Anu Project Documentation Final

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A project report on

RFID MEDICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM

A Main project report submitted to Jawaharlal Nehru technological university, Kakinada Inpartial fulfilment of requirements for the award of degree of

Bachelor of Technology

in

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Submitted by

K.ANUSHA M.SRUTHI

(10KE1A0446) (10KE1A0459)

B.URMILA B.SAILAJA

(10KE1A0412) (10KE1A0411)

Under the esteemed guidance of

Mr.P.NARAYANA SWAMIM.Tech

Asst. professor, Department of ECE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

MALINENI LAKSHMAIAH WOMENS ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Approved by A.I.C.T.E & Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Kakinada)

Vatticherukuru (M), Pulladigunta (V), Guntur (DT)-522017.

2010-2014


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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

MALINENI LAKSHMAIAH WOMENS ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(Approved by A.I.C.T.E & Affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University Kakinada)

Vatticherukuru (M), Pulladigunta (V), Guntur (DT)-522017.

2010-2014

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled RFID MEDICAL

INFORMATION SYSTEM is being submitted by

K.ANUSHA (10KE1A0446)

M.SRUTHI (10KE1A0459)

B.URMILA (10KE1A0412)

B.SAILAJA (10KE1A0411)

To Jawaharlal Nehru technological university, Kakinada for the award of the degree of Bachelor

of Technology in Electronics &Communication Engineering is a record of bonafide work

carried outby I NDO GLOBAL SERVICES, Hyderabadunder my guidance and supervision. The

results embodied in this project report have not been submitted to any other University or Institute for

the award of any degree or diploma.

Signature of Guide Signature of HOD External Examiner

(P.Narayana Swamy) (M.SHAFI MIRZA)

M.Tech Assoc. Prof & Head


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INDO GLOBAL SERVICES CERTIFICATE


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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We would like to express a deep sense of gratitude and thanks profusely to our guide

Sri. P.Narayana Swami, with out wise counsel and able guidence, it would have been

impossible to complete the project in this manner.

We express our deep sense of gratitude toSri. M. Shafi, head of the department, for

his technical support and guidence. His critical evaluations of our work and suggestions of

have been of grate help to us .

We also express our gratitude toDr. J. Apparao,Ph.dprincipal of our college, for

his guidence and co operation during our course of study.

We extend our sincere thanks to Dr.M.Perumallu, chairman of college, for providing

sufficient infrastructure and good environment in the college to complete our course.

Grate acknowledgement is expressed to coordinator, teaching and non teaching staff

members whose guidence cannot be ignored in completing this project in time.

Special thanks to our friends for their co operation during our course of study.

Last but not least, we wish to thank our parents and family members without whom it

is impossible for us to stay at this level.

K.ANUSHA

M.SRUTHI

B.URMILA

B.SAILAJA


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ABSTRACT

Rfid Medical Information System presents the health care application and

implementation of rfid system. The rfid tags are introduced to replace register card of

hosipital for exchanging the medical data. It can provide patients a convenient way for to

accseeing medical information when their revisit .The system was implemented on

projectboard with rfid reader.the results showed that the system can provide useful medical

information in real time.

In the proposed system ,the role of rfid tags is for data storage . Each user will have

their personal tag (register card of hospital)for identification their behavior. In hospital-side

system, RFIDTags are adopted to store medical data which is keyed in by doctors or nurses

according to current visit.Then the doctors can easily identify the patient condition. When

there is a number of patients with different diseases, by this rfid tags the doctors can

correctly identify thepatients the health condition even the patient visits the hospital after a

long time.


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CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION2. EMBEDED SYSTEM3. PCB DESIGN

3.1MATERIALS REQUIRED3.2PROCESSING STEPS

4. POWER SUPPLY5. ATMEGA8 MICROCONTROLLER

5.1FEATURES5.2PIN CONFIGURATION5.3OVER VIEW

6. RFID TECHNOLOGY6.1INTRODUCTION TO RFID6.2RFID FREQUENCIES6.3RFID INTERFACING WITH AVR Studio

7. EEPROM8. LCD9. SOFTWARE TOOLS

9.1PROTEUS9.2AVR STUDIO9.3PROGISP

10.IMPLEMENTATION OF THE PROJECT11.ADVANTAGES

APPLICATIONS

12.CONCLUSION

13.REFERANCES


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LIST OF FIGURES

S.NO FIG.NO FIGURE NAME PAGE NO

1. 1.1


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LIST OF TABLES

S.NO TABLE NO NAME PAGE NO


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CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

Radio-frequency identification (RFID) is the wireless non-contact use of radio-

frequency electromagnetic fields to transfer data, for the purposes of automatically

identifying and tracking tags attached to objects. The tags contain electronically stored

information. RFID is one member in the family of Automatic Identification and Data capture

(AIDC) technologies and is a fast and reliable means of identifying just about any material

object This project can be used for medical purpose where it gives the information about the

particular patient.Since RFID tags can be attached to cash, clothing, everyday possessions, or

even implanted within people, the possibility of reading personally-linked information

without consent has raised serious privacy concerns.

Primarily, the two main components involved in a Radio Frequency Identification

systems are the Tranponder (tags that are attached to the object) and the interrogator (RFID

reader). Communication between the RFID reader and tags ocuurs wirelessly and generally

doesnt require a line of sight betweeA radio-frequency identification system uses tags, or

labels attached to the objects to be identified. Two-way radio transmitter-receivers called

interrogatorsor readerssend a signal to the tag and read its response. Adoption of RFID in

the medical industry has been widespread and very effective. Hospitals are among the first

users to combine both active and passive RFID technology.

RFID tags can be either passive, active or battery-assisted passive. An active tag has

an on-board battery and periodically transmits its ID signal. A battery-assisted passive (BAP)

has a small battery on board and is activated when in the presence of an RFID reader. A

passive tag is cheaper and smaller because it has no battery. However, to start operation of

passive tags, they must be illuminated with a power level roughly three magnitudes stronger

than for signal transmission. That makes a difference in interference and in exposure to

radiation.An active tags memory size varies according to application requirements; some

systems operate with upto 1MB of memory.

Adoption of RFID in the medical industry has been widespread and very effective.

Hospitals are among the first users to combine both active and passive RFID technology. A

physical RFID tag may be incorporated with browser-based software to increase its efficacy.


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This software allows for different groups or specific hospital staff, nurses, and patients to see

real-time data relevant to each piece of tracked equipment or personnel.

Fig 1.1: RFID reading tags

RFID tags contain at least two parts: anintegrated circuitfor storing and processing

information, modulating and demodulating a radio-frequency (RF) signal, collecting DC

power from the incident reader signal, and other specialized functions; and an antenna for

receiving and transmitting the signal. The tag information is stored in a non-volatile memory.

The reader has three main functions: energizing,demodulating and decoding.The

antenna emits radio signals to activate the tag and to read and write data to it. In this project,

the RFID module reader typically contains a module(transmitter and receiver), a control unit

and a coupling element(antenna). If the data in the card is matched with the data in the

program memory then it compares and displays authorized details of the patient. The RFID

module indicates a buzzer whenever it reads the data from the RFID card. Tags can be read

through a variety of substances such as snow, fog,ice, paint, crusted grime and other visually

and environmentally challenging conditions, where barcodes or other optically read

technologies would be useless.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demodulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio-frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_%28radio%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_%28radio%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio-frequencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demodulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation


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Fig1.2:BLOCK DIAGRAM


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CHAPTER-2

EMBEDDED SYSTEM

An embedded system is a system that has software embedded into hardware, which

makes a system dedicated for an application(s) or specific part of an application or product or

part of a larger system.

Modern embedded systems are often based on microcontrollers (i.e., CPUs with

integrated memory and/or peripheral interfaces) but ordinary microprocessors (using external

chips for memory and peripheral interface circuits) are also still common, especially in more

complex systems. In either case, the processor(s) used may be types ranging from rather

general purpose to very specialised in certain class of computations, or even custom designed

for the application at hand. A common standard class of dedicated processors is the digital

signal processor(DSP). The key characteristic, however, is being dedicated to handle a

particular task. Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers

can optimize it to reduce the size and cost of the product and increase the reliability and

performance.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontrollerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontroller


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Fig 2.1: General Embedded system

Fig 2.2: Block diagram of embedded system

Embedded systems are commonly found in consumer, cooking, industrial,

automotive, medical, commercial and military applications. Telecommunications systems

employ numerous embedded systems fromtelephone switches for the network tocell phones

at the end-user. Computer networking uses dedicated routers and network bridges to route

data.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_switchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_phonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Router_%28computing%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Router_%28computing%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_phonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_switch


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Consumer electronics includepersonal digital assistants (PDAs),mp3 players,mobile

phones, videogame consoles, digital cameras, DVD players, GPS receivers, and printers.

Household appliances, such as microwave ovens, washing machines and dishwashers,

include embedded systems to provide flexibility, efficiency and features.Home automation

uses wired- and wireless-networking that can be used to control lights, climate, security,

audio/visual, surveillance, etc., all of which use embedded devices for sensing and

controlling. For fire safety, the systems can be designed to have greater ability to handle

higher temperatures and continue to operate. In dealing with security, the embedded systems

can be self-sufficient and be able to deal with cut electrical and communication systems.

Medical equipment uses embedded systems for vital signs monitoring, electronic

stethoscopes for amplifying sounds, and variousmedical imaging (PET,SPECT,CT,MRI)

for non-invasive internal inspections. In embedded system if hardware forms the body,

embedded processor act as the brain, and embedded software forms its soul. The program

instructions written for embedded systems are referred to asfirmware,and are stored in read-

only memory orFlash memory chips. They run with limited computer hardware resources:

little memory, small or non-existent keyboard or screen.

As time progressed, use of microprocessor-specific assembly only as the

programming language reduced and embedded systems moved onto C as the embedded

programming language of choice. C is the most widely used programming language for

embedded processors/controllers. Assembly is also used but mainly to implement those

portions of the code where very high timing accuracy, code size efficiency, etc.are prime

requirements.

Embedded systems are often in machines that are expected to run for years without

errors, and in some cases recover by themselves if an error occurs. This means the software is

usually developed and tested more carefully than that for personal computers, and unreliable

mechanical moving parts such asdisk drives and fans are avoided.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_electronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mp3_playerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videogame_consolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD_playerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_printerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_ovenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dishwashershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_automationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_equipmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vital_signshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_stethoscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_stethoscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_imaginghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positron_emission_tomographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_photon_emission_computed_tomographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computed_tomographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaginghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memoryhttp://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_diskhttp://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floppy_diskhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firmwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaginghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computed_tomographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_photon_emission_computed_tomographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positron_emission_tomographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_imaginghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_stethoscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_stethoscopehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vital_signshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_equipmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_automationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dishwashershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washing_machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave_ovenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_printerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD_playerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_camerahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Videogame_consolehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mp3_playerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_digital_assistanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer_electronics


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CHAPTER-3

PCB DESIGN

People face problem while making a circuit on a bread board. It is a common problem

that the circuit may work some time and may not work other time. Most of the time it is the

connections on the bread board which creates this problem. A printed circuit board (PCB)

mechanically supports and electrically connects electronic components using conductive

tracks, pads and other features etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive

substrate.PCBs can be single sided(one copper layer), double sided(two copper layers) or

multi-layer. Conductors on different layers are connected with plated-through holes called

vias. Advanced PCBs may contain components - capacitors, resistors or active devices -

embedded in the substrate.

3.1 Materials Required:

Over Head Projector sheet(OHP) or a wax paper. Laser printer Electric iron Steel wool Two plastic trays Copper board/PCB Black permanent marker Etching solution(ferric chloride) Drill machine.

The general progression for a commercial printed circuit board design would include:

1. Schematic capture through anelectronic design automation tool.2. Card dimensions and template are decided based on required circuitry and case of the

PCB. Determine the fixed components andheat sinks if required.

3. Deciding stack layers of the PCB. 1 to 12 layers or more depending on designcomplexity.Ground plane andpower plane are decided. Signal planes where signals

are routed are in top layer as well as internal layers.[4]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_componenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_etchinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminatedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substrate_%28electronics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_%28electronics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schematic_capturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_design_automationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_sinkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_planehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_planehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_planehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_planehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_sinkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_design_automationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schematic_capturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_%28electronics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substrate_%28electronics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminatedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_etchinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_conductorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_component


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4. Line impedance determination using dielectric layer thickness, routing copperthickness and trace-width. Trace separation also taken into account in case of

differential signals.Microstrip,stripline or dual stripline can be used to route signals.

5. Placement of the components. Thermal considerations and geometry are taken intoaccount.Vias and lands are marked.

6. Routing the signal traces.For optimalEMI performance high frequency signals arerouted in internal layers between power or ground planes aspower planesbehave as

ground for AC.

7. Gerber file generation for manufacturing.3.2 Processing steps

Step1: Prepare a layout of the circuit on any commonly used PCB designing software. A

layout is a design which interconnects the components according to the schematic

diagram(circuit diagram). Take a mirror image print of the layout on the OHP sheet using a

laser printer. Make sure that the design is correct with proper placement of the components.

Step 2: Cut the copper board according to the size of layout. A copper board is the base of a

PCB, it can be single layer, double layer or multi layer board.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_impedancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microstriphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Striplinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_%28electronics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_tracehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_interferencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_planehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerber_filehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerber_filehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_planehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_interferencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_tracehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_%28electronics%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Striplinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microstriphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_impedance


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Step 3:Rub the copper side of PCB using steel wool. This removes the top oxide layer of

copper as well as the photo resists layer if any.

Step 4: Place the OHP sheet(wax paper) which has the printed layout on the PCB sheet.

Make sure that the printed/mirror side should be placed on the copper side of PCB.

Step 5: Put a white paper on the OHP sheet and start ironing.

The heat applied by the electric iron causes the ink of the traces on the OHP sheet to

stick on the copper plate exactly in the same way it is printed on the OHP sheet means that

the copper sheet will now have the layout of the PCB printed on it. Allow the PCB plate to

cool down and slowly remove the OHP sheet.Since it is manual process it may happen that

the layout doesnt comes properly on PCB or some of the tracks are broken in between. Use

the permanent marker and complete the tracks properly.


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Step 6: Now carefully drill the PCB using a drilling machine on the pads.

Fig 3:Printed Circuit Board


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CHAPTER-4

POWER SUPPLY

A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to an electrical load.The term is

most commonly applied to electric power converters that convert one form of electrical

energy to another, though it may also refer to devices that convert another form of energy

(mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power supply is one that

controls the output voltage or current to a specific value.

Fig 4.1: Block diagram of power supply

The input to the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. The a.c. input i.e.,

230V from the mains supply is step down by the transformer to 12V and is fed to a rectifier.

The output obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating d.c. voltage. So in order to get a pure d.c.

voltage, the output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to remove any a.c. components

present even after the rectification. Now, this voltage is given to a voltage regulator to obtain

a pure constant dc voltage.

Transformer:

Usually, DC voltages are required to operate various electronic equipment and these

voltages are 5v, 9v, 12v. But these voltages cannot be obtained directly. Thus the a.c. input

available at the mains supply i.e., 230V is to be brought down to the required voltage

level.this is done by a transformer. Thus, a step down transformer is employed to decrease the

voltage to a required level.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_powerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_loadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_converterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulated_power_supplyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulated_power_supplyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_converterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_loadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power


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Fig 4.2: Transformer

Rectifier:

The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating

D.C. the rectifier may bre a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier

is used because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectificaation.

Fig 4.3: Rectifier

Filter:

Filter removes ripples from the output of rectifier and smoothens the D.C. output

received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and load is maintained constant.

However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this point changes. Therefore

a regulator is applied at the output stage.In filters different types are available based on

passage of frequencies.


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Fig 4.4 high pass filter Fig 4.5: low pass filter

Voltage regulator:

As the name itself implies, it regulates the input applied to it. A voltage regulator is

an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. In this

project, power supply of 5v and 12v are required. In order to obtain these voltage levels, 7805

and 7812 voltage regulators are to be used. The first number 78 represents the positive supply

and the numbers 05, 12 represents the required output voltage levels.

Fig 4.5: Regulator

Fig 4.6: Power supply integrated circuit:


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CHAPTER-5

MICRO CONTROLLER& MICROPROCESSOR

Microprocessor and Microcontroller have always been confused with eachother. Both of them have been designed for real time application. They share many common

features and at the same time they have significant differences. Both the ICS i.e., the

microprocessor and microcontroller cannot be distinguished by looking at them. They are

available in different version starting from 6 pin to as80 to 100 pins or even higher depending

on the features.

Microprocessor is an I which has only the CPU inside them i.e., only the processing

powers such as Intels Pentium 1,2,3,4, core 2 duo, i3, i5 etc. These microprocessors dont

have RAM, ROM, and other peripheral on the chip. A system designer has to add them

externally to make them functional. Application of microprocessor includes Desktop PCS,

laptops , notepads etc.

But this is not the case with microcontroller. Microcontroller has a CPU, in addition

with a fixed amount of RAM ,ROM and other peripherals all embedded on a single chip. At

times it is also termed as a mini computer or a computer on a single chip. Today different

manufacturers produce microcontrollers with a wide range of features available in different

versions. Some manufacturers are ATMEL, MICROCHIP, TI,FREESCACLE , PHILIPS,

MOTOROLA etc.

Microcontrollers are designed to perform specific tasks. Specific means applications

where the relationship of input and output is defined. Depending on the input, some

processing needs to be done and output ids delivered. For example, keyboards, mouse,

washing machine, digital cam, pen drive, remote, microwave, cars, telephone, bikes, mobiles,watches, etc. Since the applications are very specific, they need small resources like RAM,

ROM, I/O PORTS etc and hence can be embedded on a single chip. This in turn reduces the

size and cost.

Microprocessor find applications where tasks are unspecific like developing

software, games, websites, photo editing, creating documents etc. In such cases the

relationship between input and output is not defined. They need high amount of resources

like RAM, ROM, I/O ports etc. The clock speed of the Microprocessor is quite high as


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compared to the microcontroller . whereas the Microcontrollers operate from a few MHZ to

30 -50 MHZ, todays microprocessor operate above 1GHZ as they perform complex tasks.

Comparing microcontroller and microprocessor in terms of cost is not justified.

Undoubtedly a microcontroller is far cheaper than a microprocessor. However

microcontroller cannot be used in place of a microprocessor and using a microprocessor is

not advised in place of a microcontroller as it makes the application quite costly.

Microprocessor cannot be used alone . They need other peripherals like RAM, ROM, buffer,

I/O ports etc and hence a system designed around a microprocessor is quite costly.

FIGURE:5.1. MICROCONTROLLER

ATMEGA8 MICROCONTROLLER

5.1 FEATURES

High-performance, Low-power AtmelAVR 8-bit Microcontroller Advanced RISC Architecture

130 Powerful InstructionsMost Single-clock Cycle Execution 32 8 General Purpose Working Registers Fully Static Operation Up to 16MIPS Throughput at 16MHz On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier

High Endurance Non-volatile Memory segments 8Kbytes of In-System Self-programmable Flash program memory


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512Bytes EEPROM 1Kbyte Internal SRAM Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM

Data retention: 20 years at 85C/100 years at 25C

Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program

True Read-While-Write Operation Programming Lock for Software Security

Peripheral Features Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescaler, one Compare Mode One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and

Capture

Mode Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator Three PWM Channels 8-channel ADC in TQFP and QFN/MLF package

Eight Channels 10-bit Accuracy 6-channel ADC in PDIP package

Six Channels 10-bit Accuracy Byte-oriented Two-wire Serial Interface Programmable Serial USART Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator On-chip Analog Comparator Special Microcontroller Features Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator External and Internal Interrupt Sources Five Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down,

and

Standby I/O and Packages 23 Programmable I/O Lines


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28-lead PDIP, 32-lead TQFP, and 32-pad QFN/MLF Operating Voltages

2.7V - 5.5V (ATmega8L) 4.5V - 5.5V (ATmega8)

Speed Grades 0 - 8MHz (ATmega8L) 0 - 16MHz (ATmega8)

Power Consumption at 4Mhz, 3V, 25 C Active: 3.6mA Idle Mode: 1.0mA Power-down Mode: 0.5A

5.2 Pin Configurations:

Fig 5.2: pin out ATMEGA8 Fig 5.3: TQFP top view

Fig 5.4:MLF Top view


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5.3: OVERVIE:

The AtmelAVR ATMEGA8 is a low power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller

based on the AVR.It works on Advanced RISC architecture. By executing powerful

instructions in a single clock cycle, the Atmega8 achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS

per MHz, allowing the system designer to optimize power consumption versus processing

speed.

4.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM:


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Figure4.4 Block Diagram

The AtmelAVRAVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose

working registers. All the 32 registers are directly connected to the arithmatic logic unit

(ALU), allowing two independent registers to be accessed in one single instruction executed

in one clock cycle. The resulting architecture is more code efficient while achieving

throughputs up to ten times faster than conventional CISC microcontrollers.

The Atmega8a provides the following features: 8K bytes of In- system programmable

Flash with Read-While-Write capabilities, 512 bytes of EEPROM, 1K byte of SRAM, 23

general purpose I/O lines, 32 general purpose working registers, three flexible timer/counters

with compare modes, internal and external interrupts, a 6- channel ADC(eight channels in

TQFP and QFN/MLF packages) with 10-bit accuracy, a programmable watchdog timer with

internal oscillator, an SPI serial port, and five software selectable power saving modes. The

Idle mode stops the CPU while allowing the SRAM, Timer/Counters, SPI port, and interrupt

system to continue functioning. The Powerdownmode saves the register contents but freezes

the Oscillator, disabling all other chip functionsuntil the next Interrupt or Hardware Reset. In

Power-save mode, the asynchronous timer continues to run, allowing the user to maintain a

timer base while the rest of the device is sleeping.The ADC Noise Reduction mode stops the

CPU and all I/O modules except asynchronoustimer and ADC, to minimize switching noise

during ADC conversions. In Standby mode, thecrystal/resonator Oscillator is running while

the rest of the device is sleeping. This allows veryfast start-up combined with low-power

consumption.

The device is manufactured using Atmels high density non-volatile memory

technology. TheFlash Program memory can be reprogrammed In-System through an SPI

serial interface, by aconventional non-volatile memory programmer, or by an On-chip boot

program running on theAVR core. The boot program can use any interface to download the

application program in theApplication Flash memory. Software in the Boot Flash Section will

continue to run while theApplication Flash Section is updated, providing true Read-While-

Write operation. By combiningan 8-bit RISC CPU with In-System Self-Programmable Flash

on a monolithic chip, the AtmelATmega8 is a powerful microcontroller that provides a

highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.

The ATmega8 is supported with a full suite of program and system development

tools, including C compilers, macro assemblers, program simulators, and evaluation kits.


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Pin Descriptions

VCC

Digital supply voltage.GND

Ground.

Port B (PB7..PB0)--XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2

Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit).

ThePort B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and

sourcecapability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source current if

the pull-upresistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset condition

becomes active,even if the clock is not running.Depending on the clock selection fuse

settings, PB6 can be used as input to the inverting Oscillatoramplifier and input to the internal

clock operating circuit.Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB7 can be used as

output from the invertingOscillator amplifier.If the Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator is used

as chip clock source, PB7..6 is used as TOSC2..1input for the Asynchronous Timer/Counter2

if the AS2 bit in ASSR is set.

Port C (PC5..PC0)

Port C is an 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit).

ThePort C output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and

sourcecapability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source current if

the pull-upresistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset condition

becomes active,even if the clock is not running.

PC6/RESET

If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin. Note that the electrical

characteristicsof PC6 differ from those of the other pins of Port C.If the RSTDISBL Fuse is

unprogrammed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A low level on this pinfor longer than the

minimum pulse length will generate a Reset, even if the clock is not running.

The Shorter pulses are not guaranteed togenerate a Reset.

Port D (PD7..PD0)

Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit).

ThePort D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and


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sourcecapability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will source current if

the pull-upresistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset condition

becomes active,even if the clock is not running.Port D also serves the functions of various

special features of the ATmega8.

RESET

Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate

areset, even if the clock is not running. The Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to generate a

reset.

AVCC

AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, Port C (3..0), and ADC (7..6). It

should beexternally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it

should be connectedto VCC through a low-pass filter. Note that Port C (5..4) use digital

supply voltage, VCC.

AREF

AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

ADC7..6 (TQFP andQFN/MLF PackageOnly)

In the TQFP and QFN/MLF package, ADC7..6 serve as analog inputs to the A/D converter.

These pins are powered from the analog supply and serve as 10-bit ADC channels.


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CHAPTER-6

RFID TECHNOLOGY

RFID is a tracking technology used to identify and authenticate tags that are applied

to any product, individual or animal. Radio Frequency Identification and Detection is a

general term used for technologies that make use of radio waves in order to identify objects

and people.

7.1 Introduction to RFID

Purpose of radio frequency identification and detection system is to facilitate data

transmission through the portable device known as tag that is read with the help of the RFID

READER; and process it as per the needs of an application. Information transmitted with the

help of tag offers location or identification along with other specifics of product tagged

purchase date, colour, and price. Typical RFID tag includes microchip with radio antenna,

mounted on substrate.

The RFID tags are configured to respond and recieve signals from an RFID

transceiver. This allows tags to be read from a distance, unlike other forms of authentication

technology. The RFID system has gained wide acceptance in business, and is gradually

replacing the barcode system.

Antenna emits the radio signals to activate tag and to read as well as write information

to it. Reader emits the radio waves, ranging from one to 100 inches, on the basis of used radio


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frequency and power output. While passing through electronic magnitic zone, RFID tag

detects activation signals of reader.

7.2 RFID frequencies

Just like you cantune a radio in various frequencies for listening to different channels,

RFID readers and tags need to be tuned in to a same frequency for communication. RFID

system uses various frequencies but most common and popularly used frequency is low, high

and ultra high frequency. Low frequency is around 125 KHz, high is around 13.56 MHz and

ultra high varies between 860-960 MHz. Some applications also make use of microwave

frequency of 2.45 GHz. It is imperative to choose right frequency for an application as radio

waves different at various frequency.

7.3 RFID Interfacing with Avr studio:

This article covers how to extract and display the twelve byte unique tag ID received

by RFID module on LCD using interrupt method. Before procedding ti this article readers

must have knowledge of serial interrupt and LCD. In the previous article of RFID, polling

method was used where the microcontroller was continuously monitoring the RXC flag.

Keeping the microcontroller busy in monitoring the flag is not a good programming

technique, so instead of polling method a programmer should prefer using interrupts the

output data of the RFID module uses RS232 protocol and is serial in nature, serial interrupt is

used to receive the tweleve byte unique ID. Whenever an RFID tag comes in the proximity of

the RFID reader module, the module transmits the tweleve byte unique ID. Every time one

byte of data is received, the controller is interruted and the corresponding ISR gets executed,

which stores the byte in a temporary variable and sends it to the LCD for display.


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CHAPTER-7

EEPROM

EEPROM (also written E2PROM and pronounced "e-e-prom", "double-e prom", "e-

squared", or simply "e-prom") stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-

Only Memory and is a type of non-volatile memory used in computers and other electronic

devices to store small amounts of data that must be saved when power is removed, e.g.,

calibration tables or device configuration.Unlike bytes in most other kinds of non-volatile

memory, individual bytes in a traditional EEPROM can be independently read, erased, and

re-written.

When larger amounts of static data are to be stored (such as inUSB flash drives)a

specific type of EEPROM such asflash memory is more economical than traditional

EEPROM devices. EEPROMs are organized as arrays offloating-gate transistors.

The ATmega8 contains 512bytes of data EEPROM memory. It is organized as a

separate dataspace, in which single bytes can be read and written. The EEPROM has an

endurance of atleast 100,000 write/erase cycles.

AnEPROM usually must be removed from the device for erasing and programming,

whereas EEPROMs can be programmed and erased in-circuit, by applying special

programming signals. Originally, EEPROMs were limited to single byte operations which

made them slower, but modern EEPROMs allow multi-byte page operations. It also has a

limited life - that is, the number of times it could be reprogrammed was limited to tens or

hundreds of thousands of times. That limitation has been extended to a million write

operations in modern EEPROMs. In an EEPROM that is frequently reprogrammed while the

computer is in use, the life of the EEPROM can be an important design consideration. It is for

this reason that EEPROMs were used for configuration information, rather than random

access memory.

Functions of EEPROM:

There are different types of electrical interfaces to EEPROM devices. Main categories of

these interface types are:

Serial bus Parallel bus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-volatile_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_flash_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-gate_transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPROMhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_bushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_bushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_bushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_bushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPROMhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating-gate_transistorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_memoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_flash_drivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-volatile_memory


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Serial bus devices

Most common serial interface types areSPI,IC,Microwire,UNI/O, and1-Wire. These

interfaces require between one and four control signals for operation, resulting in a memory

device in an eight-pin (or less) package.

Parallel bus devicesParallel EEPROM devices typically have an 8-bit data bus and an address bus wide enough to

cover the complete memory. Most devices have chip select and write protect pins.

Somemicrocontrollersalso have integrated parallel EEPROM.Operation of a parallel EEPROM is simple and fast when compared to serial EEPROM, but

these devices are larger due to the higher pin count (28 pins or more) and have been

decreasing in popularity in favor of serial EEPROM or Flash.Other devicesEEPROM memory is used to enable features in other types of products that are not strictly

memory products. Products such asreal-time clocks, digitalpotentiometers,

digital temperature sensors, among others, may have small amounts of EEPROM to store

calibration information or other data that needs to be available in the event of power loss. It

was also used onvideo game cartridges to save game progress and configurations, before the

usage of external and internal flash memories.

EEPROM READ/WRITE:The EEPROM Access Registers are accessible in the I/O space. When the EEPROM is read,

the CPU is halted for four clock cycles before the next instruction is executed. When the

EEPROM is written, the CPU is halted for two clock cycles before the next instruction is

executed.

The EEPROM Address RegisterEEARH and EEARL
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_Peripheral_Interface_Bushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C2%B2Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNI/Ohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1-Wirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontrollerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_clockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potentiometerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_bandgap_temperature_sensorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_cartridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_game_cartridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_bandgap_temperature_sensorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potentiometerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_clockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontrollerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1-Wirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNI/Ohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%C2%B2Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serial_Peripheral_Interface_Bus


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Bits 15..9 Res: Reserved Bits

These bits are reserved bits in the ATmega8 and will always read as zero.

Bits 8..0 EEAR8..0: EEPROM Address

The EEPROM Address RegistersEEARH and EEARL specify the EEPROM address in

the 512bytes EEPROM space. The EEPROM data bytes are addressed linearly between 0 and

511. The initial value of EEAR is undefined. A proper value must be written before the

EEPROM maybe accessed.

The EEPROM Data RegisterEEDR

Bits 7..0 EEDR7..0: EEPROM Data

For the EEPROM write operation, the EEDR Register contains the data to be written to the

EEPROM in the address given by the EEAR Register. For the EEPROM read operation, the

EEDR contains the data read out from the EEPROM at the address given by EEAR.

The EEPROM Control RegisterEECR

Bits 7..4 Res: Reserved Bits

These bits are reserved bits in the AtmelAVR ATmega8 and will always read as zero.

Bit 3 EERIE: EEPROM Ready Interrupt Enable

Writing EERIE to one enables the EEPROM Ready Interrupt if the I bit in SREG is set.

Writing EERIE to zero disables the interrupt. The EEPROM Ready interrupt generates a

constant interrupt when EEWE is cleared.

Bit 2 EEMWE: EEPROM Master Write Enable

The EEMWE bit determines whether setting EEWE to one causes the EEPROM to be

written. When EEMWE is set, setting EEWE within four clock cycles will write data to the

EEPROM at selected address If EEMWE is zero, setting EEWE will have no effect. When


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EEMWE has been written to one by software, hardware clears the bit to zero after four clock

cycles.

Bit 1 EEWE: EEPROM Write Enable

The EEPROM Write Enable Signal EEWE is the write strobe to the EEPROM. When address

and data are correctly set up, the EEWE bit must be written to one to write the value into the

EEPROM. The EEMWE bit must be written to one before a logical one is written to EEWE,

otherwise no EEPROM write takes place

The following procedure should be followed when writing

the EEPROM (the order of steps 3 and 4 is not essential):

1. Wait until EEWE becomes zero

2. Wait until SPMEN in SPMCR becomes zero

3. Write new EEPROM address to EEAR (optional)

4. Write new EEPROM data to EEDR (optional)

5. Write a logical one to the EEMWE bit while writing a zero to EEWE in EECR

6. Within four clock cycles after setting EEMWE, write a logical one to EEWE

The EEPROM can not be programmed during a CPU write to the Flash memory. The

software must check that the Flash programming is completed before initiating a new

EEPROM write.Bit 0EERE: EEPROM Read Enable

The EEPROM Read Enable Signal EERE is the read strobe to the EEPROM. When the

correct address is set up in the EEAR Register, the EERE bit must be written to a logic one to

trigger the EEPROM read. The EEPROM read access takes one instruction, and the requested

data is available immediately. When the EEPROM is read, the CPU is halted for four cycles

before the next instruction is executed. The user should poll the EEWE bit before starting the

read operation. If a write operation is in progress, it is neither possible to read the EEPROM,

nor to change the EEAR Register. The calibrated Oscillator is used to time the EEPROM

accesses. Table 1lists the typical programming time for EEPROM access from the CPU.


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During periods of low VCC, the EEPROM data can be corrupted because the supply

voltage is too low for the CPU and the EEPROM to operate properly. An EEPROM data

corruption can be caused by two situations when the voltage is too low. First, a regular write

sequence to the EEPROM requires a minimum voltage to operate correctly. Second, the CPU

itself can execute instructions incorrectly, if the supply voltage is too low. Keep the AVR

RESET active (low) during periods of insufficient power supply voltage.


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CHAPTER-8

LCD

LCD(Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a wide

range of applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is very commonly used

in various devices and circuits. These modules are preferred over seven segments and other

multi segment LEDs. The reasons being: LCDs are economical; easily programmable; have

no limitation of displaying special & even custom characters (unlike in seven segments),

animations and so on.

A 16x2 LCDmeans it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In

this LCD each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers,

namely, Command and Data. The command register stores the command instructions given to

the LCD.A command is an instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like initializing

it, clearing its screen, setting the cursor position, controlling display etc. The data register

stores the data to be displayed on the LCD. The data is the ASCII value of the character to be

displayed on the LCD.

Fig 8.1: 16 pin LCD Display


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1 Ground(0v) Ground

2 Supply voltage; 5v(4.7v-5.3v) Vcc

3 Contrast adjustment; through a variable register VEE

4 Selects command register when low; and data register when high Register select

5 Low to write to the register; High to read from the register Read/Write

6 Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is given Enable

7

8- bit data pins

DB0

8 DB1

9 DB2

10 DB3

11 DB4

12 DB5

13 DB6

14 DB7

15 Backlight Vcc (5v) LED+

16 Backlight ground(0v) LED-

Table:8.1.Pin Description.

LCDs are used in a wide range of applications including computer monitors,

televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, and signage. They are common in

consumer devices such as video players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and

telephones,and have replacedcathode ray tube (CRT) displays in most applications. They are

available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT andplasma displays,and since they do

not use phosphors, they do not suffer image burn-in. LCDs are, however, susceptible to

image persistence.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_monitorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_panelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_instrumentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_displayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_burn-inhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_persistencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_persistencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Screen_burn-inhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma_displayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathode_ray_tubehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_instrumentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_panelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Televisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_monitor


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CHAPTER-9

SOFTWARE TOOLS

9.1 ISIS Proteus Professional:

Have you ever heard of proteus. Well its a professional PCB design and simulation

software. It allows us to simulate the design first, and make PCB from the design. The

interesting feature about this is that it can simulate some of the arm micros apart from all the

logic ICs and spice components. Another interestig feature is that its graphical interface is

so well that it even can compete with the standard IDEs provided by th e corresponding

micros.

The proteus design suite is wholly unique in offerng the ability to co-simulate both

high and low-level micro-controller code in the context of a mixed mode SPICE circuit

simulation. With this Virtual System Modeling facility, you can transform your product

design cycle, reaping huge rewards in terms of reduced time to market and lower cost of

development. If one person designs both hardware and software then the person benefits as

the hardware design may be changed just as easily as the software design. In larger

organizations where the two roles are separated, the software designers can begin work as

soon as the schematic is completed; there is no need for them to wait until a physical

prototype exists.In short, proteus VSM improves efficiency, quality and flexibility throughout

the design process.


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Fig 9.1: proteus start page

Fig 9.2: simulation process

Proteus virtual system modeling(VSM) combines mixed mode SPICE circuit

simulation, animated components and microprocessor models to facilitate co-simulation of


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complete microcontroller based designs. For the first time ever, it is possible to develop and

test such designs before a physical prototype is constructed.

This is possible because you can interact with design using on screen indicators such as LED

and LCD displays and actuators such as switches and buttons. The simulation takes place in

real time(or near enough to it): a 1GMHz Pentium III can simulate a basic 8051 system

clocking at over 12MHz. Proteus VSM also provides extensive debugging facilities including

breakpoints, single steeping and variable display for both assembly code and high level

language source.

9.2 AVR Studio:

Microcontroller can be termed as a single on chip computer which includes number

of peripherals like RAM,EEPROM,Timers etc., required to perform some predefined task.

The Computer on hand is designed to perform all the general pupose tasks on a single

machine like you can use a computer to run a software to perform calculations or you can use

a computer to store some multimedia file or to access internet through the browser, whereas

the microcontrollers are meant to perform only the specific tasks, for e.g., switching the AC

off automatically when room temperature drops to a certain defined limit and again turning it

ON when temparature rises above the defined limit.

Atmel Studio 5 is the integrated development platform (IDP) for developing and

debugging Atmel ARM Cortex-M processor-based and Atmel AVR microcontroller

applications. The Atmel Studio 5 IDP gives you a seamless and easy-to-use environment to

write, build and debug your applications written in C/C++ or assembly code. Atmel Studio 5

supports all 8- and 32-bit microcontrollers. ATMEGA8 is an 8 bit microcontroller belonging

to the the family of Reduced Instruction Set Computers(RISC). In this RISC architecture theinstruction set of the computer are not only fewer in number but also simpler and faster in

opertion.

With ease-of-use, low power consumption, and high level of integration in mind,

Atmel AVR 8- and 32-bit microcontrollers complement Atmel's ARM microcontrollers

and microprocessors to deliver a unique combination of performance, power efficiency and

design flexibility. Optimized to speed time-to-market, they are based on the industry's most


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code-efficient architecture for C and assembly programming. No other microcontrollers deliv

er more computing performance with better power efficiency.

9.3 Architecture of AVR Studio:

The AVR microcontrollers are based on the advanced RISC structure and consist of

32x8- bit general purpose working registers. Within one single clock cycle, AVR can take

inputs from two general purpose registers and put them to ALU for carrying out the requested

operation, and transfer back the result to an arbitrary register. The ALU can perform

arthimetic as well as logical operations over the inputs from the register or between the

register and a constant. Single register operations like taking a complement can also be

executed in ALU. We can see that AVR does not have any register like accumulator as n8051 family of microcontrollers; the operations can be performed between any of the

registers and can be stored in either of them.

Since AVR can perform single cycle execution, it means that AVR can execute

1million instructions per second if cycle frequency is 1MHz. The higher is the operating

frequency of the controller, the higher will be its processing speed. We need to optimize the

power consumption with processing speed and hence need to select the operating frequency

accordingly.

HEX FILE Format:

Intel hex (ihex) generally known as hex file, is a format used to store machine

language code in hexadecimal form. It is widely used format to store programs to be

transferred to microcontrollers, ROM and EEPROM. The compilers convert the programs


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written in assembly, C etc., into corresponding hex files, which are dumped into the

controllers using burners/programmers. This article explores the details of the hex file

format.

The microcontroller understands machine language consisting of zeros and ones. Its

difficult rather practically impossible for humans to write code in zeros and ones. Hence we

use some high level languages like C, C++, java etc. And later a compiler is used to convert

these codes into machine language which arre stored in a hex file format. A hex file is a file

with the extension .hex.

EX: :100000000C942A000C9434000C943400AA

Every line in a hex file always starts from colon(:), the first two digits CC(character

count) represent the total number of data byte in that line. Here in this example, 10(hexa

decimal) are the first two digits which mean that there is 16 byte (in decimal) of data in the

line. The next four digits represent the starting address of the memory where the data stored

in the line needs to be dumped.

9.2.1 working with AVR Studio:

Step 1: Double click on the icon AVR studio 5.0 on the desktop. Then the startpage of AVR

studio is displayed.


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Step 2: click on New Project. It asks for storage location. Then browse the location and click

on OK. Again it displays device selection dialog box for selecting the controller.

Step 3: Choose desired controller and then ok. Then the main body of the AVR studio opens

where we have to write the code.

Step 4:after writing the application code save the file and then optimize the code. Click on

projectin menu bar then click onproperties. In the properties dialog box click on .hex file.


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Step 5: then build the code to error check. Click on build icon in the tool bar. If there is any

errors in the code it display the error messages in the output window and also displays that in

which line the error occurred

If there is no error it displays the message -- Build Succeeded. like this we can verify the

application code in AVR Studio.

ATMEGA8 has 23 I/O pins to communicate with external devices. Before interfacing

with external devices, these pins must be configured as input or output pin. All the three ports

can be configured to Read an input from some external device or to give output to any

external device as per application. For e.g., a switch is connected to a particular pin, that pin

should be configured as input to read values from the switch and if you are connecting a LED

to any pin of the port then that particular pin should be configured as output to transmit the

signal to the LED. A single port can be configured such that some of the pins of the same port

are input and some are output. Every port of AVR microcontrollers have three registers

associated with it:

1. DDRx: Data direction register, to set the direction of each pin of PORTx (x= B or Cor D) and configuring it to be as input or output.


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2. PORTx: The values which are to be supplied at the output of the port are written inthis register. These values acts as input to the device connected at the output port of

the microcontroller.

3. PINx: This register stores the input value from the external connected hardware,when the port is configured as input port. The input data is read from PINx register.

So the first step in configuring or initializing any of the i/o port is to set its direction in data

direction register (DDRx) to define the behaviour of individual pins as input or output. A

high(1) in any bit of the DDRx register means the corresponding pin is set as output and vice

versa.

9.3:ProgISP:

It is a programmer for microcontroller family and very comfortable tool for any

developer. It is a powerful yet low cost tool for programming most widely used 8051

microcontrollers. With USB communication and easy GUI, microcontroller programming has

been made simpler than ever before. It supports various microcontrollers specially ATMEL

series.

9.3.1 Working with progisp:

Step 1: double click on the icon progisp on the desktop. Then it displays the window as

follows. It should be in serial mode and select the corresponding controller. Connect the

board to PC with USB and give power supply.

Step 2:Then click onErase. After successful erasing, load flash by browsing the hex file

location.


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Step 3:Then click on write flash and then verify flash. If flash is successfully verified then

remove USB connection and power supply to the board and give the connections as per

circuit and connect output devices like LED OR LCD display. We can see the output on the

output devices.


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CHAPTER-11

ADVANTAGES:

The significant advantage of all types of RFID systems is the non-contact,non line-of-

sight of nature of the technology.Tags can be read through a variety of substances such as

snow, fog,ice, paint, crusted grime and other visually and environmentally challenging

conditions, where barcodes or other optically read technologies would be useless. Adoption

of RFID in the medical industry has been widespread and very effective. Hospitals are among

the first users to combine both active and passive RFID technology. Incorporating printable

RFID tags into food produce has huge benefits for the health and medical industries. This

project has significant advantage in medical field.

Easy identification of patients Less time taken to identify No need to carry bulk of reports

APPLICATIONS

Healthcare Travel Agriculture Retail& consumer goods Smart Plates & Edible RFID Tags Navigation Systems for the Visually Impaired Waste Disposal Facebook RFID Clothes Defence Smart Dust Airlines&airports

FUTURE SCOPE


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Documents

Anu Project Documentation Final