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AQA Geography – Knowledge organiser

Paper 1 – Living with the physical environment

Section A – The challenge of natural hazards Nepal and Chile earthquake Typhoon Haiyan Somerset level floods

Section B – The living world Epping Forest The Amazon Rainforest The Thar Deserts

Section c – Physical landscapes in the UK Lyme Regis Somerset level floods

Paper 2 – Challenges in the human environment

Section A – Urban issues and challenged Rio de Janerio Favela Bairro Project London Stratford Freiburg

Section B – The changing economic world Tourism – Jamaica Nigeria Shell in Nigeria Torr Quarry

Section C – The challenge of resource management Large scale food growth - (IBIS) Sustainable food growth – Makunei, Kenya

Case study name

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Paper 1 - Section A – The challenges of natural hazards – Natural and Tectonic hazards What is a natural hazard –

A natural event or process which causes loss of life and/or

damage to property which creates disruption to human

activities.

What are some different natural hazards?

Volcanic eruption (tectonic hazard)

Earthquakes (tectonic hazard)

Storms / topical revolving cyclones

Floods

What is Hazard risk?

This is the chance or likelihood of being affected by a natural

event.

What factors effect hazard risk?

Urbanisation – 50% of the world now lives in cities. Urban areas

are at greater risk of earthquakes and tropical storms.

Poverty – Poverty forces people to live in areas more at risk from

hazards as the land is cheaper.

Tectonic plate theory

The earth crust is split up into a number of different plates about 100km thick.

They sit on top of the earth’s mantle

These can be divided into two different plates –

o Oceanic crust

Younger, denser and thinner

o Continental crust

Older, lighter and thicker

Plate move around due to convection currents within the earth’s mantle.

o This is when the Hot mantle rises and pulls the crust apart on the surface. As it cools, it

sinks and drags the crust back down with it. This is a constant cycle.

This movement leads to tectonic hazards such as earthquakes and volcanoes which is why we

find these along tectonic plate boundaries.

A good example of this is the Pacific ring of fire, which is where we find a high number of

earthquakes and volcanoes (75% of the world’s active volcanoes and 90% of the world’s

earthquakes).

The structure of

the earth

The earth has 4

layers

The core (divided

into inner and

outer), mantle and

crust.

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Plate margins

Where two plates meet it is called a plate margin or plate boundary

The line between these plates is called a fault line.

Constructive plate margin

o These plates are pulling apart. As they do magma rises up

through the crack. This is known as seafloor spreading. This

magma is very runny and can travel many miles and forms a

volcano on the surface. This volcano is flat and wide and is

called a Shield Volcano. This leads to new land being formed.

o An example is the mid-Atlantic ridge which is causing Iceland

to grow.

o It causes earthquakes and volcanoes.

Destructive margin

o These plates are moving towards each other. The denser,

Oceanic plate, subducts under the lighter, continental plate.

As the two plates scrape past each other, friction builds up

and causes earthquakes. As the denser oceanic crust

subducts further into the earth, it warms and melts. This

creates magma which forces its way upwards and causes an

explosive volcanic eruption. This is known as a composite

volcano.

Conservative margin

o These two plates are moving past each other and cause

friction to build up which is released in the form of an

earthquake.

o An example is the San Andreas Fault on the west coast of the

USA

o There are no volcanoes found here.

Paper 1 - Section A – The challenges of natural hazards – Tectonic hazards

Reasons why people live in tectonic areas

Time scales – Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions do not happen very often so people are not threatening by them

Protection – Better building design can withstand earthquakes so people feel less at risk.

Poverty – People are unable to afford anywhere else to live so end up in areas at higher risk

Natural resources - Volcanoes can bring benefits such as fertile soils (good for farming).

Reducing the risk of tectonic hazard - Earthquakes

Monitoring – Near impossible to monitor earthquakes as they strike without

much warning.

Predication – Same as above, hard to predict. Seismographs can be used to

measure plate movements as this could lead to an earthquake as can a higher

than normal Radon gas level which would indicate plate movement.

Protection – The Transamerica pyramid is San Francisco has deep foundations

that allow it to sway in earthquakes and stop it from being damaged. Bullet

trains in Japan are designed to atomically stop when they sense an earthquake to

reduce derailment

Planning – Hazard maps can show you at risk areas which may restrict what can

be built / how it should be built (make it earthquake proof – look at protection).

This can be combines with teaching response such as STOP – DROP – HOLD. Like

Japanese school children are exposed to. This teachers people how to stay calm

and react and reduces the impacts of an earthquake.

7.9 on the Richter scale – Destructive plate 8.8 on the Richter scale - Destructive plate

April 2015 February 2010

2015

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Paper 1 - Section A – The challenges of natural hazards – Weather Hazards

Global circulation model –

At the equator, the sun’s rays are most

concentrated. This means it is hotter. This one fact

causes global atmospheric circulation at different

latitudes.

Air that is sinking causes high pressure. Winds on the

ground move outwards from these areas

Air that is rising from the ground cause low pressure.

Winds on the ground moves towards these areas of

low pressure.

Winds on the earths surface transfer heat and

moisture

Due to the earths tilt and rotation, the earth moves

in relation to the sun. This causes pressure belts and

winds to move north in the summer and south

during our winter.

What is a tropical cyclone?

A tropical cyclone is a huge storm are powerful storms

that develop in the tropics.

Sequence of tropical cyclone formation -

1. Air is heated above warm topical oceans

2. Air rises under low pressure conditions

3. Strong winds form as rising air draws in

more air and moisture causing torrential

rain.

4. Air spins to the Coriolis effect around a

clam eye of the storm

5. Cold air sinks in the eye so it is clear and

dry

6. Head is given off as it cools powering the

storm.

7. On meeting land, it loses souse of heat

and moisture. This and more friction with

the land cause it to lose power.

Global distribution of tropical cyclones -

Depending on where you are, you will know a tropical

cyclone via a different term. They are mainly called,

Hurricanes, Cyclones or Typhoons.

Formation of tropical cyclones -

Occur in low latitudes between 5° and 30°

north and south of the equator (in the

tropics).

Ocean temperature needs to be above

26° C.

Happen between summer and autumn.

What is global atmospheric circulation?

The movement of air around earth to try and balance the

temperature

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Impacts of climate change on Tropical cyclones –

With the increasing world temperature due to climate

change, we can expect to see the Distribution, Frequency

and intensity of tropical cyclones change.

Distribution (location)

We can expect to see them further north and

south as water temperature rises outside of

tropical waters.

Frequency (how often)

No evidence that they will increase with some

models suggesting they might decrease.

Intensity (how powerful)

With an increase in sea surface temperature we

can expect to see more powerful tropical

cyclones occur as time progresses.

Paper 1 - Section A – The challenges of natural hazards – Weather Hazards

UK Weather hazards

Weather is the day to day conditions of

the atmosphere.

Examples of UK weather hazards are –

Thunderstorms

Prolonged rainfall

Drought and extreme heat

Heavy snow and extreme cold

Strong winds.

Dredging – This is the

taking out of material from

the bottom of the river to

allow it to hold more water

and reduce the risk of

flooding.

Extreme weather in the UK

Evidence suggest that Extreme weather in the

UK is becoming more common.

2013/2014 – UK’s wettest winter in

2050 years. Somerset level floods

occurred.

2015/2016 – December 2015 was the

UK’s wettest and warmest month ever

recorded.

2019 – UK’s highest ever recorded

temperature of 38.7°C in Cambridge

The 10 hottest years on record have

occurred during the last 20 years.

Reducing the risk of tectonic hazards

Monitoring - Satellites can track the movement of a formed

tropical cyclone

Predication – By tracking a tropical cyclone we can predict

where it will strike and evacuate and prepare that area.

Protection – Windows and doors can be reinforced to

withstand strong winds. Houses close to the sea can be built

on stilts to reduce risk from storm surges. Bangladesh built

2000 communal storm shelters

Planning – events like the national hurricane preparedness

week (USA) educate people of the dangers of hurricane and

why it is important to evacuate when told. .

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Evidence of climate change

Melting ice – Artic sea ice has thinned by 65% since

1975. A warming earth melts the ice

Rising sea levels – the sea level has risen by 10-20cm

in the last 100 years. This is due to -

Thermal expansion – water takes up more

volume when warmer.

Melting ice adds water to the seas and oceans

Paper 1 - Section A – The challenges of natural hazards – Climate change

The earths changing climate

The first graph shows the

earths changing temperature

over 5.5 million years when

compared to today’s average

(the 0°C dotted line). The last

2.6 million years is known as

the Quaternary period and

during this time the

temperature has fluctuated a

great deal.

The second graph shows that

the earth has been cooling.

These cold spikes are known

as glacial periods (when ice

covers Parts of Europe and

North America).

The final graph shows how the

temperature for the last 100

years has begun to increase.

This is known as global

warming and is an example of

climate change.

Since the 1880 the average

global temperature has risen

by 0.85°C. Most of this has

occurred since the 1970s.

Natural causes of climate change

Orbital changes (Milankovitch cycles) – Around every 100,000 years, the earth’s orbit

around the sun changes from circular to mildly elliptical. This is known as Eccentricity.

When closer to the sun the planet warms and when further away it cools.

Solar activity – The sun emits different amounts of solar activity over a period of 11

years. A sunspot (a dark spot on the sun) increases the amount of heat the earth

receives and heats our climate.

Volcanic activity – When volcanoes erupt, they produce huge amounts of ash which

goes into the atmosphere. This ash can black out the sun reducing the temperature on

the earth.

The greenhouse effect

The majority of scientist believe that human activity is causing the earth to warm

up. To understand how this is possible we need to understand what the greenhouse

effect is.

The earth’s atmosphere allows heat from the sun (short wave radiation) to

pass through to warm up the earths surface.

This heat energy is then converted into longwave radiation which can be

absorbed by green houses gases such as Carbon dioxide (C02) and

Methane.

This heat is then trapped which causes the earth to warm up.

The more greenhouses gases that are realised the more heat that is

trapped. This is known as the enhanced greenhouse effect.

What is climate change?

A change in the earth’s

climate over a period of

time. In particular, the

change from the 1950s

onwards, due to the

increase in carbon dioxide.

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Paper 1 - Section A – The challenges of natural hazards – Climate change Human causes of climate change

Burning fossil fuels – Since the start of the

industrial revolution in the 1750’s, we

have been using coal, gas and oil for

producing electricity and transport (cars

and planes). CO2 accounts for 60% of all

greenhouse’s gases and has increased by

30% since 1850. See the below graph.

Deforestation – Trees both remove and

then store carbon dioxide from the

atmosphere. Once they are cut down, the

stored carbon is released back into the

atmosphere and less is taken out of the

atmosphere.

Agriculture - Trees are often cut down to

make space for land to farm upon (see

problems in the point above). An increase

in cattle and rice leads to a greater realise

of Methane which is a greenhouse gas and

traps the heat in the atmosphere.

Effects of climate change

Climate change will have impacts all over the world and will

affect rich and poor countries. Some of the impacts are –

Sea levels will continue to rise by up to 120cm by 2100.

o This will cause flooding in countries like

Bangladesh, India and China.

o Low lying islands such as Tuvalu and the

Maldives could disappear entirely.

More droughts and heatwaves

o This will cause many more deaths as people run

out of water or are unable to grow crops to feed

themselves.

Species and ecosystems will be impacted

o A temperature increase of 1.5°C will put 20-30%

of all species at risk of extinction.

Changes in the UK

o The growing season appears to have

lengthened due to spring starting earlier and

the delayed onset of autumn/winter. This will

allow us the grow different crops.

How to manage climate change – Mitigation

Alternative energy sources - To help reduce carbon emissions, we can use different source of energy. These include, Solar power, wind

power and nuclear energy. The UK aims to produce 15% of all our energy by 2020.

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) - Coal is the worst fossil fuel but is one of the most widely used to produce electricity. CCS uses

technology to capture the CO2 produced in electricity generation. It is able to capture up to 90% of CO2 that is produced and stores it

underground or in the ocean which prevents it getting into the atmosphere. See the above picture.

Planting trees (afforestation) - Trees remove and store CO2 from the atmosphere. By planting more trees, more CO2 is taken out of

the atmosphere.

International agreements - Due to the global scale of climate change, it requires an international effort to mitigate. Agreements such

as the Paris Agreement in 2015, saw 195 countries agree reduce emission levels. They agreed to keep global temperature increase

below 2°C by investing $100 billion per year in developing countries to reduce emissions.

How to manage climate change – Adaptation

Adaptation strategies do not aim to reduce or stop global

warming. Instead they aim to respond to climate change by

limiting its negative effects

Changes in agriculture

o Introducing drought resistance crops (GM

crops) to deal with a lack of water.

Managing water supply

o Irrigation scheme like IBIS could be used to transfer water. Water can also be recycled so that it is not wasted.

Reducing risk from sea level rise o The islands of Maldives, which is at risk from

sea level rise. They are building a 3m high wall around the capital (Male) to help prevent it flooding.

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Parts of the ecosystem.

All ecosystems are able to pass energy

through one another.

At each (trophic) level of the food chain the

number of individuals declines. This is

because not all individuals in any trophic

level are consumed (eaten). This means not

all energy is passed up to the next trophic

level.

Paper 1 - Section B – The living world – Ecosystems What is an ecosystem?

An ecosystem is a natural system made up

of plants, animals and the environment.

Biotic – These are the living parts of

the ecosystem. E.g. Plants and

animals

Abiotic – These are the non-living

parts of the ecosystem. E.g. Soil and

water (environment)

Ecosystems can be any size.

Local E.g. a pond or under a dead

log. Also called a habitat.

Global e.g. tropical rainforest. Also

called biomes.

If any component within an ecosystem is changed it will have a knock-on

effect on the rest of the ecosystem. An example of where this happened

was in Yellowstone National Park in the USA when they reintroduced

wolves in 1995.

Reduction in predation

from coyotes leads to

increase in mice and voles.

Reduction in grazing

pressure. Aspen and

cottonwood regenerate.

There is more tree cover.

Increase in populations of

grizzly bears, cougars,

ravens, magpies and

eagles.

Increase in

bank side

trees

stabilises river

banks so

there is less

erosion. More

woody debris

in rivers

creates pools

and trout

habitats.

Beavers create

ponds and

flooded areas,

which

promote

growth of

aspen.

Regeneration

of aspen

attracts

beavers,

which begin

to recolonise

Yellowstone.

Competition from wolves

results in decrease in coyote

population. More kills by wolves =

more food for scavengers.

16 packs of grey wolves

introduced. Each pack kills

one elk a day.

Increased tree

cover

provides

habitats for

birds.

Populations of

predators of

small rodents

e.g. red foxes

and birds of

prey,

increase.

Nutrient Cycle

Nutrients are

foods that are

used by plants

and animals to

grow.

When plants or

animals die,

decomposes help

them recycle the

nutrients so they

can be used again.

A large-scale

ecosystem is called a

Biome. Different

Biomes are found in

belts across the world.

This is due to different

climate characteristics

due to global

atmosphere

circulation.

Elk population falls from

20,000 to 10,000 in 8

years.

Biomes

A small-scale ecosystem – Epping Forest, London

Epping forest is a 2400 hectare are of ancient wood land found in the North

East of London.

In Epping Forest more cattle grazing has been introduced into the ecosystem (ecosystem restoration) to encourage growth of flora (vegetation) such as trees (e.g. oak) as these declined from 1976-1988 due to extreme weather causing drought. The oak is eaten by animals, increasing or maintaining the number of species in the forest.

Grazing allows more flowers to flourish than mowing the grass would. Low-growing species such as Birds-foot Trefoil only thrive where the dead grass stems regularly removed (by cows) and hooves create bare ground. This also grown the sparrow hawk population due to the increase in prey.

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Paper 1 - Section B – The living world – Tropical Rainforests

Tropical rainforest Locations

Tropical Rainforest are found along the equator due

to the higher heat and rainfall that is found along

here (Global atmospheric circulation).

Tropical rainforest climate

As a result, they have a high temperature (ranging

from 20-30°C) and a high amount of rainfall (over

2000mm) all year round. This is known as a humid

climare. This means that rainforests only have 1

season per year.

Interdependence of climate, water, soils, plants,

animals and people

Small changes to biotic and abiotic factors can have

serious knock on effects

• Biomass is the largest nutrient store and the biggest transfer is from soil to biomass

• Fertility s quickly lost from the soil if trees are cut down

• Poor soils due to leaching (the washing away of nutrients)

• Thick litter layer. Rapidly breaks down due to climate

• Warm humid climate means rapid plant growth

Plant adaptations

Up to 75% of light is lost from on

the lowest layer due to dense

vegetation. Competition for light

causes trees to grow fast, tall and

straight. Buttress roots support

these tall trees by growing above

the ground to offer additional

support.

Plants on the forest floor are

shade tolerant and able to cope in

the darker conditions. The Fan

palm also has a large leaves to

increase its ability to

photosynthesise.

Lianas wrap themselves around

other trees to gain access to light.

This allows them to grow towards

the sunlight quicker and helps

them survive.

Plants have drip tips which gets rid

of access water.

Animal adaptations

Spider monkeys have a

prehensile tail that allows

them to cling to branches and

offer better balance.

Poison dart frogs are a bright

colour to warn predators

away. This prevents them from

being eaten.

Jaguars have spotted fur. This

camouflages them the forest

floor and allows them to

better hunt prey.

The harpy eagle has a shorter

than normal wingspan that

allows them to easier fly

between the trees in the

rainforest.

Insects like the leaf butterfly

use mimicry to blend into their

surroundings and hide from

predators.

Deforestation

Deforestation is the large scale cutting down of trees.

The rate of

deforestation

around the

world is slowly

decreasing. But

some

countries, like

Indonesia, have

increased in

recent years.

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Trees

STRATEGY KEY FACTS

Selective

logging and

replanting

Only fell fully grown trees on 30 – 40-year cycle

Replanting – collect seeds from primary forest; grow in nurseries and replant

Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) – Shows the trees have come from a source where

they are replanted meaning you do not lose the overall amount.

Conservation

and

education

Education of local’s key – less likely to cut down trees if they know the importance.

Conservation - The Tumucuwobi national park is 3 million Km2 of protected land where

deforestation cannot take place.

Ecotourism Minimises damage to environment and benefits locals

Small visitor numbers

Waste and litter disposed of properly

Locals employed so get paid via tourism rather than to cut down trees.

International

agreements

about use of

tropical

hardwoods

International Tropical Trade Agreement 2006 and 2011 – restricts trade in hardwood

from rainforests

Needs to be felled from sustainably managed areas and stamped with registration

numbers

Debt

reduction Debt for nature swaps – in 2010 USA converted debt of $13.5 million from Brazil and

used the funds to protect the rainforest

HICs wipe off debts of debts of LICs to protect the rainforest.

Paper 1 - Section B – The living world – Tropical Rainforests

The Amazon

rainforest

The Amazon is

found in South

America and is

spread across 9

different

countries (the

largest amount

being found in

Brazil).

1 in 10 species

on the plant is

found in the

Amazon

rainforest

Impacts of deforestation Importance of the rainforest

The Tropical rainforest is important for the following reasons

Medicine o Around 25% of all medicines come from rainforest plants

People o Indigenous (people who have always lived in an area) people live in

harmony with the rainforest. This is their home.

Biodiversity o Tropical rainforests contain half all the plants and animals in

the world.

Sustainable management of the tropical rainforest

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Paper 1 - Section B – The living world – Hot Deserts

Hot Deserts Locations

Hot Deserts are mostly found in dry continental interiors,

away from the coasts and in a belt that is approximately 30°N

(tropical of cancer) and 30°S (tropic of Capricorn) of the

equator. The world’s biggest hot desert is the Sahara and our

case study example is the Thar Desert

Hot Desert climates

Hot Deserts are areas that receive less than 250mm of water

per year. The resulting dryness is known as an arid

environment and is the main factor for life in hot deserts.

This dryness is caused by high pressure (descend air) that

contains little to no moisture. The temperature can be as hot

as 40°C and as low as 0°C at night (due to no cloud cover)

Animal adaptations

Camels have a hump on their

back which stores fat. This

supplies it with energy as it can

as food can often be hard to find

in deserts.

Camels feet are wide so they can

walk on sand more easily. Their

huge feet help them to walk on

sand without sinking into it.

Camels have thick lips so they

can eat the prickly desert plants

without feeling pain. This allows

them to access the water stored

within these succulents.

The Fennec fox has large ears

that help get rid of excess body

heat on hot days in the desert,

keeping it cooler.

They are nocturnal (they are

awake at night) as it is not as hot

making it easier to hunt.

Plant adaptations

Due to the lack of water many

plants have learnt to store

water in their roots, stems and

leaves. These are known as

succulents.

Cacti are well adapted to living

in hot deserts. They can have

deep roots (7-10m) that allow

them to collect water from

underground sources.

They also have spikes which

help prevent trans-evaporation

(loss of water) due to their

small surface area.

The Joshua tree is another well

suited desert plant. It has

shallow roots that spread out

over a wide distance to quickly

absorb any water that gets into

soil after small amounts of rain.

It also has waxy leaves to

reduce water loss.

The interdependence of desert climate, water, soils, plants, animals and

people.

People are dependent upon their animals in deserts, for food, milk and as

use as pack animals.

Plants rely upon soils for their nutrients, the soils rely upon plants to provide

extra nutrients through dead vegetation and fixing chemicals from the air

into the soil.

Plants also help soils retain more water, by providing shade from the searing

desert sunlight.

Plants also tie the soil together, preventing soil erosion and excessive

leaching of nutrients in wetter periods.

Desert soils –

Tend to be sandy or stony with little

organic (living) matter due to the lack

of leafy vegetation.

The soil is often very dry but can

rapidly soak up water when it rains.

This then leads to evaporation which

draws up salts to the surface.

This then makes it even harder for

anything to grow.

Desert soils are not fertile.

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Paper 1 - Section B – The living world – Hot Deserts

The Thar Desert – Location

The Thar Desert is found

in south Asia between

Pakistan and India. It is

one of the major hot

deserts of the world with

the highest population

density.

Development opportunities

Despite having an extreme climate, the Thar Desert can provide development opportunities. These include:

Mining - The desert has valuable reserves of minerals such as Gypsum and phosphorite. This produce income for people who work here and money for people selling these items.

Energy generation - The Jaisalmer Wind farm is the largest in India. It has 75 wind turbines that produce 60MW of Energy. This provides electricity for people in the local towns or cities who are now able to work in more factories and have a better quality of life.

Farming - irrigation in the Thar Desert has allowed crops such as wheat and cotton has created many jobs and generated income for the local economy.

Tourism - the Thar Desert National Park attracts many visitors who explore the desert with local guides on camels. Tourism is an important source of income and creates many jobs for local people.

Challenges of development

Development in the Thar Desert includes many challenges such as:

Extreme temperatures - Temperatures in the Thar Desert can exceed 50°C in the summer months. It is hard for people to farm, work in mines or as tourist guides during these months as it is simply too hot. This makes development difficult.

Water supply - the supply of water to the Thar Desert is limited, with only 120-240 mm of rain falling per year. Without water the development of mining, farming and tourism and therefore the economy would not be possible.

Inaccessibility - the desert covers a huge area of 200,000 sq km. Most of the desert is inaccessible due to the extreme environmental conditions (sand blowing overcovering roads) and poor infrastructure. Beyond the city of Jaisalmer, development is limited.

What is Desertification –

Desertification is when the land slowly becomes unusable. This is often found on

the fringes of deserts and is a major worldwide environmental problem. A good

example can be found in the Sahel region of Africa.

Causes of desertification -

Removal of wood - In developing countries, people use wood for cooking. When the land is cleared of trees, the roots of the trees no longer hold the soil together. Wind or rain than removes the soil (soil erosion).

Overgrazing - An increasing population results in larger desert areas being farmed. Sheep, cattle and goats are overgrazing the vegetation and eat all the roots. This leaves the soil exposed to soil erosion as there is nothing holding the soil together.

Population growth - The population in some desert areas is increasing. An increased population means more removal of wood and larger areas being farmed to feed all the people.

Climate change - The global climate is getting warmer. In desert regions conditions are not only getting warmer but drier too. This causes more vegetation to die which leads to the soil being exposed and soil erosion occurring.

All of the above points lead to desertification as without soil, the land

cannot be used.

Strategies to reduce desertification -

Planting trees – The great green wall of Africa is a project that is planting

trees in 11 countries along an 8000km strip. This is to allow the roots to

bind the soil together and prevent soil erosion.

Soil management – Crop rotation is when you plant different crops every

year. This allows the soil to get back the nutrients lost when growing the

crop. This allows the soil to stay alive which reduces vegetation dying.

Appropriate technology – ‘Magic Stones’ are used in Burkina Faso. Lines

of stones are used in fields to reduce soil erosion by trapping any soil that

may have been washed or blown away. This allows the soil to used again

and again.

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Paper 1 - Section C – Physical landscapes in the UK – Coastal landscapes in the UK How do waves form

Waves are formed by wind blowing over the sea and

causing friction

This friction causes ripples to form which leads to waves.

The distance the wind blows across the water is called

fetch

The longer the fetch, the bigger the waves.

Wave types

There are two different wave types found at the coast. These

both have different characteristics.

Weathering

Weathering is the breaking down of

rocks via changes in the atmosphere.

Mechanical (Physical) weathering

Freeze-thaw –

o Water collects in cracks in

the rock

o At night this freezes and

expands. This causes the

rock to crack

o When the temperature

rises the ice melts and the

water goes further into

the crack.

o This will continue to freeze

and expand which causes

the rock to break off.

Chemical weathering

Rainwater absorbs CO2 from the

air and becomes slightly acidic.

When this rain comes into contact

with certain rocks (alkaline rocks

such as chalk) it causes a chemical

reaction which causes the rock to

dissolve (acid rain)

Mass movement

Another way material can be moved

on the coastline is through mass

movement. Mass movement is the

downhill movement of sediment

that moves because of gravity. This

comes in three different categories –

Sliding, slumping and rockfall.

Rockfall Bits of rock

fall off the

cliff face,

usually due

to freeze-

thaw

weathering.

Mudflow – (sliding) Saturated

soil (soil

filled with

water)

flows

down a

slope.

Landslide – (sliding)

Large

blocks of

rock slide

downhill

Rotational slip – (slumping)

Saturated

soil slumps

down a

curved

surface

Erosion

Erosion is the wearing away of rock along the coastline caused by the power of the sea. Destructive waves are responsible for erosion on the coastline. There are three types of erosion:

Hydraulic action - This is the sheer power of the waves as they smash against the cliff. Air becomes trapped in the cracks in the rock and causes the rock to break apart.

Abrasion - This is when pebbles grind along a rock platform, much like sandpaper. Over time the rock becomes smooth.

Attrition - This is when rocks that the sea is carrying knock against each other. They break apart to become smaller and more rounded

Transportation

Beach material can be moved in four different ways. These are:

Traction – Where pebbles and larger material are rolled along the sea bed.

Saltation – Where small pieces of shingle or large sand grains are bounced along the sea bed.

Suspension - Small particles such as silts and clays are suspended (float) in the flow of the water.

Solution - When minerals in rocks like chalk and limestone are dissolved in sea water and then carried in solution. The load is

not visible.

Sediment is carried by the waves along the coastline. The movement of material is called longshore drift. Swash moves material onto the beach and

backwash moves it out at a 90° angle.

14

Paper 1 - Section C – Physical landscapes in the UK – Coastal landscapes in the UK Deposition

When the sea loses energy, it drops the material it has been carrying. This is known as deposition. Deposition can occur on coastlines that have constructive waves.

Factors leading to deposition include:

Waves starting to slow down and lose energy

Shallow water

Sheltered areas, E.g. bays

Little or no wind

Headlands and bays – Erosion landform

Cliffs along the coastline do not erode at the same pace. When a stretch of coastline is formed from different types of rock are parallel to each other (discordant coastline), headlands and bays can form.

1. Bands of soft rock such as clay are weaker therefore, they can be eroded quickly.

2. This process forms bays. A bay is further inland than the land surrounding it, usually with a beach.

3. Hard rock such as chalk is more resistant to the processes of erosion.

4. When the softer rock is eroded inwards, the hard rock sticks out into the sea, forming a headland.

Wave cut notch – Erosion landform

A wave-cut platform is formed when the following occurs:

1. The sea attacks the base of the cliff. This is known as the wave attach zone.

2. A wave-cut notch (a dent in the cliff) is formed by erosional processes such as abrasion and hydraulic action.

3. As the notch increases in size, the cliff becomes unstable and collapses, leading to the retreat of the cliff face.

4. The backwash carries away the eroded material, leaving a wave-cut platform behind.

Caves, arches and stacks – Erosion landform

These often form in headland as they stick out into the sea:

1. Cracks are widened in the headland through the erosional processes of hydraulic action and abrasion.

2. As the waves continue to grind away at the crack, it begins to open up to form a cave.

3. The cave becomes larger and eventually breaks through the headland to form an arch.

4. The base of the arch continually becomes wider through further erosion, until its roof becomes too heavy and collapses into the sea. This leaves a stack (an isolated column of rock).

Beaches and sand dunes – Depositional landform

1. Destructive waves approach the coastline

2. These waves hit the headland and cause erosion via abrasion, attrition and hydraulic

action.

3. The eroded material is carried into the sheltered bay where the water becomes less

deep. This leads to more friction between the water and land.

4. This causes the waves to lose their energy and drop off any material (deposition) they

are carrying. Over time this material builds up to form a beach

5. Destructive waves build up pebble beaches whilst constructive waves make sandy

beaches.

6. The sand that is deposited can often build up around an object and lead to the

creation of sand dunes. These tend to be larger the further back you go from the sea.

7. They can be divided up into offshore, foreshore and backshore.

15

Spits - Depositional landform

A spit is an extended stretch of sand or shingle jutting out into the sea from the land.

1. Sediment is carried by longshore drift (transportation).

2. When there is a change in the shape of the coastline, deposition occurs. A long thin ridge of material is deposited. This is the spit.

3. A hooked end can form if there is a change in wind direction.

4. Waves cannot get past a spit, therefore the water behind a spit is very sheltered. Silts are deposited here to form salt marshes or mud flats.

Bars – Depositional landform

1. Sometimes a spit can grow across a bay, and joins two headlands together.

2. This landform is known as a bar.

3. They can trap shallow lakes behind the bar, these are known as lagoons. Lagoons do not last forever and may be filled up with sediment.

Example of UK Coastal Features

Dorset is located in the south of England. Its coastline has examples of many erosional and depositional landforms. For example:

Swanage is an example of a headland and bay

Old Harry Rocks is an example of caves, stacks and stumps

At Chesil Beach there is a bar

Coastal management – Hard Engineering

Hard engineering involves building artificial structures which try to

control natural processes

Seal wall - Concrete walls that are curved to reflect the energy

back into the sea. (+) Creates and area that tourist can walk along

(-) Very expensive (up to £2000per meter)

Rock armour - Large boulders placed at the foot of a cliff. They

break the waves and absorb their energy. (+) can be used for

fishing (-) The rocks can be expansive to transport

Gabions - Rocks are held in mesh cages and placed in areas affected by erosion. (+) Cheap - £100 per meter (-) Looks unnatural

Groynes - Wooden or rock structures built out at right angles into the sea to trap sediment that moves via longshore drift. (+) Creates a bigger beach which can lead to more tourism (-) increased erosion further down the shore

Coastal management – Soft engineering

Soft engineering does not involve building artificial structures, but takes a

more sustainable and natural approach to managing the coast

Beach nourishment – Sand is pumped onto an existing beach to build it up. (+) Larger beach means more tourism (-) Sand needs to constantly be added.

Reprofiling – Sand on the beach is moved about to make a gentle slope. This make it more effective at absorbing the waves energy and reduces erosion (+) Very cheap as you’re only moving sand about (-) Only works when you have low energy waves.

Dune Regeneration - Marram grass planted on sand dunes stabilises the dunes and helps to trap sand to build them up. (+) Makes additional habitats for animals (-) parts of the beach have to zoned of from the public which reduced the size of the beach.

Managed retreat – Controlled flooding of cheap low-lying coastal areas that reduces the power of the incoming waves and reduces erosion. (+) easy to complete (-) Farming land is often lost as the land is flooded

Paper 1 - Section C– Physical landscapes in the UK – Coastal landscapes in the UK

16

Paper 1 - Section C– Physical landscapes in the UK – River landscapes in the UK

Erosion

Erosion is the process that wears away the river bed and banks. Erosion also breaks up the rocks that are carried by the river.

Hydraulic action - This is the sheer power of the water as it smashes against the river banks. Air becomes trapped in the cracks of the river bank and bed, and causes the rock to break apart.

Abrasion - When pebbles grind along the river bank and bed in a sand-papering effect.

Attrition - When rocks that the river is carrying knock against each other. They break apart to become smaller and more rounded.

Transportation

The river picks up sediment and carries it downstream in different ways.

Traction - large, heavy pebbles are rolled along the river bed. This is most common near the source of a river, as here the load is larger.

Saltation – small pebbles are bounced along the river bed, most commonly near the source.

Suspension - lighter sediment is suspended (carried) within the water, most commonly near the mouth of the river.

Solution - the transport of dissolved chemicals. This varies along the river depending on the presence of soluble rocks.

Deposition

When the river loses energy, it drops any of the material it has been carrying. This is known as deposition.

Factors leading to deposition:

shallow water

at the end of the river's journey, at the river's mouth

when the volume of the water decreases

Long profile

A long profile is a line representing the river gradient from its source to its mouth. It shows how the river changes over its course.

Upper course - in the upper course, where the river starts, there is often an upland area. The river's material (load) is large in the upper course, as it hasn't been broken down by erosion yet.

Lower course - in the lower course, the land is a lot flatter. The river's load is fine sediment, as erosion has broken down the rocks.

Cross profile

A cross profile shows a cross-section of a river’s channel and valley at a certain point along the river’s course.

A (picture above) - as the river flows downhill there is an increase in vertical erosion. The channel is shallow and narrow because there is not a lot of water in the channel.

B – as the river flows into the middle course, there is some vertical erosion but more lateral erosion. The channel is wider and deeper as a result.

C - in the lower course there is a lot less erosion, with only some lateral erosion. The channel is at its widest and deepest.

Interlocking Spurs – Erosion landform – Upper course.

In the upper course there is more vertical erosion.

The river cuts down into the valley. If there are

areas of hard rock which are harder to erode, the

river will bend around it. This creates interlocking

spurs

17

Paper 1 - Section C– Physical landscapes in the UK – River landscapes in the UK Meanders - Erosion and deposition landforms – Middle course

As the river makes its way to the middle course, it gains more water and therefore more energy. Lateral erosion starts to

widen the river. When the river flows over flatter land they develop large bends called meanders.

1. As a river goes around a bend, most of the water is pushed towards the outside. This causes increased speed and therefore increased erosion (through hydraulic action and abrasion).

2. The lateral erosion on the outside bend causes undercutting of the bank to form a river cliff.

3. Water on the inner bend is slower, causing the water to slow down and deposit the eroded material, creating a gentle slope of sand and shingle.

4. The build-up of deposited sediment is known as a slip-off slope (or sometimes river beach).

Ox-Box Lakes - - Erosion and deposition landforms –

Middle course

1. Due to erosion on the outside of a bend and deposition

on the inside, the shape of a meander will change over a

period of time.

2. Erosion narrows the neck of the land within the meander

and as the process continues, the meanders move closer

together.

3. When there is a very high discharge (usually during a

flood), the river cuts across the neck, taking a new,

straighter and shorter route.

4. Deposition will occur to cut off the original meander,

leaving oxbow lake.

Waterfalls and Gorges – Erosion landform – Upper course.

1. Hard rock sits above soft rock. This cause the softer rock to eroded quicker

2. This leaves the hard rock overhanging the soft rock. The overhang collapse as it is no longer supported

3. The weight and power of the water (via Abrasion and Hydraulic action) causes a plunge pool to form at the base of the waterfall.

4. This causes the waterfall to retreat upstream.

5. This leaves behind a steep sided valley called a Gorge.

Floodplains – Deposition landforms – Lower course

A floodplain is an area of flat land which is covered in water when a river bursts its banks. Floodplains form due to both erosion and deposition.

Erosion removes any interlocking spurs, creating a wide, flat area on either side of the river.

During a flood, material being carried by the river is deposited (as the river loses its speed and energy to transport material). Over time, the height of the floodplain increases as material is deposited on either side of the river.

The floodplain is often a wide, flat area caused by meanders shifting along the valley.

18

Paper 1 - Section C– Physical landscapes in the UK – River landscapes in the UK Levees – Deposition landforms –

Lower course

1. When the river floods, the sediment spreads out across the floodplain.

2. When a flood occurs, the river loses energy. The largest material is deposited first on the sides of the river banks and smaller material further away.

3. After many floods, the sediment builds up to increase the height of the river banks. (Levee), meaning that the channel can carry more water (a greater discharge) and flooding is less likely to occur in the future.

Estuaries – Deposition landforms – Lower course

An estuary is where the river meets the sea. The river here is tidal and when the sea retreats the volume of the water in the estuary is less reduced. When there is less water, the river deposits silt to form mudflats which are an important habitat for wildlife.

Flooding

Flooding occurs when a river bursts its banks and overflows

onto the surrounding land.

Rainfall – Lots of rain or heavy rain can lead to flooding as

the soil can become full of water (saturated), which cause

water to build up on land.

Relief – Steep sided land will lead to greater flooding as

water has less time to be absorbed into the ground as quick.

Geology - permeable rocks allow water to pass through,

whereas impermeable rocks do not. Areas that have

impermeable rock will flood more often.

Urban land use – Areas with greater amounts of concrete

will flood more as water can not pass through it and cause it

to build up on top.

Hydrographs

A hydrograph shows how a rivers

discharge (channel) responds to a

period of rainfall.

Peak discharge - maximum amount of water held in the river.

Peak rainfall – maximum amount of rainfall (millimetres).

Lag time - the time taken between peak rainfall and peak discharge.

Rising limb - shows the increase in discharge on a hydrograph.

Falling limb - shows the return of discharge to normal/base flow on a hydrograph.

Base flow - the normal discharge of the river.

The lag time can be short or long depending on different factors. For example, if there is no vegetation in an area, the water runs off into the river quicker, therefore it would have a short lag time. A short lag time means water is reaching the river quickly, so there is a greater chance of a flood.

River management – Hard Engineering

This involves building artificial structures which try to control rivers. They tend to be more expensive.

Dams and reservoirs - The dam traps water, which builds up behind it, forming a reservoir. (+) can also produce electricity (-) Habitats are often flooded

River straightening – This is making the river straight so water can flow through quicker (+) Reduce risk of flooding in urban areas (-) Can increase risk of flooding downstream.

Embankments – Rising the sides of rivers so that it can hold more water (+) Cheaper – Only required a one of cost (-) Looks unnatural

Flood Relief channel – Flood water flows into an extra channel which lowers the water level in the river (+) Can create more tourism – Fishing (-) Can destroy habitats.

River management – Hard Engineering

Involves working with the river process to manage the flood risk.

Flood warning and preparations – Warnings are issued when flooding is likely which allows people to prepare (+) People have time to defend properties (-) doesn’t actually prevent flooding

Flood plain zoning – Making sure that the more important buildings are placed further away from the river (+) Less damage to key buildings (-) Not an option for developments already built.

Planting trees (afforestation) – Trees are able to absorb more water which reduce flood risk (+) increased the number of habitats (-) Reduces the amount of farmland

River restoration – Retuning the river to its natural route. This allows it to hold more water in the river (+) Provides more natural habitats (-) land can be lost as it may be flooded by the river.

See

Som

ers

et

leve

l flo

od

s in

th

e Ex

trem

e w

eath

er

sect

ion

fo

r C

ase

stu

dy

19

Paper 2 - Section A – Urban issues and challenges – Urbanisation and Mega Cities What is Urbanisation?

Urbanisation is the increasing amount of people living in towns

and cities (urban areas).

The worlds population is growing fast and the highest rates of

growth are found in LICs.

The worlds urban population (people who live in cities) is also

growing with 50% of the worlds population now living in cities.

Different countries around the world have experiences

urbanisation at different times. The UK was one of the first

countries to become urbanised.

All HICs have a higher urban population. Therefore, the fastest

rate or urban growth is occurring in NEEs and then LICs.

Urb

an p

op

ula

tio

n –

19

50

-20

50

% o

f u

rban

ise

d p

op

ula

tio

n b

y

cou

ntr

y

What is causing urbanisation to occur?

There are 2 main factors that are causing cities to

grow –

Rural to urban migration – This is when people

are moving from rural (countryside) areas to the

cities in search of a better life.

o The reasons for moving are known as push

and pull factors.

A push factor ‘pushes’ you out of an

area. E.g. Lack of food or lack of jobs

A pull factor is something that is

‘pulling’ you towards an area. E.g.

Higher paying jobs, more jobs or

better schools.

Natural increase – The people that tend to

migrate are younger. This means that once they

move to the city, they are more likely to have

children which grows the size of the city as more

people are being born.

o The main reasons people move to the cities is

to find a better, higher paying job. These jobs

are mostly in manufacturing (factories) as

they require a lot of people to make items.

o HIC’s have already experienced urbanisation

as they have been through their industry

revolution which means people have already

moved to cities to find work. These factories

have now moved out of the HICs and have

gone to NEEs and LICs as they can pay the

workers less. This then encourages more

people to move from rural (countryside)

areas to the cities as they will be able to get a

better quality of life. This is why NEEs and

LICs are having faster urbanisation. rates.

Mega Cities

A mega city is a city with a population with over

10 million people.

In 2015 there were 28 mega cities and this is

predicated to grow to 41 by the year 2030. See

below

Asia and Africa have the fastest growing mega

cities as more people are moving from the rural

(countryside) areas to urban (cities) in search of a

better paid job.

20

Paper 2 - Section A – Urban issues and challenges – Rio De Janeiro

Rio’s location

Rio de Janeiro, is found on

Brazils South Eastern Atlantic

coast. It is one of the largest

cities in Brazil and South

America and used to the capital

until 1960.

Rio importance

Regionally – provides

schools, hospitals and

universities as well as

opportunities for

employment, leisure and

recreation

Nationally – It is Brazils

second most important

industrial centre, producing

5% of Brazils GDP.

Internationally – World

famous tourist destination.

People visit for the statue of

Christ the Redeemer and it

also held the 2014 world cup

and 2016 Olympic games.

Rio Growth –

Brazil is an NEE. This means that it has a growing

urban (city) population. Large amounts of people

are moving from the rural (countryside) areas to

cities like Rio (urban) in order to find a better

quality of like. This large number of new people can

create many opportunities and challenges in Rio.

Opportunities in Rio

Moving to a city like Rio will improve many people’s lives.

Social

o Health care

Healthcare provisions, such as health care

centres and hospitals, is a lot better in Rio than

in rural areas. You will have a longer life

expectancy living in Rio than the countryside.

o Education

There are many primary and secondary schools

in Rio which have enabled 95% of children aged

10 and above in the city to be literate. This is

considerably higher than the national average.

o Water supply

Over 90% of the population of Rio have access

to mains water supply which is higher than the

national / rural average.

o Energy supply

Although the city is subject to power cuts, the

energy supply is more reliable than in rural

areas where lighting and power are not always

available.

Economic

o The largest steelworks in South America is located in

Sepetiba Bay in Rio. This has led to new construction

and supply industries being attracted to the area

further encouraging economic growth and job

opportunities. This is known as the multiplier effect.

Challenges in Rio

Large numbers of people moving to Rio has created many challenges for these people as the

government cannot always deal with the amount of people moving.

Managing urban growth

o Slums / squatter settlements – Millions of people have been forced to build their

own homes due to the lack of affordable housing. Migrants to the city often have

to build homes on land that they do not own. Large squatter settlements are

known as favelas and around 25% of Rio’s population live in one. Due to them

being unplanned, they are built without essential services seen below.

Proving clean water

o As the city continues to grow new settlements on the edge of the city first the

greatest challenges due to the lack of freshwater.

Proving sanitation (swears and toilets)

o It is very challenging to provide areas with proper sanitation due to squatter

settlements being so densely constructed.

Proving energy

o Power cuts are frequent in rear this is because electric supplies are overloaded.

This causes significant problems for hospitals industry and local residents.

Access to services

o Health care

Only 55% of people in the city had a local family health clinic.

o Education

School attendance is low. This is because of the lack of schools and

teachers, the distance people need to travel to school and many

children work to earn money for their family.

Unemployment

o Unemployment rates can be greater than 20% in the favelas as people who move

from the countryside often lack a decent education.

Crime

o High levels of crime, violence and drug abuse blight many of the favelas. Street

crime is a problem in the tourist areas.

Environmental issues

o Waste disposal

3.1 million tons of waste is generated in Rio every year. Most of this is

taken to landfill as it is too much to deal with.

o Air pollution

Air pollution is caused by more cars and factories in Rio. It leads to

5000 deaths per year.

o Water pollution

Over 200 tonnes of raw sewage poor into the bay each day. This is due

to areas being built without the ability to process waster.

o Traffic congestion

Due to its physical geography with steep slopes and mountains, Rio is one of the most congested locations in South America. This has led to high levels of air pollution and commuters spending a lot of time travelling.

21

Paper 2 - Section A – Urban issues and challenges – Case studies

car

22

Paper 2 - Section A – Urban issues and challenges – Urban change in the UK Urbanisation in the UK

The UK population is growing and was 64.6 million in

2016. Of this number, 82% live in urban areas (cities).

25% of these people live in London and the southeast

Areas of Scotland and Wales can be very remote due

to their harsh climates.

London’s location and importance.

Located in the southeast of England on the River

Thames.

Importance to the UK – Largest and wealthiest city.

It is home to 10% of the population and makes 22%

of the country’s GDP.

International importance – A leading global finical

centre (banking and accountancy) and is home to

some of the world’s biggest companies.

Impacts of migration on London

National Migration – People move to London to find

employment or to study. This increases the population.

International migration – 33% of London’s population was

born abroad. This brings different cultures such as food and

music to the city.

How urban change has created opportunities in

London.

Social and economic opportunities –

Cultural mix

o People are exposed to a range of different

cultures, foods, music and entertainment.

Recreation and Entertainment

o London has many world-famous museum

and areas such as the west end (theatre). It

has a huge variety of sports and sporting

venues (The Den – Millwalls Stadium).

Employment

o London has the most job opportunities

within the UK. It is easier to find a higher

paying job here especially in the tertiary

(service) sector. Apple and Netflix have

their UK headquarters in London.

Integrated transport system

o London is one of the most connected cities

in the world. Commuters can use an oyster

car to pay for the tube, trains buses and

trams making it easy to use. Crossrail 2 is a

new £15.4 billion east to west tube project.

Environmental opportunities.

Urban greening – The increasing amount of green

space in London. o London has a massive amount of green spaces.

A £9 million fund is aiming to make 50% of

London Green by 2050.

How urban change has created challenges in London.

Social and economic challenges –

Urban deprivation

o More than 25% of London’s population live below poverty

line. This has been caused by declining industry and a lack of

low skill jobs.

Inequalities in housing

o House prices are the highest in the UK meaning many people

cannot afford to live in London. Affordable housing is often in

poor conditions.

Inequalities in health

o People who live in areas of deprivation have worse health and

lower life expectancies. Dagenham has a life expectancy of 78

compared to 83 in Kensington.

Inequalities education and employment.

o People who live in areas of deprivation are more likely to

leave school with few qualifications. This causes high levels of

unemployment as people struggle to find a job.

Environment -

Waste disposal

o 25% goes to landfill as people do not always have to recycle

items. This leads to schools being exposed to illegal levels of

pollution.

Derelict land

o De industrialisation caused factories and buildings to close

leaving large areas polluted and left empty. These are known

as Brownfield sites.

Brownfield sites

o Building on these is better than building on green space but

can often be costly to clear the land and make it clean.

Urban Sprawl -

The growth of urban areas into the surrounding rural areas. This causes

reduction on the amount of green space in the rural urban fringe (the

land between city and countryside). This harms the environment and

destroy natural habitats.

Commuter settlements

o Areas built in the rural urban fringe and connected to London

(high Wycombe). Due to the ease to get into London, it has

caused the house prices to increase and made traffic into the

city worse.

23

Paper 2 - Section B – Changing economic world – The development gap What is development?

Development means positive changes that make

something better.

For a country this means an improvement in

standard of living and quality of life

How do we classify the world?

We can classify the world according to different levels of

economic development and quality of life.

Ways to measure economic development – GNI

Wealth can be used to show a country’s economic development.

These income levels can they be used to dived a country into a –

Higher income country (HIC) – GNI more than $12,746

o E.g. The UK or USA

Newly emerging economy (NEE) – GNI of $1045-$12,745

o E.g. Nigeria or India

Lower income country (LIC) - GNI less than $1044

o E.g. Nepal or Afghanistan

Human Development index (HDI)

This map looks at three different measurements (Wealth, health

and education) to give an overall score. This is considered a better

way of judging a countries level of development.

Measuring development

Economic and social measures of development We

use development indicators to measure development.

Gross national income (GNI) - The value of a country's

income, divided by the number of people in that

country.

Birth Rate - The number of live births per 1,000

people. Birth rates are often high in a less developed

country

Death Rate - The number of deaths per 1,000 people.

High death rates can indicate a less developed

country.

Infant mortality - The number of babies who don't

survive to the age of 1 per 1,000 live births.

Life expectancy - The average age that a person may

live to.

People per Doctor - Ratio to show the number of

people per doctor. A lower ratio can indicate a richer

country.

Literacy rates - The percentage of adults who can read

and write.

Access to safe water - The percentage of people who

have access to safe, clean water.

Human Development index (HDI) - It measures

average life expectancy, level of education and income

Limitations of economic and social measures of

development

Using a single measure when looking at a country can be

misleading. E.g. Zimbabwe is an LIC, but 84% of people living

there can read and write.

GNI per capita – this measure only shows economic development and says nothing about whether people in a country have a good standard of living. It is also an average and so it hides information about people who are very rich or very poor.

Demographic Transition model (DTM)

Stage 1 – No countries fit this bracket (small tribes only). All people

would subsistence farmers. Little development.

Stage 2 – LICs – most people work in the primary sector. Lack of money

means poor development (high birth rate due to poor education). Death

rate falling as health starts to improve (especially a reduction in infant

mortality)

Stage 3 – NEE – Most people work in Secondary sector, followed by

Primary. People move to cities to find work which means more money

and development. Death rate low and birth rate falling.

Stage 4 – HICs. Most people work in Tertiary sector. More money means

more development. Low birth and death rate.

Stage 5 -

HICs. Most

people

work in

Tertiary

sector.

Falling

birth rate

leading to

shrinking

population.

24

Investment Large companies can locate part of their businesses in other countries. This helps a country develop as the companies can build factories that help provide jobs

Aid Aid can be when one country gives another county help. An example being Oxfam’s Goat aid which allows people to provide goats for food.

Using Intermediate Technology

This is using equipment and techniques that are suitable to the wealth and skill level of the country. This provides then will small scale, basic solutions to problems that will help them to develop.

Fairtrade Paying a reasonable price for the product. This means more money goes to the farmer which can be used to invest in the local economy.

Debt Relief LICs often owe other countries money. They pay interest on this debt which leaves them with less money to help them develop. By cancelling this debt, the repayment money can now be used to help the country develop. The world bank cancelled $1.9 billion debt of Congo in 2010

Microfinance Loans Small loans are provided direct to the people who need them (within LICs). They are designed for people who would normal struggle to get loans and allows them to invest this to help their business grow and make more money. The Grameen Bank has provided loans to 9million people

Paper 2 - Section B – Changing economic world – The development gap Causes of uneven development

The causes of uneven development can be split

into three categories –

Physical causes –

Climate – The Sahel region of Africa, South

America and Asia have climate related pests

that affects people’s ability to work and stay

healthy. It can also be too hot to grow crops

effectively

Landlocked countries – Countries that are

only boarded by land means they have no

access to the seas which makes it harder to

trade and make money.

Economic causes -

Trade – North American and Europe

dominate world trade. They use their power

to influence LIC’s by paying them the lowest

price possible for their products. They can

process these products to make more

money insuring they make more profit then

the LICs.

Historical causes -

Colonialism – Since the 1400s, European

powers have set out to control new

territories. They often took the natural

resources from these countries which

helped their country to develop. They also

took slaves (10 million taken from Africa

from 1650-1900) to work on plantations. All

this wealth produced went back to Europe

which allowed them to develop. A lack of

resources and people meant that the

countries invaded struggled and still struggle

to develop.

Consequences of uneven development

Disparities in wealth

Clear link between countries level of

development and the wealth of its

people

North American holds 35% of the

world wealth yet only had 5% of the

world’s population

Africa’s global wealth share is

around 1%

Disparities in health

LICs have worse health care. This

leads to higher levels of infant

mortality and a lower life

expectancy.

LICs suffer from disease such as HIV,

malaria and TB. These are easily

treatable in HICs where the biggest

killers are hearth and lung disease.

20% of LIC deaths are above the age

of 70 whilst it is 70% in HIC. This is

because people live longer in HICs.

International migration

Some LICs also have high levels

of international migration, as

people move to find work and a

better standard of living.

The Middle East Refugee crisis

(Syria civil war) lead to 4 million

people fleeing to find safety most

settled in countries near Syria

(Jordan, Turkey and Lebanon).

Many thousands more migrated to

Europe.

Ways to reduce the development gap

25

Paper 2 - Section B – Changing economic world – Nigeria Information about Nigeria

Nigeria is a country in West Africa that

borders, Benin, Niger, Chad and Cameron.

Nigeria is the 14th Largest country in Africa

but has the largest population and 7th

largest in the world (190,886,311 in 2017)

and has the highest GDP in Africa ($376

billion per year in 2017).

Its capital city is Abuja but Lagos is the

largest (17.5million people) and is one of

the world’s fastest growing cities.

Why is Nigeria important to Africa and

the world?

Africa – One of the fastest growing

economics in Africa which means it would

be able to offer help to other African

countries via aid or peacekeeping soldiers.

The World – It supplies 2.7% of the

world’s oil which makes it important as

other countries need this oil for their own

economics.

Exploring Nigeria

Political context –

In 1960, Nigeria became independent

from the UK.

This then lead to a series of

dictatorships and civils from between

1967-1970 as people fought for power

Since 1999 the country has had a stable

government and attracted countries to

invest in Nigeria (China and USA)

Social context –

Nigeria is multi-ethnic (Yoruba and

Igbo) and multi faith country

(Christianity and Islam)

Different ethnic groups led to civil wars

in 1967.

Regional variations –

Urban areas have greater wealth and

quality of life

South tends to be better off than the

north of the country.

Cultural context –

Nollywood is the second largest

producer of films in the world.

Several sport stars play around the

world – Alex Iwobi

Environmental context –

Less rain in the north - Arid region

More rain in the south - Rainforest

Nigeria changing industrial structure

Nigeria is going through change. It has moved from an LIC to a NEE with more people

moving from farming in the countryside to working in industry in the cities. This is

called industrialisation and has occurred as people will work for less money in

Nigeria which is attractive to big companies who want to maximise profit.

Manufacturing impact on economic growth

More work gives people a higher income which can be taxed used by the

government to improve quality of life. E.g. Volkswagen factory in Lagos.

The multiplier effect ensures that the money spreads throughout the

economy (the money is passed from person to person).

A thriving industrial sector attracts further investment which again helps

grow the country’s economy further.

Nigeria’s Political and trading links with the world

Political links –

African Union – Creates stronger links with neighbouring countries and reduces threat of war or

disagreements) and Better trade deals can be made with other non-African countries as they have

more power when together. This makes Nigeria ricer.

OPEC – Part of a group of oil producing countries to set the price and supply of worldwide oil.

Nigeria makes more money from selling its oil by being part of OPEC. More money means more

development and a better quality of life for its people

Trading Links -

2.7% of the world’s oil. India is Nigeria’s biggest customer for oil.

40% of the population work in Agricultural. Indonesia is Nigeria biggest buyer of cotton. Oil and

Agriculture are the biggest exports of Nigeria.

26

Paper 2 - Section B – Changing economic world – Nigeria Transnational corporations (TNCs) in Nigeria

A TNC is a large company that operates in several different countries. It usually has its

headquarters in one country and then production plants in several other countries.

TNCs in Nigeria

There are around 40 TNCs in Nigeria with the majority being British, European and

USA companies.

Examples include KFC, Shell and Unilever.

TNCs move to NEEs and LICs as they are able to pay the workers less wages then in

HICs. This allows them to make more profits. This can be good for the host country as

they generate more money through tax on jobs. It can also be bad as the working

conditions can be poor and much of the profit generated goes back to the countries

the company is from.

Environmental impact of

industrial development

Rapid economic growth can

have impacts on the

environment –

Industrial growth (more

factories built) -Harmful

pollutants from illegal

factories are released go

directly into open drains.

This is harmful to people

and ecosystems

Urban growth (people

moving to cities for work) -

More people means more

cars which has increased air

pollution

Mining and oil extraction -

In 2008 and 2009 oil spills

occurred in the village of

Bodo in the Nigerian Delta.

This impacted fishermen

(fish died) and farmers

(land polluted) which took

away income. Shell paid

£55 million in

compensation.

Deforestation - 35% of

Nigeria’s forest have been

cut down. This destroys

ecosystems (Cheetahs and

Giraffes have disappeared)

contributes to climate

change.

Impacts of aid on Nigeria

Aid is support given to a country in need. 100 million Nigerians

live on less than $1 dollar a day.

Emergency aid – Following a disaster. Usually in the form of

water, food or shelter

Development aid - Long term support which is used to

improve the country. It might provide safe water or improve

education.

In 2013 they received $500million in aid

Impacts of aid –

Aid from the USA has helped slow the spread of HIV/AIDs

(better educated)

The charity, Nets for Life, has provided Mosquito nets and

education on Malaria. This prevents people getting ill /

allows more people to work and improve quality of life.

Example – The Aduwan health Centre – This was a new health

centre built via funds from the world bank and action aid. It

provides vaccinations, test for HIV and educates women about

how to fight disease.

Impacts of economic development on quality of life

Industrial development has improved the quality of life for millions of

Nigerians but 60% (120 million people) of Nigerians still live in poverty.

More money (disposable income – GDP per person has gone

from $322 per year in 1990 to $2200 in 2019) has meant better

schooling, more food, clean water and better recreation.

Better quality health care means people are less ill and life

expectancy has risen (Life expectancy in 1990 was 46 and it is

now 54 in 2019)

It had the highest HDI improvements in the world as a result of

industrial development (0.16 in 2007 to 0.51 in 2013).

To continue to improve Nigeria needs to have a stable government

(political), improvements in the environment by fining people who

damage it and sorting historic disputes between different ethnic groups of

people (social).

27

Paper 2 - Section B – Changing economic world – UKs Economy Changes in the UK economy

Primary Sector - Before 1800 most people in the UK worked in

agricultural (farming) jobs.

Secondary Sector - The industrial revolution changed this with

people moving to cities and towns for work in the

manufacturing (factories) sector. This made the UK an

industrial economy and occurred din the late 18th century.

Tertiary Sector - Over the last few decades this has changed

again. Jobs in the manufacturing (secondary sector) have been

lost and people have shifted into the Tertiary sector (services

e.g. teacher or banking). This is known as a post industrial

economy and now makes up 75% of our economy.

Quaternary sector - More recently the quaternary sector has

started to develop with a slow increase with the amount of

people working in this sector such as research scientist.

Reasons for the UKs changing economy –

De-industrialisation – Industries such as Factories closing down

Machines have replaced workers meaning less people are required to

work. This is called mechanisation.

Factories have moved abroad to LICs and NEEs as the amount they pay

workers is less than in the UK meaning more profit for the factory

owner.

Globalisation – This is the growth and spread of ideas around the world.

Has helped grown the tertiary and quaternary sectors as people can

now offer their skills around the world via the internet and quick

transport links. Jobs such as accounting can be based in London but

operate worldwide

Government policies – Each year the government announces it budget which

decides how money will be spent in the country.

Following the election of the conservative party led by Margaret

thatcher in 1979, several changes were made that changed the

economy.

o Many UK governments owned businesses where sold to private

companies. This made the government billions but lead to

millions of people getting sacked as the companies preferred

profit over the benefit of the workers. This added to the de-

industrialisation the UK was already experiencing.

o The Financial markets were given more freedom from the

government (known as neo-liberalism) and allowed them to

make profits but at greater risks. This helped grow the tertiary

sector.

o This contributed a strong period of economic growth in the UK.

In 2008, the world suffered a massive global rescission which crippled

many companies and led to mass loss of jobs.

This has since caused ‘austerity’ (a lack of investment within the

country) in order to save money. The government also printed more

money (known as quantitative easing) to increase productivity and help

grow the economy. This has not fully worked.

A post-industrial economy –

The UK is now considered a post

industrial economy. This means we make

the majority of our money from the

tertiary and quaternary sectors.

Development of ICT –

This industry is worth £58 billion per

year.

100,000 software companies in the

UK which many 100,000 of people

working in the industry

Growth of service (tertiary) industry

75% of UKs economy.

UK is second largest supplier of

services worldwide.

Finance and research

London is considered the financial

capital of the world (jobs with

money). People all around the world

use our financial services.

Science and businesses parks

These are locations, normally on the

edge of a city, that are designed to

improve science or business.

They often have good transport links

or are close to universities to access

graduates.

They have grown due to the rise in

further education (Uni), the need for

greater technology and innovation.

Impacts of industry on the environment

Even though we have less industry, what we do have still

impacts the environment.

Burning of fossil fuels realises greenhouses gases that

cause lung problems and climate change.

Waste products are often taken to landfill where

substances can leak into the ground and pollute, the

air, water and soil.

28

Paper 2 - Section B – Changing economic world – UKs Economy

The UKs changing rural (countryside) landscape

Population growth – South Cambridgeshire

It is growing because It surrounds the city of Cambridge which provides

good work opportunities and interesting places to see. It is also close to

London.

Social effects – More people in the area is leading to greater traffic

Economic effects – House prices have increased as more people

want houses then there are available. Often too expensive.

Population decline – The Outer Hebrides

People are leaving due to its remote location, its lack of entertainment

and poor weather.

Social effects – Services such as schools will have to close as there

are not enough students attending to make it worth the cost

Economic effects – Services, such as the post office, has closed as

it cannot make enough money to stay open.

Improving transport infrastructure

The UK government is investigating in infrastructure

projects to help improve the UK economy

Road improvements

In December 2014, the government announced that

they would be spending £15 billion on a project called

the ‘Road investment strategy’.

Example - This money involves building ‘smart motorways’

that use technology to manage congestion and keep people

and products moving quickly around the country.

Rail improvements

£25 billion is being spent to upgrade the UK rail

network by 2019. Improvements will include longer

platforms that can cope with bigger trains and better

stations.

Example - HS2 is planned to be completed in 2031, at an

estimated cost of at least £81 billion. This is a high speed

rail link that will cut journey times between cities along

people to commute further for better paying work.

Port Improvements

UK ports remain the largest in Europe, in terms of

volume of goods handled.

32 million people travel through UK ports each year

and the industry employs 120,000 people.

Example - Liverpool 2 port is a £300million project that is

looking to double the amount of cargo it can hold. This will

create thousands of jobs and boosts the UKs economy.

Airport improvements

This area makes 3.6% of the UKs economy and has

over 300,000 people working in it.

Example - This is very valuable to the UK which is why they

are building a 3rd runway at Heathrow airport (UKs busiest).

The development will generate an estimated £147 billion

over 60 years and 70,000 new jobs by 2050.

The North South Divide

What is the north south divide?

People living in the north of England experience lower incomes,

higher unemployment, and have a lower expectancy than those living in

the south of England

Strategies to reduce the divide

High Speed 2 is a high-speed railway under construction (phase 1 will

open in 2031) that will connect London to the midlands and

Northern Cities and improve connection to companies in the North

of England.

o It will create 100,000 jobs when built.

o 70% of these jobs created are meant to be outside of

London

o Northern economies could grow by £1.5 – 3 billion by time

of completion

More professional jobs to be created in Northern Cities.

o For example, the BBC moved many of its offices to the

newly built MediaCityUK in Salford in 2011. Since then,

the multiplier effect has led to other companies locating

close by which brings in more money.

UK links to the wider world

The UK has strong political links with many countries.

Britain joined the European Union (EU) in 1973 and works closely with 28

other countries. It is also the leading country of the commonwealth which

is a group of 53 countries from the old British empire. Both these example

help trade and funding of project within the UK.

Trade – the UK imports and exports goods from many countries.

Over 50% of UK trade is with EU countries. The UK's next biggest

trading partners are found in Asia and Oceania.

Transport – increasing air travel is strengthening the UK's links with other countries. In addition to this, the UK has modern port facilities and a high speed rail link to Europe (channel tunnel)

Communications – the UK is linked to the rest of the world via the internet. Internet cables beneath the sea provide a fast connection to countries globally.

Culture – UK literature, music, cinema, sport, television, history and architecture are important globally. Books, such as the Harry Potter series, are sold worldwide and TV programmes such as Pepper pig are viewed in 180 out of 195 countries.

29

Paper 2 - Section C – The challenges of resource management What is a resource?

A resource is a stock or supply or something that has a

value or purpose.

The three most important resources are food, water and

energy.

The importance of resources

Resources are not equally shared around the world.

Most HIC’s have vast supplies of resources and have a

better quality of life as a result.

Areas that lack resources struggle to develop and

improve their quality of life.

Global distribution of food

Your health depends on how much food you have.

The UN recommends an intake of between 2000-2400

calories per day to be healthy.

Over 1 billion people world wide fall below this level.

This leads to people being malnourished.

A further 2 billion people suffer from undernutrition.

This is when you have a poorly balanced diet that lacks

minerals and vitamins.

You need food in be productive at work or at school. By

not having food your country will struggle to develop.

Global distribution of Water

Water is important to people, animals, crops,

food and energy production.

Many of the worlds poorest countries have a

shortage of water.

This causes them to become trapped in a

poverty cycle.

Water surplus and water deficit

There is a fixed amount of water on the planet. The amount of water available in an area is dependent on factors such as rainfall, temperature and population.

Higher rainfall leads to more water. Some places can have too much rainfall, which leads to flooding.

Higher temperatures cause evaporation. If water evaporates, then less is available for people to use.

Higher populations use more water. This means there is less available to share around.

Areas of water surplus have more water than they need.

Areas of water deficit have too little water.

Global distribution of energy

Energy is required for economic development

Its powers factories, machinery and provides

fuel for transport.

Energy security and energy insecurity

High income countries (HICs) and new emerging economies (NEEs) consume a lot of energy. Factories in NEEs also use energy to manufacture products.

Low income countries (LICs) use less energy.

Some countries produce large supplies of energy.

Other countries are dependent upon imported fuel.

Fuel prices are set by the exporting countries and so those importing fuel often have to pay high prices.

Places that have energy security produce a high percentage of the energy that they consume.

Places that have energy insecurity consume more than they produce.

30

UK Resources – Food

Growing demand for food

o The population if growing which means we

need more food.

o We currently import 40% of all are food.

o We get these foods from LICs as the people

here work for less money

o This also us to import cheaper food into our

country.

o We also want certain foods all year round but

due to our climate we cannot do this.

o This leads us to importing food from hot

countries as they can grow them all year.

Carbon footprint

o Due to the importing of our food, it is

traveling from all across the world.

o This is known as food miles.

o This increases the amount of C02 released

into the atmosphere due to the way it travels

here.

Organic farming

o Some people do not like the idea their food

comes from far away

o Organic farming is locally produced crops

without the use of Chemicals.

o This is growing in popularity as people take

more of an interest in climate change but the

cost can be higher.

Agribusiness

o This is another way we can reduce our food

carbon footprint.

o This is the use of intense farming methods to

maximise the amount of food produced.

o This is achieved by advanced machinery and

chemicals sprayed on the crops.

UK Resources – Water

Changing Demand for water

o The demand for water is expected to rise by 5% by

2020.

o This is due to more people, more houses and an

increase in devices that use more water.

o 21% of all our water is lost through leaks in pipes.

Water quality and pollution management

o Problem - Agriculture can pollute water due to the

pesticides and fertilizers getting into rivers. This can

cause natural wildlife to die off.

o Solution - The environment agency manages the

water quality in the UK. They –

Monitor the quality of river water

Filter water to remove sediment

Purify water by adding chlorine as this kills

bacteria

Impose regulations on what the UKs water

can be used for.

Water supply and demand

o The UK’s main source of water is from its rivers,

reservoirs and groundwater stores.

o The UK receives enough rain to meet its demands but

it does not fall equally across the country.

The North and west of the UK have water

surplus. This is where they receive more

water then they need. This is due to lots of

rain and smaller populations

The south east of the country has water

deficit. This is where they receive less water

then they need. This is due to the lower

amounts of rainfall and the larger

populations.

Water transfer

o To help areas of water deficit, water transfer schemes

can be used to move water around the country.

o This keeps a constant supply of water available.

o Kielder water transfer water from its reservoir to the

city of Newcastle when it requires more water

Paper 2 - Section C – The challenges of resource management UK Resources – Energy

UKs changing energy mix

o The UK’s demand for electricity is actually falling.

o This is due to less industry and better energy

conservation.

o We have moved from getting most of our energy

from coal in 1990 (fossil fuel) to more clean energy

sources such as nuclear and renewable energy.

o We are aiming for 15% of all our energy needs to

come from renewables y 2020.

o We still use a range of energy methods – Fossil fuels,

nuclear and renewables

Reasons for our changing energy mix

o We used to be able to supply all our own energy.

o About 75% of our oil and gas has run out which

means we have to now get it from other countries.

o The main change in the UKs energy mix has come

from the decline of coal from 1990 to present.

This mainly was caused via a concern about

the impact coal was having on the

environment.

This caused 80% of coal fields to close

The government want all coal power

stations closed by 2025.

o Fossil fuels are still important in the UK because we

still have enough for several more decades.

o Coal is cheap to import, meaning house hold bills are

cheaper.

o We could have lots of shale gas that could be used

via ‘Fracking’

Economic and environmental issues of energy

o Nuclear –

Can be expensive to build and to produce

electricity.

Can risk environment is any leaks occur

o Wind farms –

Can impact tourism as people think they

look ugly and are put of coming.

Help reduce carbon footprint as they don’t

pollute.

31

Paper 2 - Section C – The challenges of resource management – Food management

Global food supply

The amount of food eaten around the world varies. The more

developed a country is, the more calories they tend to eat in a

day.

Global calorie intake is increasing around the world. This is due

to

Increasing levels of wealth which means people can

afford to buy more food

Growing populations means more food is needed

People have more access to food

Food Security

This is having enough nutritious food to maintain a

healthy and active life.

Countries that have more food than needed have food

surplus

Most countries do not produce enough food and have

to import it. This is known as food deficit and can lead

to food insecurity (not having access to enough food).

Factors that affect food supply

Climate – Global warming is increasing worldwide temperatures. Higher

temperatures and unreliable rainfall make farming difficult. This means less

food is grown

Technology – Improvements in technology have increased the amount of food

available as it can be used to overcome a lack of water, higher temperatures

and a lack of soil nutrients. This means more food

Pest and disease – Pesticides have increased crop yields as they kill of insects

that eat the crops. Farmers in wealthier countries can afford pesticides, whereas

most farmers in poorer countries cannot afford them

Water stress – A lack of water means less crops can be grown leading to less

food. Countries that can afford irrigation can use this to get around lower

rainfalls.

Conflict - War forces farmers to flee their land or to fight in conflict. Crops can

also be destroyed during fighting which leads to less food being produced.

Poverty - When people have less money, they cannot afford food and they

become unable to work. Often food is available but the people can not afford it.

Impacts of food insecurity

When you have a lack of food the

following can occur –

Famine – This is the wide spread

shortage of food that leads to

malnutrition, starvation and then

death. Example – 2010-2012

Somalian famine which lead to

258,000 deaths.

Undernutrition – This is the lack

of a balanced diet. Example - 850

million people suffered from this

between 2012-2014. This causes

around 300,000 deaths per year.

Soil Erosion – As farmers try to

get the most from their land,

they can cause over farming

which leads to the soil erosion as

they plants die off and leave the

soil exposed to wind and rain.

Rising prises – When less food is

available the price of food goes

up. This can cause people to be

unable to afford the food they

once could.

Social unrest – People often turn

to violence in an attempt to get

the food that is available.

Example – Riots in Algeria in

2011 when the cost of oil and

flour doubled lead to 4 people

dying.

32

Paper 2 - Section C – The challenges of resource management – Food management Strategies to increase food supply

As the global population continues to increase, countries are finding ways to grow more food.

Irrigation - Irrigation is the artificial adding of water to land. This helps increase food supply as it allows more water to be available to help grow the crops. Example - IBIS (see case study box to the right)

Aeroponics and hydroponics - Systems that allow plants to be grown without soil.

Aeroponics involves suspending plants in the air and spraying their roots with a fine mist of water and nutrients.

Hydroponics involves growing plants in a porous material (other than soil) and allowing water containing nutrients to filter through it.

The New Green Revolution - The New Green Revolution involves using different seeds to help specific areas that are experiencing the impact of global warming, such as drought and flooding.

Biotechnology - Biotechnology is the selective breeding or genetic modification (GM) of plants and animals to produce specific traits. Both involve mixing two species, both of which have beneficial characteristics.

Example - The IR8 GM crop is a high yield rice that was developed in India. It was shorted than normal which meant that more of the plant’s energy could be places into growing more rice grain than growing tall which led to more food. It is credited with saving millions of lives.

Appropriate technology - Appropriate technology involves using suitable machinery and techniques in LICs. Appropriate technology is usually affordable and easy to use - it can improve yields for many communities. Example – Magic stones in Burkina Faso

Sustainable food supplies

This is when we are able to increase food supplies without damaging the environment.

Permaculture - is farming in a sustainable and self-sufficient manner.

Organic farming - Organic farming uses natural methods to grow foods. This means using organic fertilisers and pesticides, such as animal slurry and natural predators and no artificial fertilisers or pesticides. Organic farming is environmentally sustainable because it doesn't pollute the environment.

Urban farming - Urban farming involves growing food using space in and around cities. It also helps to reduce food miles, which is better for the environment.

Sustainable fish and meat –

Fish - Modern fishing techniques use large nets. This often wipes out whole fish populations and many fish are trapped by accident. Sustainable fishing involves catching fewer fish so they do not die out.

Meat - Sustainable meat production involves using grass as animal feed. This is because current methods use a lot of water and causes lots of pollution (Methane and C02).

Seasonal food consumption - Food is now available out of season thanks to heated greenhouses to produce it in the UK and cold storage to transport it to the UK. Seasonal food consumption reduces food miles and electricity use by eating the food that is only grown at that time of the year.

Reduction of food waste - Developed nations waste a lot of food. Buying only the food that is needed is more sustainable as there is more food left to feed others.