Arab culture

Arab culture refers to the culture in the countries inwhich the official language is Arabic (although the Arabiclanguage in some of minority), and the west officials andscholars used to call them “Arab countries” of WesternAsia and North Africa, from Egypt to the Arabian Sea.Language, literature, gastronomy, art, architecture, mu-sic, spirituality, philosophy, mysticism (etc.) are all partof the cultural heritage of the pan-Arab world.The Arab world is sometimes divided into separate re-gions including Nile Valley (consisting of Egypt and Su-dan), Al-Maghrib Al-Arabi (consisting of Libya, Tunisia,Algeria, Morocco, and Mauritania), Fertile Crescent(consisting of Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon, Syria, Palestine andJordan) and the Arabian Peninsula (consisting of Iraq,Jordan, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Al Ah-waz Al Arabiya, Oman and the UAE) and the ArabianPeninsula’s Al-Janoub Al-Arabi (consisting of Yemenand Oman).The Arab culture is divided into three main parts, theurban culture (Al-Mudun), the rural culture (Ar-Reef),and the nomad culture (Al-Badow). Typically, most ofthe Arab states of the Persian Gulf, along with partsof Jordan and Iraq, are considered Badow (Bedouins).Other countries’ countrysides such as Palestine, Syria,Lebanon, Algeria and Tunisia are considered rural cul-tures. Their cities are considered to be urban cultures. Infact, most of the Arab major cities are recognized withurban cultures, like Jaffa (pre-Israel), Cairo, Jerusalem,Beirut, Baghdad, Alexandria, Damascus, etc. The Lev-ant, particularly Palestine, Lebanon, Syria as well asEgypt are known to have a long urban culture history.

1 Literature

Main article: Arabic literature

Arabic literature is the writing produced, both prose andpoetry, by speakers of the Arabic language. It does notinclude works written using the Arabic alphabet but notin the Arabic language such as Persian and Urdu litera-ture. The Arabic word used for literature is adab whichis derived from a word meaning “to invite someone fora meal” and implies politeness, culture and enrichment.Arabic literature emerged in the 6th century, with onlyfragments of the written language appearing before then.The Qur'an, from the 7th century, had the greatest andlongest-lasting effect on Arabic culture and literature. Al-

Khansa, a female contemporary of Muhammad, was anacclaimed Arab poet.

Antara and Abla, the Arab Romeo and Juliet

1.1 Mu'allaqat

Main article: Muallaqat

The Mu'allaqat (Arabic: ,المعلقات [al-muʕallaqaːt]) isthe name given to a series of seven Arabic poems orqasida that originated before the time of Islam. Eachpoem in the set has a different author, and is consideredto be their best work. Mu'allaqat means “The SuspendedOdes” or “The Hanging Poems,” and comes from the po-ems being hung on the wall in the Kaaba at Mecca.The seven authors, who span a period of around 100years, are Imru' al-Qais, Tarafa, Zuhayr, Labīd, 'AntaraIbn Shaddad, 'Amr ibn Kulthum, and Harith ibn Hilliza.All of the Mu’allaqats contain stories from the authors’lives and tribe politics. This is because poetry was usedin pre-Islamic time to advertise the strength of a tribe’sking, wealth and people.One Thousand and One Nights (Persian: یکشب و (هزارis a medieval folk tale collection which tells the story ofScheherazade (in Persian: Šahrzād ,(شهرزاد a Sassanidqueen who must relate a series of stories to her malev-olent husband, King Shahryar (Šahryār), to delay her ex-ecution. The stories are told over a period of one thou-sand and one nights, and every night she ends the storywith a suspenseful situation, forcing the King to keep heralive for another day. The individual stories were createdover several centuries, by many people from a number ofdifferent lands.The nucleus of the collection is formed by a Pahlavi Sas-

1

2 2 MUSIC

sanid Persian book called Hazār Afsānah[9] (ThousandMyths, in Persian: افسانه ,(هزار a collection of ancientIndian and Persian folk tales.During the reign of the Abbasid Caliph Harun al-Rashidin the 8th century, Baghdad had become an importantcosmopolitan city. Merchants from Persia, China, India,Africa, and Europe were all found in Baghdad. Duringthis time, many of the stories that were originally folk sto-ries are thought to have been collected orally over manyyears and later compiled into a single book. The com-piler and ninth-century translator into Arabic is reputedlythe storyteller Abu Abd-Allah Muhammad el-Gahshigar.The frame story of Shahrzad seems to have been addedin the 14th century.

2 Music

Fresco from Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbî, Syria, Ummayad caliphsPalace, built in the early 7th century

Arabic music is the music of Arabic-speaking peopleor countries, especially those centered around the Ara-bian Peninsula. The world of Arab music has long beendominated by Cairo, a cultural center, though musicalinnovation and regional styles abound from Tunisia toSaudi Arabia. Beirut has, in recent years, also becomea major center of Arabic music. Classical Arab musicis extremely popular across the population, especially asmall number of superstars known throughout the Arabworld. Regional styles of popular music include Iraqianel Maqaam, Algerian raï, Kuwaiti sawt and Egyptian elgil.“The common style that developed is usually called 'Is-lamic' or 'Arab', though in fact it transcends religious,ethnic, geographical, and linguistic boundaries” and it is

suggested that it be called the Near East (from Moroccoto India) style (van der Merwe, Peter 1989, p. 9).Habib Hassan Touma (1996, p.xix-xx) lists “five compo-nents” which “characterize the music of the Arabs:

1. The Arab tone system (a musical tuning system)with specific interval structures, invented by al-Farabi in the 10th century (p. 170).

2. Rhythmic-temporal structures that produce a richvariety of rhythmic patterns, awzan, used to accom-pany the metered vocal and instrumental genres andgive them form.

3. Musical instruments that are found throughout theArabian world and that represent a standardizedtone system, are played with standardized perfor-mance techniques, and exhibit similar details in con-struction and design.

4. Specific social contexts for the making of music,whereby musical genres can be classified as ur-ban (music of the city inhabitants), rural (music ofthe country inhabitants), or Bedouin (music of thedesert inhabitants)....

5. A musical mentality that is responsible for theaesthetic homogeneity of the tonal-spatial andrhythmic-temporal structures in Arabian music,whether composed or improvised, instrumental orvocal, secular or sacred. The Arab’s musical men-tality is defined by:

(a) The maqām phenomenon....(b) The predominance of vocal music...(c) The predilection for small instrumental en-

sembles...(d) The mosaiclike stringing together of musi-

cal form elements, that is, the arrangementin a sequence of small and smallest melodicelements, and their repetition, combination,and permutation within the framework of thetonal-spatial model.

(e) The absence of polyphony, polyrhythm, andmotivic development. Arabian music is, how-ever, very familiar with the ostinato, as well aswith a more instinctive heterophonic way ofmaking music.

(f) The alternation between a free rhythmic-temporal and fixed tonal-spatial organizationon the one hand and a fixed rhythmic-temporaland free tonal-spatial structure on the other.This alternation...results in exciting contrasts.”

Much Arab music is characterized by an emphasis onmelody and rhythm rather than harmony. Thus muchArabic music is homophonic in nature. Some genres ofArab music are polyphonic—as the instrument Kanoun

3

is based upon the idea of playing two-note chords—butquintessentially, Arabic music is melodic.It would be incorrect though to call it modal, for the Ara-bic system is more complex than that of the Greekmodes.The basis of the Arabic music is the maqam (pl. maqa-mat), which looks like themode, but is not quite the same.The maqam has a "tonal" note on which the piece mustend (unless modulation occurs).

The Riq is widely used in the Arabic Music

The maqam consists of at least two jins, or scale seg-ments. “Jins” in Arabic comes from the ancient Greekword “genus,” meaning type. In practice, a jins (pl. ajnas)is either a trichord, a tetrachord, or a pentachord. The tri-chord is three notes, the tetrachord four, and the penta-chord five. The maqam usually covers only one octave(two jins), but sometimes it covers more than one oc-tave. Like the melodic minor scale and Indian ragas,some maqamat have different ajnas, and thus notes, whiledescending or ascending. Because of the continuous in-novation of jins and because most music scholars don'tagree on the existing number anyway, it’s hard to givean accurate number of the jins. Nonetheless, in prac-tice most musicians would agree on the 8 most frequentlyused ajnas: Rast, Bayat, Sikah, Hijaz, Saba, Kurd, Na-hawand, and Ajam—and a few of the most commonlyused variants of those: Nakriz, Athar Kurd, Sikah Beladi,Saba Zamzama. Mukhalif is a rare jins used exclusivelyin Iraq, and it does not occur in combination with otherajnas.The main difference between the western chromatic scaleand the Arabic scales is the existence of many in-betweennotes, which are sometimes referred to as quarter tonesfor the sake of practicality. However, while in some treat-ments of theory the quarter tone scale or all twenty fourtones should exist, according to Yūsuf Shawqī (1969) inpractice there are many fewer tones (Touma 1996, p.170).In fact, the situation is much more complicated than that.In 1932, at International Convention on Arabic musicheld in Cairo, Egypt (attended by such Western lumi-naries as Béla Bartók and Henry George Farmer), ex-

periments were done which determined conclusively thatthe notes in actual use differ substantially from an even-tempered 24-tone scale, and furthermore that the intona-tion of many of those notes differ slightly from region toregion (Egypt, Turkey, Syria, Iraq). The commission’srecommendation is as follows: “The tempered scale andthe natural scale should be rejected. In Egypt, the Egyp-tian scale is to be kept with the values, which were mea-sured with all possible precision. The Turkish, Syrian,and Iraqi scales should remain what they are...” (trans-lated in Maalouf 2002, p. 220). Both in modern prac-tice, and based on the evidence from recorded music overthe course of the last century, there are several differ-ently tuned “E"s in between the E-flat and E-natural ofthe Western Chromatic scale, depending on the maqamor jins in use, and depending on the region.Musicians and teachers refer to these in-between notesas “quarter-tones” (“half-flat” or “half-sharp”) for easeof nomenclature, but perform and teach the exact valuesof intonation in each jins or maqam by ear. It shouldalso be added, in reference to Touma’s comment above,that these “quarter-tones” are not used everywhere in themaqamat: in practice, Arabic music does not modulate to12 different tonic areas like the Well-Tempered Klavier,and so the most commonly used “quarter tones” are onE (between E-flat and E-natural), A, B, D, F (betweenF-natural and F-sharp) and C.The prototypical Arab ensemble in Egypt and Syria isknown as the takht, which includes, (or included at dif-ferent time periods) instruments such as the 'oud, qanún,rabab, nay, violin (which was introduced in the 1840sor 50s), riq and dumbek. In Iraq, the traditional en-semble, known as the chalghi, includes only two melodicinstruments—the jowza (similar to the rabab but withfour strings) and santur—with riq and dumbek.

3 Media

An anchor on Al-Arabiya Television, in Jerusalem

Prior to the Islamic Era, poetry was regarded as the mainmeans of communication on the Arabian Peninsula. Itrelated the achievements of tribes and defeats of enemies

4 3 MEDIA

and also served as a tool for propaganda. After the arrivalof Islam other forms of communication replaced poetryas the primary form of communication. Imams (preach-ers) played a role in disseminating information and relat-ing news from the authorities to the people. The suq ormarketplace gossip and interpersonal relationships playedan important role in the spreading of news, and this formof communication among Arabs continues today. Beforethe introduction of the printing press Muslims obtainedmost of their news from the Imams at theMosque, friendsor in the marketplace. Colonial powers and ChristianMissionaries in Lebanon were responsible for the intro-duction of the printing press. It was not until the 19thcentury that the first newspapers began to appear, mainlyin Egypt and Lebanon, which had the most newspapersper capita.During French rule in Egypt in the time of NapoleonBonaparte the first newspaper was published, in French.There is debate over when the first Arabic language news-paper was published; according to Arab scholar AbuBakr, Al Tanbeeh (1800) published in Egypt and Jun-ral Al Iraq (1816) in Iraq according to other researchers.In the mid-19th century the Turkish Empire dominatedthe first newspapers. In the Northern African countries ofMorocco, Tunisia and Algeria the French colonial powerbuilt a press link between mainland countries. The firstnewspapers were limited to official content and includedaccounts of relations with other countries and civil tri-als. In the following decades Arab media blossomed dueto journalists mainly from Syria and Lebanon, who wereintellectuals and published their newspapers without theintention of making a profit. Because of the restrictionsby most governments, these intellectuals were forced toflee their respective countries but had gained a followingand because of their popularity in this field of work otherintellectuals began to take interest in the field. The firstémigré Arab newspaper, Mar’at al Ahwal, was publishedin Turkey in 1855 by Rizqallah Hassoun Al Halabi. Itwas criticized by the Ottoman Empire and shut down af-ter only one year. Intellectuals in the Arab World soonrealized the power of the press. Some countries’ news-papers were government-run and had political agendas inmind. Independent newspapers began to spring up whichexpressed opinions and were a place for the public to outtheir views on the state. Illiteracy rates in the Arab worldplayed a role in the formation of media, and due to thelow reader rates newspapers were forced to get politicalparties to subsidize their publications, giving them inputto editorial policy.Freedoms that have branched through the introduction ofthe Internet in Middle East are creating a stir politically,culturally, and socially. There is an increasing divide be-tween the generations. The Arab World is in conflict in-ternally. The internet has brought economic prosperityand development, but Bloggers have been incarceratedall around in the Middle East for their opinions and viewson their regimes, the same consequence which was once

given to those who publicly expressed themselves withoutanonymity. But the power of the internet has providedalso a public shield for these bloggers since they have theability to engage public sympathy on such a large scale.This is creating a dilemma that shakes the foundation ofArab culture, government, religious interpretation, eco-nomic prosperity, and personal integrity.

A cafe in Cairo

Each country or region in the Arab world has varyingcolloquial languages which are used for everyday speech,yet its presence in the media world is discouraged. Priorto the establishment of Modern Standard Arabic (MSA),during the 19th century, the language of the media wasstylized and resembled literary language of the time,proving to be ineffective in relaying information. Cur-rently MSA is used by Arab media, including newspa-pers, books and some television stations, in addition toall formal writing. Vernaculars are however present incertain forms of media including satires, dramas, musicvideos and other local programs.

3.1 Media values

Journalism ethics is a system of values that determineswhat constitutes “good” and “bad” journalism.[1] A sys-tem of media values consists of and is constructed byjournalists’ and other actors’ decisions about issues likewhat is “newsworthy,” how to frame the news, andwhether to observe topical “red lines.”[2] Such a systemof values varies over space and time, and is embeddedwithin the existing social, political, and economic struc-tures in a society. William Rugh states, “There is an inti-mate, organic relationship between media institutions andsociety in the way that those institutions are organizedand controlled. Neither the institution nor the societyin which it functions can be understood properly withoutreference to the other. This is certainly true in the Arabworld.”[3] Media values in the Arab world therefore varybetween and within countries. In the words of LawrencePintak and Jeremy Ginges, “The Arab media are not amonolith.”[4]

3.1 Media values 5

Journalists in the Arab World hold many of the samevalues with their news generation as do journalists inthe Western world. Journalists in the Arab world of-ten aspire to Western norms of objectivity, impartiality,and balance. Kuldip Roy Rampal’s study of journalisttraining programs in North Africa leads to the conclu-sion that, “the most compelling dilemma faced by pro-fessional journalists, increasingly graduates of journal-ism degree programs, in the four Maghreb states is howto reconcile their preference for press freedom and ob-jectivity with constraints imposed by political and legalfactors that point to a pro-government journalism.”[5] Iy-otika Ramaprasad and Naila Nabil Hamdy state, “A newtrend toward objectivity and impartiality as a value inArab journalism seems to be emerging, and the values ofArab and Western journalism in this field have started toconverge.”[6] Further, many journalists in the Arab worldexpress their desires for the media to become a fourth es-tate akin to the media in the West. In a survey of 601journalists in the Arab world, 40% of them viewed in-vestigation of the government as part of their job.[4]

Important differences between journalists in the Arabworld and their Western counterparts are also appar-ent. Some journalists in the Arab world see no conflictbetween objectivity and support for political causes.[7]Ramprasad and Hamdy’s sample of 112 Egyptian jour-nalists gave the highest importance to supportingArabismand Arab values, which included injunctions such as “de-fend Islamic societies, traditions and values” and “sup-port the cause of the Palestinians.” Sustaining democracythrough “examining government policies and decisionscritically,” ranked a close second.[6] This view is furtherendorsed in Kirat’s survey where 65 percent of Algerianjournalists agreed that the task for the press is to “helpachieve the goals and objectives of development plans.[8]Such an approach to media fits within the larger scopeof development communication and journalism. The ex-tent to which professional and political aims conflict is asubject of study for scholars of the Arab world’s media.Other journalists reject the notion of media ethics alto-gether because they see it as a mechanism of control. KaiHafez states, “Many governments in the Arab world havetried to hijack the issue of media ethics and have usedit as yet another controlling device, with the result thatmany Arab journalists, while they love to speak about thechallenges of their profession, hate performing under thelabel of media ethics.”[1]

Historically news in the Arab World was used to inform,guide, and publicize the actions of political practitionersrather than being just a consumer product. The power ofnews as political tool was discovered in the early 19th cen-tury, with the purchase of shares fromLe Temps a Frenchnewspaper by Ismail the grandson of Muhammad Ali.Doing so allowed Ismail to publicize his policies.[9] ArabMedia coming to modernity flourished and with it its re-sponsibilities to the political figures that have governedits role. Ami Ayalon argues in his history of the press

in the Arab Middle East that, “Private journalism beganas an enterprise with very modest objectives, seeking notto defy authority but rather to serve it, to collaborate andcoexist cordially with it. The demand for freedom of ex-pression, as well as for individual political freedom, a truechallenge to the existing order, came only later, and hes-itantly at that, and was met by a public response that canbest be described as faint.” [9]

Media researchers stress that the moraland social responsibility of newspeople dictatesthat they should not agitate public opinion, butrather should keep the status quo. It is also im-portant to preserve national unity by not stir-ring up ethnic or religious conflict.[10]

The values of media in the Arab world have started tochange with the emergence of “new media.” Examplesof new media include news websites, blogs, and satel-lite television stations like Al Arabiya. The foundingof the Qatari Al Jazeera network in 1996 especially af-fected media values. Some scholars believe that the net-work has blurred the line between private- and state- runnews. Mohamed Zayani and Sofiane Sabraoui state, “AlJazeera is owned by the government, but has an inde-pendent editorial policy; it is publicly funded, but inde-pendent minded.”[11] The Al Jazeera media network es-pouses a clear mission and strategy, and was one of thefirst news organizations in the Arab world to release acode of ethics.[12] Despite its government ties, it seeksto “give no priority to commercial or political over pro-fessional consideration” and to “cooperate with Arab andinternational journalistic unions and associations to de-fend freedom of the press.” With a motto of “the viewand the other view,” it purports to “present the diversepoints of view and opinions without bias and partiality.” Ithas sought to fuse these ostensibly Western media normswith a wider “Arab orientation,” evocative of the socialresponsibility discussed by scholars such as Noha Mellorabove.Some more recent assessments of Al Jazeera havecriticized it for a lack of credibility in the wake of theArab Spring. Criticism has come from within the ArabMiddle East, including from state governments.[13] Inde-pendent commentators have criticized its neutrality vis-a-vis the Syrian Civil War.[14]

Media values are not the only variable that affects newsoutput in Arab society. Hafez states, “The interactionof political, economic, and social environments with in-dividual and collective professional ethics is the driv-ing force behind journalism.”[1] In most Arab countries,newspapers cannot be published without a government-issued license. Most Arab countries also have press laws,which impose boundaries on what can and cannot be saidin print.Censorship plays a significant role in journalism in theArab World. Censorship comes in a variety of forms:

6 3 MEDIA

Self-censorship, Government Censorship (governmentsstruggle to control through technological advances inex. the internet), Ideology/Religious Censorship, andTribal/Family/Alliances Censorship. Because Journalismin the Arab world comes with a range of dangers – jour-nalists throughout the Arab world can be imprisoned,tortured, and even killed in their line of work – self-censorship is extremely important for many Arab jour-nalists. A study conducted by the Center for Defend-ing Freedom of Journalists (CDFJ) in Jordan, for exam-ple, found that the majority of Jordanian journalists ex-ercise self-censorship.[15] CPJ found that 34 journalistswere killed in the region in 2012, 72 were imprisoned onDecember 1, 2012, and 126 were in exile from 2007 to2012.[16]

A related point is that media owners and patrons haveeffects on the values of their outlets. Newspapers in theArab World can be divided into three categories: govern-ment owned, partisan owned, and independently owned.Newspaper, radio, and television patronization in theArab world has heretofore been primarily a function ofgovernments.[17] “Now, newspaper ownership has beenconsolidated in the hands of powerful chains and groups.Yet, profit is not the driving force behind the launchingof newspapers; publishers may establish a newspaper toensure a platform for their political opinions, although itis claimed that this doesn’t necessarily influence the newscontent”.[18] In the Arab world, as far as content is con-cerned, news is politics. Arab states are intimately in-volved in the economic well-being of many Arab newsorganizations so they apply pressure in several ways, mostnotably through ownership or advertising.[19]

Some analysts hold that cultural and societal pressures de-termine journalists’ news output in the Arab world. Forexample, to the extent that family reputation and personalreputation are fundamental principles in Arab civiliza-tion, exposes of corruption, examples of weakmoral fiberin governors and policy makers, and investigative jour-nalism may have massive consequences. In fact, somejournalists andmedia trainers in the Arab world neverthe-less actively promote the centrality of investigative jour-nalism to the media’s larger watchdog function. In Jor-dan, for example, where the degree of government andsecurity service interference in the media is high, non-governmental organizations such as the Center for De-fending the Freedom of Journalists (CDFJ) and Arab Re-porters for Investigative Journalism (ARIJ) train journal-ists to undertake investigative journalism projects.[20]

Some Saudi journalists stress the importance of enhanc-ing Islam through the media. The developmental role ofmedia was acknowledged by an overwhelming majorityof Saudi journalists, while giving the readers what theywant was not regarded as a priority.[21] However, jour-nalism codes, as an important source for the study ofmedia values, complicate this notion. Kai Hafez states,“The possible hypothesis that Islamic countries might notbe interested in ‘truth’ and would rather propagate ‘Islam’

The Jordanian Center for Defending Freedom of Journalists(CDFJ) posted this sign in protest of the country’s 2012 Press andPublications law. It reads, “The right to obtain information is aright for all people”.

as the single truth cannot be verified completely becauseeven a code that limits journalists’ freedom of expressionto Islamic objectives and values, the Saudi Arabian code,demands that journalists present real facts.”[1] In addition,Saudi journalists operate in an environment in which anti-religious talk is likely to be met with censorship.Patterns of consumption also affect media values in theArab world. People in the Arab world rely on newspa-pers, magazines, radio, television, and the Internet to dif-fering degrees and to meet a variety of ends. For Rugh,the proportion of radio and television receivers to Arabpopulations relative to UNESCO minimum standardssuggests that radio and television are the most widelyconsumed media. He estimates that television reacheswell over 100 million people in the region, and this num-ber has likely grown since 2004. By contrast, he sup-poses that Arab newspapers are designed more for elite-consumption on the basis of their low circulation. Hestates, “Only five Arab countries have daily newspaperswhich distribute over 60,000 copies and some have dailiesonly in the under-10,000 range. Only Egypt has dailieswhich distribute more than a half million copies.”[22] Es-timating newspaper readership is complicated, however,by the fact that single newspapers can change hands manytimes in a day. Finally, the internet continues to be afairly common denominator in Arab societies. A reportby the Dubai School of Government and Bayt.com esti-mates that there are more than 125 million Internet usersin the region, and that more than 53 million of them ac-tively use social media. They caution, however, that while“the internet has wide-ranging benefits, these benefits donot reach large segments of societies in the Arab region.The digital divide remains a significant barrier for manypeople. In many parts of the Arab world levels of edu-cational attainment, economic activity, standards of liv-ing and internet costs still determine a person’s access tolife-changing technology.[23] Further, according to LeoGher and Hussein Amin, the Internet and other moderntelecommunication services may serve to counter the ef-fects of private and public ownership and patronage ofthe press. They state, “Modern international telecom-

3.4 Television 7

munications services now assist in the free flow of infor-mation, and neither inter-Arab conflicts nor differencesamong groups will affect the direct exchange of servicesprovided by global cyberspace networks.”[24]

3.2 Magazines

In most Arab countries, magazines cannot be publishedwithout a government-issued license. Magazines in theArab World, like many of the magazines in the Westernworld, are geared towards women. However, the numberof magazines in the Arab World is significantly smallerthan that of the Western world. The Arab World is not asadvertisement driven the way the western world is. Ad-vertisers fuel the funding for most Western magazines toexist. Thus, a lesser emphasis on advertisement in theArab World plays into the low number of magazines.

3.3 Radio

There are 90 private radio stations throughout the MiddleEast and North Africa. (list of private radio stations inthe Arab World)Arab radio broadcasting began in the 1920s, but only afew Arab countries had their own broadcasting stationsbefore World War II. After 1945, most Arab states beganto create their own radio broadcasting systems, althoughit was not until 1970, when Oman opened its radio trans-missions, that every one of them had its own radio station.Among Arab countries, Egypt has been a leader in radiobroadcasting from the beginning. Broadcasting began inEgypt in the 1920s with private commercial radio. In1947, however, the Egyptian government declared radioa government monopoly and began investing in its expan-sion.By the 1970s, Egyptian radio had fourteen differentbroadcast services with a total air time of 1,200 hoursper week. Egypt is ranked third in the world among ra-dio broadcasters. The programs were all government con-trolled, and much of the motivation for the government’sinvestment in radio was due to the aspirations of Presi-dent Gamal Abdel Nasser to be the recognized leader ofthe Arab world.Egypt’s “Voice of the Arabs” station, which targetedother Arab countries with a constant stream of news andpolitical features and commentaries, became the mostwidely heard station in the region. Only after the June1967 war, when it was revealed that this station had mis-informed the public about what was happening, did it losesome credibility; nevertheless it retained a large listener-ship.On the Arabian Peninsula, radio was slower to develop. InSaudi Arabia, radio broadcasts started in the Jidda-Meccaarea in 1948, but they did not start in the central or east-ern provinces until the 1960s. Neighboring Bahrain had

radio by 1955, but Qatar, Abu Dhabi, and Oman did notstart indigenous radio broadcasting until nearly a quartercentury later.

3.4 Television

Almost all television channels in the Arab world weregovernment-owned and strictly controlled prior to the1990s. In the 1990s the spread of satellite television be-gan changing television in Arab countries. Often notedas a pioneer, al-Jazeera represents a shift towards a moreprofessional approach to news and current affairs.[25] Fi-nanced by the Qatar government and established in 1996,al-Jazeera was the first Arabic channel to deliver exten-sive live news coverage, going so far as to send reportersto “unthinkable” places like Israel. Breaking the moldin more ways than one, al-Jazeera’s discussion programsraised subjects that had long been prohibited. However,in 2008, Egypt and Saudi Arabia called for a meeting toapprove a charter to regulate satellite broadcasting. TheArab League Satellite Broadcasting Charter (2008) laysout principles for regulating satellite broadcasting in theArab world.[26][27]

Other Satellite Channels:Al-Arabiya: established in 2003; based inDubai; offshootof MBCAl-Hurra (“The Free One”): established in 2004 by theUnited States; counter perceives “biases” in Arab newsmediaAl-Manar: Owned by Hizbullah; Lebanese-based; highlycontroversial“Across the Middle East, new television stations, radiostations and websites are sprouting like incongruous elec-tronic mushrooms in what was once a media desert.Meanwhile newspapers are aggressively probing the redlines that have long contained them”.[28] Technology isplaying a significant role in the changing Arab media.Pintak furthers, “Now, there are 263 free-to-air (FTA)satellite television stations in the region, according toArab Advisors Group. That’s double the figure as of justtwo years ago”.[28] Freedom of speech and money havelittle to do with why satellite television is sprouting upeverywhere. Instead, “A desire for political influence isprobably the biggest factor driving channel growth. Butego is a close second”.[28] The influence of the Westis very apparent in Arab Media especially in television.Arab soap operas and the emerging popularity of realityTV are evidence of this notion.“In the wake of controversy triggered by Super Starand Star Academy, some observers have hailed real-ity television as a harbinger of democracy in the Arabworld.”[29] Star Academy in Lebanon is strikingly simi-lar to American Idol mixed with the Real World. StarAcademy began in 2003 in the Arab world. “Reality tele-vision entered Arab public discourse in the last five yearsat a time of significant turmoil in the region: escalatingviolence in Iraq, contested elections in Egypt, the strug-

8 3 MEDIA

gle for women’s political rights in Kuwait, political as-sassinations in Lebanon, and the protracted Arab-IsraeliConflict. This geo-political crisis environment that cur-rently frames Arab politics and Arab-Western relationsis the backdrop to the controversy surrounding the socialand political impact of Arab reality television, which as-sumes religious, cultural or moral manifestations.”[30]

3.5 Cinema

Main article: Arab cinema

Most Arab countries did not produce films before nationindependence. In Sudan, Libya, Saudi Arabia, and theUnited Arab Emirates, production is even now confinedto short films or television. Bahrain witnessed the produc-tion of its first and only full-length feature film in 1989.In Jordan national production has barely exceeded halfa dozen feature films. Algeria and Iraq have producedapproximately 100 films each, Morocco around seventy,Tunisia around 130, and Syria some 150. Lebanon, ow-ing to an increased production during the 1950s and1960s, has made some 180 feature films. Only Egypthas far exceeded these countries, with a production ofmore than 2,500 feature films (all meant for cinema, nottelevision).[31] As with most aspects of Arab Media, cen-sorship plays a large art of creating and distributing films.“In most Arab countries, film projects must first pass astate committee, which grants or denies permission toshoot. Once this permission is obtained, another offi-cial license, a so-called visa, is necessary in order to ex-ploit the film commercially. This is normally approvedby a committee of the Ministry of Information or a spe-cial censorship authority”.[31] The most significant tabootopics under state supervision are consistent with those ofother forms of media: religion, sex, and politics.

3.6 Internet

The Internet in the Arab world is powerful source of ex-pression and information as it is in other places in theworld. While some believe that it is the harbinger of free-dom in media to the Middle East, others think that it isa new medium for censorship. Both are true. The Inter-net has created a new arena for discussion and the dis-semination of information for the Arab world just as ithas in the rest of the world. The youth in particular areaccessing and utilizing the tools. People are encouragedand enabled to join in political discussion and critique ina manner that was not previously possible. Those samepeople are also discouraged and blocked from those de-bates as the differing regimes try to restrict access basedon religious and state objections to certain material.This was posted on a website operated by the MuslimBrotherhood.

The internet in the Arab world has a snow-ball effect; now that the snowball is rolling, itcan no longer be stopped. Getting bigger andstronger, it is bound to crush down all obstacles.In addition, to the stress caused by the Arabbloggers, a new forum was opened for Arabactivists; Facebook. Arab activists have beenusing Facebook in the utmost creative way tosupport the democracy movement in the re-gion, a region that has one of the highest ratesof repression in the world. Unlike other re-gions where oppressive countries (like China,Iran and Burma) represent the exception, op-pression can be found everywhere in the Arabworld. The number of Arab internet users in-terested in political affairs does not exceed afew thousands, mainly represented by internetactivists and bloggers, out of 58 million inter-net users in the Arab world. As few as they are,they have succeeded in shedding some light onthe corruption and repression of the Arab gov-ernments and dictatorships.[32]

The public Internet use began in the US in the 1980s. In-ternet access began in the early 1990s in the Arab worldwith Tunisia being first in 1991 according to Dr. Deb-orah L. Wheeler. The years of the introduction of theInternet the various Arab countries are reported differ-ently. Wheeler reports that Kuwait joined in 1992 andin 1993 Turkey, Iraq and the UAE came online. In 1994Jordan joined the Internet and Saudi Arabia and Syriafollowed in the late 1990s. Financial considerations andthe lack of widespread availability of services are factorsin the slower growth in the Arab world, but taking intoconsideration the popularity of internet cafes, the num-bers online aremuch larger than the subscription numberswould reveal.[33]

The people most commonly utilizing the Internet in theArab world are youths. The café users in particular tendto be under 30, single and have a variety of levels ofeducation and language proficiency. Despite reports thatuse of the internet was curtailed by lack of English skills,Dr. Wheeler found that people were able to search withArabic. Searching for jobs, the unemployed frequentlyfill cafes in Egypt and Jordan. They are men and womenequally. Most of them chat and they have email. In a sur-vey conducted by Dr. Deborah Wheeler, she found themto almost all to have been taught to use the Internet by afriend or family member. They all felt their lives to havebeen significantly changed by the use of the Internet. Theuse of the Internet in theArabworld is very political in thenature of the posts and of the sites read and visited. TheInternet has brought a medium to Arabs that allows fora freedom of expression not allowed or accepted before.For those who can get online, there are blogs to read andwrite and access to worldwide outlets of information onceunobtainable. With this access, regimes have attemptedto curtail what people are able to read, but the Internet is a

9

medium not as easily manipulated as telling a newspaperwhat it can or cannot publish. The Internet can be reachedvia proxy server, mirror, and other means. Those whoare thwarted with one method will find 12 more methodsaround the blocked site. As journalists suffer and are im-prisoned in traditional media, the Internet is no differentwith bloggers regularly being imprisoned for expressingtheir views for the world to read. The difference is thatthere is a worldwide audience witnessing this crackdownand watching as laws are created and recreated to attemptto control the vastness of the Internet.[34]

Jihadists are using the Internet to reach a greater audi-ence. Just as a simple citizen can now have a worldwidevoice, so can a movement. Groups are using the Internetto share video, photos, programs and any kind of infor-mation imaginable. Standard media may not report whatthe Muslim Brotherhood would say on their site. How-ever, for the interested, the Internet is a tool that is uti-lized with great skill by those who wish to be heard. Afile uploaded to 100 sites and placed in multiple forumswill reach millions instantly. Information on the Internetcan be thwarted, slowed, even redirected, but it cannot bestopped if someone wants it out there on the Internet.The efforts by the various regimes to control the informa-tion are all falling apart gradually. Those fighting crimeonline have devised methods of tracking and catchingcriminals. Unfortunately those same tools are being usedto arrest bloggers and those who would just wish to beheard. The Internet is a vast and seemingly endless sourceof information. Arabs are using it more than perhaps theworld is aware and it is changing the media.

4 Society

Social loyalty is of great importance in Arab culture.Family is one of the most important aspects of the Arabsociety. While self-reliance, individuality, and responsi-bility are taught by Arabic parents to their children, fam-ily loyalty is the greatest lesson taught in Arab families.“Unlike the extreme individualismwe see in North Amer-ica (every person for him or herself, individual rights,families living on their own away from relatives, andso on), Arab society emphasizes the importance of thegroup. Arab culture teaches that the needs of the groupare more important than the needs of one person.”[35] Inthe Bedouin tribes of Saudi Arabia, “intense feelings ofloyalty and dependence are fostered and preserved”[36]by the family.[37] Margaret Nydell, in her book Under-standing Arabs: A Guide for Modern Times, writes “fam-ily loyalty and obligations take precedence over loyalty tofriends or demands of a job.”[38] She goes on to state that“members of a family are expected to support each otherin disputes with outsiders. Regardless of personal antipa-thy among relatives, they must defend each other’s honor,counter criticism, and display group cohesion...”[38] Of allmembers of the family, however, the most revered mem-

ber is the mother.Family honor is one of the most important characteristicsin the Arab family. According to Margaret Nydell, socialexchanges between men and women happen very seldomoutside of the work place.[38] Men and women refrainfrom being alone together. They have to be very careful insocial situations because those interactions can be inter-preted negatively and cause gossip, which can tarnish thereputation of women. Women are able to socialize freelywith other women and male family members, but have tohave family members present to socialize with men thatare not part of the family.[38] These conservative practicesare put into place to protect the reputation of women. Badbehavior not only affects women but her family’s honor.Practices differ between countries and families. SaudiArabia has stricter practices when it comes to men andwomen and will even require marriage documents if awoman and man are seen together alone.[38] Foreignersshould learn about the practices in the Arab country theyare visiting to avoid any disrespectful actions.Arab values One of the characteristics of Arabs is gen-erosity and they usually show it by being courteous witheach other. Some of the most important values for Arabsare honor and loyalty. Margaret Nydell, in her book Un-derstanding Arabs: A Guide for Modern Times’ [38] saysthat Arabs can be defined as, humanitarian, loyal and po-lite. Tarek Mahfouz explains in the book “Arab Culture”[39] that it is common for Arabs in dinner situations to in-sist on guests to eat the last piece of the meal or to fightover who will pay the bill at a restaurant for generosity.Arab speech The Arab world is very influenced by Is-lam and it practices even if though not all Arabs are Mus-lims.In Arab society it is common to include blessings andproverbs while talking to other persons to pepper theirspeech.Female Infanticide Like many societies around theworld, the preference for a son is much higher than pre-ferring a daughter in the Arab world. In pre-Islamic Ara-bia, husbands would go as far as burying female infantsalive because of the shame it caused them among theirpeers. Women are typically seen as a burden whereasmen represent honor and dignity to a family. Muham-mad revealed a verse which deals with this phenomenon.It says, “AndGod will ask the female infant who had beenburied alive (“mau'udda”) for what wrongdoing was shekilled.” This practice is long gone in the Arab world, butthe sentiment of having a son over a daughter still residesand women are still subject to divorce for failure to givebirth to a son as a first born child.[39]

5 Sports

10 7 DRESS

5.1 Pan Arab Games

Main article: Pan Arab Games

The PanArabGames are a regional multi-sport event heldbetween nations from the Arab World. The first Gameswere held in 1953 in Alexandria, Egypt. Intended tobe held every four years since, political turmoil as wellas financial difficulties has made the event an unstableone. Women were first allowed to compete in 1985. Bythe 11th Pan Arab Games, the number of countries par-ticipating reached all 22 members of the Arab League,with roughly over 8,000 Arab athletes participating, itwas considered the largest in the Games History, with theDoha Games in 2011 expected to exceed that number.

5.2 Arab women in sports

Women around the world have struggled in the profes-sional world of sports since it has been something that hasbeen dominated bymen. When looking at the Arab worldcurrently there is an emergence of Arab women playingsports, something that for the most part is not much dis-cussed but is of great importance. Muslim Arab womenare taking part in playing on futsal, football (soccer), soft-ball, basketball, and various other teams. Some womenare participating in boxing, archery, running, swimming,tennis and other individual sports. Because more Mus-lim women are playing sports, sportswear is being devel-oped so that a woman can still be able to participate insports like swimming without limiting their participationdue to the way they choose to dress. Although womenhave received great support from family members in play-ing sports, there is still much criticism towards femaleathletes in the Arab world. Many conservative men havecriticized that sports and women do not go together andthat a woman would not be able to wear her headscarfor should not wear shorts while playing sports. Somepeople do not see Islam and women playing sports asbeing compatible. Despite the various criticisms Arabwomen around the Arab world face, it has not stoppedthe popularity of women’s participation in sports. Foot-ball is one of the sports that has exploded in popularitywith women in the Arab world. With the coming of theWomen’s World Cup in 2011, there is a Women’s Foot-ball Cup Arabia occurring in Bahrain which is bringingtogether women’s teams from all over the Arab world toplay in competition.[40] There are teams in Syria, Pales-tine, Lebanon, Egypt, Algeria, Morocco, Libya and Jor-dan and events like this show that, as said by Dr. Saharal Hawary who is a member of FIFA’s Women’s Com-mittee from Egypt, “women’s football can be promoted atthe highest level and watched in theArabworld...women’sfootball can be promoted at the highest level and watchedin the Arab world”.[41] Arab women are also challeng-ing and becoming a part of sports that even outside ofthe Arab world are considered not for women. There are

Arab women who are participating in boxing, even reach-ing international competition levels.[42] Arab women arenot limiting themselves and although they receive criti-cism from some of society, their families and commu-nities have been very supportive while still consideringthemselves conservative and faithful to Islam.[43] Thesewomen and their families are challenging the very narrowview that society at times has of the capabilities of womenand have inspired women all around the Arab world tonot limit themselves. Despite this occurring in the Arabworld, what these Arab female athletes are doing is aninspiration to women all over the globe.

6 Cuisine

Main article: Arab cuisine

Originally, the Arabs of the Arabian Peninsula reliedheavily on a diet of dates, wheat, barley, rice and meat,with little variety, with a heavy emphasis on yoghurtproducts, such as leben (لبن) (yoghurt without butter-fat). Arabian cuisine today is the result of a combina-tion of richly diverse cuisines, spanning the Arab worldand incorporating Lebanese, Egyptian, and others. It hasalso been influenced to a degree by the cuisines of In-dia, Turkey, Berber, and others. In an average Arabhousehold in the Persian Gulf area, a visitor might ex-pect a dinner consisting of a very large platter, sharedcommonly, with a vast mountain of rice, incorporatinglamb or chicken, or both, as separate dishes, with vari-ous stewed vegetables, heavily spiced, sometimes with atomato sauce. Most likely, there would be several otheritems on the side, less hearty. Tea would certainly ac-company the meal, as it is almost constantly consumed.Coffee would be included as well.Tea Culture Tea is a very important drink in the ArabWorld, it is usually served with breakfast, after lunch, andwith dinner. For Arabs tea is a hospitality drink that isserved to guests. Moreover, it is also common for Arabsto drink tea with dates.

7 Dress

7.1 Men

Arab dress for men ranges from the traditional flowingrobes to blue jeans, T-shirts and business suits. The robesallow for maximum circulation of air around the body tohelp keep it cool, and the head dress provides protectionfrom the sun. At times, Arabs mix the traditional garbwith clothes.[44]

Thobe In the Arab states of the Persian Gulf men usuallywear their national dress that is called “thobe” but can bealso called “Dishdasha” (Kuwait) or “Kandoura” (UAE).

7.2 Women 11

“Thobes” differ slightly from state to state within theGulf,but the basic ones are white. This is the traditional attirethat Arabs wear in formal occasions.Headdress The male headdress is also known asKeffiyeh. Headdress pattern might be an indicator ofwhich tribe, clan, or family the wearer comes from. How-ever, this is not always the case. While in one village, atribe or clan might have a unique headdress, in the nexttown over an unrelated tribe or clan might wear the sameheaddress.

A wedding carriage in Jisr az-Zarqa, Israel

• Checkered headdresses relate to type and govern-ment and participation in the Hajj, or a pilgrimageto Mecca.

• Red and white checkered headdress – Generally ofJordanian origin. Wearer has made Hajj and comesfrom a country with a Monarch.

• Black and white checkered headdress – The patternis historically of Palestinian origin.

• Black and grey represent Presidential rule and com-pletion of the Hajj.

Guthra (headdress) in the Arab states of the Per-sian Gulf The male headdress in the Gulf states is calledGuthra and it is different in each country (size and shape).It is usually worn with a black cord called “agal” thatkeeps the guthra on the wearer’s head.

• The Qatari guthra is heavily starched and it is knownfor its “cobra” shape.

• The Saudi guthra is a square shaped cotton fab-ric. The traditional is white but the white and red(shemagh) is also very common in Saudi Arabia.

• The Emirati guthra is usually white and can be usedas a wrapped turban or traditionally with the blackagal.

7.2 Women

Adherence to traditional dress varies across Arab soci-eties. Saudi Arabia is more traditional, while Egypt is lessso. Traditional Arab dress features the full length bodycover (abaya, jilbāb, or chador) and veil (hijab). Womenare only required to wear abayas in Saudi Arabia. In mostcountries, like Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Jordan, Syria andEgypt, the veil is not prevalent. It is clear that religiouslyspeaking, the mention of the burqa doesn't exist for Mus-limwomen and today represents more of a politic positionrather than a religious interpretation. Nowadays, someconservative Muslims believe that hijab is not obligatorywhile others feel that it is.

8 See also

• Culture of the Arab States of Persian Gulf

• Culture of Palestine

• Culture of Syria

• Culture of Iraq

• Culture of Somalia

• Culture of Egypt

• Culture of Lebanon

• Arabian mythology

9 References[1] Hafez, Kai. Kai Hafez, ed. Arab Media: Power and

Weakness. New York: Continuum. pp. 147–64.

[2] Itule, Bruce; Douglas Anderson (2007). NewsWriting andReporting for Today’s Media. New York: McGraw-Hill.

[3] Rugh, William (2004). Arab Mass Media: Newspapers,Radio, and Television in Arab Politics. Westport, CT:Praeger.

[4] Pintak, Lawrence; Jeremy Ginges (2008). “The Missionof Arab Journalism: Creating Change in a Time of Tur-moil”. The International Journal of Press/Politics 13 (3):219. doi:10.1177/1940161208317142.

[5] Rampal, Kuldip Roy (1996). “Professionals in Search ofProfessionalism: Journalists’ Dilemma in Four MaghrebStates”. International Communication Gazette 58 (1): 25–43. doi:10.1177/001654929605800102.

[6] Ramaprasad, Jyotika; Naila Nabil Hamdy (2006).“Functions of Egyptian Journalists: PerceivedImportance and Actual Importance”. Interna-tional Communication Gazette 68 (2): 167–85.doi:10.1177/1748048506062233.

12 9 REFERENCES

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[8] Kirat, Mohamed. The Algerian News People: A Study ofTheir Backgrounds, Professional Orientations and Work-ing Conditions. Diss. Indiana University, 1987. Print.

[9] Ayalon, Ami (1995). The Press in the Arab Middle East:A History. New York: Oxford UP.

[10] Mellor, Noha. The Making of Arab News. Lanham, MD:Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. Print.

[11] Zayani, Mohamed; Sofiane Sahroui (2007). The Cultureof Al Jazeera: Inside an Arab Media Giant. Jefferson, NC:McFarland & Company.

[12] “Code of Ethics.” Al Jazeera English. Al JazeeraMedia Network, 07 Nov. 2010. Web. 02Mar. 2014. http://www.aljazeera.com/aboutus/2006/11/2008525185733692771.html.

[13] Dunham, Jillian. “Syrian TV Station Accuses Al Jazeeraof Fabricating Uprising”. The New York Times. Re-trieved 22 March 2014.

[14] Lee, Peter. “In Syria, al Jazeera’s Credibility Implodes”.CounterPunch. Retrieved 22 March 2014.

[15] Hazaimeh, Hani. “Majority of Jordanian Journalists Ex-ercise Self-censorship - Survey”. The Jordan Times. Re-trieved 22 March 2014.

[16] “Attacks on the Press: Journalism on the Front Lines in2012”. Committee for the Protection of Journalists. Re-trieved 22 March 2014.

[17] Rugh, William (2004). Arab Mass Media: Newspapers,Radio, and Television in Arab Politics. Westport, CT:Praeger. p. 9.

[18] Pintak, Lawrence. “Arab Media: Not Quite Utopia”

[19] Martin, Justin D. “Nieman Reports | Investigative Journal-ism in the Arab World”. Nieman.harvard.edu. Retrieved2011-04-05.

[20] Pies, Judith (2008). “Agents of Change? JournalismEthics in Lebanese and Jordanian Journalism Education.”.In Kai Hafez. Arab Media: Power and Weakness. NewYork: Continuum. pp. 165–81.

[21] Tash, Abdulkader. A Profile of Professional JournalistsWorking in the Saudi ArabianDaily Press. Diss. SouthernIllinois University, 1983. Print.

[22] Rugh, William (2004). Arab Mass Media: Newspapers,Radio, and Television in Arab Politics. Westport, CT:Praeger. pp. 4–5.

[23] “The Arab World Online: Trends in Internet Usage in theArab Region” (PDF). The Dubai School of Governmentwith Bayt.com. Retrieved 9 April 2014.

[24] Gher, Leo A.; Hussein Y. Amin (1999). “New andOld Media Access and Ownership in the Arab World”.International Communications Gazette. 1 61: 59–88.doi:10.1177/0016549299061001004.

[25] “Arab media: television”. Al-bab.com. Retrieved 2011-04-05.

[26] Arab Media & Society (March, 2008):Arab SatelliteBroadcasting Charter (Unofficial Translation) Retrieved6 February 2013

[27] Arab Media & Society (March, 2008): Arab SatelliteBroadcasting Charter (in Arabic) Retrieved 6 February2013

[28] Pintak, Lawrence. Reporting a Revolution: the ChangingArab Media Landscape. Arab Media & Society (Febru-ary, 2007)

[29] Kraidy, Marwan. “Arab Media & Society”. Arabme-diasociety.com. Archived from the original on 5 April2011. Retrieved 2011-04-05.

[30] Kraidy, Marwan M. Reality Television and Politics in theArab World: Preliminary Observations. TransnationalBroadcasting Studies, 15 (Fall/ Winter, 2006)

[31] Shafik, Viola. Arab Cinema: History and Cultural Iden-tity.

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[33] Hofheinz, Albrecht. “The Internet in the Arab World:Playground for Political Liberalization.” (n.d.): 96

[34] Rinnawi, Khalil. “The Internet and the Arab world as avirtual public shpere.” (n.d.): 23.

[35] J. Esherick, Women in the Arab World (Philadelphia:Mason Crest Publishers, 2006), 68

[36] M. J. Gannon, Understanding Global Culture: Metaphori-cal Journeys Through 28 Nations, 3rd Edition, (ThousandOaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2004), 70

[37] L. A. Samovar, et al., Communication Between Cultures,7th Ed., (Boston: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2010),70

[38] M. Nydell, Understanding Arabs: A Guide for ModernTimes, 4th Ed., (Boston: Intercultural Press, 2006), 71

[39] Mahfouz, Tarek. Arab Culture, Vol. 1: An In-depth Lookat Arab Culture Through Cartoons and Popular Art (En-glish and Arabic Edition). Ed. Thane Floreth. 2011 ed.Vol. 1. N.p.: n.p., n.d. Print.

[40] “Muslim Women in SPORTS: WOMEN'S FOOTBALLCUP ARABIA 2010 - on the road to Germany”. Mus-limwomeninsports.blogspot.com. 2010-10-28. Retrieved2011-04-05.

[41] “Princess champions game for Arab women”. FIFA.com.2004-02-11. Retrieved 2011-04-05.

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[43] “Everywoman - Sport and playing for gold - 30 May 08 -Part 2”. YouTube. Retrieved 2011-04-05.

[44] https://fas.org/irp/agency/army/arabculture.pdf

13

[1]

[1] Mahfouz, Tarek. Arab Culture, Vol. 1: An In-depth Lookat Arab Culture Through Cartoons and Popular Art (En-glish and Arabic Edition). Ed. Thane Floreth. 2011 ed.Vol. 1. Print.

14 10 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

10 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.1 Text• Arab culture Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_culture?oldid=710448128 Contributors: Eclecticology, Edward, GTBacchus,

Anders Feder, Darkwind, Uriber, WhisperToMe, Hyacinth, Topbanana, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Xezbeth, Bender235, Shrike,Kwamikagami, Kross, Summer Song, Smalljim, Viriditas, Maurreen, Hesperian, Alansohn, Kalisa, Woohookitty, Scjessey, Pol098,Marudubshinki, Josh Parris, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, FayssalF, Ian Pitchford, Intgr, DVdm, Bgwhite, RussBot, Stephenb, Gaius Cornelius, Cam-bridgeBayWeather, Rsrikanth05, NawlinWiki, Grafen, Welsh, BirgitteSB, Coderzombie, Tachs, Kelovy, BorgQueen, Kungfuadam, PhilipStevens, Tyomitch, Amalthea, SmackBot, KnowledgeOfSelf, Alex Ex, Jagged 85, Edgar181, Yamaguchi , Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Christhe speller, OrangeDog, Rrburke, Arab Hafez, Andrew c, SingCal, Gobonobo, Mgiganteus1, Melody Concerto, Ckatz, Snezzy, Violncello,CmdrObot, Tanthalas39, Dycedarg, Cydebot, JodyB, Btball, Dugwiki, TAMilo, Jj137, Alphachimpbot, The Transhumanist, Konstable-Bot, TAnthony, Joecool94, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Aziz1005, JaGa, Rettetast, CommonsDelinker, BigrTex, Neutron Jack, Thaurisil,Sherif Omran, Unflavoured, Jehuty Strife, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, X!, CWii, AntaHelu~enwiki, Philip Trueman, Una Smith, Shahin.shn,Falcon8765, Al Ameer son, FunkMonk, Perspicacite, Atari400, ,05ترجمان Sanya3, VaderQuake, ImageRemovalBot, Skatewalk, Clue-Bot, The Thing That Should Not Be, Czarkoff, Mild Bill Hiccup, Niceguyedc, Forestgarden, Auntof6, Seanwal111111, Sun Creator,Chrono1084, Aitias, Editor2020, Thekid18, XLinkBot, Arabbi, Addbot, Hattar393, Glane23, Lightbot, HerculeBot, Middayexpress,Yobot, Vitalie Ciubotaru, Gongshow, AnomieBOT, JackieBot, Scythian77, Aditya, LlywelynII, Mahmudmasri, Materialscientist, Cita-tion bot, NobelBot, Shadowjams, Stirred-not-shaken, FrescoBot, Ching123, Trust Is All You Need, DrilBot, I dream of horses, Zhakir,SW3 5DL, Crusoe8181, Vrenator, Stegop, Ammodramus, Underlying lk, Adi4094, Brian the Editor, MuhammadShujauddin, Jmcerns,AllysonD, Knitlady, TeresaR11, The Utahraptor, KaitlinTaylor, Karoljarzabek, RjwilmsiBot, Forenti, Kamran the Great, DASHBot, Johnof Reading, Dewritech, GoingBatty, Quincy2010, DesbWit, Samy.owaynat, Ziggyzaggy, John Cline, H3llBot, Titensd, Δ, Chuispaston-Bot, DASHBotAV, Nayefc, ClueBot NG, Kyotosmom, Maryannmichael, Jack Greenmaven, Kennyd1933, Bukrafil, Widr, Kuwaitsoccer,Iselilja, PhnomPencil, MusikAnimal, Astella88, Irānshahr, P.sarafraz, Klilidiplomus, Osiris, Hybridbus, SupernovaExplosion, Dasdas00,Basemetal, Adel alshlahi, Veronicafitzrandolph, Tentinator, Dwscomet, AcidSnow, Ginsuloft, Arianasi, Robevans123, Monkbot, Cas244,Bemes, GaliaGG, Miniguez, Sabdalla, Londernop, יעקב יצחק ,שמואל CLCStudent, Tsarisco and Anonymous: 176

10.2 Images• File:Antarah_ibn_Shaddad_&_Abla.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/Antarah_ibn_Shaddad_

%26_Abla.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Flickr Original artist: Horemachet from Moskva, Russian Federation• File:Arabischer_Maler_um_730_002.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f5/Arabischer_Maler_um_730_

002.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202.Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Arabischer Maler um 730

• File:Arabiya_Reporter.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Arabiya_Reporter.jpg License: CC BY 2.0Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/orenrosenfeld/2230894394 Original artist: Oren Rosenfeld (oreng)

• File:Cairo_Cafe.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Cairo_Cafe.JPG License: Attribution Contribu-tors: haitham alfalah Original artist: haitham alfalah

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