in a dynamic approach preventing passivity - “spoon-feeding” and “empty vessel”

• Greater flexibility for lecturers in course developments

• Adjustments between school and university for students

Background• DEFINITIONS OF SELF-DIRECTED OR

INDEPENDENT LEARNING (Benson and Voller, 1997):

1. Situations in which learners study alone - the “Robinson Crusoe” model.”

2. A set of skills which can be learned and applied in self-directed learning with external guidance.

3. An inborn capacity suppressed by institutions.4. The exercise of learners’ responsibility for their

own learning.5. The right of learners to direct their own

learning.

Critical Theories of Independent Learning

3 aspects of independent learning have been identified (Mezirow, 1981) –

1. INSTRUMENTAL LEARNING - task-oriented problem-solving suited to the surrounding environment

2. DIALOGIC LEARNING - understanding methods of communication between individuals

3. SELF-REFLECTIVE LEARNING - how we come to understand ourselves and our learning process - key to developing as active learners and researchers within Higher Education Institutions and beyond

Competing definitions of “Independent Learning”

• The concept of “Independent Learning” is highly contested in historical, political, intellectual and educational terms.

• At its most basic level, it is “the ability to take charge of one’s learning” (Holec, 1981).

• “the learner’s control over the planning and execution of learning” (Tough, Knowles).

Definitions continued…

• “The self-directed learner should not be thought of as an intellectual Robinson Crusoe, castaway and shut-off in self-sufficiency.” (Moore, 1973).

• “no act of learning can be self-directed if we understand self-direction as meaning the absence of external sources of assistance (Brookfield, 1985).

• “truly autonomous learning can occur only when learners have full knowledge of the possible alternative learning activities” (Chené, 1983).

METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES

• DOMINANCE OF THE WEST - IDEOLOGICAL AND POLITICAL ISSUES - Independent learning associated only “with open democracies which encourage freedom and autonomy” and existing only “in cultures that stress clear role definition, social control, strict upbringing of children, and respect for authority” (Brookfield, 1985).

• CLASS BIASES - Critics warn against the “middle-class nature of the majority of samples” in data analysis

• ETHNICITY AND RACE - overwhelming majorities in favour of any one ethnic and/or racial group necessarily distorts data.

• NATIONALITY - international versus E.U. student bodies

Reasons for research into independent learning

• Student emphasis upon a DYNAMIC AND INTERACTIVE approach in HE context.

• To assess the extent to which the lecturer should develop as a figure of authority or as a teaching resource/guide.

• To allow students to become self-reflexive about the learning process.

• To identify more closely relationship between “learning facilitation” and “knowledge transmission” (Kember & Gow).

THE QUESTIONNAIRE - Part I• In Part I, students were asked to indicate the most

effective and/or important of the following:• TEACHING METHODS• TEACHING MATERIALS• METHODS OF ASSESSMENT• TEACHING STAFF AND PEERS• PROBLEM-SOLVING• THE MAIN AIM OF MODULES

• The students were asked to rank what they saw as most effective and the results were tabulated as follows.

Returned questionnaires

American & Canadian Studies (1st year): 22Mathematics (2nd year): 65Engineering (1st year): 107Modern Languages: 28

Effect of sample sizequestion 5 (engineering)

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

number of questionnaires

aver

ages

Efficiency of teaching methods

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

lectures seminars workshops exercises 1 to 1tutorials

essayfeedbck

problemclass

American/Canadian St (yr 1) Maths (yr 2) Engineering (yr 1) Modern languages (yr 1-4)

All methods are found to be reasonably efficient, some more than others:Amer./Can. St.: seminars & essay feedback; Mod. Lang.: seminars, tutorials & exercises;Maths & Engineering: exercises more than lectures, tutorials & problem classes

RESULTS

Efficiency of teaching materials

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

web courseguide

handouts furtherreading

American/Canadian St (yr 1) Maths (yr 2)

Engineering (yr 1) Modern Languages (yr 1-4)

All like handouts, but esp. Maths find the web efficient too, whereas Americ./Can. St. & Mod. Lang. like further reading (Maths do not)

Do you learn best while doing

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

revision forexams

coursew ork projects group orindivid w ork

nopreference

American/Canadian St (yr 1) Maths (yr 2)

Engineering (yr 1) Modern Languages (yr 1-4)

Most find revision for exams the best time to learn (projects for Mod. Lang.),but Amer./Can. St. find writing coursework good too, and Mod. Lang. do not really have a preference

Who is the most important in your learning?

-0.6

-0.1

0.4

0.9

1.4

1.9

lecturer seminar

tutor

fellow

students

yourself

American/Canadian St (yr 1) Maths (yr 2)

Engineering (yr 1) Modern Languages (yr 1-4)

Most find themselves the most important in their learning, except for Amer./Can. St.students, who find the lecturer more important.

What do you do when facing a problem?

-2.5-2

-1.5

-1-0.5

00.5

11.5

2

consultlecturer

talk tofellow

students

consultweb

visitlibrary

donothing

American/Canadian St (yr 1) Maths (yr 2)

Engineering (yr 1) Modern Languages (yr 1-4)

Most students consult each other, but Amer./Can. St. and Mod. Lang. ask the lecturer.Some maths students consult the web, and Amer./Can. St. the library.

What is the main aim of modules?

-3

-2.5

-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

training forspecific jobs

problemsolving

stimulatefurther study

learn multi-media

knowledgetransmission

American/Canadian St (yr 1) Maths (yr 2)

Engineering (yr 1) Modern Languages (yr 1-4)

Amer./Can.St., Mod. Lang.: knowledge transmission & stimulation of further studyMaths & Engineering: problem solving

Home vs International students:What do you do when facing a problem?

(1st year Engineering only)

-2

-1

0

1

2

consultlecturer

talk to fellowstudents

consult web visit library do nothing

International Home

Home vs International students:What is the main aim of modules?

(1st yr Engineering only)

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

specific jobs problem

solving

further study learning

multi media

knowledge

transmission

International Home

Breakdown by year:Who is most important in your learning?

(Modern languages only)

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

lecturer seminar

tutor

fellow

students

yourself

year 1 year 2 year 4

Breakdown by year:What do you do when facing a problem?

(Modern languages only)

-3

-2

-1

0

1

2

consult

lecturer

talk to

fellow

students

consult

web

visit

l ibrary

do

nothing

year 1 year 2 year 3

The Questionnaire - part ii

• Students were asked to respond to the following “open-ended” questions:

• How do you see the role of the lecturer in your learning?

• Should teaching be a one-way process?• What would you see as the greatest

obstacles to your learning?• How would you define the “studying”

process at university?• Would you support the university’s

commitment to independent learning?

Open-ended questions: Responses

• Students viewed lecturer primarily as a guide, providing necessary knowledge & inspiration for study

• They preferred teaching to be a two-way process yet reinforced the importance of the lecturer in knowledge transferral (Eng. find class size a limitation)

• The learning process was defined as as combination of the following: mainly memorizing (Mod. Lang.), the application of newly learned techniques (Eng.), the formulation of one’s own opinion (Am.Can.St.)

Open-ended questions The most major obstacle in learning was

identified as lack of time, motivation and self-disciplines, a lack of resources (Am.Can.St. & Mod. Lang.), large class sizes (Eng.)

• Biggest aid: course materials, efficient lecturers

• Most students would support the university’s commitment to independent learning, although 1-to-1s were also considered useful to (Am.Can.St.)

Implications forAmerican and Canadian Studies

• Students find seminars & essay feedback the most efficient teaching method

• Web is not considered a very efficient teaching material

• Students find the lecturer more important than themselves in their learning, and consult him/her when facing a problem

• Students view main aim of modules as knowledge transmission, stimulation of further study and recognise the importance of the development of independent thought

Implications for Modern Languages

• No clearly preferred teaching method• Web is not considered very efficient teaching

material• Students find themselves at least as important

as the lecturer in their learning, and consult fellow students as well as the lecturer when facing a problem

• Students view main aim of modules as knowledge transmission, stimulation of further study, and recognise the importance of the development of independent thought

Implications forMathematical Sciences

• Students find doing exercises the most efficient teaching method

• Students find the web, not further reading, efficient teaching material

• Students themselves important in their learning, not the lecturer (then they consult each other)

• Students view main aim of modules as problem solving, not stimulation of further study

Implications forFaculty of Engineering

• Students find doing exercises the most efficient teaching method

• Web & further reading are considered moderately efficient teaching material

• Students themselves important in their learning, not the lecturer (then they consult each other)

• Students view main aim of modules as problem solving & training for specific jobs

Implications (common for all faculties investigated)

• All teaching methods were found to be reasonably efficient

• Handouts were the most popular teaching material

• Students saw themselves and the lecturer as the most important for their learning and NOT their peers

• However, students consult each other when facing a problem – limited use of library, popularity of consulting lecturer varies

CONSIDERATIONS OF THE DATA

• POTENTIAL PROBLEMS WITH METHODOLOGY

• It is important to note that our sample of students is relatively small.

• Class and ethnicity/race biases.• Variety of numbers of questionnaires

returned across schools may cause imbalances in the data received and conclusions made.

BENEFITS of Research into Independent Learning

• Guidance on how to develop learning strategies best suited to student needs and available resources.

• Guidance on how the energies of the lecturer may be best spent – not only in giving lectures but also developing e-learning resources

• Impact upon the structure of CURRICULA - Independent Learning does not mean learning alone and requires thoughtfully considered modules and degree programmes

BENEFITS of Research into Independent Learning

• Urging students to take responsibility for their learning and not be “empty vessels”

• Confirms the importance of a move from a “unidirectional lecturing format toward a more interactive style” (Kember&Gow)

• Benefits to employers in encouraging students to development relevant skills

• Further research into independent learning can begin by considering key aspects of: personal autonomy; self-management; learner control; autodidaxy (individual learning in society) (Cranton).

Future Research • Breakdown in responses by year to assess the full

extent of their differences and/or similarities• Further investigation into lecturer responses so that

views can be compared with the possibility of devising ways and means to “reframe” (Cranton) the learning context and encouraging lecturers to become more self-conscious in their teaching practices.

• Further investigation into the differences in experience and learning outcomes for European Union and Home students versus International students to gain insights into cultural, political and ideological practices and differences.

Future Research Cont...• This research at Nottingham will help to identify

the role of Research Universities in this process - how to transfer skills of lecturers as self-directed learners onto student body.

• To ensure HE institutions are centres for innovative and liberating thought.

• To ensure that “Independent Learning” is appropriately defined not as encouraging students to become Robinson Crusoes but as encouraging modular development tailored to individual needs and which will enhance individual abilities.

• “the search for shared purpose, the search for personal self-direction, and the search for quality work require one another. Together they create the possibility for adult relatedness, integrity, and generativity and therefore represent the essence of genuinely liberating higher education.” (Torbert)