Approaches

Approaches in Approaches in Language TestingLanguage Testing

The Essay-Translation The Essay-Translation ApproachApproach

a pre-scientific stage – 1950a pre-scientific stage – 1950 Associated with Associated with grammar-grammar-

translation approachtranslation approach to to language teachinglanguage teaching


No special skills/ testing No special skills/ testing expertise requiredexpertise required

Constructed by untrained Constructed by untrained classroom teachersclassroom teachers


Test-TypesTest-Types TranslationTranslation free composition writingfree composition writing Very cultural biasVery cultural bias E.g. E.g. Write about “American Civil Write about “American Civil

War and its Impact on USA.”War and its Impact on USA.”

The Essay-Translation The Essay-Translation ApproachApproach Difficult to objectively score, Difficult to objectively score,

thus subjectively judged by thus subjectively judged by teachersteachers

No application of statistical No application of statistical analysis, not scientificanalysis, not scientific

DisadvantagesDisadvantages: : very unreliablevery unreliable lack of objectivitylack of objectivity


Reliable?Reliable? Testing language Testing language

or content knowledge??or content knowledge?? How to score?How to score?

The Psychometric-structuralist The Psychometric-structuralist Approach (1950-1960)Approach (1950-1960)

Influenced by structuralist Influenced by structuralist linguistics (Robert Lado “ linguistics (Robert Lado “ Language Testing”)Language Testing”)

Associated with audio-lingual Associated with audio-lingual method of language teaching method of language teaching and behaviorismand behaviorism


based on assumption that based on assumption that language learning is concerned language learning is concerned with the systematic acquisition with the systematic acquisition of habit formingof habit forming


Seeing language as consisting Seeing language as consisting of features of the language of features of the language system (vocabulary, system (vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar)pronunciation, grammar)


De-contextualizing the language De-contextualizing the language knowledge to be tested and test knowledge to be tested and test language aspects in isolation language aspects in isolation (discrete point testing)(discrete point testing)

The Psychometric-structuralist The Psychometric-structuralist Approach (1950-1960)Approach (1950-1960) Measuring students’ mastery of Measuring students’ mastery of

separate elements of language separate elements of language macro language skills (reading, macro language skills (reading,

writing, etc.) are tested in writing, etc.) are tested in isolationisolation

Testing discrete structural points Testing discrete structural points taught in audio-lingual methodstaught in audio-lingual methods


Main concerns:Main concerns: objectivity, reliability, validityobjectivity, reliability, validity Tests were carefully constructed Tests were carefully constructed

by specialists and trained by specialists and trained teachersteachers

Tests become more Tests become more scientificscientific, , more more reliablereliable, use of statistics, use of statistics


Test TypesTest Types: : testing discrete language points testing discrete language points

through multiple choice, T-F. through multiple choice, T-F. matchingmatching


Advantages:Advantages: Very objectiveVery objective easy to scoreeasy to score reliablereliable covering a wide range of covering a wide range of

language pointslanguage points

Test ExamplesTest Examples

1. Is Mary still in Bangkok?1. Is Mary still in Bangkok? No, _____ in Chiangmai No, _____ in Chiangmai

since 2004.since 2004. 1. she lives1. she lives

2. she’s living2. she’s living 3. she’d lived3. she’d lived 4. she’s lived 4. she’s lived

The old woman was too _____ The old woman was too _____ to push open the heavy door.to push open the heavy door.

a. feeblea. feeble b. deafb. deaf c. sincerec. sincere d. generousd. generous

listeninglistening

cot- caughtcot- caught samesamedifferentdifferent

pin binpin bin samesamedifferentdifferent

law – law law – law samesame differentdifferent


Opponents:Opponents: OllerOller SpolskySpolsky MorrowMorrow

CriticismCriticism

Testing linguistic knowledge is Testing linguistic knowledge is important but not sufficientimportant but not sufficient

John OllerJohn Oller

““Discrete point analysis Discrete point analysis necessarily breaks the elements necessarily breaks the elements of language apart and tries to of language apart and tries to teach them or test them teach them or test them separately with little or no separately with little or no attention to the way those attention to the way those elements interact in a larger elements interact in a larger context of communication”context of communication”

OllerOller

““The whole is greater than the The whole is greater than the sum of parts”sum of parts”

MorrowMorrow

Knowledge of the elements of a Knowledge of the elements of a language is useless if the user is language is useless if the user is not able to combine them in new not able to combine them in new and appropriate ways to use and appropriate ways to use the languagethe language

Still in use supplemented by Still in use supplemented by integrative testsintegrative tests

The Integrative-pragmatic The Integrative-pragmatic Approach (1960-1970)Approach (1960-1970)

Main concerns:Main concerns: creative, more than a sum of creative, more than a sum of

discrete language knowledgediscrete language knowledge Global testing, integrating Global testing, integrating

knowledge of pronunciation, knowledge of pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, with grammar, vocabulary, with appropriate contextappropriate context

The Integrative-pragmatic The Integrative-pragmatic Approach (1960-1970)Approach (1960-1970) Believing in Believing in Unitary Unitary

Competence HypothesisCompetence Hypothesis Performance on a whole range Performance on a whole range

of tests depends on the same of tests depends on the same underlying capacity in the underlying capacity in the learners – learners – the ability to integrate the ability to integrate grammatical, lexical, contextual grammatical, lexical, contextual and pragmatic knowledge in and pragmatic knowledge in test performancetest performance

Test TypesTest Types:: cloze cloze dictationdictation composition composition Functional testFunctional test

Advantages:Advantages:

More economical and More economical and efficient to construct and efficient to construct and scorescore

ObjectiveObjective ReliableReliable contextualizedcontextualized


AdvocateAdvocate: : John OllerJohn Oller General Language Proficiency General Language Proficiency

(GLP)(GLP)

is a is a single language factor single language factor underlying all language skillsunderlying all language skills..

55thth/7/7thth/9/9thth/11/11thth

exact word/ acceptable exact word/ acceptable wordword Employment StudiesEmployment Studies Society offers many jobs and it is Society offers many jobs and it is

wise to consider carefully many wise to consider carefully many aspects before applying for a aspects before applying for a position. When applying for position. When applying for a_job you must always be a_job you must always be realistic _____ the one you apply realistic _____ the one you apply for. You might be good yet ___ for. You might be good yet ___ no interest in that no interest in that particular work.particular work.

Example: Functional TestExample: Functional Test

Situation: Situation: Chai wants to Chai wants to introduce his friend to his introduce his friend to his mother.mother.

1. Samarn, I’d like you to meet 1. Samarn, I’d like you to meet

my mother.my mother. 2. How do you do?2. How do you do? 3. I’m pleased to introduce my 3. I’m pleased to introduce my

mother to you.mother to you. 4. How are you?4. How are you?


Disadvantages:Disadvantages: Indirect testingIndirect testing Problems with cloze testsProblems with cloze tests

Problems with Cloze TestProblems with Cloze Test

not realistic, measuring not realistic, measuring linguistic knowledge rather linguistic knowledge rather than actual performancethan actual performance

moderately correlated with moderately correlated with other language skillsother language skills

Changes of word order = Changes of word order = changes in test scoreschanges in test scores

Cloze: systematic deletionCloze: systematic deletion Gap filling: Gap filling: Text completionText completion

The Communicative The Communicative Approaches (1970 --)Approaches (1970 --)

Influenced by Hymes’s notion of Influenced by Hymes’s notion of communicative competencecommunicative competence

Knowing a language is more Knowing a language is more than knowing its rules of than knowing its rules of grammargrammar

An ability to use language An ability to use language appropriately for different appropriately for different situationssituations


Believing in Believing in “Divisibility “Divisibility Language Ability”Language Ability”


Assessing learners’ ability Assessing learners’ ability when he is engaged in an when he is engaged in an extended act of extended act of communication and communication and considering the social roles considering the social roles he is likely to assume in real he is likely to assume in real word settings.word settings.


Communicative Communicative CompetenceCompetence

Canale and Swain, 1980Canale and Swain, 1980 Models of Communicative Models of Communicative

CompetenceCompetence

1. 1. Grammatical Grammatical Competence:Competence:

Knowledge of lexical Knowledge of lexical items and of rules of items and of rules of morphology, syntax, morphology, syntax, sentence-grammar sentence-grammar semantics, and semantics, and phonologyphonology

2. 2. Discourse competenceDiscourse competence

ability to connect ability to connect sentences in stretches of sentences in stretches of discourse and to form a discourse and to form a meaning series of meaning series of utterances in extended utterances in extended use of language in use of language in context.context.

3. 3. Strategic competenceStrategic competence

verbal and non-verbal verbal and non-verbal communicative strategies communicative strategies used to compensate for used to compensate for breakdowns in breakdowns in communication due to communication due to imperfect or insufficient imperfect or insufficient linguistic competence in the linguistic competence in the second language.second language.

4. 4. Sociolinguistic Sociolinguistic competencecompetence

Knowledge of the socio-Knowledge of the socio-cultural rules of language cultural rules of language and of discourseand of discourse


Thus, constructing a test Thus, constructing a test requires a careful study of requires a careful study of communicative roles and communicative roles and tasks facing the learnerstasks facing the learners


Job analysisJob analysis: : when, where, with whom, how when, where, with whom, how

and why language is to be used, and why language is to be used, on what topics, with what effect on what topics, with what effect and the prior knowledge/ and the prior knowledge/ experience/ ability, and extra-experience/ ability, and extra-linguistic factorslinguistic factors


Test-typesTest-types: : task-based tests, role-task-based tests, role-

play, composition, play, composition, interview, problem solving interview, problem solving taskstasks

ProblemsProblems

1. Which communicative 1. Which communicative task to be included in the task to be included in the test?test?

e.g. a group of students in e.g. a group of students in ““English for Secretaries”English for Secretaries”

ProblemsProblems

22. the more specific the task, . the more specific the task, the less we can generalize the less we can generalize about the students’ abilityabout the students’ ability

3. Conditions for actual real-3. Conditions for actual real-life communication are not life communication are not replicable in a test situation.replicable in a test situation.

ProblemsProblems

4. How much to be included 4. How much to be included in the test:in the test:

The larger the sample of The larger the sample of tasks, the more realistic the tasks, the more realistic the test, but the longer the testtest, but the longer the test

5. How to score: reliability ?5. How to score: reliability ?

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