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AP PSYCHOLOGY: UNIT XII
Social Psychology
The scientific study of how we think about,
influence and relate to one another…
LAST UNIT!
Introduction: Fact or Falsehood?
Compared to people in Western countries, those in East Asia are more sensitive to situational influences on behavior True
In order to change people’s racist behaviors, we first need to change their racist attitudes False
Chimps are more likely to yawn after observing another chimp yawn True
Introduction: Fact or Falsehood?
Most people refuse to obey an authority figure who has told them to hurt an innocent person False
Studies of college & professional athletic events indicate that home teams win about 60% of the time True
Introduction: Fact or Falsehood?
Individuals pull harder in a team tug-of-war than when they pull in a one-on-one tug-of-war False
The higher the morale & harmony of a social group, the more likely its members are to make a good decision False
Introduction: Fact or Falsehood?
From research on liking & loving, it is clear that opposites do attract False
We are less likely to offer help to a stranger if other bystanders are present True
PART ONE
Social Psychology: Social Thinking
Social Psychology: Social Thinking, Attribution
Explaining Behavior
Social Thinking: Attribution
Attribution Theory (Fritz Heider) The theory that suggests the way in
which we explain the behavior of others… We credit that behavior either to the
SITUATION (external attribution) or to the person’s DISPOSITION (internal attribution) Example
• Was my friend a jerk because he had a bad day or is he simply a bad person?
Social Thinking: Attribution
The Scenario You are a teacher. Clive,
your student, is always hostile towards you. He tells you that your class is a waste of time, that you’re his least favorite teacher and that he already knows more than you could possibly teach him. Using attribution theory, how might you explain Clive’s
behavior?
Social Thinking: Attribution
Situational Factors (External Attribution) Clive’s parents are getting divorced & he’s
lashing out Clive has a bad memory of a teacher picking on
him & now he dislikes all teachers Clive has your class right before lunch & his
hunger makes him wish class was overDispositional Factors (Internal
Attribution) Clive has an aggressive personality; he’s lazy;
he’s disrespectful…
Social Thinking: Attribution
Social Thinking: Attribution
Fundamental Attribution Error (David Napolitan & George Goethals) The tendency for observers, when analyzing
another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition Example
How do students typically view a teacher’s cranky behavior?• Most probably attribute it to their personality, as
opposed to their profession…
Actor-Observer Bias…
You believe that cheating is bad/wrong...
But you cheat on your math
test…
Your teacher was mean; in that class it was okay…
Social Thinking: Attribution
Social Thinking: Attribution
What is the function of the fundamental attribution error? To protect our self-esteem
If we do something wrong, it makes us feel better to blame outside factors, as opposed to blaming ourselves
Social Thinking: Attribution
Defensive Attribution The tendency to blame
victims for their misfortune, so that one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way Also know as “Just-World
Bias” “What terrible criminals these
prisoners must have been to receive such treatment…”
Social Thinking: Attribution
Culture & Attributional Tendencies Individualistic Cultures
United States (1), Australia (2), Great Britain (3) Intermediate Cultures
Israel (19), Spain (20), India (21) Collectivist Cultures
Hong Kong (37), China (38), Singapore (39)
Who commits the fundamental attribution error more often? WHY?
Social Psychology: Social Thinking, Attitudes
Making Social Judgments
Social Thinking: Attitudes
Positive or negative evaluations regarding objects of thought Social issues
Capital punishment, guns… Groups
Farmers, liberals... Institutions
Catholic Church, Supreme Court…
Do attitudes always predict behavior?
Social Thinking: Attitudes
Components of Attitude Attitudes may include up to 3
different components Cognitive Component
Beliefs about the object of an attitude
Affective Component Emotional feelings stimulated by an object of
thought Behavioral Component
Predispositions to act in certain ways toward an attitude object
Social Thinking: Attitudes
Dimensions of Attitude Attitudes may vary along several crucial
dimensions Strength
How firmly held? Durable over time? Impact on behavior?
Accessibility How often & how quickly does it come to mind?
Ambivalence Conflicted evaluations that include both positive
and negative feelings The higher the level of ambivalence the less
predictive of behavior
Social Thinking: Attitudes
Explicit Attitudes Attitudes that we hold consciously and can
readily describeImplicit Attitudes
Covert attitudes that are expressed in subtle, automatic responses; we generally have little conscious control over these Best example in modern culture? Implicit Association Test (IAT)
https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/demo/
Social Thinking: Attitudes
Methods of Attitude Persuasion Central Route Persuasion
Occurs when interested/analytical people focus on the arguments & respond with favorable thoughts Example: Followers of world religions
Peripheral Route Persuasion Occurs when people are
influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness or endorsements by respected people Example: Kennedy v. Nixon (1960)
Social Thinking: Attitudes
#1) Source (WHO) #2) Message (WHAT)
• Credibility• Expertise• Trustworthiness• Likability• Attractiveness• Similarity
• Fear appeal v. logic• One-sided v. two-sided
argument• Number of strong or weak
arguments• repetition
#3) Channel (WHAT MEANS) #4) Receiver (TO WHOM)
• In person• On TV or radio• Via audiotape• Via internet• Via telephone
• Personality• Expectations• Initial attitude on issue• Strength or preexisting
attitude
Factors in Attitude Persuasion
Social Thinking: Attitudes
Cognitive Dissonance Theory The theory that we act to reduce
the dissonance we feel when two of our thoughts or attitudes are inconsistent Example
A person who smokes, yet knows the health risks will either…• Stop smoking• Rationalize that nothing bad will happen to them
Social Psychology: Social Influence
PART TWO
https://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=W27pfiRg5WQ
Social Psychology: Social Influence, Conformity
Adjusting one’s behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard;
yielding to real or imagined social pressure
Social Influence: Conformity
Influential Studies Asch’s Conformity Study
(Solomon Asch, 1955) 50 subjects; young,
undergraduate men Found that participants
conformed on 37% of the trials• Of the 50 participants…
13 never caved14 conformed on more
than half of the trials
Social Influence: Conformity
Conditions that Strengthen Conformity Feelings of incompetence or
insecurity Group size; at least 3 people Group is unanimous Admiration of the group’s
status/attractiveness No prior commitment to any other response Strong cultural “respect” for social standards
Social Influence: Conformity
Reasons for Conforming Normative Social
Influence Conformity to social
norms for fear of negative social consequences
Informational Social Influence Conformity to social norms when one looks to
others for guidance about how to behave in ambiguous situations
Normative Social Influence
or Informational
Social Influence?
Social Psychology: Social Influence, Compliance
A change in behavior prompted by a direct
request, as opposed to social norm pressure
Social Influence: Compliance
Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon The tendency for people
who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a large request Considerations
The original small agreement creates a bond between the requestor and the requestee
Pro-social requests are especially effective with this technique
Social Influence: Compliance
Door-in-the-Face Phenomenon The tendency for people who have first disagreed
to a large request, to accept a more reasonable request Considerations
The requestee feels guilty for turning down the first request; fears rejection if they continue to decline
The second request looks good compared to the first
Social Influence: Compliance
Low-Ball Technique The tendency for people to
accept an unattractive detail if it is introduced after the deal is made, but not the other way around Considerations
People will behave consistently to their beliefs in order to sustain their commitment
Many may believe that they can’t back out after the initial agreement
Social Influence: Compliance
Ingratiation Involves getting someone to like you in order to
obtain compliance with a request Considerations
Flattery: Focus on positive elements in order to let the “target” know that you think highly of them
Opinion Conformity: Agree with the beliefs & values of the “target;” allow them to “convince” you of their opinion
Self-Presentation: Present yourself in a manner that the “target” would like
Social Psychology: Social Influence, Obedience
A form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority
Social Influence: Obedience
Influential Studies The Milgram Experiment
(Stanley Milgram, 1974) “I was only following
orders…” –Adolf Eichmann Administration of electrical
shocks (varying levels) Findings? Gender differences?
“The most fundamental lesson of our study is that ordinary people, simply doing their jobs, and without any particular hostility on their
part, can become agents in a terrible destructive process…” – Stanley Milgram
Social Influence: Which One?
Influential Studies Stanford-Prison Experiment
(Philip Zimbardo, 1972) Demonstrated the power of
“roles,” as well as deindividualization
Abu Ghraib Prison (Iraq, 2004)The power of social roles
and the situation Conformity? Compliance? Obedience?
Social Psychology: Social Influence, Groups
Consists of two or more individuals who interact and are interdependent…
Social Influence: Group Influence
Group Influence on Performance Social Facilitation (Do GOOD, Do
BETTER) An individual’s performance gets
better in the presence of others Pool players who made 71% of
their shots when alone, made 80% when they had spectators
Social Influence: Group Influence
Group Influence on Performance Social Inhibition/Impairment (Do BAD, Do
WORSE) An individual’s performance gets worse in the
presence of others Poor players who made 36% of their shots when
alone, made only 25% of their shots when they had spectators
Social Influence: Group Influence
Group Influence on Productivity Reasons for reduced
individual productivity in groups? Reduced efficiency
resulting from the loss of coordination
A general reduction in effort, known as social loafing…
Social Influence: Group Influence
Group Influence on Productivity Social Loafing
A reduction in effort by individuals when they work in groups as compared to when they work by themselves
• Tug-of-War• Group projects
Social Influence: Group Influence
Group Influence on Decision-Making Group Polarization
The enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussions within the group; may produce a shift towards a more extreme decision Typically considered a “normal” group process
Social Influence: Group Influence
Group Influence on Decision-Making Groupthink
When members of a cohesive group emphasize concurrence at the expense of critical thinking in arriving at a decision Typically considered a
“diseased” group process • Bay of Pigs Invasion• Challenger Explosion
Social Influence: Group Influence
Group Influence on Helping Behaviors Bystander Effect
A paradoxical social phenomenon in which people are less likely to provide needed assistance when they are in groups, as opposed to when they are alone Summarizing many different studies,
psychologists estimate that…• People who are by themselves provide help 75% of the
time• People who are surrounded by others help 53% of the
time WHY?
• What does inaction by other people suggest?• Diffusion of responsibility
Social Psychology: Social Relations
PART THREE
Social Psychology: Social Relations,
Prejudice
Social Relations: Prejudice
Prejudice An unjustifiable and negative attitude toward a
group; based on stereotypes Generally involves beliefs, emotions & behavioral
dispositions Explicit Prejudice v. Implicit Prejudice
Discrimination Unjustifiable & negative behavior toward the
members of a group Do prejudice and discrimination always
go hand-in-hand?
Social Relations: Prejudice
Examples In one study, most white participants perceived a
white man shoving a black man as “horsing around;” however, when they saw a black man shoving a white man, they interpreted it as “violence”
A black New Jersey dentist who drove a gold BMW was stopped more than 75 times within a year
People tend to perceive fathers as being more intelligent than mothers
Female circumcision in some African countries
Social Relations: Prejudice
Examples In Los Angeles, 1115 landlords
received identically worded emails from a would-be tenant (actually a researcher) expressing interest in vacant apartments advertised online
Encouraging replies came back to: 56% of emails signed “Tyrell Jackson” 66% signed “Said Al-Rahman” 89% of those signed “Patrick McDougall”
Social Relations: Prejudice
Roots of Prejudice In-Group
People with whom one shares a common identity; “us”
In-group bias The tendency to favor one’s own group
Out-Group Perceived as different or apart from one’s in-group;
“them”
Significance? Once an in-group is established, prejudice and
discriminatory treatment of the out-group soon follows…
Social Relations: Prejudice
Realistic Conflict Theory Prejudice & discrimination will be increased
between groups that are in conflict over a limited resource Examples
Early Crusaders & Muslims Native population of you-name-the-country & the
colonists who wanted the land
Scapegoating When does this phenomenon become most
prevalent? Why/how is it used?
Social Relations: Prejudice
How do people learn prejudice? Social Identity Theory
Formation of a person's identity within a particular group is explained by social categorization, social identity & social comparison Helps to explain why people feel the need to
categorize or stereotype others, producing the in-group sense of “us versus them” that people adopt toward out-groups
Stereotype Vulnerability The effect that people’s awareness of the
stereotypes associated with their social group has on their behavior Self-fulfilling prophecy
Social Psychology: Social Relations, Attraction
“I just don’t know what she sees in him. She do so much better for herself. I
suppose he’s a nice guy, but they’re just not right for each other…”
Social Relations: Attraction
The Rules of Attraction (Key Factors) Physical Attractiveness
Research indicates that attractive people of both sexes enjoy greater mating success
We also consider our OWN LEVEL of attractiveness when pursuing partners The “Matching” Hypothesis
Social Relations: Attraction
Did You Know? Physical attractiveness is the #1 most desirable
trait (though it has been found that women lie about this)
Babies gaze longer at attractive faces… Americans spend more money on beauty supplies
than education, but women are unhappier with their appearance today than ever before…
Social Relations: Attraction
The Rules of Attraction (Key Factors) Proximity/Physical Closeness
Availability depends heavily on proximity Mere Exposure Effect
• The phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases our liking of them
• “He grew on me…”• (Applies to our perception of our self as well)
Social Relations: Attraction
The Rules of Attraction (Key Factors) Similarity Effects
Birds of a feather flock together…
Age, race, religion, social class, education, intelligence, physical attractiveness, values and attitudes… Serves to validate us…
Similarity causes attraction; however, attraction can also foster similarity…
Reciprocity of Liking The tendency of people to like people who like them
Social Relations: Attraction
Components of Love (Robert Sternberg, 1997) Intimacy
Feelings of closeness; emotional ties Passion
The physical aspect of love; characterized by large swings in positive & negative emotions
Commitment The decisions that one makes regarding a
relationship
May coexist, but don’t necessarily go hand-in-hand…
Social Relations: Attraction
Love as Attachment (Cindy Hazan & Philip Shaver, 1987) Studied similarities between love & attachment
relationships in infancy and in adulthood The vast majority of people relive their early
bonding experiences (with their parents) in their adult relationships
Social Relations: Attraction
Secure Attachment (56% of adult subjects) I find it relatively easy
to get close to others… I am comfortable
depending on others and having them depend on me…
I don’t often worry about being abandoned or about someone getting too close to me…
Social Relations: Attraction
Avoidant Attachment (24% of adult subjects) I am somewhat
uncomfortable being close to others…
I find it difficult to trust them & difficult to allow myself to depend on them…
I am nervous when anyone gets too close… I often feel that partners want me to be more
intimate than I feel comfortable being…
Social Relations: Attraction
Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment (20% of adult subject) I find that others are
reluctant to get as close as I would like…
I often worry that my partner doesn’t really love me or won’t want to stay with me…
I want to merge completely with another person, and this desire sometimes scares people away…
