Annotated Bibliography on Plant Resource Assessment Methods for

Uwe Schippmann & Dagmar Lange

Annotated Bibliography on

Plant Resource Assessment Methods for

Non-Timber Forest Products

with a focus on

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

________________________________

2007

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Title figure: From PETERS, C.M. (1996): Beyond nomenclature and use. A review of ecological methods for ethnobotanists. - In: Alexiades, M.N. & Wood Sheldon, J.: Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research. A field manual. New York Botanical Garden (Advances in Economic Botany 10).

Author’s address: Uwe Schippmann Bundesamt für Naturschutz Konstantinstraße 110 D-53179 Bonn email [email protected]

- 3 -

Contents Introduction 5

1. List of References 7

2. Indices

2.1 Descriptors / Keywords 79

2.2 Plant Species 95

2.3 Plant Groups 107

2.4 Plant Parts Used 115

2.5 Countries 121

- 4 -

- 5 -

Introduction

Main source for the references compiled in this paper is the Medicinal Plant Conservation Bibliography maintained by U. Schippmann which has a clear focus on medicinal and aromatic plants.

More literature has been collected in the preparation phase of the workshop on “Assessing the Sustainable Yield in Medicinal and Aromatic Plant Collection” (14-17 Sep 2006, International Academy for Nature Conservation, Isle of Vilm), with a specific emphasis on references with a methodological focus, including many case studies which do not deal with medicinal plants but with a wider range of non-timber forest products, too.

Many entries in this bibliography are accompanied by a short review summarizing the contents of the quoted reference. In a number of cases additional information on the reference was taken and quoted from Wong (2000): The biometrics of non-timber forest product resource assessment. A review of current methodology, with permission from the author.

Under an existing MoU with CABI-Publishing, Cambridge, it was possible to reproduce a number of reviews of articles contained in the Review of Aromatic and Medicinal Plants1. These reviews are annotated as “CABI-RAMP”.

Explanation of entries

Lawrence, D.C., Leighton, M. & Peart, D.R. (1995): Availability and extraction of forest products in managed and primary forest around a Dayak village in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. - Conservation Biology 9: 76-88. Descriptors: Resource Assessment General Taxa: Durio spp., Eusideroxylon zwageri, Hevea

brasiliensis, Shorea stenoptera Plant Group: Palms Countries: Indonesia Plant Part: Fruits, Seeds [7854 !!]

The standard bibliographic information is followed by a maximum of four descriptor types: Plant parts focussed on, keywords, country references and taxa/plant group references.

A four digit code number used in the compiler’s database is given in “[ ]” brackets. If a publication in this bibliography is present at the compiler’s office, this is designated by a “!!” after the four digit code number. All other references are cited on the basis of secondary sources.

1 "Review of Aromatic and Medicinal Plants (RAMP) is a fully searchable abstract database of internationally

published research on cultivated and wild species of culinary herb, spice, essential oil and medicinal plants. Developed from CAB Abstracts, the original applied life sciences database, coverage includes the botany, cultivation, biological activity and use of these plants. Review of Aromatic and Medicinal Plants includes a fully searchable backfile to 1990. Over 50,000 research summaries bring a wealth of current and seminal research on aromatic and medicinal plants to your fingertips! Over 6,000 records are added to the database each year (www.cabi-publishing.org).

- 6 -

Signs and abbreviations The following signs and abbreviations are used in the references and reviews: !! Publication present at the compiler´s office as original, reprint or photocopy

! Publication seen by the compiler

§ Data element missing in literature reference (e.g.: no place of publication)

schp Uwe Schippmann

1. List of References

Abbott, J. & Guijt, I. (1998): Changing views on change. Participatory approaches to monitoring the environment. - 96 pp., IIED, London (SARL Discussion Paper 2).

[7780]Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Acharya, B., Bhattarai, G., de Gier, A. & Stein, A. (2000): Systematic adaptive cluster sampling for the assessment of rare tree species in Nepal. - Forest Ecology and Management 137: 65-73.

[7591 !!]

TreesPlant Group:Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:

NepalCountries:

Aditi Sinha & Brault, S. (2005): Assessing sustainability of nontimber forest product extractions. How fire affects sustainability. - Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 3537-3563.

[7663 !!]

The authors examined the effects of fire on the demography of Phyllantus emblica, an important NTFP in the deciduous forests of Biligiri Rangan Hills in S India. P. emblica (Indian gooseberry; Euphorbiaceae) is a medium-sized tree (max. height 7 m), its berry fruits are harvested by the Soligas people as one of the most heavily harvested NTFP species in the region. Current fruit harvesting techniques range from beating of branches and collection of fruits from the ground to cutting of branches or occasionally cutting of the entire tree. At the population level, the Soligas harvest an average of 65% of the total fruit production. The revenue generated from this species together with the similar P. indofischeri may be as high as 12% of the cash income in a typical Soligas household.The authors assessed demographic responses to the combined effects of fire and the current fruit harvesting patterns using matrix population models. 7.372 individual tress were tagged and measured. Parameters measured were survival and growth rates and fecundity, i.e. the contribution of adults to the seedling stage. Frequent fires increased time to maturity by altering growth and survival rates, thereby causing a demographic shift from grwoth to regressions or negative growth. Extinction probabilities under the current fire regimes (every 2-3 years) suggest that populations will decline to lower densities. (schp, 10.8.2006).

FruitPart Used:

Case Study, Demography & Population Structure, Harvest Impact, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Phyllanthus emblicaTaxa:IndiaCountries:

Adlard, P.G. (1990): Procedures for monitoring tree growth and site change. - 188 pp., Oxford Forestry Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford (Tropical Forestry Papers 23).

[7636]TreesPlant Group:Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:

Alder, D. & Synnott, T.J. (1992): Permanent sample plot techniques for mixed tropical forest. - Oxford Forestry Institute, University of Oxford, (Tropical Forestry Papers 25).

[7440]TreesPlant Group:Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:

Alexan, M. (s.dat.): Methodology of economic mapping methods for the collection, drying, primary formulation and storage of medicinal plants. Technico-economic aspects. - In: United Nations Industrial Developement Organization (ed.): Medicinal and aromatic plants. Importance, cultivation, analysis and industrial processing. pp. 69-95, Unpublished draft report, §.

[2436 !!]Medicinal and aromatic plantsPlant Group:Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Alexiades, M.N. & Wood Sheldon, J. (ed.) (1996): Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research. A field manual. - xx+306 pp., New York Botanical Garden, New York (Advances in Economic Botany 10).

Interdisciplinary in scope, this book addresses the biological, ecological and anthropological aspects of ethnobotanical research through basic concepts and techniques. Eleven chapters are included, along with 3 appendices, in sections on: development and implementation of ethnobotanical research programmes; methods in collecting culture-based data, including specific recommendations for conducting interviews and gathering medicinal and other plant-use knowledge; anthropological methods used to observe and record interactions between people and plants; field techniques for

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List of References

[4977 !]

assessing the ecological impact of ethnobotanical interactions; collecting plant specimens for the herbarium and bulk specimens for phytochemical analysis; methods used in quantitative and hypothesis-testing approaches; and resources for information, training and equipment for development of skills and research programmes. A subject index is supplied. (CABI-RAMP, 19961611065).

Ethnobotany, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Alonso, W. (1968): Predicting best with imperfect data. - Journal of the American Institute of Planners 34: 248-255.

[8016]

Ecological Damage, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Amman, D. (2004): A model for defining biological damage thresholds. - In: Breckling, B. & Verhoeven, R. (ed.): Risk hazard damage. Specification and criteria to assess environmental impact of genetically modified organisms. pp. 163-169, Bundesamt für Naturschutz, Bonn (Naturschutz und Biologische Vielfalt 1).

[8017]


Anderson, M.K. (1991): California Indian horticulture. Management and use of redbud by the Southern Sierra Miwok. - Journal of Ethnobiology 11: 145-157.

[7984]

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Cercis canadensisTaxa:United StatesCountries:

Anderson, M.K. & Rowney, D.L. (1999): The edible plant Dichelostemma capitatum. Its vegetative reproduction response to different indigenous harvesting regimens in California. - Restoration Ecology 7: 231-240.

[7983]

Regeneration, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Dichelostemma capitatumTaxa:United StatesCountries:

Anderson, P. & Putz, F.E. (2002): Harvesting and conservation. Are both possible for the palm, Iriartea deltoidea?. - Forest Ecology and Management 170 (1-3): 271-283.

[7985]PalmsPlant Group:

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Iriartea deltoideaTaxa:

Anon. (1999): Towards a harmonized definition of non-wood forest products. - Unasylva 50: 63-64. Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/docrep/x2450e/x2450e0d.htm, viewed: 8.8.2006.

[2509]Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Arvind Bhatt, Rawal, R.S. & Uppeandra Dhar (2006): Ecological features of a critically rare medicinal plant, Swertia chirayita, in Himalaya. - Plant Species Biology 21 (1): 49-52. Retrieved from http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/full/10.1111/j.1442-1984.2006.00150.x, viewed: 18.10.2006.

An experiment was conducted during May and June 2001 in Kanchula (KN), Kalaseer (KL) and Duggalbitha (DG) in Uttaranchal, India, and Pullag (PL) and Dora (DR) in Himachal Pradesh, to provide quantitative details of Swertia chirayita [Swertia chirata] through: (i) assessment of the distribution patterns and quantum of availability; and (ii) analysis of variations in biomass among natural populations. Almost all populations of Swertia chirayita examined grew under the canopy of Acer and Quercus mixed forests, mostly on a southeast aspect. Anaphalis triplinervis, Anemone obtusiloba, Stachys sericea [Stachys emodi] and Polygonum amplexicaule were the common associates of Swertia chirayita. The density of Swertia chirayita was low in all populations and ranged between 1.65 and 2.35 individuals per m2. The frequency of occurrence was high (90-95%) in all populations and either matched or exceeded the frequency of the other dormant species in the plot. Patterns of abundance:frequency ratio revealed random distributions in KN, PL and DR populations and regular distributions in DG and KL populations. The maximum value of aboveground biomass was observed in the flowering stage when comparing biomass during the different stages. There was significantly higher aboveground biomass observed in the KN population. The maximum value of below ground biomass was, however, obtained in the senescence stage. The variation in mean below ground biomass of the flowering and senescence stages was significant in all populations. In all cases (except DR), total biomass was greater at the flowering stage. However, total biomass of the flowering and senescence stages did not show significant variation except in the KN population. (CABI RAMP, 20063062530).

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List of References

[7965 !!]

Medicinal and aromatic plantsPlant Group:

Biomass Production & Yields, Export volume, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Swertia chirayitaTaxa:

IndiaCountries:

Ash, J. (1986): Demography of Leptopteris wilkesiana (Osmundaceae), a tropical tree-fern from Fiji. - Australian Journal of Botany 34: 207-215.

[6430 !!]

FernsPlant Group:

Case Study, Demography & Population Structure, Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Leptopteris wilkesianaTaxa:

FijiCountries:

Ash, J. (1987): Demography of Cyathea hornei (Cyatheaceae), a tropical tree-fern in Fiji. - Australian Journal of Botany 35: 331-342.

[6429 !!]

FernsPlant Group:

Case Study, Demography & Population Structure, Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Cyathea horneiTaxa:

FijiCountries:

Baker, N. (ed.) (2001): Developing needs-based inventory methods for non-timber forest products. Application and development of current research to identify practical solutions for developing countries. 4 - 5 May 2000, FAO, Rome. - 95 pp., DFID, Oxford. Retrieved from , viewed: 27.1.2007.

[7614 !!]

Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Barnes, M.A. & Musselman, V.P. (1996): Inventory and appraisal methodologies for special forest products prepared for North Santiam Canyon Economic Development Committee. - 65 pp., Musselman & Associates Incorporated. Unpublished, s.loc.

[7751]

Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:United StatesCountries:

Characteristics: Understorey plants and trees in temperate forest.Objectives: Provide information on harvestable quantities and values. Basic questions being: how much product is available, what measurements are needed to determine the value of that product at current market levels and what are the acceptable harvest guidelines for the particular area.Type of study: Pre-exploitation inventoryScale: Reserve -Santiam State Forest, Oregon.Participants: Forestry staffProtocol: (1) Selection of products for inventory based on following criteria: (a) Is there is a current market for the product (b) product present in inventory area in marketable quantities (c) product must be within reasonable walking distance of a road (d) product must be present during the inventory (e) products as a whole must be representative of the range of uni measurements accepted within the marketplace. (2) Areas to be inventoried selected using (a) and preexisting inventory data, (b) previous sale/permit records (c) topography (d) personal knowledge of departmental staff of land owner. (3) Determine units of measure for each product - related to sale units I.e. 'bunches', weight etc. (4) Perform ground inspection to lay out boundaries for the inventory (5) Lay out systematic grid over area with circular plots at a density and size optimised for each product. (6) In each plot record; number of units available, percent of ground covered by product, observed condition (number of plants, age, condition, spacing associated plant types, tree species, slope, aspect, accessibility, proximity to land features, recent activity or previous harvesting.Analysis: Spreadsheet (Lotus 123) used to perform calculations of mean, percent cover, total abundance of marketable product and standard error of the mean. Also undertook market pricing study to determine market value of resources.

Additional descriptors from Wong (2000):

Bartz, R., Heink, U. & Kowarik, I. (2005): Ökologische Schäden durch Anwendungen der Agro-Gentechnik. Zum Schadensbegriff und dessen Operationalisierung. - Natur und Landschaft 80 (7): 320-322.

[7648 !!]Medicinal and aromatic plantsPlant Group:Ecological Damage, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Bawa, K.S. (1992): The riches of tropical forests. Non-timber products. - Trends in Ecology & Evolution, Reference edition: TREE 7: 361-363.


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List of References

[7911]

Beer, J.de & McDermott, M.J. (1989): Economic value of non-timber forest products in southeast Asia. - 175 pp., Netherlands Council for the IUCN, Amsterdam.

[7912]

"Discusses the market aspects of trade and household economies involved in rattan ( Calamus spp.) collection in southeast Asia. Local populations involved in gathering rattan and labor arrangements are identified. The authors also describe middlemen, such as small traders, shopkeepers, trade boat operators, and the networks, that supply rattan. Market structure and the generation of local economic value at the rural level also are characterized. Decentralization of the industry is widespread with production of goods often occurring inside homes and with simple technology; neither one requires much in the way of capital inputs. Production is seasonal, occurring when agricultural crops require less labor. Rattan weaving is a part-time activity, often done at night. Value-added processing at the local level is generally of three types: rudimentary processing of raw products before export, manufacture of products for local markets, and production of high-quality products for sale outside local markets. Products originally intended for private use have found markets in urban areas and among tourists.Factors affecting the economy of nontimber forest products in Southeast Asia include widespread deforestation and degradation. Agricultural and export cash crops in an increasingly commercialized rural economy compete with nontimber forest products for land and labor. Government policies, particularly in Indonesia, aimed at resettling people fundamentally change land tenure arrangements and hasten the decline of traditional management systems. When supplies of nontimber forest products decline, people may allot more time to collecting (with decreased unit returns to labor), allot more time to alternate activities such as farming, wage labor, and so forth, evolve new management systems, shift activity to less depleted areas, or abandon nontimber forest product collecting altogether.Value of nontimber forest products is often unstable because uses for products fall out of favor, knowledge about their collection is disappearing, synthetic substitutes are increasingly preferred, and changes in dietary preferences develop. Individual households change their economic uses of nontimber forest products and allocation of labor in response to changes in a variety of environmental, commercial, cultural, and personal factors. Impacts of changes on rural welfare also are discussed.The authors advocate improvements in forest resource management that include increased attention to managing nontimber forest products; improved methods of harvest, storage, transport, and processing; increased processing and manufacturing near the forest source; improved marketing; diversification of products; integrating forest species into agricultural and agroforestry systems; greater attention to conservation and restoration of nontimber forest products; improved accounting of production, consumption, and trade; and increased investment in research and extension." (from Hagen & al. 1996, 27.1.2007).


Belonogova, T.V. (1988): Yield forecasting and optimization of berry harvesting in the forests of Southern Karelia, USSR. - Acta Botanica Fennica 136: 19-21.

[7745]FruitPart Used:

Biomass Production & Yields, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Russian FederationCountries:

Bergeron, M.E. & Lapointe, L. (2000): Impact of one year crozier removal on long-term fron production Matteuccia struthiopteris. - Canadian Journal of Plant Science 81: 155-163.

[7986]

FernsLeafPart Used:

Plant Group:

Regeneration, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Matteuccia struthiopterisTaxa:

Bernal, R. (1998): Demography of the vegetable ivory palm Phytelephas seemannii in Colombia, and the impact of seed harvesting. - Journal of Applied Ecology 35: 64-74.

[7443 !!]

Palms

SeedPart Used:

Plant Group:

Case Study, Demography & Population Structure, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Phytelephas seemanniiTaxa:

ColombiaCountries:

Bevill, R.L. & Louda, S.M. (1999): Comparisons of related rare and common species in the study of plant rarity. - Conservation Biology 13: 493-498.

[7472 !!]

Abundance & Rarity, Rarity, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

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List of References

Bhatt, I.D., Ranbeer, S.R. & Dhar U. (2000): The availability, fruit yield, and harvest of Myrica esculenta in Kumaun (West Himalaya), India. - Mountain Research and Development 20: 146-153.


Resource Assessment, Sustainable Yield CalculationDescriptors:Myrica esculentaTaxa:IndiaCountries:

Bhattarai, N.K. (1984): Economic mapping of Skimmia laureola Sieb. & Zucc. ex Walp. in the Khaptad 'Lekh' and adjoining forests. - Journal of the Natural Histroy Museum 8 (1-4): 55-66.

[7931 !!]

Medicinal and aromatic plants

LeafPart Used:

Plant Group:

Abundance & Rarity, Case Study, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Skimmia laureolaTaxa:

NepalCountries:

Bojor, O. (1991): Methodology of economic mapping of medicinal plants in the spontaneous flora. - In: Wijesekera, R.O.B. (ed.): The medical plant industry. pp. 19-31, CRC Press, Boca Raton.

[2433]Medicinal and aromatic plantsPlant Group:Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Bojor, O. (s.dat.): Economic listing and mapping of medicinal plants in a geographical area. - In: United Nations Industrial Developement Organization (ed.): Medicinal and aromatic plants. Importance, cultivation, analysis and industrial processing. pp. 53-67, Unpublished draft report, §.


Boon, D.A. (1962): Plot size and variability. - § pp., ITC, Delft (Publications of the International Training Centre for Aerial Survey, Series B, 17).

[7769]

Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:

Boot, R.G.A. & Gullison, R.E. (1995): Approaches to developing sustainable extraction systems for tropical forest products. - Ecological Applications 5 (4): 896-903.

[7592 !!]

This paper evaluate some extraction systems for Brazil Nut (Bertholletia excelsa) and Mahogani (Swietenia macrophylla) and discusses what approaches are currently available for assessing the sustainability of these systems and the impact extraction has on the forest ecosystem. The authors focus on three questions: (1.) Is the use sustainable for the harvested population? (2.) What is the impact of the use on the structure and function of the ecosystem? The authors emphasize that these two criteria – sustainability and impact – are treated separately when evaluating extraction plans. (3.) An economic analysis of the harvest intensities between zero and maximum sustainable yield should be conducted, with the goal of identifying the minimum economically viable harvest within the sustainability limits. The authors contradict the view among ecologists that a use cannot be considered sustainable if it results in a noticeable change in the forest. They argue: "For forest products to compete economically with other forms of land use, we must become more flexible in what we will accept in the composition of managed forests. Perhaps all that we should require of extraction systems is that they result in no loss of species from the forest, and no irreversible changes in ecosystems processes." (schp, 12.8.2006).

FruitPart Used:

Case Study, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Bertholletia excelsa, Swietenia macrophyllaTaxa:BoliviaCountries:

Borisova, N.A. (1977): O roli wiborochnych metodov pri izychenii zapasov syr`ja dikorastuschich lekarstwennych rastenii [About the significance of sampling-methods regarding the assessment of medicinal plant resources in the forest area]. - Rastitel'nye Resursy 13: 381 - 387.

Medicinal and aromatic plantsPlant Group:Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

- 11 -

List of References

[2574]

Borisova, N.A. & Reznikova A.S. (1978): Metodika ispol`zovanija materialov lesoustroistva pri opredelenii zapasov syrja lekarstvennych rastenii w lesnoi zone [Methodology for the utilization of forestry materials for the assessment of medicinal plant resources in the forest area]. - Rastitel'nye Resursy 14: 284-293.


Borisova, N.A. & Schreter, A.I. (1966): K Metodike utschöta i kartirowanija resursow lekarstwennich rastenij [Methods for gathering and mapping medicinal plants; in Russian]. - Rastitel'nye Resursy 2: 271-277.


Branney, P. (1994): Thumb rules for assessing the sustainability of harvesting by forest user groups. Nepal-UK Community Forestry Project. - 10 pp., LTS International, Edinburgh.

[7694]

Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource Assessment, Sustainable Yield CalculationDescriptors:NepalCountries:

Characteristics: Natural forest in joint forest management (JFM) scheme.Objectives: Provision of quantitative information on forest resource for comparison with similar data to be collected in 5 years time.Type of study: Base-line study. MonitoringScale: Regional -4 Koshi Hills districtsParticipants: Team of 4: 2 project staff, project assistant and locally emProtocol: Selection of 2 groups of up to 4 forests representing different forest types and condition in each District. Selected forests stratified into blocks corresponding with the management plan. 6 blocks selected for assessment within each group of forests. Block enumeration; selection of fixed reference point and selection of random bearing for transect into block. 6 plots laid out at 50 m intervals along transect. Plot is 5x10m and laid out perpendicular and on alternate sides of the transect. Trees are > 3m tall - local name and d recorded. Shrubs are 0.5-3m tall - name and number recorded. Plants < 0.5 m tall and of tree or shrub sp.. are classed as regeneration (if abundance count on half the plot). Canopy cover %, shrub crown diameter and crown separation, litter layer, evidence of recent damage, evidence of recent management or harvesting. List of seed trees. Tally number of species per block into plant growth form categories (trees, tall shrub, lichens, ferns etc.).Analysis: Creation of plot and block summaries to obtain figures of stocking, basal area, crown cover, regeneration of useful trees and total regeneration.


Branney, P. (1994): Handbook for baseline forest resource assessment. Nepal-UK Community Forestry Project. - 19 pp., LTS International, Edinburgh.

[7767]


Brashares, J.S. & Sam, M.K. (2005): How much is enough? Estimating the minimum sampling required for effective monitoring of African reserves. - Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 2709-2722.

[7665 !!]

Resource Assessment, StatisticsDescriptors:GhanaCountries:

Breckling, B. & Potthast, T. (2004): Der ökologische Schadensbegriff. Eine Einführung. - In: Potthast, T. (ed.): Ökologische Schäden. Begriffliche, methodologische und ethische Aspekte. pp. 1-15, Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main (Theorie in der Ökologie 10).

[7942 !!]

After giving some illustrative examples the authors explain the conceptual context of the terms utility, protected good, risk, hazard and damage. They discuss what has to be considered as an ecological damage from an anthropocentric perspective. They illustrate that use and damage of ecological goods are connected across a variety of intregration and organisation levels. They argue that there is a convergence of anthropocentric and ecocentric perspectives on ecological damage. This wide overlap especially exists with regard to the precautionary principle as the basis for dealing with uncertainties. (from summary, 10.9.2006).


Broekhoven, G. (1996): Non-timber forest products. Ecological and economic aspects of exploitation in Colombia, Ecuador and Bolivia. - 126 pp., IUCN, Gland.


- 12 -

List of References

[7789]Bolivia, Colombia, EcuadorCountries:

Characteristics: Plants and animals of natural forest.Objectives: Which products have significant economic value & how can they contribute to socio-economic development? How can ecological sustainability be measured and what information is available?Type of study: ValuationScale: Supra-nationalParticipants: ResearchersProtocol: Secondary data, interviews with experts, site visits and extensive fieldwork in Bolivia. Data: non-market values; net present value of NTFPs; export statistics.Analysis: Description and discussion of issues.


Browder, J.O. (1992): The limits of extractivism. Tropical forest strategies beyond extractive reserves. - BioScience 42: 174-182.

[7808]

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Brown, J.A. (s.dat.): The application of adaptive cluster sampling to ecological studies. - In: Fletcher, D.J. & Manly, B.F.J. (ed.): Statistics in ecology and environmental monitoring. pp. 86-97, University of Otago Press, Dunedin (Otago Conference Series 2).

[7827]


Brown, J.H. (1984): On the relationship between abundance and distribution of species. - The American Naturalist 124: 255-279.

[7473]

Abundance & Rarity, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Buckland, S.T., Anderson, D.R., Burnham, K.P. & Laake, J.L. (1993): Distance sampling. Estimating abundance of biological populations. - 446 pp., Chapman & Hall, London.

[7644]

Abundance & Rarity, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Burkhart, H.E. & Gregoire, T.G. (1994): Forest biometrics. - In: Patil, G.P. & Rao, C.R. (ed.): Environmental Statistics. Handbook of Statistics Vol. 12. pp. 377-407, Elsevier Science, Amsterdam.

[7806]Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:

Burnham, K.P., Anderson, D.R. & Laake, J.L. (1980): Estimation of density from line transect sampling of biological populations. - 55 pp., Wildlife Society, New York (Wildlife Monographs 72).

[7733]Abundance & Rarity, Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:

Campbell, B.M., Luckert, M. & Scoones, I. (1997): Local-level valuation of savanna resources. A case study from Zimbabwe. - Economic Botany 51: 59-77.

[7861]

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:ZimbabweCountries:

Campbell, D.G. (1989): Quantitative inventory of tropical forests. - In: Campbell, D.G. & Hammond, H.D. (ed.): Floristic inventory of tropical countries. pp. 523-533, New York Botanical Garden, New York.

[7829]


Campbell, K. & Mitchell, A. (1998): Survey of non-timber forest products in villages surrounding the Columbia River forest reserve. - 55 pp., §, § (Occasional Series 18).

[7774]

Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:BelizeCountries:

- 13 -

List of References

Characteristics: Fuelwood, wild fruits, medicinal plants, bushmeat, household goods, craft materials from Columbia River Forest Reserve and Maya Mountain Forest Reserve.Objectives: To provide data for an economic valuation of the reserve.Type of study: Household surveyScale: Reserve -Columbia River Forest ReserveParticipants: Researcher with local enumeratorsProtocol: Data collected on pre-designed forms: Village survey (building, facilities etc.). Household survey of 10% of houses for NTFPs (fuelwood, food, medicines, bushmeat, cultural). House construction survey for 5% of houses (materials used) Women's survey (foods, household goods and craft materials).Analysis: Data extrapolated from 11 study villages to whole area. Computerised analysis of data. Profiles of villages, NTFP use and building materials.


Caniago, I. & Siebert, S.F. (1998): Medicinal plant ecology, knowledge and conservation in Kalimantan, Indonesia. - Economic Botany 52: 229-250.

[5619 !!]

This study documents the abundance, distribution and knowledge of medicinal plant species in a Ransa Dayak village and adjoining forest in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Over 250 medicinal plant species from 165 genera and 75 families are utilized by the local healer. Late successional, primary and river bench forests contained the highest diversity of locally-used medicinal species and the greatest number of species restricted to a single forest type for which alternative species or remedies were unavailable. Epiphytes and trees restricted to primary forests are particularly important sources for plants used to treat unusual ailments. A 100% survey of village residents 15 years of age and older (n = 32) revealed that people older than 25 years of age, and older females in particular, possessed greater knowledge of medicinal plants and their uses than younger people and males. All residents, except the male healer, were more knowledgeable about medicinal plants found in early successional forests than those of primary forests. Commercial logging and the loss of traditional knowledge through acculturation pose twin challenges to the persistence of traditional medicinal plant use in this Ransa village and throughout much of Kalimantan. (CABI-RAMP, 19980311803).


Abundance & Rarity, Ethnobotany, Life history, Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource Assessment, Taxa

Descriptors:

IndonesiaCountries:

Characteristics: Plants in 8 locally recognised vegetation types.Objectives: Implications of logging and acculturation on the availability and knowledge of medicinal plants.Type of study: Quantitative ethnobotanyScale: Local -Nanga Juoi village and surrounding forest.Participants: Researchers with local informantProtocol: Social survey: Participant observation, formal and informal surveys of all people aged 15+ years (n=32). Plant collection and interviews with knowledgeable healers over 3 years. 63 year old woman healer acted as principal informant. Forest sampling: Random plots and transects in 8 locally recognised vegetation types. Plots: 2x2m (n=23, 38), 10x10m (n=11, 10), 2x100m (n=23, 32). Transects: 2x1km (n=7, 3). In each plot/transect, the identity, life form and number of each medicinal species was recorded. If locally-important species were not found then the informant was asked to provide information on relative abundance and site preferences.Analysis: Summary diversity and abundance by vegetation type. Species accumulation curves by vegetation type. Species restricted to different vegetation types. Impact of harvesting by life form. Distribution of knowledge by age and gender among villagers. Table of species with botanical and local names, voucher number, mean densities per ha by vegetation type, parts used, use, life form, harvesting impact and mean knowledge by villagers.


Cardel, Y., Rico-Gray, V., Garcia-Franco, J.G. & Thien, L.B. (1997): Ecological status of Beaucarnea gracilis, an endemic species of the semiarid Tehuacán valley, México. - Conservation Biology 11: 367-374.

[5025 !!]

SucculentsPlant Group:

Case Study, Demography & Population Structure, Endemism, Habitat, Population dynamics, Resource Assessment

Descriptors:

Beaucarnea gracilisTaxa:

MexicoCountries:

Carpenter, G., Gillison, A.N. & Winter, J. (1993): DOMAIN. A flexible modelling procedure for mapping potential distributions of plants and animals. - Biodiversity and Conservation 2: 667-680.

[7839 !!]

Resource Assessment, StatisticsDescriptors:AustraliaCountries:

Carpenter, S.G. & Cottam, G. (1982): Growth and reproduction of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) in Wisconsin, USA. - Canadian Journal of Botany 60: 2692-2696.

Case Study, Regeneration, Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

- 14 -

List of References

[7444]


RootPart Used:

Plant Group:Panax quinquefoliusTaxa:

United StatesCountries:

Carter, J. (1996): Recent approaches to participatory forest resource assessment. - 322 Index pp., ODI, London (Rural development forestry study guide 2).

[7779]

Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Caswell, H. (1982): Stable population structure and reproductive value for populations with complex life cycles. - Ecology 63: 1223-1231.

[7879 !!]

Resource Assessment, StatisticsDescriptors:

Caswell, H. (1982): Optimal life histories and the maximization of reproductive value. A general theorem for complex life cycles. - Ecology 63: 1218-1222.

[7878 !!]


Chamberlain, J.L. (2004): A strategy for nontimber forest products research and technology transfer for southern United States. - In: Donoghue, E.M, Benson, G.L. & Chamberlain, J.L. (ed.): Sustainable production of wood and non-wood forest products. Proceedings of the IUFRO Division 5 Research Groups 5.11 and 5.12, Rotorua, New Zealand, March 11-12, 2003. pp. 91-92, USDA Forest Service, Portland.

[7667 !!]

In 2001, the Southern Research Station of the U.S. Forest Service developed a strategy to guide research and technology transfer on nontimber forest products. The guide establishes strategic goals and recommended actions to advance the knowledge concerning the management of forest resources for the so-called special forest products (SFPs). These products can be grouped into four major categories: culinary, wood-based crafts, floral and decoratives, and medicinal and dietary supplements. The four goals and selected actions of the strategy include: (1) maintain viable populations of SFPs (best inventory methods; ecological impacts on SFP and associated species; sustainable harvest practices and levels); (2) economic sustainability of SFP markets (value and volume of commercial SFPs; economic impacts to local communities); (3) aspects of human interaction (identify collectors; compliance with regulations; collaborative planning); (4) public understanding (education and outreach programs). (schp, 12.8.2006).

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:United StatesCountries:

Chamberlain, J.L., Bush, R.J., Hammett, A.L., Araman, P.A. (2000): Managing national forests of the Eastern United States for non-timber forest products. - In: Krishnapillay, B. & al. (ed.): Forests and society. The role of research. XXI IUFRO Wolrd Congress, 7-12 Aug 2000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Sub-plenary Sessions 1. pp. 407-420, IUFRO, Kuala Lumpur. Retrieved from http://www.sfp.forprod.vt.edu/pubs/sfpdoc4.pdf, viewed: .

[7901 !!]

This analysis focuses on the status of non-timber forest products in management plans of the national forests in eastern Unites States. Of the 31 national forest plans, examined for coverage of non-timber forest products, only 7 plans addressed the management of theses resources. A review of national legislation that affects national forests revealed that non-timber forest products are not recognized as a management objective. (from summary, 27.8.2006).

Map, Non-wood forest products, Resource Assessment, Resource Management PoliciesDescriptors:Cimicifuga racemosa, Hydrastis canadensisTaxa:United StatesCountries:

Chandrasekharan, C. (1995): Terminology, definition and classification of forest products other than wood. - In: FAO (ed.): Report of the international expert consultation on non-wood forest products. pp. 345-380, FAO, Rome (Non-wood Forest Products 3).

[4240 !!]Database, Definition, Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Chazdon, R.L. (1991): Effects of leaf and ramet removal on growth and reproduction of Geonoma congesta, a clonal understorey palm. - Journal of Ecology 79: 1137-1146.

Case Study, Harvest Impact, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

- 15 -

List of References

[7897]PalmsPlant Group:Geonoma congestaTaxa:

Chazdon, R.L. & Coe, F.G. (1999): Ethnobotany of woody species in second-growth, old-growth, and selectively logged forests of Northwestern Costa Rica. - Conservation Biology 13: 1312-1322.

[7860 !!]

Medicinal and aromatic plantsPlant Group:Abundance & Rarity, Case Study, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Costa RicaCountries:

Cherkasov, A.P. (1988): Classification on nontimber resources in the USSR. - In: Bannine, I. & Raatikainen, M. (eds.) (ed.): Proceedings of the Finnish-Soviet symposium on nontimber forest resources. 25-29 August 1986. Jyväkylä, Finland. pp. 3-5, §, § (Acta Botanica Fennica 139).

[7934]

A classification scheme in the USSR is proposed for vegetation, including wild fruits and mushrooms, honey plants, medicinals and wildlife. Important nectar-producing plants are Rubus idaeus, Epilobium spp., Salix spp., Viburnum spp., and Sorbus spp. Epilobium may yield up to 350 kg/ha of honey while willows can yield.up to 150 kg/ha. The author analyzes the economic value of selected nontimber products, providing volume and some monetary value estimates for edible plants, mushrooms, honey, forage for livestock, and game animals. He concludes that nontimber values make up about 50 % of the total economic value in commercial forests and 93 % of the total value in a protected forest. (from Hagen & al. 1996, 7.9.2006).

Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Russian FederationCountries:

Cherkasov, A.Ph. (1988): The cranberry yield in the USSR. - Acta Botanica Fennica 136: 65-68.


Biomass Production & Yields, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Russian FederationCountries:

Chhikara, R.S. (s.dat.): Efficient sampling designs for estimating ecological resources. - In: Fletcher, D.J. & Manly, B.F.J. (ed.): Statistics in ecology and environmental monitoring. pp. 211-223, University of Otago Press, Dunedin (Otago Conference Series 2).

[7724]


Chikov, P.S., Saiko, L.N. & Shreter, A.I. (ed.) (1983): Atlas arealov i resursov lekarstevennych rastenij SSSR. 2 volumes [Atlas of the areas and resources of medicinal plants of the USSR; in Russian]. - 340 pp., §, Moscow.

[2489]


Russian FederationCountries:

Clark, L. & Tchanou, N. (1998): Non-wood forest product research in Central Africa. A state of the sector. 2nd edition. - 74 pp., CARPE, s.loc. Retrieved from http://carpe.umd.edu/products/PDF_files/Proceedings-NWFP.pdf, viewed: 21.8.2006.

[7891 !!]

Non-wood forest products, Resource Assessment, Resource Management PoliciesDescriptors:Congo, The Democratic Republic of the, Cameroon, Gabon, Equatorial GuineaCountries:

Clark-Tapia, R., Mandujano, M.C., Valverde, T., Mendoza, A. & Molina-Freaner, F. (2005): How important is clonal recruitment for population maintenance in rare plant species? The case of the narrow endemic cactus, Stenocereus eruca, in Baja California, Mexico. - Biological Conservation 124: 123-132.

[7656 !!]


Case Study, Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Stenocereus erucaTaxa:

MexicoCountries:

Clay, J.W. (1997): Business and biodiversity. Rainforest marketing and beyond. - In: Vance, N.C. & Thomas, J.

- 16 -

List of References

(ed.): Special forest products. Biodiversity meets the marketplace. pp. 122-145, US Department of Agriculture, Washington DC (General Technical Report GTR-WO-63).

[7850 !!]


Clay, J.W. (1997): The impact of palm heart harvesting in the Amazon estuary. - In: Freese, C.H. (ed.): Harvesting wild species. Implications for biodiversity conservation. pp. 283-314, John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD.

[7899]

PalmsPlant Group:Harvest Impact, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

BrazilCountries:

Clemente Munoz, M.A., Navarro Cerillo, R.M., Kasimis, N., Hernandez Bermejo, J.E., Padron Cedres, E., Martin-Consuegra Fernandez, E., Hernandez Clemente, R. & Garcia-Ferrer Porras, A. (2006): Evaluation of the harvest of Prunus africana bark on Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). Guidelines for a management plan. - 188 pp., .

[8037 !!]

The pilot project surveys the current status of Prunus africana on Bioko after recent years’ harvest (1996-2004). The general goal of the project was to determine the potential and current range on Bioko. Based on this range data, stocks could be assessed, bark harvest evaluated, and proposals made with necessary recommendations to consider in drawing up a management plan for sustainable use of the species.The following specific objectives were established to achieve the general goal: (a) survey of the distribution of dominant types of vegetation by means of a Landsat 7 ETM+ image; (b) characterisation of the forests where Prunus africana occurs in current and potential harvest areas, in terms of their structure, composition of the vegetation, wealth and diversity of tree species; (c) estimate of bark yield, and (d) establishment of silvicultural criteria for sustainable use of Prunus africana forests. The guidelines provided are the culmination of a series of stages in work oriented towards evaluating Prunus africana specimens and their current status following bark-harvesting activities. For this purpose, remote sensing techniques (a 2003 Landsat 7 ETM+ image) were used along with inventory of a representative area of Bioko Prunus africana forests and evaluation of the status of individual trees according to use patterns. The project offers a methodology (new technologies and forest inventories adapted to the evaluation of Non-Timber Forest Resources) that can be readily applied to establish guidelines for sustainable international trade in Prunus africana in other regions. (schp, 29.1.2007).


BarkPart Used:

Plant Group:

Resource Assessment, Sustainable Yield CalculationDescriptors:Prunus africanaTaxa:

Equatorial GuineaCountries:

Close, C.H. & Hall, B. (2006): A GIS-based protocol for the collection and use of local knowledge in fisheries management planning. - Journal of Environmental Management 78: 341-352.

[7434 !!]

Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Turks and Caicos IslandsCountries:

Cochran, W.G. (1977): Sampling techniques. Third edition. - 428 pp., John Wiley & Sons, New York.

[7814]

Method Manual, Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:

Cornwall, A. (1995): Towards participatory practice. PRA and the participatory process. - In: Koning, K. de (ed.): Participation and health. pp. §, Zed Books, London.

[7833]


Cotton, C.M. (1996): Ethnobotany. Principles and applications. - ix+424 pp., John Wiley & Sons, Chichester.This book, intended as an introduction to ethnobotany, is aimed primarily at undergraduates, but also at researchers in anthropology and botany wanting introductions to the subjects of botany and anthropology, respectively. Traditional methods of plant management and plant use, the history of interactions between plants and peoples, and the concepts, methodology and future of ethnobotany are discussed in 12 chapters: (1) Introduction to ethnobotany; (2) Plant structures, functions and applications; (3) Traditional botanical knowledge; (4) Methods in ethnobotanical study; (5) Traditional botanical knowledge and subsistence: wild plant resources; (6) Traditional botanical knowledge and subsistence: domesticated plants and traditional agriculture; (7) Plants in material culture; (8) Traditional phytochemistry; (9) Understanding traditional plant use and management: indigenous perceptions of the natural world; (10) The history of

- 17 -

List of References

[4923]

plant-human interaction: palaeoethnobotanical evidence; (11) Applied ethnobotany: commercialisation and conservation; and (12) Applying ethnobotany in sustainable development: practical considerations. In addition to a bibliography and a brief postscript about the Pilgrim Fathers, there is a subject index. (CABI-RAMP, 19960309613).

Ethnobotany, Method Manual, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Cruse-Sanders, J.M., Hamrick, J.L. & Ahumada, J.A. (2005): Consequences of harvesting for genetic diversity in American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.). A simulation study. - Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 493-504.

[7684 !!]


RootPart Used:

Plant Group:

Genetic Variability, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Panax quinquefoliusTaxa:


Cunningham, A.B. (1988): Leaf production and utilization in Hyphaene coriacea. Management guidelines for commercial harvesting. - South African Journal of Botany 54: 189-195.

[7445]

Palms

LeafPart Used:

Plant Group:

Case Study, Regeneration, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Hyphaene coriaceaTaxa:

South AfricaCountries:

Characteristics: Multi-stemmed palm common and abundant in palmveldObjectives: Assessment of leaf production in order to provide a basis for management of leaf harvesting for rural craftwork industries.Type of study: ProductivityScale: Local -Maputaland palmveldParticipants: ResearchersProtocol: Leaf production - Selectively chosen study sites. Site A -16 stems marked, site B -34 stems marked. Leaf production measured by measuring total length of leaves on stem (partially opened leaves counted as fraction of open leaf). Leaf growth measured monthly. Leaf utilisation - 4 sites at varying distances from road. Plots 50x50m or 20x20m laid out at each site. All stems within plots examined for leaf damage and measurements made of leaf length. Previous(?) years leaf production examined for harvest assessments.Analysis: Annual leaf production by leaf length (surrogate for plant size). Table of leaf availability by size for study sites. Estimate of annual commercial leaf production per ha. Management recommendations.


Cunningham, A.B. (1990): Income, sap yield and effects of sap tapping on palms in south-eastern Africa. - South African Journal of Botany 56: 137-144.

[7800]

Palms

ExudatePart Used:

Plant Group:

Harvest Impact, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Hyphaene coriacea, Phoenix reclinataTaxa:


Characteristics: Multi-stemmed palms occurring at high density in coastal plain palmveld.Objectives: Assessment of economic importance, dynamics and effects of palm wine tapping for policy development.Type of study: Interviews and yield observationsScale: Local -Ingwavuma DistrictParticipants: ResearchersProtocol: 18 tappers interviewed by local field assistant concerning no. of palms tapped & max. yields. Daily measurement for 10 mths of yields from different palm groups and sp.. Collected by one representative full-time tapper. Damage assessment in terms of (i) palm and stems dead, (ii) tapped stem dead but palm alive (iii) tapped stem recovering; from sample of 203 palms.Analysis: Evaluation of potential and alternative management scenarios for palmveld and palm wine production.


Cunningham, A.B. (1994): Integrating local plant resources and habitat management. - Biodiversity and Conservation 3: 104-115.

The complexity and the cost of managing sustainable use of wild populations increase markedly with an increasing number of uses and resource users. The author suggests that if the primary objective of core conservation areas is accepted to be the maintenance of habitat and species diversity, then the limited money and manpower available for management limits sustainable harvesting use of plant resources to low diversity, low conservation priority vegetation types or encroaching species. For high diversity, high conservation priority sites such as afro-montane or coastal

- 18 -

List of References

[4070 !!]

evergreen forest, the emphasis must be on providing alternative sources of supply to resource users outside of core areas. The author argues that, in theory, sustainable harvesting of habitat speciefic, slow reproducing plant species from wild populations is possible, but in practice this it is not. What is often glossed over is that high conservation priority habitats with a high species diversity and vulnerability to over-exploitation require a level and intensity of management that is not possible with the economic constraints that are a feature of many conservation departments. For practical purposes these plant plant species are a non-renewable resource. For those species or vegetation types it is imperative that to concentrate on providing alternative sources of supply outside core conservation sites. (schp, 21.8.2006).

Critical Analysis, Economics, Resource Assessment, Susceptibility, ThreatDescriptors:

Cunningham, A.B. (2001): Applied ethnobotany. People, wild plant use and conservation. - xviii+300 pp., Earthscan, London (People and Plants Conservation Manuals).

[6252 !!]

This detailed manual on wild plant resources sets out the approaches and field methods involved in participatory work between conservationists, researchers and the primary resource users. Supported by 97 excellent illustrations, 16 tables and 22 text boxes, it explains how local people can learn to assess the pressures on plant resources and what steps to take to ensure their continued availability. This guide is invaluable for all those involved in resource management decisions regarding plants and diversity, and in particular those studying or working in conservation, rural development and park management. (from summary, 21.5.2001).

Ethnobotany, Method Manual, Resource Assessment, Sampling Techniques, SusceptibilityDescriptors:

Cunningham, A.B. & Liebenberg, L. (1998): Bark, berchemia and basketmakers. Testing methods for local-level monitoring of plant resources, a case study in Binga district, western Zimbabwe. Report on a WWF/UNESCO/KEW People and Plants Initiative field workshop. - § pp., WWF/UNESCO/KEW, s.loc.

[7696]Bark, FruitPart Used:

Case Study, Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Berchemia discolorTaxa:ZimbabweCountries:

Characteristics: Deciduous woodland tree.Objectives: Field test of appropriate monitoring systems for indigenous plant use which involve local people.Type of study: MonitoringScale: Field test -Kariyangwe area, Binga district (CAMPFIRE)Participants: Local people under supervision of researchersProtocol: Condition scoring for tree health, bark damage and cutting developed with basketmakers. Size class of tree measured using rulers. Icons used to represent scores to facilitate recording by illiterates. CyberTracker software on palm-top computers used for data collection. Plots discarded due to difficulties of plot location, unfamiliarity of techniques for plot establishment etc. Trees in basketmakers own fields and adjacent areas monitored.Analysis: Histograms of scores and distribution maps produced from data downloaded onto base PC. System worked well.


Dallmeier, F. (ed.) (1992): Long-term monitoring of biological diversity in tropical forest areas. Methods for establishment and inventory of permanent plots. - 1-72 pp., UNESCO, Paris (MAB Digest 11).

[7446 !!]

Method Manual, Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:

Dallmeier, F., Kabel, M. & Rice, R. (1992): Methods for long-term biodiversity inventory plots in protected tropical forest. - In: Dallmeier, F. (ed.): Long-term monitoring of biological diversity in tropical forest areas. Methods for establishment and inventory of permanent plots. pp. 11-46, UNESCO, Paris (MAB Digest 11).

[7690 !!]

To overcome the absence of agreed methodologies for ensuring cross-site comparability of data, this booklet describes sampling techniques established by Smithonian Instititution research teams for establishing and maintaining permanent inventory plots in tropical forests, basically aiming at the tree composition. It gives detailed description of the recommended procedures for field work and data management, a.o. sampling and plot design, surveying the plot, slope correction, tagging trees, standards for dbh measurements, tree conditions, mapping software (as of 1992). All elements are amply illustrated. The authors propose user guides and field guides to be made available to reserve managers, students and researchers which contain information on site ecology, methodology and data already gathered at the plot, including a mini-herbarium of photocopied voucher specimens. (schp, 12.8.2006).

TreesPlant Group:Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:

Davis-Case, D'A. (1989): Community forestry. Participatory assessment, monitoring and evaluation. - 150 pp., FAO, Rome (Community Forestry Note 2).


- 19 -

List of References

[7759]

Davis-Case, D'A. (1990): The community's toolbox. The idea, methods and tools for participatory assessment, monitoring and evaluation in community forestry. - 146 pp., FAO, Rome (Community Forestry Field Manual 2).


DeWalt, S.J., Bourdy, G., Chávez de Michel, L.R. & Quenevo, C. (1999): Ethnobotany of the Tacana. Quantitative inventories of two permanent plots of northwestern Bolivia. - Economic Botany 53: 237-247.

[7859]

Ecological and ethnobotanical descriptions of 2 permanent, 1-ha plots located in the Amazonian forest near 2 Tacana communities situated north and west of the Madidi National Park in the Iturralde Province, Department of La Paz of northwestern Bolivia, are presented. Interviews were conducted with 13 Tacana men and women to identify and enumerate uses of all of the trees, palms, and lianas more than or equal to 10 cm dbh in these plots. Of the 185 species found in both plots, 115 species are used by the Tacana: 59 species for construction, 9 as sources of fibre, 33 for technology and crafts, 66 as firewood, 32 for food or water, 40 for medicine, 8 for hunting or fishing, 9 for commercial purposes, and 11 for miscellaneous uses. Sixty-four percent of useful species had multiple uses. This utilization of the forest corresponds with that of other Amazonian indigenous groups and shows a high reliance on the forest for plant materials, especially for medicine, technology and crafts, and construction. (CABI-RAMP, 19990613543).

Ethnobotany, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:BoliviaCountries:

Dijk, J.F.W. van (1999): Non-timber forest products in the Bipindi-Akom II Region, Cameroon. A socio-economic and ecological assessment. - 197 pp., The Tropenbos-Cameroon Programme, Kribi (Tropenbos Cameroon Series 1).

[7782]

Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:CameroonCountries:

Dijk, J.F.W. van (1999): An assessment of non-wood forest product resources for the development of sustainable commercial extraction. - In: Sunderland, C.H., Clark, L.E. & Vantomme, P. (ed.): Non-wood forest products in central Africa. Current research issues and prospects for conservation and development. pp. 37-49, FAO, Rome.

[7712]

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:CameroonCountries:

Characteristics: Trees and woody lianas in primary high forest and farmlandsObjectives: Determination of the supply of NTFPs in various forest types and of human impact on the availability of resources. Aspects of particular concern are: A. The abundance and distribution of species with regard to their habitat preferences. B. The impact of NTFP extraction on the available resources. C. The impact of agriculture on the available resources. D. The influence of commercial timber exploitation on the availability of NTFP resources.Type of study: Ecological inventory. Impact studyScale: Local: 2 logging concessions.Participants: ResearchersProtocol: Associated socio-economic surveys: a reconnaissance NTFP survey in 5 villages to record the types and importance of NTFPs, a market survey in two major markets and a hunter survey using a daily diary of 28 hunters over 3 months. Plot selection from air photo interpretation with 34 plots of 10 m x 1 km transects. Plots located to represent west-east ecological gradient with a higher SI close to villages used in socio-economic study. Enumeration of trees > 10 cm d, lianas > 5 cm d. Vegetation classified according to the type and degree of disturbance and physiographic position. Saplings, shrubs, small lianas and vines > 1 m height and d < 10 cm d tape measured for key species and d estimated.Analysis: Post-stratification using the size class distributions and ecological factors. Low plant densities and numerous vegetation types confounded the analyses which had to be pooled. At forest community level the species composition, richness and diversity were calculated. For individual species, the data were analysed for the influence of physiography, vegetation structure and overall environmental gradients - habitat types were determined and used as the basis for calculating abundance. The impact of harvesting was determined by examining population structures under different intensities of exploitation and post-stratification with respect to distance from a village or road.


Dijkman, W., Boot, R.G.A. & Zuidema, P.A. (1999): Dynamics and sustainability of non-timber forest products extraction. - In: Ros-Tonen, M.A.F. (ed.): Seminar proceedings 'NTFP research in the Tropenbos Programme. Results and perspectives', 28 January 1999. pp. 169-173, Tropenbos Foundation, Wageningen.

[7851]


Donaldson, J.S. (1993): Mast-seeding in the cycad genus Encephalartos. A test of the predator satiation hypothesis. - Oecologia 94: 262-271.

- 20 -

List of References

[5545]

CycadsSeedPart Used:

Plant Group:

Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Encephalartos spp.Taxa:

Donoghue, E.M, Benson, G.L. & Chamberlain, J.L. (ed.) (2004): Sustainable production of wood and non-wood forest products. Proceedings of the IUFRO Division 5 Research Groups 5.11 and 5.12, Rotorua, New Zealand, March 11-12, 2003. - 120 pp., USDA Forest Service, Portland. Retrieved from http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/gtr604.pdf, viewed: 18.8.2006.

[7317!]Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Duivenvoorden, J.F., Balslev, H., Cavalier, J., Grandez, C., Toumisto, H. & Valencia, R. (1999): Non-timber forest plant resource assessment in NW Amazonia. - In: Ros-Tonen, M.A.F. (ed.): Seminar proceedings 'NTFP research in the Tropenbos Programme. Results and perspectives', 28 January 1999. pp. 81-93, Tropenbos Foundation, Wageningen.

[7849]

Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Colombia, Ecuador, PeruCountries:

Characteristics: Plants in tropical high forest.Objectives: Comparative assessment of NTFP availability in different forest types in 3 pilot areas. Specific questions are: (1) how do forest types differ in their potential NTFP resource availability (2) how should these differences be evaluated in view of the different appraisal methods of NTFP availability.Type of study: Methodological developmentScale: Local - 3 sites of 1-2000 sq. km. 1 in each country.Participants: Researchers and community informantsProtocol: Air photo and Landsat image interpretation into land units at 1:100,000 scale to permit a stratified random sample of 18-24 plots per site in mature forest. Sampling restricted to 3 vegetation types. Vegetation composition and potential use recorded in 0.1 ha plot subdivided into 10x1 m subplots. Ethnobotanic information provided by local informants. Plot records of physiography, parent material, soil fertility, canopy height, and floristics > 2.5 cm d. Maximum d of each species recorded in 3 classes: < 2.5 cm, 2,5-5 cm and 5-10 cm. Diameter of trees and lianas > 10 cm d measured directly. Transect sampling - variable length 10 m transects. In each transect the presence and abundance of useful and indicator species (ferns and Melastomataceae) recorded.Analysis: Use values calculated using informant derived values (Phillips & Gentry 1993a) and proportional use values (Prance et al 1987). NOTIM standardised database program used to facilitate data transfer between the 6 research partner institutions. Final output will be maps at 1:100,000 scale illustrating geology and geomorphology and will include quantitative and qualitative on soils, vegetation and potential NTFP use.


Dunn, R. & Otu, D. (1996): A community forest inventory for productive forest management in Cross River State, Nigeria. - In: Carter, J. (ed.): Recent approaches to participatory forest resource assessment. pp. 33-55, ODI, London (Rural development forestry study guide 2).

[7847]TreesPlant Group:Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Dyke, A.J. & Newton, A.C. (1999): Commerical harvesting of wild mushrooms in Scottish forests. Is it sustainable?. - Scottish Forestry 53: 77-85.

[7856]MushroomsPlant Group:Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Edwards, I. (1991): Quantitative ethnobotanical survey of a hectare of tropical forest near Toraut, Dumogo Bone National Park, Northern Sulawesi, Indonesia. Sulawesi Ethnobotanical Project. Preliminary Report. - 8 pp., §, §.

[7771]

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:IndonesiaCountries:

- 21 -

List of References

Characteristics: Trees > 10 cm occurring in lowland tropical rainforest.Objectives: To determine the local uses of trees > 10 cm d in a 1 ha plot.Type of study: EthnobotanicalScale: Reserve -Domoga Bone National ParkParticipants: Researcher with local informants for usesProtocol: Identification of local names and uses for trees within an established PSP (1984), which were tagged and scientifically named at least to family. Questionnaire used for species with more than one use.Analysis: List of useful trees and tabular summary by utilisation class.


Egoshina, T.L. & Skopin, A.E. (2005): Resources of Vaccinium vitis-idaea (in Russian). - Rastitel'nye Resursy 41 (2): 80-85.

[7980]

The long-term exploitation of V. vitis-idaea in a spruce cowberry forest in Kirov, Bulgaria was investigated. Complete thicket recovery was not possible when 75% of peripheral shoots was cut, even when row material stocking takes place once in 4 years. During this period, the projecting cover, shoot height and overground phytomass productivity did not recover. Results indicate that V. vitis-idaea coenopopulation recovery after stocking will occur not earlier than 5 years. Such an interval between stockings will ensure the maximum yield of medicinal raw material from an area without thicket degradation. (CABI-RAMP, 20053105309).


Regeneration, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Vaccinium vitis-idaeaTaxa:

BulgariaCountries:

Elisabetsky, E. (1996): Community ethnobotany. Setting foundations for an informed decision on trading rain forest resources. - In: Balick, M.J., Elisabetsky, E. & Laird, S.A. (ed.): Medicinal resources of the tropical forest. Biodiversity and its importance to human health. pp. 402-420, Columbia University Press, New York (Biology and Resource Management).

[7804]


Elzinga, C.L., Salzer, D.W. & Willoughby,, J.W. (1998): Measuring and monitoring plant populations. - BLM Technical Reference 1730-1: 477. Retrieved from http://www.blm.gov/nstc/library/pdf/MeasAndMon.pdf, viewed: 18.8.2006.

[7880 !!]

Natural resource managers can evaluate the effects of management procedures only by examining whether the responses of species and communities are consistent with conservation objectives. Monitoring provides a measurement of these responses through status and trend analysis. We present a three-level, hierarchical approach of increasing intensity for monitoring rare plant species and suggest appropriate sampling and analysis methods for each level. Level 1 focuses on species occurrence by mapping distributions of species and identifying the presence/absence or spatial extent of each population. Level 2 involves a quantitative assessment of abundance or condition, often in terms of density, percent cover, or frequency. Level 2 monitoring allows the analysis of population trends and hypothesizing about demographic mechanisms. Level 3 involves demographic monitoring of marked individuals, thereby permitting quantitative assessment of demographic parameters, such as survivorship, growth, and fecundity. These data can be used for modeling and population viability analysis. Level 3 monitoring provides the most thorough and rigorous analysis of demographic mechanisms underlying population trends. The three levels can be efficiently nested, so that, for example, a few populations of a species receive intensive Level 3 monitoring while all populations receive a lower intensity of monitoring. Monitoring programs involving these three levels are being used on 13 rare plant species at Tiger Creek Preserve, Florida, owned by The Nature Conservancy. Intensity levels for particular species were chosen based on global and local rarity, logistical constraints, and prior data availability. Examples are given of results for two species with different life histories. Monitoring at three levels for Nolina brittoniana is inconclusive (Level 1), suggests expanding populations (Level 2), and highlights both the need for only minor recruitment to maintain population growth and the uncertainty regarding actual recruitment (Level 3). Level 2 monitoring for Warea carteri clearly shows that fire promotes aboveground population appearance and expansion, although the mechanisms causing this population behavior can only be hypothesized based on available data. (from website, 15.8.2006).

Method Manual, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Emanuel, P.L., Shackleton, C.M. & Baxter, J.S. (2005): Modelling the sustainable harvest of Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra fruits in th South African lowveld. - Forest Ecology and Management 214 (1-3): 91-103.

[7987]

Palms

FruitPart Used:

Plant Group:

Resource Assessment, Sustainable Yield CalculationDescriptors:Sclerocarya birreaTaxa:


- 22 -

List of References

Emerton, L. (1996): Valuing the subsistence use of forest products in Oldonyo Orok Forest, Kenya. - Rural Development Forestry Network Paper 19e: 21-29.

[7831]

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:KenyaCountries:

Endress, B., Gorchov, D. & Noble, R.B. (2004): Non-timber forest production extraction. Effects of harvest and browsing in an understory palm. - Ecological Applications 14: 1139-1153.

[7988]PalmsPlant Group:Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Endress, B.A., Gorchov, D., Peterson, M.B. & Padrón Serrano, E. (2004): Harvest of the palm Chamaedorea radicalis, its effects on leaf production, and implications for sustainable management. - Conservation Biology 18 (3): 822-830.

[7660 !!]

Palms

LeafPart Used:

Plant Group:

Case Study, Harvest Impact, Regeneration, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Chamaedorea radicalisTaxa:

MexicoCountries:

Escalante, S., Montana, C. & Orellana, R. (2004): Demography and potential extractive use o f the liana palm, Desmoncus orthacanthos Martius (Arecaceae), in southern Quintana Roo, Mexico. - Forest Ecology and Management 187 (1): 3-18.

[7989]

PalmsPlant Group:

Demography & Population Structure, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Desmoncus orthacanthosTaxa:

MexicoCountries:

Evans, T. & Oulathong V. Viengkham (2001): Inventory time-cost and statistical power. A case study of a Lao rattan. - Forest Ecology and Management 150: 313-322.

[7436 !!]

The paper determines the optimal survey design for an inventory of the commercially important rattan Calamus poilanei in Laos. It aims at finding out how much time an optimally designed survey would require. Based on a 7-day pilot study, a model was developed to determine the optimal survey design which minimises survey time for a given survey precision. For the study the stems of this single-stemmed palm species were only counted in the plots, no length measurements were taken. The study revealed that a density estimate with the relatively low precision of 20% is predicted to require 30 days of work in the forest for a team of 4-5 people to survey 10km2, and 229 days for an area of 100 km2. It is most unlikely that individual Lao villages will be able to invest this much time in a single resource. Economising the survey efforts, however, could reduce the precision of the results to such a degree that the data cease to be meaningful. On the aspect of sensitivity of the survey design regarding population declines, the study finds that a series of two surveys one year apart, each with precision of 20%, could only reliably be expected to detect an annual decline in 45% or more. Such a decline would wipe out the population in less than three years. Sensitivity this poor would have very limited value in monitoring programmes. Compared to other studies with less provocative findings, the authors assume that Calamus poilanei may be a particularly difficult one to monitor. However, they also state that existing studies with optimized study design so far rarely stated the survey time required to carry it out on a larger scale or in regular intervals. (schp, 24.7.2006).

PalmsPlant Group:

Critical Analysis, Non-wood forest products, Resource Assessment, StatisticsDescriptors:Calamus poilaneiTaxa:

Lao People's Democratic RepublicCountries:

- 23 -

List of References

Characteristics: Single-stemmed understorey climbing palm in evergreen and semi-evergreen forest.Objectives: Determination of an optimal survey design for inventory of a commercially important rattan.Type of study: Inventory methodologyScale: Pilot study -Ban Naphong, Bolikhamxay Province.Participants: StudentProtocol: Survey line 600 m long running perpendicular from a major stream. Line divided into 100 m sections. A single 20 x 100 m plot laid out perpendicular to the line and centred on it at a randomly selected points in each 100 m section. Each plot sub-divided into 40 subplots of 5 x 10 m. In all sub-plots all stems of C. poilanei with > 1 m between the ground and the base of the petiole of the last fully expanded leaf were counted. The time taken to lay out and enumerate each plot was recorded. Survey team consisted of 5 people, 2 to lay out plot and 3 to enumerate. Total area enumerated was 12 ha sampled at 10% SI.Analysis: Alternative designs were simulated using the data from the sub-plots. Each plot was divided into an appropriate number of alternative plot sizes and shapes i.e. 2 20x50 or 4 10x50 m. 12 different plot configurations were tested. One of the smaller plots was randomly selected for each large plot and used to estimate the mean and SD for rattan density. The simulation process was repeated 11 times for each alternative plot size except the two largest for which only 1 calculation was possible. Data from the 11 estimates were averaged and use to calculate the coefficient of determination CV for the alternative plot size and shapes. Regression analysis was undertaken to determine an empirical relationship between plot size, shape and CV. Power analysis undertaken to determine the minimum rate of population decline that can be detected by a specific sampling design.


Evstatieva, L. (2003): Biodiversity and resources of medicinal plants in Rila Monastery Nature Park. - In: Peev, D. (ed.): Rapid ecological assessment of Rila monastery Nature Park. pp. 65-69, §, §. Retrieved from http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACY273.pdf, viewed: 31.7.2006.

[2469]


BulgariaCountries:

Evstatieva, L. & Vitkova, A. (2000): Biodiversity of medicinal plants in Central Balkan National Park. - In: Sakalian, M. (ed.): Biological Diversity of the Central Balkan National Park. pp. 58-105, USAID, Sofia.

[6964 !!]

The authors have prepared and present standardized medicinal plant inventories for various sites within the Central Balkan National Park and they give recommendations for improved management of the investigated areas. For each site the medicinal plants with economic importance have been assessed regarding the quantity of the resource in kg for the given area. (schp, 15.2.2003).

Medicinal and aromatic plantsPlant Group:Biomass Production & Yields, Case Study, Population status, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

BulgariaCountries:

Evstatieva, L., Hardalova, R. (2000): Diversity and resources of medicinal plants. - In: Popov, A. & Meshinev, T. (ed.): High mountain treeless zone of the Central Balkan National Park. Biological diversity and problems of its conservation. pp. 437-465, BSBCP, Sofia.

[6958 !!]

The authors have investigated the tree-less, high-altitude regions of the Central Balkan National Park. Field work was carried out in 1996. 105 medicinal plant species were found are assessed and grouped under six major categories which are, however, not clearly defined (Appendix 3). Unfortunately, in Appendix 2, a different grouping is given which appears to be more consistent but which is not reflected in the text. The main part of the text consists of very useful short species accounts. The major information given herein is an estimate of the plant biomass in kg found in the National Park of each species. The method used to arrive at these quantitative estimates is not described in the paper. (schp, 16.2.2003).


Biomass Production & Yields, Case Study, Population status, Resource Assessment, TaxaDescriptors:Alchemilla vulgaris, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, Betonica officinalis, Cetraria islandica, Primula elatior, Primula veris

Taxa:

BulgariaCountries:

Evstatieva, L., Hardalova, R. & Stoyanova, K. (s.dat.): Biodiversity of medicinal plants in Bulgaria. Assessment, conservation and utilisation. - 21 pp., Institute of Botany, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia.

[2447]


BulgariaCountries:

Evstatieva, L., Velichkov, V., Vulyovska, N. (2003): Nature Park. Medicinal plant resources assessment and potential profit. - In: Peev, D. (ed.): Rapid ecological assessment of Rila monastery Nature Park. pp. 181-182, §, §. Retrieved from http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACY273.pdf, viewed: 31.7.2006.

- 24 -

List of References


Falconer, J. (1992): Non-timber forest products in Southern Ghana. Main report. - 244 pp., NRI, Chatham.

[7783]

Market analysis, Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:GhanaCountries:

Characteristics: Wild animals in high forest regionObjectives: Better understanding of the value of forest for policy making and forest management planning. ��Examination of demand and assessment of supply in forest reserves.Type of study: Market surveyScale: Regional -catchment of Kumasi (urban) marketParticipants: Researchers with Game & Wildlife Dept. staffProtocol: Trade network - formal & informal interviews over several months in main urban market, villages and roadside 'chop bars'. Intensive 3 week survey over 3 months. Recording of species, source, ecological zone, capture method, sex, price, weight and transport charges for every animal entering market between 06:30 and 17:30. Marketed volumes - market census, trader interviews and road and lorry station records. Hunting practices - hunter interviews. Consumption patterns - consumer surveys in urban & rural areas and chop bar surveys. Long-term (> 25 years) daily records of species, weight, sex and value of animals entering principal urban market.Analysis: Volumes and value of bushmeat coming into market over study period by species, per month, processing, source etc. Estimated annual value of bushmeat wholesale trade. Consumer demand and preferences. Profiles of hunting practices and proportions entering commercial trade.


Falconer, J. (1996): Developing research frames for non-timber forest products. - In: Ruiz-Perez, M. & Arnold, J.E.M. (ed.): Current issues in non-timber forest products research. Proceedings of the Workshop "Research on NTFP" Hot Springs, Zimbabwe 28 August-2 September 1995. pp. 143-160, CIFOR, ODA, s.loc.

[7792]


Fashing, P.J. (2004): Mortality trends in the African cherry (Prunus africana) and the implication for colobus monkeys (Colobus guereza) in Kakamega Forest, Kenya. - Biological Conservation 120: 449-459.

[7655 !!]

Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkm. is a secondary forest canopy tree species that has been declining over much of its geographical range in sub-Saharan Africa during recent decades due to unsustainable harvesting of its bark for the international medicinal plant trade. One of the locations where the species is experiencing rapid mortality is Isecheno study site in the Kakamega Forest, Kenya where this study was conducted. Between 1997 and 2003, 21% of the P. africana (more than or equal to 10 cm DBH) at Isecheno died and an additional 9% experienced more than or equal to 50% canopy dieback. However, scars from bark harvesting on P. africana were relatively small and scarred trees were not more likely to be dead or dying than unscarred trees, suggesting that bark exploitation is not causing P. africana mortality at Isecheno. Other possible causes that require further evaluation include disease, insect attack, nutrient deficiency, and/or climatic fluctuation. The poor regeneration of P. africana at Isecheno can likely be explained by the relative lack of recent disturbance coupled with the thick undergrowth layer at this site. P. africana mortality is of concern not only because the species is listed as Vulnerable by IUCN, but also because black and white colobus monkeys [Colobus guereza (Rüppell, 1835)] at Isecheno exploit it as their top food species and are particularly reliant on its leaves during times of 'preferred' Moraceae fruit scarcity. The anticipated continued decline of P. africana may have adverse effects on C. guereza feeding habits, intergroup relations, and population density at Isecheno. Conservation of P. africana offers a formidable challenge since the species appears to require disturbance for regeneration, yet at sites where disturbance is occurring, P. africana is often a target of bark harvesters engaging in unsustainable levels of exploitation. (CABI-RAMP, 20053050273).


Demography & Population Structure, Regeneration, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Prunus africanaTaxa:

KenyaCountries:

Flores, C.F. & Ashton, P.M.S. (2000): Harvesting impact and economic value of Geonoma deversa, Arecaceae, and understory palm used for roof thatching in the Peruvian Amazon. - Economic Botany 54: 267-277.

[7990 !!]

Palms

LeafPart Used:

Plant Group:

Harvest Impact, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Geonoma deversaTaxa:

PeruCountries:

- 25 -

List of References

Fong, F.W. (1992): Perspectives for sustainable resource utilization and management of Nipa vegetation. - Economic Botany 46: 45-54.

[4502 !]

CycadsPlant Group:

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Nypa fruticansTaxa:

MalaysiaCountries:

Foster, P.F. & Sork, V.L. (1997): Population and genetic structure of the West African rain forest liana Ancistrocladus korupensis (Ancistrocladaceae). - American Journal of Botany 84: 1078-1091.

[5577 !!]

A. korupensis is a recently described liana from Cameroon whose leaves yield the alkaloid michellamine B, which shows in vitro activity against HIV. The only known population is limited to approx equal to 15000 ha within Korup National Park and its immediate surroundings. Ecological data from 457 individuals at 7 sites indicate that the population is dominated by canopy-climbing individuals. Population densities are low with values ranging from 2.5 to 12.9 plants/ha. Reproductive data suggests limited seed dispersal, episodic fruiting and no vegetative reproduction. Starch gel electrophoresis of 11 enzymes indicated low genetic diversity with only 7.1% of the 14 loci polymorphic. Mean observed (Hobs) and expected (Hc) heterozygosity were 0.022 and 0.041, respectively. Wright's F statistic analysis suggests that A. korupensis is highly inbred (FIS = 0.46) with moderate levels of subpopulation differentiation (FST = 0.12). Michellamine B content differed significantly across leaf types and was higher in mature leaves. There was also a significant relation between Michellamine B content and stage class. Occurrence of rare, unique alleles in samples from most sites, low overall population size and density, and low availability of individuals for recruitment into the adult stage class are important considerations for the rational management of A. korupensis. It is concluded that efforts should be made to protect all the sites and prevent loss of genetic variation (rare alleles) by fragmentation of habitats and subsequent genetic drift. (CABI-RAMP, 19971611185).


LeafPart Used:

Plant Group:

Case Study, Demography & Population Structure, Ecology, Genetic Variability, Habitat, Medicinal property, Population status, Resource Assessment

Descriptors:

Ancistrocladus korupensisTaxa:

CameroonCountries:

Fowler, J. & Cohen, L. (1995): Practical statistics for field biology. - 227 pp., Wiley, New York.

[7646]


Freckleton, R.P., Silva Matos, D.M., Bovi, M.L.A. & Watkinson, A.R. (2003): Predicting the impacts of harvesting using structured population models. The importance of density-dependence and timing of harvest for a tropical palm tree. - Journal of Applied Ecology 40: 846-858.

[7916]PalmsPlant Group:Harvest Impact, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Gagnon, D. (10.5.1999): An analysis of the sustainability of American Ginseng harvesting from the wild. The problem and possible solutions. Final report to the Office of Scientific Authority of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. - Retrieved from http://www.nps.gov/plants/medicinal/pubs/ginseng.htm, viewed: 18.8.2006.

[6908 !!]

The major part of this report describes a two-tiered wild ginseng population monitoring program, and relevant field protocols, which should provide most of the answers needed to manage the ginseng resource for conservation, and perhaps continued harvesting. The monitoring program will yield population dynamics information from the high intensity monitoring of a smaller number of populations, and general population trends from the low intensity monitoring of a larger number of populations. (from summary, 29.11.2002).


RootPart Used:

Plant Group:

Case Study, Population status, Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:Panax quinquefoliusTaxa:


- 26 -

List of References

Characteristics: Long-lived, slow growing temperate forest understorey herb.Objectives: To acquire, direct, empirical evidence of the sustainability or otherwise of wild American ginseng harvesting.Type of study: Demographic monitoringScale: NationalParticipants: Local park staff and researchersProtocol: Two level monitoring programme of large undisturbed wild populations (same protocols as in Gagnon 1999): 1) High intensity monitoring of > 100 identified individuals (tagged or micro-plot mapped) from 5-10 populations per State spread over the species range. 2) Low intensity monitoring of 10-20 populations per State across species range. These populations to be monitored for size class structure i.e. numbers in each size class tallied as well as fruit or seed production for the whole mapped population. 3) Measurement of harvested roots in trade.Analysis: Suggested analyses are: 1) Determination of minimum viable population size, and population growth. These data can be used to generate region-specific annual transition matrices that can be used in stochastic modelling and elasticity matrices to determine critical life stages and transitions for populations growth. 2) Detect population trends. 3) Indication of resource depletion I.e. are roots in trade becoming smaller with fewer sourced from the wild.


Gagnon, D. (22.3.1999): A review of the ecology and population biology of Goldenseal, and protocols for monitoring its populations. Final report to the Office of Scientific Authority of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. - Retrieved from http://www.nps.gov/plants/medicinal/pubs/traffic.htm, viewed: 18.8.2006.

[6909 !!]

The major part of this report describes a two-tiered goldenseal population monitoring program, and relevant field protocols, which should provide most of the answers needed to manage the goldenseal resource for conservation, and perhaps continued harvesting. The monitoring program will yield population dynamics information from the high intensity monitoring of a smaller number of populations, and general population trends from the low intensity monitoring of a larger number of populations. (from summary, 29.11.2002).


RootPart Used:

Plant Group:

Case Study, Population status, Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:Hydrastis canadensisTaxa:


Characteristics: Slow-growing perennial herb in temperate forest.Objectives: Develop protocol for a monitoring programme which will provide data of wild population dynamics and vulnerability to harvests.Type of study: Monitoring protocolScale: NationalParticipants: Local forestry and conservation staffProtocol: Extensive, low intensity population trend monitoring programme of 10-20 populations per State. Intensive, high intensive population dynamics monitoring programme of 5-10 populations per State. Study population selection criteria: (1) a minimum number of 100 individual plants [which is the estimated minimum viable population size], (2) no evidence of harvesting, (3) remote location, (4) similar and typical habitat, (5) no evidence of recent natural disturbance. At each site: soil collected for analysis and % cover in vegetation strata e.g. tree, shrubs etc. recorded. Patches of plants mapped in detail in 1 m² square micro-plots marked into 20x20 cm grid and sequentially numbered. In subsequent years, recruits should be numbered and the parent plant identified. Measurement for each plant: sequential number, ht in cm to lowest leaf, maximum width in cm of all leaves, % of leaf area browsed and the number of fruit segments which are assumed to contain seed. Germination: 50 seeds collected from non-study plants and sown under wire cages at each study population. 25 seeds taken of germination at research station in standard conditions. Measurements taken in July (fruiting season) every year.Analysis: Plants grouped into cohorts according to size and demographics of each group determined as averages of all plants in the cohort. Rates of mortality, growth, flower production, seed production, vegetative offshoots are required. Data used in size classified transition matrix to determine the overall growth rate of the population for each year of the study. Not used for projection as environmental conditions will not be stable. Advocates the use of at minimum of 4 annual matrices in random order to perform stochastic population projections. Projections of a stochastic series of 100 years can be used to estimate the minimum viable population size (maximum size of population which gives 5% extinction of populations) and to predict the effects on population survival of harvesting.


Galetti, M. & Aleixo, A. (1998): Effects of palm heart harvesting on avian frugivores in the Atlantic rainforest of Brazil. - Journal of Applied Ecology 35: 286-293.

[7917]

Palms

SeedPart Used:

Plant Group:Harvest Impact, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

BrazilCountries:

Ganeshaiah, K.N., Shaanker, R.U., Murali, K.S., Shankar, U. & Bawa, K.S. (1998): Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Rangan Hills, India. 5. Influence of dispersal mode on species response to anthropogenic pressures. - Economic Botany 52: 316-319.

Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:IndiaCountries:

- 27 -

List of References

[7991]

Gaston, K.J. (1996): The multiple forms of the interspecific abundance-distribution relationship. - Oikos 76: 211-220.

[7474 !!]Abundance & Rarity, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Geldenhuys, C.J. (2004): Meeting the demand for Ocotea bullata bark. Implications for the conservation of high-value and medicinal tree species. - In: Lawes, M.J., Eeley, H.A.C., Shackleton, C.M. & Geach, B.G.S. (eds.) (ed.): Indigenous forests and woodlands in South Africa. Policy, people and practice. pp. 517-550, University of KwaZulu-Natal Press, Scottsville, South Africa.

[7930 !!]


BarkPart Used:

Plant Group:

Case Study, Harvest Impact, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Ocotea bullataTaxa:


Geldenhuys, C.J. (2004): Bark harvesting for traditional medicine. From illegal resource degradation to participatory management. - Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research 19 (Suppl. 4): 1-13.

[7926 !!]


BarkPart Used:

Plant Group:

Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource Assessment, Resource Management Procedures & Approaches

Descriptors:

Ocotea bullataTaxa:


Geldenhuys, C.J. & van der Merwe, C.J. (1988): Population structure and growth of the fern Rumohra adiantiformis in relation to frond harvesting in the southern Cape forests. - South African Journal of Botany 54 (4): 351-362.

[7593 !!]

"Studies the effect of various harvest intensities under controlled conditions on the size of fronds from Rumohra adiantiformis used for floral greenery. A management experiment was begun in 1982 to allow harvesting of fern fronds from state lands. Only mature, hardened (nonwilting), unblemished fronds have value for the florist trade. Frond size, color, and form are crucial to quality. Demographic and phenological studies of fern populations showed that populations were sensitive to moisture levels and should not be harvested during months of bud initiation and frond maturation. Cycles of total harvest of mature fern fronds had marked effects on the population structure and size of mature fronds when compared to control plots. Deficiencies of potassium and phosphorus may be the cause of loss of productivity in harvested fern plots. Limiting harvests to only 50 percent of mature ferns may allow for nutrient recycling. Recommendations are made for policies on issuing permits and contract terms, length of harvest season, establishment of permanent reference plots, conditions for site closure to harvest, monitoring and future research, and efforts to develop nursery techniques for domestication. A brief description of the land area, labor force, and infrastructure also are included. This article exemplifies adaptive management strategies using scientific method and statistical analysis for ecosystem conservation of viable populations of commercially valuable species used in the floral greenery trade." (from Hagen & al. 1996, 27.1.2007).

Ferns

LeafPart Used:

Plant Group:

Case Study, Demography & Population Structure, Regeneration, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Rumohra adiantiformisTaxa:


Characteristics: Polymorphic terrestrial fern in semi-dense moist forest.Objectives: Information required to advise managers concerning controlled exploitation of fronds. 3 research questions: (1) understanding of population demographics, (2) determining optimal harvesting strategies, (3) extensive monitoring of exploitation.Type of study: Demographic & harvesting impactsScale: Research -Groenkop Forest, southern Cape province.Participants: ResearchersProtocol: Population structure - 3 parallel transects orientated parallel transects orientated east-west. On each transect circular plots of 0.5 m radius located 5 m apart (39, 43 and 32 plots in each transect). In each plot the number of fronds in each of 5 developmental stages were counted. Six months later, in 10 plots per transect; counted fronds and measured stalk length and width, length and surface area of each lamina in each developmental stage. Growth rates - every month for a year a new line transect was marked at random through the fern stands. 20-30 new buds touching the line were tagged. Every fortnight the following was recorded: frond stage, stalk length, length, width and area of lamina. Frond growth rate calculated as the average length of time a frond remained in a particular developmental stage. Treatment plots -8 blocks selected to represent a gradient from dense to sparse stands. Each block divided into 3 plots of 3x3 m


- 28 -

List of References

with an inner measurement plot of 2x2 m. 3 treatments applied: (1) control, no picking, (2) 22 week picking of all utilisable fronds, (3) 4,3 weeks picking of all utilisable fronds. Treatments applied for 1 year (July 1982-August 1983). Buds, young, mature and overmature frond stages counted monthly. Total number of fronds calculated by correcting counts using bud growth rates to adjust for repeat counts of buds. Towards end of treatments, the lamina length and width of all mature fronds in plots measured to determine the effect of treatment on frond size.Analysis: Population size structure plotted as bar charts. Regression analysis undertaken to determine that the best predictor of lamina size is stalk length. Seasonal variation of bud density and maturation times determined using monthly averages for all plots. Results used with local weather data to create a model of harvestable frond densities suitable for harvest planning. ANOVA used to test for differences in frond size between treatments.

Genova, E., Evstatieva, L., Vitkova, A., Gussev, Ch., Stoeva, T., Peshevski, N. (1996): Mapping of medicinal plants of the Znepole floristic region. - In: Cankov, G. (ed.): Balkanska Naucna Konferencija po Proucvane, Opazvane i Izpolzvane na Gorskite Resursi, T.1 [Proceedings: Second Balkan Sci. Conf. on Study, Conservation and Utilisation of Forest Resources 1; in Russian]. pp. 367-373, RSSA, Sofia.


Ghimire, S.K., McKey, D. & Aumeeruddy-Thomas, Y. (2005): Conservation of Himalayan medicinal plants. Harvesting patterns and ecology of two threatened species, Nardostachys grandiflora DC. and Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennel) Hong. - Biological Conservation 124: 463-475.

[7676 !!]

Himalayan medicinal plants are threatened by large scale exploitation for trade. Research applicable to their sustainable use is largely lacking. We analyze the effects of different harvesting patterns on the population ecology of two highly threatened Himalayan medicinal plants, Nardostachys grandiflora (Valerianaceae) and Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Scrophulariaceae), in Shey-Phoksundo National Park and in its buffer zone in northwestern Nepal. We first documented local harvesting approaches of two major user groups, amchi (traditional doctors trained in Tibetan medicine), who harvest plants in a selective manner for local health care purposes, and commercial collectors, who harvest unselectively and at much higher intensity for trade. We then applied the selective harvesting approach of amchi in an experiment to test the effects of different harvesting levels on the population ecology of these two species. These experiments revealed a positive effect of low harvesting levels on plant density, but recruitment and survival rates decreased with increasing harvesting levels. We also analysed the effect of high harvesting pressure for trade on the population ecology of N. grandiflora. Recruitment and survival rates were higher in N. scrophulariiflora than in N. grandiflora; the latter species is more vulnerable to harvesting than the former. The difference between them in sustainability of harvest is related to differences in their strategies of vegetative reproduction and in harvesting practices associated with these strategies. Management of Himalayan medicinal plants can be improved by taking harvesting patterns, plant life forms and growth patterns into consideration. (CABI-RAMP, 20053189842).


RootPart Used:

Plant Group:

Harvest Impact, Regeneration, Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Nardostachys grandiflora, Neopicrorhiza scrophulariifloraTaxa:

NepalCountries:

Giljum, S. & Hinterberger, F. (2000): Wie misst man ökologische Nachhaltigkeit? Ein Vergleich ausgewählter Methoden des "physical accounting". - Natur und Kultur 1 (2): 26-43.

[6862 !!]Resource Assessment, SustainabilityDescriptors:

Gill, G.J. (1993): OK, the data's lousy but its all we've got (being a critique of conventional methods). - IIED, London (Gatekeeper Series 38. Sustainable Agriculture Programme).

[7699]

Critical Analysis, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Gillison, A.N. & Brewer, K.R.W. (1985): The use of gradient directed transects or gradsects in natural resource surveys. - Journal of Environmental Management 20: 103-127.

[7594 !!]

Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:AustraliaCountries:

Gilmour, D. & Inthavong, C. (1997): Sustainable utilisation of non-timber forest products Lao PDR. Report of review and evaluation mission December 1996. - 49 pp., IUCN, Gland.

[7770]

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Lao People's Democratic RepublicCountries:

- 29 -

List of References

Given, D. (1994): Principles and practice of plant conservation. - viii+292 pp., Timber Press, Portland.

[4326 !!]Method Manual, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Godoy, R.O. & Bawa, K.S. (1993): The economic value and sustainable harvest of plants and animals from the tropical forest. Assumptions, hypotheses, and methods. - Economic Botany 47 (3): 215-219.

[4503 !!]

This paper from the early 1990s dates from the early years of increasing research efforts regarding no-timber products from forests. The authors refer to the recent studies and review paper which tried to give estmates of the economic value of these products, esp. in comparison with the value of classical timber value. They argue that many of these studies rely a set of untested assumptions which are largely rejected by the autors and replaced by a series of six hypotheses which need to be tested in future research. This and other articles from the same issue of Economic Botany represent the outcome of a workshop held in 1992 in Bangkok. The authors cite three prominent early studies on the sustainable harvest and economic values of wild plants and animals from forests: Panayotou & Ashton (1992), de Beer & McDermott (1989) and Peters, Gentry & Mendelsohn (1989).Utested assumptions: (1) 'Extraction of plants and animals from forests by rural populations helps conservation because foraging does not disturb the forest as much as logging'. The authors hold against that there is evidence that even indigenous people far from markets can deplete forest goods. (2) 'Extraction of plants and animals from the forest can be a useful way to raise rural income because the benefits go directly to the extractors.' Here, the authors counter that foraging may rather be an inferior occupation, a job done only until people find ways to switch to more profitable occupations. (3) 'Tropical forests should be preserved because it conatins great economic value owing to the many plants and animals used by local people'. This is contrasted by empirical work suggesting that the overall economic value of goods culled from the forests may not be as high as initially hoped for. Instead of 400 US$ estimated by Peters, Gentry & Mendelsohn (1989), the authors arrive only at a value of about 50 US$ per hectare. (schp, 26.8.2006).

Critical Analysis, Economics, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Gould, K., Howard, A.F. & Rodriguez, G. (1998): Sustainable production of non-timber forest products. Natural dye extraction from El Cruce Dos Aguadas, Peten, Guatemala. - Forest Ecology and Management 111: 69-82.

[7596 !!]Bark, WoodPart Used:

Case Study, Demography & Population Structure, Resource Assessment, Resource Management Procedures & Approaches, Sustainable Yield Calculation

Descriptors:

GuatemalaCountries:

Green, D.F. & Johnson, E.A. (1994): Estimating the mean annual seed production of trees. - Ecology 75: 642-647.

[7448 !!]

TreesSeedPart Used:

Plant Group:Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Gregoire, T.G. & Köhl, M. (2000): Editorial. Statistical ecology and forest biometry. - Environmental and Ecological Statistics 7: 213-216.

[7925 !!]

This short editorial paper gives an historical overview of the application of biometrical survey methods in forestry. (schp, 31.8.2006).


Gregoire, T.G., Valentine, H.T. & Furnival, G.M. (1995): Sampling methods to estimate foliage and other characteristics of individual trees. - Ecology 76: 1181-1194.

[7597 !!]

TreesLeafPart Used:

Plant Group:Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:

Griffiths, A.D., Philips, A. & Godjuwa, C. (2003): Harvest of Bombax ceiba for Arboriginal arts industry, central Arnhem Land, Australia. - Biological Conservation 113: 295-305.

[7992 !!]

TreesPlant Group:

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Bombax ceibaTaxa:

AustraliaCountries:

- 30 -

List of References

Gronow, J. & Safo, E. (1996): Collaborative forest resource assessment surveys for the management of community forest reserves in Ghana. - In: Carter, J. (ed.): Recent approaches to participatory forest resource assessment. pp. 111-134, ODI, London (Rural development forestry study guide 2).

[2517]

Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:GhanaCountries:

Groombridge, B. & Jenkins, M.D. (ed.) (1996): Assessing biodiversity status and sustainability. - iv+104 pp., WCMC, Cambridge (WCMC Biodiversity Series 5).

[5010 !!]

The aim of this publication is to outline approaches suitable for use by developing countries to assess, with reference to socio-economic factors, the status and sustainability of national biodiversity. In an annex a comparative overview of the major biodiversity assessment techniques is given. (from summary, 5.5.1997).


Guedje, N.M., Lejoly, J., Nkongmeneck, B.A. & Jonkers, W.B.J. (2003): Population dynamics of Garcinia lucida (Clusiaceae) in Cameroonian Atlantic forests. - Forest Ecology and Management 177 (1/3): 231-241.

[7074]

Garcinia lucida Vesque (Clusiaceae) is a highly valued non-timber forest tree. The bark and the seeds are exploited and commercialised for medicinal purposes and palm wine processing in Cameroon, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea. The bark is often removed over almost the entire circumference of the stem, leading to high mortality. To identify the processes or the life stages that influence the population dynamics and to forecast the potential effects of harvesting, a demography study was carried and a matrix model was constructed to characterise the population dynamics of G. lucida in the South Cameroonian Atlantic humid forests. The study revealed that height and diameter growth values were very low and may constitute biological disadvantages for the dynamics of the species. The flowering and fruiting model, the absence of seed dormancy, and the high germination and seedling survival rates constituted advantages for the population dynamics, which is characterised by effective regeneration strategies. Rates of growth, survival and fecundity allowed calculations of transition probabilities of the matrix model. The value of the dominant eigenvalue (λ) was 1.063, slightly higher than the value expected for stable populations. The sensitivities of λ to changes showed that the population growth was most sensitive to changes in tree growth, particularly in the seedling stage. Elasticity analysis showed that growth and fecundity elements had much lower contributions to λ, indicating that the harvesting of seeds may have a low impact on population growth. However, the population growth was highly sensitive to changes in survival probability, particularly among trees of 5-10 cm, diameter at breast height (dbh). The last stages, containing the large reproductive individuals over 10 cm dhb, which are interesting for the bark extraction, accounted for lowest elasticity, indicating that the extraction of bark may have at least a low impact on population growth. Thus, there maybe a good scope for sustainable extraction of G. lucida bark in these stages. The size-class 5-10 cm dbh proved by loop analysis to be the most important reproductive stage for population maintenance. However, individuals in this size-class are also exploited by forest gatherers, and increased exploitation pressure on trees in this size-class is likely to have a considerable impact on the population growth and to compromise the scope for sustainable exploitation of this resource. (CABI-RAMP, 20033070721).


Demography & Population Structure, Population dynamics, Population status, Resource Assessment

Descriptors:

Garcinia lucidaTaxa:

CameroonCountries:

Guijt, I. & Hinchcliffe, F. (1998): Participatory valuation of wild resources. An overview of the Hidden Harvest methodology. - 28 pp., IIED, London.

[7834]


Gunatilake, H.M., Senaratne, M.A.H. & Abeygunawardena, P. (1993): Role of non-timber forest products in the economy of the peripheral communities of Knuckles National Wilderness Area of Sri Lanka. A farming systems approach. - Economic Botany 47: 275-281.

[7913]

Cultivation, Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Sri LankaCountries:

Gutierrez, L. & Vovides, A.P. (1997): An in situ study of Magnolia dealbata Zucc. in Veracruz. An endangered endemic tree of Mexico. - Biodiversity and Conservation 6: 89-97.

Case Study, Demography & Population Structure, Population dynamics, Resource Assessment, Threat

Descriptors:

Magnolia dealbataTaxa:

- 31 -

List of References

[5558 !!]MexicoCountries:

Hachfeld, B. (2003): Ecology and utilisation of Harpagophytum procumbens (Devil's Claw) in southern Africa. - 272 pp., Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Bonn (Plant Species Conservation Monographs 2).

[7153 !!]


RootPart Used:

Plant Group:

Ecology, Resource Assessment, Resource managementDescriptors:Harpagophytum procumbensTaxa:

Namibia, South AfricaCountries:

Hagen, B. von, Weigand, J.F., McLain, R., Fight, R. & Christensen, H.H. (1996): Conservation and development of of non-timber forest products in the Pacific Northwest. An annotated bibliography. - 246 pp., USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Portland, OR (Gen. Tech. Rep PNW-375). Retrieved from http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/fight.pdf, viewed: 22.8.2006.

[7900 !!]Medicinal and aromatic plantsPlant Group:Bibliography, Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Hall, P. & Bawa, K. (1993): Methods to assess the impact of extraction of non-timber tropical forest products on plant populations. - Economic Botany 47 (3): 234-247.

[7598 !!]

The paper outlines and briefly describes methods that may be used to assess the impact of harvest on population processes of NTFP species under harvest. It presents sampling protocols for rapid or short-term assessment as well as long term monitoring of populations. The authors define sustainability with respect to both the target species and its ecosystem: "Extraction is considered sustainable if the harvest has no long term deleterious effect on the reproduction and regeneration of populations being harvested in comparison to equivalent non-harvested natural populations. Furthermore, sustainable harvest should have no discernable adverse effect on other species in the community, or on ecosystem structure and function."In order to assess sustainability of harvesting a NTFP, knowledge of distribution, abundance, population structure (i.e. density, age/size distribution, number of reproductive adults), population dynamics (i.e. mortality, recruitment) is required and the effect of harvesting on these parameters. The authors repeatedly focus on the need to include a natural area which is not subject to human-induced disturbance into the field assessments, otherwise there will be no baseline data for determining the effects of harvest. Only direct comparison between natural and harvested populations yields sufficient information to assess sustainability. (schp, 8.8.2006).


Halls, L.K. & Dell, T.R. (1966): Trial of ranked-set sampling for forage yields. - Forest Science 12: 22-26.

[7824]Grasses, incl. bambooPlant Group:Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:

Hauhs, M. & Lange, H. (2004): Was ist ein ökologischer Schaden? Ein Ansatz für die Bestimmung virtueller Standards. - In: Potthast, T. (ed.): Ökologische Schäden. Begriffliche, methodologische und ethische Aspekte. pp. 25-50, Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main (Theorie in der Ökologie 10).

[7944 !!]


Havel, V. (1996): The World Bank participation sourcebook. - Retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/sourcebook/sbhome.htm, viewed: 11.9.2006.

[2519]


Healey, J.R. & al. (1998): Rapid assessment of plant biodiversity. - In: Watt, A. et al. (ed.): Evaluation and development of methods of rapid biodiversity assessment in relation to the conservation of biodiversity in tropical moist forests. pp. 1-7, ITE, Unpublished, Edinburgh.

[7692]

Rapid Assessment, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Hedge, S.G. & Ellstrand, N.C. (1999): Life history differences between rare and common flowering plant species of

- 32 -

List of References

California and the British Isles. - International Journal of Plant Sciences 160: 1083-1091.

[7477 !!]

Abundance & Rarity, Life Form, Rarity, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:United Kingdom, United StatesCountries:

Hentschel, J. (1998): Distinguishing between types of data and methods of collecting them. - World Bank, Washington (Policy Research Working Papers 1914). Retrieved from http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/1998/04/01/000009265_3980624143327/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf, viewed: 18.8.2006.

[7701 !!]Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Hertog, W.H. den & Wiersum, K.F. (2000): Timur (Zanthoxylum armatum) production in Nepal. Dynamics in nontimber forest resource management. - Mountain Research and Development 20: 136-145.

[7823]

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Zanthoxylum armatumTaxa:NepalCountries:

Heywood, V.H. (1987): Plant population biology and conservation. - In: Fitter, R. & Fitter, M. (ed.): The road to extinction. Problems of categorizing the status of taxa threatened with extinction. Proceedings of a symposium held by the SSC, Madrid, 7-9- November 1984. pp. 64-66, IUCN & UNEP, Gland and Cambridge.

[4470 !!]

This paper from the late 1980s marks the era where population biology of plant was just beginning to develop and where demographic approaches were being transferred from human and animal research to plants. The purpose of this short conference paper is to draw attention to some of the more salient differences between plant and animal populations in terms of their structure and function.Mobility: Higher plants are non-mobile and dependent on the elements or animals for dispersal of propagules. Clumped distribution often results in some members being under stress by density. Lif cycle strategies: For plant conservation purposes, five phases can be divided; (i) pre-dispersal, (ii) dispersal, (iii) germination and establishment, (iv) adult stage, (v) flowering and fertilization. Modular structure: A plant is an assemblage of parts that are born and die at different times. The units of construction like leaves, flowers or seeds are sometimes more relevant for population dynamics that the whole plant. Reproduction: Vegetative reproduction plays an important role. Seed dormancy and seed banks have no parallel in animal populations. Asexual reproduction like agamospermy may substitute sexual reproduction by seed. Polyploidy: Polyploidy affects population biology, structure and evolution in many ways. There is no parallel to this in the animal kingdom. (schp, 18.8.2006).


Heywood, V.H. & Watson, R.T. (ed.) (1995): Global biodiversity assessment. Summary for policy-makers. - 1140 pp., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

[7615 !]

Biodiversity, Resource Assessment, Resource Management PoliciesDescriptors:

Higgins, M.A. & Ruokolainen, K. (2004): Rapid tropical forest inventory. A comparison of techniques based on inventory data from western Amazonia. - Conservation Biology 18 (3): 799-811.

[7658 !!]

TreesPlant Group:Rapid Assessment, Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:

PeruCountries:

Homma, A.K.O. (1992): The dynamics of extraction in Amazonia. A historical perspective. - In: Nepstad, D.C. & Schwartzman, S. (ed.): Non-timber products from tropical forests. Evaluation of a conservation and development strategy. pp. 23-31, New York Botanical Garden, New York (Advances in Economic Botany 9).

[4545 !]

Collection, Economics, Non-wood forest products, Resource Assessment, Resource managementDescriptors:

Hosford, D. (1996): Study 13. Shiro analysis of matsutake in the Central Washington Cascade Range.. - In: Pilz, D. & Molina, R. (ed.): Managing forest ecosystems to conserve fungus diversity and sustain wild mushroom harvests. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-371. pp. 83-85, USDA Forest Service. Pacific Northwest Research Station, .

MushroomsPlant Group:Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

- 33 -

List of References

[7602]

Hosford, D., Pilz, D., Molina, R. & Amaranthus, M. (1997): Ecology and management of the commercially harvested American Mathsutake mushroom. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-412. - 68 pp., USDA Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station, .


Ingles, A., Jackson, B., Singh, H.B., Dev, O.P. & Branney, P. (1996): Resource assessment for forest management by user groups. Two case studies from Nepal. - In: Carter, J. (ed.): Recent approaches to participatory forest resource assessment. pp. 135-169, ODI, London (Rural development forestry study guide 2).

[7709]

Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:NepalCountries:

Inglis, A. (1991): Harvesting local forestry knowledge. A comparison of RRA and conventional surveys. - IIED, London (RRA Notes 12. Sustainable Agriculture Programme).

[7702]


Isaev, D.I., (2005): Resursy dikorastuschich lekarstwennich rastenij zagatalskogo rajona (Azerbaidschan) [Resources of wild growing medicinal plants in the region of Zagatal'skij (Aserbaidschan); in Russian]. - Rastitel'nye Resursy 2: 73-80.

[2559]


AzerbaijanCountries:

IUCN (1976): Proceedings of an International Meeting on Ecological Guidelines for the use of Natural Resources in the Middle East and South West Asia held at Persepolis, Iran 24-30 May 1975. - 229 pp., IUCN, Morges (IUCN Publications new series 34).

[2454]


Jakowlew, G.P. (1998): O resursowedenii lekarstwennych rastenii w Rossii [About the research of plant resources in Russia, 'Pharmvestnik, Nr. 8, 16 - 30 April 1998; in Russian]. - Retrieved from http://www.pharmvestnik.ru/, viewed: 17.1.2007.

[2560]

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Russian FederationCountries:

Jeanrenaud, J.-P. & Thompson, I. (1986): Daphne (Lokta), bark biomass production management implications for paper making in Nepal. - Commonwealth Forestry Review 65: 117-130.

[2521]BarkPart Used:

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:NepalCountries:

Jessen, R.J. (1955): Determining the fruit count on a tree by randomized branch sampling. - Biometrics 11: 99-109.

[7603 !!]

TreesFruitPart Used:

Plant Group:Resource Assessment, StatisticsDescriptors:

Johannes, R.E. (June 1998): The case for data-less marine resource management. Examples from tropical nearshore finfisheries. - Trends in Ecology & Evolution, Reference edition: TREE 13 (6): 243-246.

[7435 !!]


- 34 -

List of References

Jong, R.J. & Bonnor, G.M. (1995): Pilot inventory for Pacific Yew. - 18 pp., Canadian Forest Service and British Columbia Ministry of Forests, s.loc (FRDA report 231).


Joyal, E. (1996): The palm has its time. An ethnoecology of Sabal uresana in Sonora, Mexico. - Economic Botany 50: 446-462.

[7993]

PalmsPlant Group:

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Sabal uresanaTaxa:

MexicoCountries:

Kalinowski, M. (1998): Non-wood forest products in Poland. - In: Lund, H.G., Pajari, B. & Korhonen, M. (ed.): Sustainable development of non-wood goods and benefits from boreal and cold temperate forests. pp. 87-92, European Forestry Institute, Joensuu (EFI Proceedings 23).


Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Frangula alnus, Vaccinium myrtillusTaxa:PolandCountries:

Characteristics: Understorey shrubs in temperate forest.Objectives: Obtain information about the spatial distribution of existing resource, Quantitative and qualitative characteristics, Develop yield tables which would show the availability of raw-materialType of study: Questionnaire of local forestry staffScale: National in 1950's & 60'sParticipants: Local forestry staffProtocol: Questionnaire at compartment level completed by local forestry staff based on personal knowledge, field surveys and visual observations to estimate the area of ground covered by the target species in compartments (~25 ha). Occurrence scored into classes (e.g. massive, abundant, rather abundant etc.). This was followed by a more objective % cover assessment (e.g. < 5%, 6-30%, 31-60%, > 60% for Frangula alnus). Sites also scored into production potential classes (3 for lowland and 1 for mountains) based on plant density and heights. From 1997 - More plants added - similar approach to previous surveys used including more field observations and questions on the state, protection activities and use of the resources.Analysis: Tables of the area in ground cover x production classes.


Kauffman, G. (2006): Conservation assessment for American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.). - 74 pp., USDA, Forest Service, Eastern Region, Asheville, North Carolina. Retrieved from http://www.fs.fed.us/r9/wildlife/tes/ca-overview/docs/Plants/American%20Ginseng.pdf, viewed: 4.12.2006.

[8015 !!]


Collection volume, Distribution, Map, Population status, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Panax quinquefoliusTaxa:


Kerr, J.T., Sugar, A. & Packer, L. (2000): Indicator taxa, rapid biodiversity assessment, and nestedness in an endangered ecosystem. - Conservation Biology 14 (6): 1726-1734.

[7607 !!]

Rapid Assessment, Resource Assessment, Species RichnessDescriptors:CanadaCountries:

Khali, A.H., Aminuddin, M. & Azmy, Hj. M. (1995): Bamboo resource mapping using remote sensing. - In: Hussein, N., Bacon, P.S. & Choon, K.K. (ed.): Proceedings of the 3rd Conference on Forestry and Forest Products Research, 3-4 Oct. 1995. pp. 56-62, FRIM, s. loc. (FRIM Kepong 1).

[7753]

Grasses, incl. bamboo

SeedPart Used:

Plant Group:Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:

MalaysiaCountries:

- 35 -

List of References

Characteristics: Understorey clumping, woody grass in logged over forest.Objectives: Investigation of usefulness of satellite imagery for mapping bamboo areas in tropical logged forest.Type of study: MappingScale: Reserve -Chebar Forest Reserve, Nami, Kedah.Participants: ResearchersProtocol: Used digital image process and visual interpretation of hardcopy (TM 453). Used hardcopy for ground truthing. Field inventory: sample points randomly chosen in mapped units containing bamboo. Plots were 100x100m (1 ha). Stems tallied into diameter classes. Numbers of culm and clumps in plot counted.Analysis: Visual interpretation of bamboo-dominated forest was possible in colour composite images. Field data used to determine bamboo densities and permitted the discrimination of two bamboo density classes in each of the 2 bamboo forest types.


Kier, G., Mutke, J., Dinerstein, E., Rickens, T.H. Küper, W., Kreft, H. & Barthlott, W. (2005): Global patterns of plant diversity and floristic knowledge. - Journal of Biogeography 32: 1-10.

[7981 !!]Medicinal and aromatic plantsPlant Group:Abundance & Rarity, Diversity, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Killmann, W., Ndeckere, F., Vantomme, P. & Walter, S. (2003): Developing inventory methodologies for non-wood forest products. Lessons learned from an analysis of case studies in African countries. - In: Donoghue, E.M, Benson, G.L. & Chamberlain, J.L. (ed.): Sustainable production of wood and non-wood forest products. Proceedings of the IUFRO Division 5 Research Groups 5.11 and 5.12, Rotorua, New Zealand, March 11-12, 2003. pp. 83-87, USDA Forest Service, Portland.

[7360 !!]

The paper summarizes the findings of a EU and FAO funded programme in several African countries and of the subsequent expert meetings. For several NTFPs field testing of inventory protocols was carried out and evaluated. Six case studies were implemented. For each, a draft inventory protocol was designed and tested in the field, using a.o. systematic vs. random sampling, multiple species (MSI) vs. single species (SSI) inventory methods, and adaptive clsuter sampling (ACS): (1) Inventory of populations and quantification of the production of quinquéliba leaves (Combretum micranthum) in Benin. (2) Testing techniques for the quantification of Pausinystalia johimbe bark in Cameroon. (3) Testing of techniques for assessment of wild fruit yields of baobab (Adansonia digitata) in Kenya. (4) Utilization of local knowledge to assess harvesting yield of wild mushrooms in Malawi. (5) Using ACS for the quantification of leaves of the liana species Gnetum buchholzianum in the Central African Republic. (6) Testing inventory technique approaches through a comparison of inventory of single species to multiple-species in Zambia. (schp, 9.8.2006).

Case Study, Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:Adansonia digitata, Combretum micranthum, Gnetum buchholzianum, Pausinystalia johimbeTaxa:Benin, Central African Republic, Cameroon, Kenya, Malawi, ZambiaCountries:

Kinhal, G.A., Jagannatha Rao R. & Lawrence, A. (2006): A methodological template for participatory planning and designing for sustainable harvesting of medicinal plants. - In: Miththapala, S. (ed.): Conserving medicinal species. Securing a healthy future. pp. 147-157, IUCN Ecosystems and Livelihoods Group, Asia, Colombo.

[7675 !!]

The authors have designed and tested a methodology in India to enable communities to monitor medicinal plant populations in a rigorous way and to experiment with alternative management systems. With an aim to recognise local conditions and knowledge and to provide reliable information, the method is trying to link standard scientific methods with the growing experience of participatory research. The main part of the paper lays out the objectives and community oriented approaches taken (local participation, implementation, capacity building, participatory tools, dissemination and integration). Only little information is given on the field inventory and assessment methods themselves that have been indentified as being both culturally acceptable and scientifically rigorous. (schp, 12.8.2006).

Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:IndiaCountries:

Kleinn, C., Laamanen, R. & Malla, S.B. (1996): Integrating the assessment of non-wood forest products into the forest inventory of a large area. Experiences from Nepal. - In: FAO (ed.): Domestication and commercialization of non-timber forest products in agroforestry systems. pp. 23-31, FAO, Rome (Non-wood Forest Products 9).

[7731]


- 36 -

List of References

Characteristics: Low growing, non-woody plants in hill forest.Objectives: Trial of protocol for integrating NWFP resources into conventional forest inventory.Type of study: Methodological developmentScale: Local -Dhading & Nuwakot DistrictsParticipants: Forestry staffProtocol: 0.1 ha (100x10m or 200x5m) strip for NWFPs laid between 18m radius tree plots. N=20 clusters. Team of NWFP specialists (2xbotanists, field assistant and local helper) accompanied forest inventory team. Useful parts of 5 specimens of each species weighed and mean used to estimate weight per unit area.Analysis: Plot size too small, need 5-10% enumeration because of clumped nature of species.


Kolb, A., Barsch, F. & Diekmann, M. (2006): Determinants of local abundance and range size in forest vascular plants. - Global Ecology and Biogeography 15: 237-247.

[7471 !!]

Abundance & Rarity, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:GermanyCountries:

Konstant, T.L., Sullivan, S. & Cunningham, A.B. (1995): The effects of utilization by people and livestock on Hyphaene petersiana (Arecaceae) basketry resources in the palm savanna of north-central Namibia. - Economic Botany 49: 345-356.

[7821]

Palms

LeafPart Used:

Plant Group:

Harvest Impact, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Hyphaene petersianaTaxa:

NamibiaCountries:

Kortesharju, J. (1988): Cloudberry yields and factors affecting the yield in northern Finland. - Acta Botanica Fennica 136: 77-80.


Biomass Production & Yields, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:FinlandCountries:

Kruger, L.M., Midgley, J.J. & Cowling, R.M. (1997): Resprouters vs reseeders in South African forest trees. A model based on forest canopy height. - Functional Ecology 11: 101-105.

[7450 !!]

TreesPlant Group:Regeneration, Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:


Kuchko, A.A. (1988): Bilberry and cowberry yields and the factors controlling them in the forests of Karelia, USSR. - Acta Botanica Fennica 136: 23-25.


Biomass Production & Yields, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Vaccinium myrtillus, Vaccinium vitis-idaeaTaxa:Russian FederationCountries:

Characteristics: Understorey shrubs of boreal forest.Objectives: Understanding of berry productivityType of study: PSP & long-term monitoringScale: Regional -KareliaParticipants: ResearchersProtocol: Annual monitoring of permanent sample plots began in 1974. a) Sample plots of 0.3-0.4 ha located in different forest types. Complete description of ground cover and assessment of forest canopy made for each plot. In each plot berry yield assessed in 40 systematically laid out quadrats of 1 m² and 3-5 replicate samples of 100 berries picked an weighted to give yield per hectare. b) 'random' routes across different taxation portions. Main phytocenosic and topographic factors influencing productivity recorded and berries counted in temporary quadrats of 0.5-1 m². 30-100 plots measured depending on the size and character of the stands.Analysis: Design gives a 15-20% precision which is deemed acceptable for industrial and scientific purposes. Data from 1974-1983 analysed for phenology and to determine the conditions required for heavy fruiting which was found to be meteorological conditions in both the current and previous year, forest type and within a type on tree canopy closure. Yield fluctuates significantly


- 37 -

List of References

between years and between plots within a forest type.

Kukuev, Y. (1999): Non-wood forest products in northwest Russia. - In: Niskanen, A. & Demidova, N. (ed.): Research approaches to support non-wood forest products sector development. Case of Arkhangelsk Region, Russia. pp. 53-61, European Forestry Institute, Joensuu (EFI Proceedings 29).

[7858]

Mushrooms

FruitPart Used:

Plant Group:Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:


Kunin, W.E. & Gaston, K.J. (ed.) (1997): The biology of rarity. Causes and consequences of rare-common differences. - xi+280 pp., Chapman & Hall, London (Population and Community Biology Series 17).

[5533 !!]

Abundance & Rarity, Rarity, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Kuzmanow, B. (1989): Postigenija i perspektiwi na izsledwane, opazwane i razionalno izpolzwane na lechebnite rastenija w Instituta po botanika s botanicheska gradina pri BAN [Research on conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants; in Russian]. - Fitologija Phytology 37: 46-59.


LaFrankie, J.V. (1994): Population dynamics of some tropical trees that yield non-timber forest products. - Economic Botany 48: 301-309.

[4506 !]

Demography & Population Structure, Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Aquilaria malaccensis, Cinnamomum mollissimumTaxa:MalaysiaCountries:

Laird, S. (1995): The natural management of tropical forests for timber and non-timber products. - 63 pp., Oxford Forestry Institute, Oxford (OFI Occassional Papers 49).

[7777 !!]


Lama, Y., Ghimire, S. & Aumeeruddy, Y. (2001): Conservation of plant resources, community development and training in applied ethnobotany at Shey-Phoksundo National Park and its buffer zone, Dolpa. - s.pag., WWF, § (WWF, Year 4 Report).

[2440]

Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:NepalCountries:

Lammerts van Bueren, E.M & Blom, E. (1997): Hierarchical framework for the formulation of sustainable forest management standards. - : 82. Retrieved from http://www.piec.org/mswg_toolkit/mswg_toolkit/data/Tools/1-15/06_C&I_framework.pdf, viewed: 23.6.2006.

[7219 !!]Medicinal and aromatic plantsPlant Group:Resource Assessment, Standard, SustainabilityDescriptors:

Lamont, B.B., le Maitre, D.C., Cowling, R.M. & Enright, N.J. (1991): Canopy seed storage in woody plants. - The Botanical Review 57: 277-317.

[7451 !!]

TreesSeedPart Used:

Plant Group:Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Langner, L.L. (1998): Non-wood goods and benefits in the UN-ECE/FAO temperate and boreal resources assessment 2000. - In: Lund, H.G., Pajari, B. & Korhonen, M. (ed.): Sustainable development of non-wood goods and benefits from boreal and cold temperate forests. pp. 69-74, European Forestry Institute, Joensuu (EFI Proceedings 23).

- 38 -

List of References


Larsen, H.O. (1999): The importance, management systems and possible inventory methods of non-timber forest products in Nepal. MSc thesis. - 99 pp., University of Wales, Unpublished, Bangor.

[7766]


Larsen, H.O. (2005): Impact of replanting on regeneration of the medicinal plant Nardostachys grandiflora DC. (Valerianaceae). - Economic Botany 59 (3): 213-220.

[7688 !!]

This study explores the impact of three different collection methods on the regeneration of this frequently collected and traded plant species which is listed in CITES Appendix II. The collected product is the plant rhizome from which essential oil is extracted. An experiment with 209 2x2m plots on both north- and south-facing slopes of a valley in Ghorka District was conducted over two years. Harvesting 100% of the plants in plots followed by replanting of upper plant parts and 2cm of the rhizome provided the fastest regeneration and rhizome biomass growth. (from summary, 25.1.2007).


Regeneration, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Nardostachys grandifloraTaxa:

Laurance, W.F., Ferreira, L.V., Rankin-de Merona, J.M. & Hutchings, R.W. (1998): Influence of plot shape on estimates of tree diversity and community composition in Central America. - Biotropica 30: 662-665.


Lavergne, S., Thompson, J.D., Garnier, E. & Debussche, M. (2004): The biology and ecology of narrow endemic and wide-spread plants. A comparative study of trait variation in 20 congeneric pairs. - Oikos 107: 505-518.

[7479 !!]

Abundance & Rarity, Rarity, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:FranceCountries:

Law, W. & Salick, J. (2005): Human-induced dwarfing of Himalayan snow lotus, Saussurea laniceps (Asteraceae). - Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102 (29): 10218-10220. Retrieved from http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1177378&blobtype=pdf, viewed: 18.10.2006.

[7968 !!]

Because evolutionary processes such as genetic drift and natural selection play a crucial role in determining the response that species will have to human-induced disturbances, there is increasing interest in the evolutionary aspects of conservation biology. Harvesting select individuals in natural plant populations can bring about unforeseen impacts that may negatively affect fitness. We analyzed how human harvesting affects two congeners known as snow lotus. Over a period of 100 years, there was a negative trend in plant height (r2=0.4361, P<0.001) for the intensely collected and rare species, Saussurea laniceps, but not in the less intensely collected species, Saussurea medusa. Additionally, S. laniceps were significantly smaller in areas of high harvest than in areas with low harvest (Z=4.91, P<0.0001), but this was not so for S. medusa. Humans can unconsciously drive evolution and must be considered when managing threatened species. (CABI-RAMP, 20053134035).


Genetic Variability, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Saussurea laniceps, Saussurea medusaTaxa:

ChinaCountries:

Lawrence, A. (): 'No personal motive?' Volunteers, biodiversity, and the false dichotomies of participation. - Ethics, Place and Environment 9 (3): 279-298.

[7947 !!]Medicinal and aromatic plantsPlant Group:Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Lawrence, A. (2003): No forest without timber?. - International Forestry Review 5 (2): 87-96.The spotlight on non-timber forest products (NTFPs) has changed the face of forestry, but is also a product of its time, emerging in the context of increasingly pluralistic forest management. Early hopes that NTFPs would underpin rural livelihoods, and rescue rural populations from poverty while providing them with a reason to protect and manage forests, led to exaggerated claims of economic potential. They also tended to overlook the great diversity of products referred to, in terms of biological characteristics, and social and economic value, whilst simultaneously ascribing unreasonably lofty

- 39 -

List of References

[7946 !!]

and altruistic goals to some of the world's poorest people. This overview of the contributions to this special issue of IFR points to the more sophisticated understanding of NTFP potential that has been acquired since the early 1990s. Focus on differences among NTFPs has led to literature around more specific groupings, such as bushmeat, indigenous forest fruits, or medicinal plants, each providing amore useful lens for assessing ways in which such products lead to sustainable rural livelihoods and forest management. However, contemplation of NTFPs as a group reminds us that forestry is a complex multi-stakeholder management system, wherein a focus on any one subset of components cannot ignore the ecological and social systems of which they form part. The methodological developments portrayed here advocate a more systemic approach, combining biological and economic approaches with NTFP users' own perceptions and knowledge within adaptive forest management, thereby side-stepping the hazards of the NTFP category. (CABI-RAMP, 20033122724).

Medicinal and aromatic plantsPlant Group:Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Lawrence, A. & Román, F.S. (1996): The role of inventory in the communally managed forests of Quinata Roo, Mexico. - In: Carter, J. (ed.): Recent approaches to participatory forest resource assessment. pp. 83-110, ODI, London (Rural development forestry study guide 2).

[7736]

TreesPlant Group:Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

MexicoCountries:

Lawrence, A., Phillips, O.L., Reategui Ismodes, A., Lopez, M. Rose, S., Wood, D. & Farfan, A.J. (2005): Local values for harvested forest plants in Madre de Dios, Peru. Towards a more contextualised interpretation of quantitative ethnobotanical data. - .

[7664 !!]

Case Study, Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:PeruCountries:

Lawrence, D.C., Leighton, M. & Peart, D.R. (1995): Availability and extraction of forest products in managed and primary forest around a Dayak village in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. - Conservation Biology 9: 76-88.

[7854 !!]Exudate, Fruit, Seed, WoodPart Used:

Abundance & Rarity, Case Study, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Durio spp., Eusideroxylon zwageri, Hevea brasiliensis, Shorea stenopteraTaxa:IndonesiaCountries:

Characteristics: Trees in tropical high forestObjectives: Provision of a quantitative ecological framework to compare forest resources and extraction in different forest types. Examine constraints on stabilising land use through the development of extractive resources. Specific questions: (1) What are the densities of marketable sp. in primary and managed forest. (2) What are the abundances of these sp. in primary and managed forest accessible to the village? (3) Do the population structures of these sp. indicate the potential for long-term extraction? (4) How do the density and abundance of these resources influence the actual extraction and management of forest products?Type of study: InventoryScale: Local - Kembera village lands, West KalimantanParticipants: Researchers and local assistantsProtocol: Fruit garden sampling scheme: opportunistic selection of trails to cover 6 different areas. 2-5 gardens located on each trail, from these 1-3 randomly selected for detailed study to give a total sample of 10 plots. Rice fallow: prepared map of rice farms based on memory of 40-60 year old village informants. Half of fallows indicated on map selected for study such that the age of fallow was similar and plots adequately distributed over the selected trails. Rubber gardens: chosen by village informants (4 wealthy, 7 poor) to be representative of local, productive gardens.Primary forest: 8 plots of 20x200 m randomly placed more than 10 m from and with the long axis perpendicular to trail. Potential timber trees (> 50 cm d) sampled from 10x200 m plot nested within the larger plot.Species identifications done by leaf comparisons with known individuals, experienced local assistants and from specimens by a recognised authority.Area of each type of land use estimated from 6 transects of 1.5 km and from schematic maps of village lands.Area of each land use within 3 radial distances from the village (2.5 km = distance to nearest primary forest, 5.5 all primary forest to next village's cultivated land, 8 km distance into half of nearby reserve) estimated from schematic maps of village land to nearest 10 ha to model extraction.All trees > 10 cm d grouped into 'consumption', 'currently marketable' and 'no particular use' classes by local informants who were judged to have an 'average knowledge of medicinal and religious uses of trees > 10 cm d.Analysis: Abundance of products estimated from net area of gardens with trees > 20 cm d. Tables and graphs illustrating density, abundance and proportion of useful trees by land use type and distance radii. Abundance and use values compared between land use types using Mann-Whitney U-test and Kruskal-Wallis tests. Data from all samples pooled to generate size-class distribution of trees.


Lefkovitch, L.P. (1965): The study of population growth in organisms grouped in stages. - Biometrics 21: 1-18.

- 40 -

List of References

[7452 !!]Resource Assessment, StatisticsDescriptors:

Lieth, H. (1975): Primary production of the major vegetation units of the world. - In: Lieth, H. (ed.): Primary productivity of the biosphere. pp. 203-215, Springer, Berlin.

[7454]

Biomass Production & Yields, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Ludwig, D., Walker, B. & Holling, C.S. (1997): Sustainability, stability, and resilience. - Conservation Ecology (online) 1 (1): 7. Retrieved from http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol1/iss1/art7/, viewed: 18.8.2006.

[6874 !!]

The purpose of this paper is to review some theoretical concepts and present specific examples to illustrate the variety of possible behaviors that natural systems may display under exploitation. The authors define and refine the concepts of stability and resilience. "Some ecological systems display several possible stable states. The concept of resilience depends upon our objectives, the types of disturbances that we anticipate, control measures that are available, and the time scale of interest." A strong mathematical background is needed for the full understanding of the findings. (schp, 2.8.2006).


Lund, H.G. (1998): IUFRO Guidelines for designing multipurpose resource inventories. - 216 pp., IUFRO, Vienna, Vienna (IUFRO World Series 8).

[7710]


Lund, H.G. (1998): A comparison of multipurpose resource inventories throughout the world. - 46 pp., European Forestry Institute, Joensuu (EFI Working Paper 14).

[7698]ExudatePart Used:

Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:Acacia niloticaTaxa:

Characteristics: Scattered trees in forest and farmlandObjectives: Develop a vegetation mapping and inventory programme that would provide base information on woody vegetation for gum production, fuelwood etc. utilising the latest mapping technologies.Type of study: Multi-purpose resource inventory (MRI)Scale: Pilot study for regional inventory -Gum beltParticipants: Government agency staff (inter-agency team)Protocol: Woody vegetation: Systematic 7 km grid with random start and post-stratification based on vegetation maps. 58 plots - 20x100m. Trees & shrubs > 5 cm at root collar enumerated. Tree data: species, d, diameter at root collar, bole height, total height, crown diameter, % cull. Plot information: land cover class, type, condition, tree density and estimates of soil texture class. 1x10m regeneration subplot. Data collected from sample plots to generate individual tree volume tables for wood down to 2 cm in diameter and 0.5 m long using diameter at root collar, total height and crown diameter in regression equation. Socio-economic survey: Interviews, transects established from centre of village to edge of village lands to record chronological and spatial variation in ground cover, changing land use and general soil capability.Analysis: Results analysed on computer and displayed as maps, tables and databases.


Lund, H.G., Pajari, B. & Korhonen, M. (ed.) (1998): Sustainable development of non-wood goods and benefits from boreal and cold temperate forests. - 264 pp., European Forestry Institute, Joensuu (EFI Proceedings 23).

[7828]


Mahapatra, A., & Mitchell, C.P. (1997): Sustainable development of non-timber forest products. Implications for forest management in India. - Forest Ecology and Management 94: 15-29.

[7807]

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:IndiaCountries:

Malhotra, K.C., Poffenberger, M., Bhattacharya, A. & Dev D. (1991): Rapid appraisal methodology trials in Southwest Bengal. Assessing natural forest regeneration patterns and non-wood forest product harvesting practice. - Forest, Trees and People Newsletter 15/16: 18-25.

Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:IndiaCountries:

- 41 -

List of References

[7726]

Characteristics: Species appearing in Shorea robusta forest succession.Objectives: Development of methodology to assess feasibility of community management of natural forest for policy and programme development.Type of study: Rapid appraisal -2 daysScale: State-wide -Southwest BengalParticipants: Multi-disciplinary research teamProtocol: Study sites stratified according to length of time protected and matched for microclimate, floristics and soils. Single100 m² plots at each site located > 50m from forest edge. Structural regeneration: frequency of all plant species in plot; measure 12 upper storey crowns and gaps (selected either randomly or systematically)-crown separation ratio=mean gap/mean crown; measure d and ht of 12 canopy trees; stand profiles drawn for each plot. NTFPs: ethnobotanical survey of all products used for home consumption or sale. Information collected included; harvesting seasons, volumes and parts utilised.Analysis: 1) Description of Shorea robusta succession in West Bengal 2) Lists of plant products available in different ages of regenerating forest. 3) Relative availability of forest products as forest regenerates.


Manipula, B.M., Gianan, N. So. & Virtucio, F.D. (1996): Culm removal effect on culm yield and biomass productivity of laak (Bambusa sp. 2) in flatland and hillyland sites in Pandapan, Tagum, Davao del Norte. - Sylvatrop. Technical Journal of Philippine Ecosystems and Natural Resources 6: 15-34.

[7750]

Grasses, incl. bambooPlant Group:Regeneration, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

PhilippinesCountries:

Männi, R. (1988): Biology and berry production of the cowberry in Estonian SSR. - Acta Botanica Fennica 136: 33-36.

[7853 !!]FruitPart Used:

Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Vaccinium vitis-idaeaTaxa:EstoniaCountries:

Characteristics: Understorey shrub in boreal forest.Objectives: Understanding of the production characteristics of berries in relation to soil and stand structure.Type of study: Productivity, permanent sample plotsScale: Regional -North-west and South-east EstoniaParticipants: ResearchersProtocol: Measurement in 1978-84. 24 and 5 sub-plots containing 430 and 100 permanent 1 m² quadrats respectively from north-west and south-east Estonia. Stand, soil and co-dominant characteristics recorded and visual estimation of productivity/phenology for the V. vitis idaea plants.Analysis: Stepwise-linear regression used to determine the most significant variables that contribute to the variation in berry yield. ANOVA used to determine the significance of the relationships. Two factor hierarchical ANOVA used to test the degree of association between yields in a plot on successive years. Developed predictive (linear multiple-regression) equation for the productivity of the current year and for the next year in the autumn.


Marriott, F.H.C. (1990): A dictionary of statistical terms. Fifth edition. - 223 pp., Longman, Burnt Mill.

[7587]Resource Assessment, StatisticsDescriptors:

Martin, G. (1995): Ethnobotany. A methods manual. - xxiv+268 pp., Chapman & Hall, London (People and Plants Conservation Manuals).

[4006 !!]

This book on ethnobotanical methodology is the first of a series forming a contribution to the People and Plants Initiative of the World Wide Fund for Nature, UNESCO and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew which aims to provide information that will assist botanists to undertake conservation work with local communities. Consisting of 8 chapters that describe the basic concepts, skills and techniques that guide collection of data in the field, the manual is for use in designing projects that yield information that can be applied to community development and biological conservation. The first chapter gives a basic description of data collection and hypothesis testing, whilst chapters 2 to 7 explore the contributions to ethnobotany from the diverse fields of botany, ethnopharmacology, anthropology, ecology, economics and linguistics. Chapter 8 discusses the link between ethnobotany, biodiversity conservation and community development. The manual is tailored for field workers including park rangers,university students, cultural promoters and nature guides, who are beginning their first research project although it will be useful for seasoned ethnobotanists and researchers of related disciplines. (CABI-RAMP, 19941611066).

Ethnobotany, Method Manual, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Martínez-Ballesté, A., Martorell, C., Martínez-Ramos & Caballero, J. (2005): Applying retrospective demographic

- 42 -

List of References

models to assess sustainable use. The Maya management of Xa'an palms. - Ecology and Society 10 (2): 17. Retrieved from http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol10/iss2/art17/, viewed: 30.10.2006.

[7994 !!]

Palms

LeafPart Used:

Plant Group:

Demography & Population Structure, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Sabal yapaTaxa:

MexicoCountries:

McCormack, A. (1998): Guidelines for inventorying non-timber forest products. MSc thesis. - 127 pp., §, Oxford.


McGraw, J.B., Sanders, S.M. & van der Voort, M. (2003): Distribution and abundance of Hydrastis canadensis L. (Ranunculaceae) and Panax quinquefolius L. (Araliaceae) in the central Appalachian region. - Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 130 (2): 62-69.

[7101 !!]

As demand for goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) and ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) intensifies due to the herbal plant trade, basic information about distribution and abundance is needed to inform management strategies. We surveyed 16 sites focusing on West Virginia, but including nearby sites in Pennsylvania, Kentucky, Ohio, and Maryland, USA, to determine H. canadensis and P. quinquefolius presence and abundance. In total we surveyed 29.32 ha over two summers in a wide range of aspects, elevations, management regimes and forest cover types. So few patches of goldenseal were encountered that we were unable to detect statistically significant effects of elevation, aspect, land use or vegetation on either encounter probability or density. Ginseng was more frequently encountered than goldenseal. The probability of encountering ginseng increased with elevation. Overall, ginseng was not more frequent or abundant on north-facing 'cove' forests. A significant elevation xaspect interaction was found, whereby ginseng was most abundant on west-facing slopes at low elevation, but more abundant on east-facing slopes at middle elevations. Extrapolations of ginseng densities to the state of West Virginia suggest that the species is not rare in the typical sense. Instead, it is widespread, but scarce everywhere it is found. Harvest rates are estimated to be approx equal to 5% of the natural ginseng population annually. Understanding basic ecological relationships and management of these species is made difficult by the widespread, dispersed nature of individuals, patches and populations and the complex interaction with human harvesters. (CABI-RAMP, 20033138954).


Abundance & Rarity, Distribution, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Hydrastis canadensis, Panax quinquefoliusTaxa:


McIntyre, G.A. (1952): A method for unbiased selective sampling, using ranked sets. - § pp., §, §.

[7818]Grasses, incl. bambooPlant Group:Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:

Menges, E.S. (1990): Population viability analysis for an endangered plant. - Conservation Biology 4(1): 52-62.

[7907 !!]

Case Study, Demography & Population Structure, Population Viability Analysis, Resource Assessment

Descriptors:

Pedicularis furbishiaeTaxa:United StatesCountries:

Menges, E.S. (2000): Population viability analyses in plants. Challenges and opportunities. - Trends in Ecology & Evolution, Reference edition: TREE 15: 51-56.

[7881!]

Population Viability Analysis, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Menges, E.S. & Gordon, D.R. (2000): Three levels of monitoring intensity for rare plant species. - Natural Areas Journal 16 (3).


Messerschmidt, D.A. & Hammett, A.L. (1998): Local knowledge of alternative forest resources. Its relevance for resource management and economic development. - Journal of Sustainable Forestry 7: 21-55.

- 43 -

List of References


Mi Yoon Chung, Nason, J.D. & Myong Gi Chung (2004): Implications of clonal structure for effective population size and genetic drift in rare terrestrial orchid, Cremastra appendiculata. - .

[7661 !!]

OrchidsPlant Group:

Case Study, Genetic Variability, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Cremastra appendiculataTaxa:

Korea, Republic ofCountries:

Michler, B. , Rotar, I. , Pacurar, F. , Stoie, A. (2005): Arnica montana, an endangered species and a traditional medicinal plant. The biodiversity and productivity of its typical grasslands habitats. - In: Lillak, R., Viiralt, R., Linke, A. & Geherman, V. (ed.): Integrating efficient grassland farming and biodiversity. Proceedings of the 13th International Occasional Symposium of the European Grassland Federation, Tartu, Estonia, 29-31 August 2005. pp. 336-339, §, §.

[7936]

Arnica montana occurs in Nardus stricta grasslands on siliceous soils in mountain areas. This habitat type (Code 6230) is listed in the EU-FFH-directive (92/43) and the species Arnica montana is listed in Annex V (92/43). The maintenance of Arnica populations is closely bound to traditional farming systems. The habitats are threatened by conversion to more intensive agriculture. To stop this, the farmer needs to be compensated to maintain these habitats. The sustainable use of Arnica flower heads can contribute to this. Productivity and biodiversity of its habitats were determined by carrying out an inventory of the meadows from a conservation and economic perspective. The habitats are diverse, but production is low. There is a wide range of productivity, biodiversity, Arnica cover and species composition within the habitats. Biodiversity and productivity are positively correlated, but biodiversity and cover are negatively correlated. To maintain thehigh biodiversity of the grassland and to improve yield of this medicinal plant a balanced meadow management must be found. (CABI-RAMP, 20053211530).


FlowerPart Used:

Plant Group:

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Arnica montanaTaxa:

RomaniaCountries:

Midgley, J.J. (1996): Why is the world's vegetation not totally dominated by resprouters. An architectural hypothesis. - Ecography 19: 92-95.

[7456]

Ecological Functions, Regeneration, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Midgley, J.J., Cowling, R.M., Hendricks, H., Desmet, P.G., Esler, K. & Rundel, P. (1997): Population ecology of tree succulents (Aloe and Pachypodium) in the arid western Cape. Decline of keystone species. - Biodiversity and Conservation 6: 869-876.

[5049 !!]


Case Study, Demography & Population Structure, Population dynamics, Resource Assessment, Threat

Descriptors:

Aloe dichotoma, Aloe pillansii, Pachypodium namaquanumTaxa:


Milton, S. (1987): Effects of harvesting on four species of forest ferns in South Africa. - Biological Conservation 41: 133-146.

[7995 !!]

Ferns

LeafPart Used:

Plant Group:

Regeneration, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Rumohra adiantiformisTaxa:


Milton, S.J. & Moll, E.J. (1988): Effects of harvesting on frond production of Rumohra adiantiformis (Pteridophyta: Aspidiaceae) in South Africa. - Journal of Applied Ecology 25: 735-743.

Harvest Impact, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Rumohra adiantiformisTaxa:

- 44 -

List of References

[7996]

Ferns

LeafPart Used:

Plant Group:South AfricaCountries:

Minore, D. & Weatherly, H.G. (1994): Effects of partial bark removal on the growth of Pacific yew. - Canadian Journal of Forest Research 24 (4): 860-862.

[7935]

Measured growth rates of 121 Taxus brevifolia trees in the Cascade Range of Oregon and Washington that had been damaged from windthrow or logging activity from 3 to 92 years ago, and the growth rate of 121 undamaged trees. Results from the data indicated that yew trees survive and grow well for extended periods after partial bark removal. By inference, trees are likely to survive after partial (<50%) bark stripping for taxol supplies in the event of continued harvests for taxol. (from Hagen & al. 1996, 7.9.2006).


BarkPart Used:

Plant Group:

Harvest Impact, Regeneration, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Taxus brevifoliaTaxa:


Misra, M.K. (2003): Base line information on medicinal plants conservation and sustainable utilisation. Overview report. - 39 pp., sin. loc..


Moegenburg, S.M. & Levey, D.J. (2002): Prospects for conserving biodiversity in Amazonian extractive reserves. - Ecology Letters 5: 320-324.

[7997]


Molina, R., O'Dell, T., Luoma, D., Amaranthus, M., Castellano, M. & Russell, K. (1993): Biology, ecology, and social aspects of wild edible mushrooms in the forests of the Pacific Northwest. A preface to managing commercial harvest. - 42 pp., USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, s.loc (General Technical Report PNW-GTR-309).

[7775]

MushroomsPlant Group:Resource AssessmentDescriptors:


Molina, R., Pilz, D., Fischer, C & Luoma, D. (1994): Developing an inventory and monitoring protocol for commercially harvested forest mushrooms. - In: Schnepf, C. (ed.): Proceedings of the business and science of special forest products, Jan. 26-27, 1994. pp. 127-129, University of Idaho, s.loc.

[7706]MushroomsPlant Group:Resource Assessment, Resource Management Procedures & ApproachesDescriptors:

Molina, R., Vance, N., Weigand, J.F., Pilz, D. & Amaranthus, M.P. (1997): Special forest products. Integrating social, economic, and biological considerations into ecosystem management. - In: Kohm, K.A. & Franklin, J.F. (ed.): Creating a forestry for the 21st century. The science of ecosystem management. pp. 315-336, Island Press, Washington.

[7855]


Morris, W., Doak, D., Groom, M., Kareiva, P., Fieberg, J., Gerber, L., Murphy, P. & Thomson, D. (1999): A practical handbook for population viability analysis. - 79 pp., The Nature Conservancy, §.

[7883]

MushroomsFruitPart Used:

Plant Group:Population Viability Analysis, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

- 45 -

List of References

Mosquin, T. (1994): A conceptual framework for the ecological functions of biodiversity. - Global Biodiversity 4 (3): 2-16.

[4278 !!]Ecological Functions, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Mpho Mosate (): Natural resource monitoring concepts and tools of veld products research and development. - In: Baker, N. (ed.): Developing needs-based inventory methods for non-timber forest products. Application and development of current research to identify practical solutions for developing countries. 4 - 5 May 2000, FAO, Rome. pp. , DFID, Oxford.

[7642 !!]

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Harpagophytum procumbensTaxa:BotswanaCountries:

Mukhina, V.F. (1995): Fruit bearing in Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng. in central Yakutiya [in Russian]. - Rastitel'nye Resursy 31 (3): 81-89.

[4625]

The reproductive capacity of this valuable medicinal species was low; it ranged from 3 to 13% depending on locality. The number of fruits in productive years did not exceed 155/m2, and the number of seeds produced was 700-800/m2. Normal annual fruit production was <50/m2. This was attributed mainly to hard climatic conditions. Reproductive capacity and bearing regularity differed amongst plants of similar age: whereas individual plants cropped prolifically once every 4-5 years, some did so slightly and some not at all. (CABI-RAMP, 19960306392).


FruitPart Used:

Plant Group:

Reproduction, Resource Assessment, Resource managementDescriptors:Arctostaphylos uva-ursiTaxa:


Mulligan, M.R. & Gorchov, D.L. (2004): Population loss of goldenseal, Hydrastis canadensis L. (Ranunculaceae), in Ohio. - Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 131 (4): 305-310.

[7225 !!]

Goldenseal, Hydrastis canadensis L., is harvested from forests in the eastern U.S. for its rhizome, which is considered to have medicinal properties. While listed as rare or threatened in many states, its status in Ohio has not been assessed. To establish the status of historic goldenseal populations, we assessed 71 sites where voucher specimens had been collected from 1845 to 1998. Of these sites, 13% were deforested and no longer supported populations. Goldenseal was found on 65% of the remaining forested sites. Nearly half of documented goldenseal populations have become extinct, suggesting an overall decline of goldenseal in Ohio. The major cause of extinction appears to differ among Ecoregions, with deforestation important in the Eastern Corn Belt Plains, herbivory by white-tailed deer in Erie/Ontario Drift and Lake Plain, and overcollection in the Western Allegheny Plateau. (CABI-RAMP, 20053075367).


RootPart Used:

Plant Group:

Abundance & Rarity, Case Study, Resource Assessment, ThreatDescriptors:Hydrastis canadensisTaxa:


Münzbergová, Z. (2006): Effect of population size on the prospect of species survival. - Folia Geobotanica 41: 137-150.

[7896 !!]

Case Study, Population Viability Analysis, Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Scorzonera hispanicaTaxa:Czech RepublicCountries:

Murali, K.S., Shankar, U., Uma Shaanker, R., Ganeshaiah, K.N. & Bawa, K.S. (1996): Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Raga hills, India. 2. Impact of NTFP extraction on the regeneration, population structure and species composition. - Economic Botany 50: 252-269.

This is the second of a series of three papers. It quantifies and ranks the densities, frequency and importance values, as well as size class distributions and amounts of key products collected, some of the most important of which are medicinal plants such as Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia chebula and T. bellirica. (A.B. Cunningham, 6.2.1997).


Collection, Demography & Population Structure, Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Phyllanthus emblica, Terminalia bellirica, Terminalia chebulaTaxa:

- 46 -

List of References

[4905]IndiaCountries:

Murray, B.R. Thrall, P.H., Gill, A.M. & Nicotra, A.B. (2002): How plant life-history and ecological traits relate to species rarity and commonness at varying spatial scales. - Austral Ecology 27: 291-310.

[7480 !!]

Ecological Functions, Life Form, Rarity, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Mustart, P.J. & Cowling, R.M. (1992): Impact of flower and cone harvesting on seed banks and seed set of serotinous Agulhas Proteaceae. - South African Journal of Botany 58: 337-342.

[7457]FlowerPart Used:Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Mutke, J. & Barthlott, W. (2005): Patterns of vascular plant diversity at continental to global scales. - Biologiske Skrifter 55: 521-531.

[7982 !!]Medicinal and aromatic plantsPlant Group:Abundance & Rarity, Diversity, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Muttlak, H.A. & McDonald, L.L. (1990): Ranked set sampling with size-biased probability of selection. - Biometrics 46: 435-445.


Myers, W.L. & Patil, G.P. (1995): Simplicity, efficiency, and economy in forest surveys. - In: Köhl, M., Bachmann, P., Brassel, P. & Preto, G. (ed.): The Monte Veritá conference on forest survey designs. "Simplicity versus efficiency" and assessment of non-timber resources. Monte Veritá, Switzerland, 2-7 May 1994. pp. 47-55, Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research, Zürich.


Myers, W.L. & Shelton, R.L. (1980): Survey methods for ecosystem management. - 403 pp., John Wiley & Sons, New York.

[7617]Method Manual, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Nandakumar, U.N. & Menon, A.R.R. (1992): Resource survey of rattans. Problems and prospects. - In: Trichur, S. Chand Basha & Bhat, K.M. (ed.): Rattan management and utilisation. Proceedings of the Rattan (Cane) Seminar, India 29-31 January, 1992. pp. , Kerala Forest Research Institute & IDRC, Ottawa.

[7798]

PalmsPlant Group:Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

IndiaCountries:

Characteristics: Climbing palm confined to isolated, inaccessible, sheltered 'pockets' in evergreen, semi-evergreen &Objectives: Development of appropriate inventory methods for resource survey of rattans as a prerequisite for scientific management.Type of study: Inventory designScale: State-wide (Kerala) & Forest DivisionParticipants: ResearchersProtocol: Review of design features of appropriate inventory techniques for rattan resource surveys.Analysis: Recommendations for State-wide and Forest Division two stage inventory protocols based on rattan distribution and field logistics.


Nantel, P., Gagnon, D. & Nault, A. (1996): Population viability analysis of American Ginseng and Wild Leek harvested in stochastic environments. - Conservation Biology 10: 608-621.

In this investigation, the impact of harvesting on wild populations of Panax quinquefolius and Allium tricoccum was assessed and their extinction thresholds and minimum viable populations were estimated. For both species it was evident that existing populations in Canada, which rarely exceed several hundred individuals cannot support any harvesting without serious threat to their long-term persistence. (from summary, 17.10.1996).

- 47 -

List of References

[4287 !!]


RootPart Used:

Plant Group:

Case Study, Harvest Impact, Population Viability Analysis, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Allium tricoccum, Panax quinquefoliusTaxa:

CanadaCountries:

Nault, A. & Gagnon, D. (1993): Ramet demography of Allium tricoccum, a spring ephemeral, perennial forest herb. - Journal of Ecology 81: 101-119.

[7915]

Demography & Population Structure, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Allium tricoccumTaxa:

Nautiyal, B.P., Chauhan, R.S., Prakash, V., Purohit, H. & Nautiyal, M.C. (2003): Population studies for the evaluation of germplasm and threat status of the alpine medicinal herb, Nardostachys jatamansi. - Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter 136: 34-39.

[7389 !!]

Population ecology, morphological variation, germination potential and threat status of N. jatamansi were studied in Garhwal Himalaya. Habitat and native populations were analysed for the occurrence, distribution and status of the species. On the basis of phytosociological analysis, density and relative dominance were found to be very poor when compared with other alpine species. Observations on the extent of occurrence and population estimates of the species showed its endangered and vulnerable status in different locations. In general, the species was determined as vulnerable for Garhwal Himalaya. Morphological and environmental features that have a bearing on belowground biomass were identified. The medicinally useful plant part (underground rhizome) exhibited a significant relationship with plant density, plant height, and soil organic carbon and nitrogen content. On the basis of availability, superiority of morphological characters, yield per unit area, and presence of essential oil content, the Tungnath site (NJ3) was found to be suitable for collecting and multiplying germplasm for future conservation and cultivation. In general, germplasm collected from moist rocky habitats having higher carbon and nitrogen content was considered superior. (CABI-RAMP, 20043067042).


Biomass Production & Yields, Population status, Resource Assessment, Threat categoryDescriptors:Nardostachys jatamansiTaxa:

IndiaCountries:

Nazakono, E.M., Bruna, E.M. & Mesquita, R.C.G. (2004): Experimental harvesting of the non-timber forest product Ischnosiphon polyphyllus in central Amazonia. - Forest Ecology and Management 190: 219-225.

[7998]

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Ischnosiphon polyphyllusTaxa:

Nepstad, D.C. & Schwartzman, S. (ed.) (1992): Non-timber products from tropical forests. Evaluation of a conservation and development strategy. - 164 pp., New York Botanical Garden, New York (Advances in Economic Botany 9).

"Addresses the problem of how to use forests for profit and habitat at the same time. Consists of a compilation of papers and discussions that occurred at an international symposium on extractive economies in tropical forests held in 1989. It includes chapters on the ecology of nontimber forest products, barriers to nontimber forest product expansion, strategies for expanding nontimber forest product extraction, socioeconomic case studies, and a discussion of the political context in which nontimber forest product extraction must operate. Although the focus is on nontimber forest product extraction in the Amazon, many of the principles can be applied to other forests. Two of the case studies address this issue directly: the suitability of the extractive reserve concept for Indonesia, and the history of the gum arabic ( Acacia nilotica) trade in West Africa as it illustrates some of the ecological and socioeconomic implications of industrial extraction.Key themes emerging from these articles include:1. Not all forests are suitable for nontimber forest product extraction. Oligarchic forests, where relatively few species are found in dense concentrations, seem to be the most economically viable type of forest for extraction.2. Nontimber forest product extraction is best seen as one strategy in a wide range of land management and economic development strategies.3. Government policies need to be structured to support, rather than undermine, the social, market, and political institutions fostering sustainable nontimber forest product extraction. Currently, nontimber forest products tend to be undervalued, and the costs of logging and forest conversion tend to be underestimated. Elimination of subsidies favoring unsustainable forest use and the use of national resource accounting, which incorporates the costs of natural resource depletion into national income accounts, are suggested as mechanisms for shifting the balance in favor of nontimber forest product extraction.4. Nontimber forest product extraction faces a number of social and economic barriers to its widespread use as a forest conservation or economic development mechanism. For example, the heterogeneity of Amazonian forests leads to high extraction costs, a problem exacerbated by weak markets and high substitution potential. Extractors tend to live on the

- 48 -

List of References

[7790]

margin of subsistence and thus have limited possibilities for engaging in conservation behavior if other, more lucrative, alternatives for making a living are available. This difficulty is enhanced by the generally low percentage of a product’s market value that reaches the nontimber forest product harvester. Developing marketing systems that enhance the value that reaches harvesters, foster value-added industries in forested locations, and address the threats posed by weak markets and substitution is thus critical to the success of nontimber forest product extraction strategies.5. Expanding economically and ecologically sustainable nontimber forest product extraction requires reconfiguring existing political and social institutions. Extractive reserves, for example, offer the possibility for providing small holders the tenure security needed to encourage sustainable extraction and discourage forest conversion. Coalitions between extractor groups and nongovernment organizations can help these groups to mobilize more effectively to demand government policies that support rural community development rather than maximizing commodity production. Such coalitions also can level the playing field between multinational corporations and small-scale producers." (from Hagen & al. 1996, 27.1.2007).


Newidomov, A.M. & Petuchov, N.W. (2001): [Biological active resources of forests (birch sap, turpentine, food plants, technical plants and medicinal plants) ; in Russian]. - In: Anon. (ed.): [Situation and perspectives for improving methods to determine food-plants, technical plants and medicinal plants in forests. Material of the international seminar, Khabarovsk, 19-20.9.2001; in Russian]. pp. 41-44, §, §.


Nguvulu, C.Z. (1997): Fruit production in indigenous multipurpose tree species at Chati, Zambia. BSc Agroforestry Special Project. - 68 pp., University of Wales, Bangor.


Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:ZambiaCountries:

Noble, J.C., Bell, A.D. & Harper, J.L. (1979): The population biology of plants with clonal growth 1. The morphology and structural demography fo Carex arenaria. - Journal of Ecology 67 (3): 983-1008.

[7668 !!]

The structural demography of the rhizomatous sand sedge, Carex arenaria, was studied in two dune-slack systems in North Wales. A distinctive architectural feature of this plant is the longevity of the rhizome system. Clonal growth by C. arenaria results in subpopulations of shoot modules (tillers) which may be separated into distinct growth phases in the field (juvenile, adolescent, mature, senile and slack). Field plots were established in the mature, senile and slack phases of natural populations; half the plots received a massive nutrient application of NPK fertilizer. The shoot populations within permanent quadrats were mapped at frequent intervals. (from summary, 10.8.2006).

Case Study, Demography & Population Structure, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Carex arenariaTaxa:United KingdomCountries:

Noss, R.F. (1990): Indicators for monitoring biodiversity. A hierarchical approach. - Conservation Biology 4: 355-364.


Novak, S. (1999): Valeriana celtica. Der echte Speik. Ein altes Naturprodukt als alternativer Erwerbszweig. Forschungsstudie im Auftrag des Bundesministeriums für Land- und Forstwirtschaft, des Jubiläumsfonds der Österr. Nationalbank und der Kärntner Landesregierung. - Institut für Botanik, BOKU, Wien.

[7945]


RootPart Used:

Plant Group:

Regeneration, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Valeriana celticaTaxa:

AustriaCountries:

Nur Supardi, Md. N., Shalihin, S. & Aminuddin, M. (1995): Sampling methods for rattan inventory. - In: Hussein, N., Bacon, P.S. & Choon, K.K. (ed.): Proceedings of the 3rd Conference on Forestry and Forest Products Research, 3-4 Oct. 1995. pp. 45-55, FRIM, s. loc. (FRIM Kepong 1).


- 49 -

List of References

[7857]

Palms

SeedPart Used:

Plant Group:MalaysiaCountries:

Characteristics: Climbing palms in tropical high forest.Objectives: To determine an efficient rattan inventory design adaptable to the different forest types in Malaysia.Type of study: Methodological studyScale: Research -Pasoh & Semangkok Forest Reserves, Peninsular Malaysia.Participants: ResearchersProtocol: Study in 3 phases: staff training, 100% survey of all rattan in demarcated plots, implementation of 3 sampling designs within the plots.Two sites used, Pasoh (PFR) = lowland dipterocarp, site in 50ha PSP & Semangkok (SFR) = hill dipterocarp, site = 28 ha.100% enumeration - size and position of all rattan stems recorded.PFR - 2 x 500x100m plot divided into 125 subplots of 20x20m each sub-divided into 16 sub-quadrats of 5x5m.SFR - 2 x 100x100m divided into 25 20x20m subplots.Sampling designs(1) Strip sampling - 5 x 100x10 m systematic strips placed 100 m apart and divided into 4 25x10m subplots.(2) Grid sampling - 5 cross shaped plots of perpendicular subplots of 100x5 m with 100m between the centres of the grids.(3) Cluster sampling - 3 plots with 6 subplots of 28x10 in 2 rows 20m apart and 3 columns 50m apart - 80m between clusters.Sampling intensity fixed at 10%.In each plot and subplot, all rattan stems > 30cm were tagged, identified to sp.., cluster number, stem number, stem length, stem diameter and other observations related to growth.Length estimated using tape for ground portion and upper portion estimated using numbers of nodes or leaves and the ht of host trees as a guide.Analysis: Means, CV and sampling errors for number of clumps, number of stems and stem length calculated for each forest. Sampling designs compared with 100% enumeration. Strip sampling gives closest estimates in lowland forest while clusters were best in hill forest. Grosenbaugh's criterion (SE% x time) used to compare the efficiency of the sampling methods. Cluster sampling best for determining number of clumps and stem numbers while strip sampling best for estimating stem length in hill forest. In lowland forest strip sampling is most accurate although grid sampling is more efficient.


Nusser, S.M., Breidt, F.J. & Fuller, W.A. (1998): Design and estimation for investigating the dynamics of natural resources. - Ecological Applications 8: 234-245.

[7884]FruitPart Used:Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:

Nzilani, N.J. (2002): The status of Prunus africana (Syn. Pegium africanum Hook. F.) in Kakamega and South Nandi forests, Kenya. - Discovery and Innovation Special edition: 57-67.

[7062]

This study was done to examine the structure and assess the natural regeneration potential of Prunus africana in South Nandi forest and selected sites of Kakamega forest, Western Kenya. Forest survey was carried out to investigate the structure of P. africana, the forest was stratified into three different forest types that is pure, mixed and natural forest in Kakamega forest. South Nandi forest was taken as one stand since the whole forest is natural and it was not possible to stratify it like Kakamega forest. Transect belts measuring 40 m wide and 1.5 km long were laid in both forests along an access line. A total of 140 and 134 plots measuring 0.02 ha each were established along these transects in Kakamega and South Nandi forests respectively. At the centre of each plot was a P. africana tree whose diameter at breast height (dbh), height and crown length were assessed. Saplings of the species (of >1.5 m in height and <5 cm diameter) were counted on each plot, and seedlings (<1.5 m in height) were also counted in smaller plots of 5 m radius from the central P. africana. Sampled trees of P. africana showed a discontinuous size distribution of height and dbh where the young regeneration was not replacing the mature trees coming to the end of their reproductive life in both forests. There is a shift in dbh classes from seedlings and saplings to large diameter classes and this was more pronounced in South Nandi and the natural stand in Kakamega forest. Thus the results do deviate from the hypothesized inverted 'J' shape of dbh distribution in both forests. The natural regeneration levels were found to be high in both forests since there were many seedlings counted in the forest floor, but they hardly reach the size of 1 m hence there were few saplings in both forests. As a result, this reduces the rate of regeneration of P. africana in both forests. Stand density, crown size and density of P. africana were found to have little effect on the density of seedlings and saplings counted in both forests suggesting light may not be a significant factor at germination, but could influence subsequent growth. This is evident by the absence of saplings in both forests. This study has given important information on the stand structure of P. africana and the potential for its natural regeneration in Kakamega and South Nandi forests, which can be used as a tool for future management of the species. (CABI-RAMP, 20023115553).


Demography & Population Structure, Population dynamics, Population status, Resource Assessment

Descriptors:

Prunus africanaTaxa:

KenyaCountries:

O'Brien, T.G. & Kinnaird, M.F. (1996): Effect of harvest on leaf development of the Asian palm Livistona

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List of References

rotundifolia. - Conservation Biology 10: 53-58.

[4527 !!]

The study was carried out in North Sulawesi (ID). Census results for palms in harvested and unharvested areas indicated that palm density was twice as high and reproductive-sized palms were 10 times more common in the unharvested area. Current harvest practices are judged unsustainable. Recommendations include reduction of harvest intensity and waste and preservation of reproductive-sized palms. (from summary, 15.10.1996).

Palms

LeafPart Used:

Plant Group:

Case Study, Harvest Impact, Regeneration, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Livistona rotundifoliaTaxa:

IndonesiaCountries:

Characteristics: Palm.Objectives: Determination of growth and replacement rate of leaves under different harvesting levels. Are current harvesting practices sustainable? What might constitute an appropriate harvest.Type of study: Growth studyScale: Research site -Tangkoko-Dua Sudara Nature Reserve, SulawesiParticipants: ResearchersProtocol: One year study. Experimental harvests on 10 small-sized (0.5-1.4 m tall) palms with 20 controls. Two harvest intensity treatments: light (50% of mature leaves cut on 5 plants) and heavy (all leaves cut on 5 plants). Monitored growth of 2 new leaves per palm in controls and 3 leaves in treatments. Leaf expansion measured weekly and time of emergence, opening of blade, cessation of expansion and damage was recorded for each leaf. Canopy cover and rainfall (known to affect leaf development) also recorded. Inventory of palms in 20 0.25 ha randomly located plots within study area. All palms tagged, heights measured and cut leaves recorded. Distribution of harvested plots used to stratify area into harvest and non-harvest zones.Analysis: Analysis of leaf development with canopy closure, rainfall and timing of emergence. Analysis of average daily expansion rate, time until leaf opened, maturation time and final leaf size for harvest treatments using multiple analysis of covariance. Comparison of palm density in harvest and non-harvest zones using t test.


Olmsted, I. & Alvarez-Buylia, E.R. (1995): Sustainable harvesting of tropical trees. Demography and matrix models of two palm species in Mexico. - Ecological Applications 5 (2): 484-500.

[7619 !!]

Palms

LeafPart Used:

Plant Group:

Case Study, Demography & Population Structure, Regeneration, Reproduction, Resource Assessment, Sustainable Yield Calculation

Descriptors:

Coccothrinax readii, Thrinax radiataTaxa:

MexicoCountries:

Characteristics: Palms in dense stands in dry tropical forests and on coastal dunes.Objectives: Population biology of two palm species.Type of study: DemographicScale: Reserve -Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve, Quintana RooParticipants: ResearchersProtocol: PSPs of variable sizes depending on stem density established in 4 sites representing harvested and unharvested secondary forest. 2 year study. Survivorship: recorded every 2 months. Seedlings, in 2 classes counted in subplots (2-25 m²). Saplings, 5 classes of juveniles and 1 m ht classes for adults. Cut stumps counted. Phenology: recorded monthly (number of adults flowering, inflorescences per tree, success of infructescence production). Germination: 100-200 seeds sown into 2x2m subplots. Leaf production, growth rates and age: Monthly tracking of leaves produced for 20-30 marked accessible (sub-adult) plants. Growth quantified as height increment in cm per leaf scar. For adults 3 specimens felled and leaf scars counted and divided by juvenile leaf production rates.Analysis: Life table analysis using a linear population projection matrix model. Lefkovitch matrix models used to estimate finite population growth rates. Computer simulations used to explore the possible sustainable harvesting regimes by varying number of stems cut (8-400 per ha) and frequency (1-4 years) of cutting. Sensitivity and elasticity analysis of population growth rate.


Oltheton, T.M.P. (1995): Participatory approaches to planning for community forestry. - 130 pp., FAO, Rome (Forest, Trees and People Working Paper 2).

[7764]


Oyama, K. (1990): Variation in growth and reproduction in the neotropical dioecious palm Chamaedorea tepejilote. - Journal of Ecology 78: 648-663.


Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Chamaedorea tepejiloteTaxa:

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List of References

Paal, J. & Paal, T. (1993): Estimation of cowberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) yields. - 246 pp., General Technical Report PNW-GTR-375. Pacific Northwest Research, s.loc (Aquilo Ser. Bot. 31: 31-34).

[7772]

Provides and compares methods for estimating lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) yields to provide an accurate forecast of crops. Four methods are considered: random coordinates, nearest neighbor, wandering quarter, and random cross. Random coordinates was considered the most costly and laborious with respect to field materials required and plot sizes. The wandering quarter method tended to overestimate or underestimate yields as compared to the other models. The most economical, accurate, and therefore preferred method is the random cross method. With this method, four transects pass from a randomly chosen tree in the four cardinal directions until they encounter the next tree in the respective direction. Random distances to the right or left of the unequal transects are used to anchor sample subplots. (from Hagen & al. 1996, 27.1.2007).

FruitPart Used:

Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Vaccinium vitis-idaeaTaxa:

Analysis: Summary in: Conservation and development of nontimber forest products in the Pacific Northwest: An annotated bibliography. Hagan B. & al.


Paal, T. & Saastamoinen, O. (1998): Non-wood plant products in Estonian forests. - In: Lund, H.G., Pajari, B. & Korhonen, M. (ed.): Sustainable development of non-wood goods and benefits from boreal and cold temperate forests. pp. 109-117, European Forestry Institute, Joensuu (EFI Proceedings 23).


Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:EstoniaCountries:

Panayotou, T. & Ashton, P. (1992): Not by timber alone. The case for multiple use management of tropical forests. - 302 pp., Island Press, Covelo.

[7914]

"Argues that multiple-use management for timber and nontimber products and services can both maximize economic growth and preserve a forest’s value. The book describes the history of tropical forest exploitation, the rationale and implications of the undervaluation of tropical timber, and the limited, but important, examples of natural forest management. Nontimber products and environmental “services” provided by the forest are identified and evaluated. Finally, a multiuse management plan is described, which requires a full valuation of these products and services and serves as a mechanism for sustainable forest use. Chapter 6 describes the social and economic importance of nontimber products worldwide and provides a bibliography of over 60 references. The harvest and use of rattan (Calamus spp.) is profiled in a case study at the end of the chapter. " (from Hagen & al. 1996, 27.1.2007).


Pate, J.S., Froend, R.H., Bowen, B.J., Hansen, A. & Kuo, J. (1990): Seedling growth and storage and characteristics of seeder and resprouter species of Mediterranean-type ecosystems of south-western Australia. - Annals of Botany 65: 585-601.

[7460]

Regeneration, Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:AustraliaCountries:

Pate, J.S., Meney, K.A. & Dixon, K.W. (1991): Contrasting growth and morphological characteristics of fire-sensitive (obligate seeder) and fire-resistant (resprouter) species of Restionaceae (S. Hemisphere Restiads) from south-western Australia. - Australian Journal of Botany 39: 505-525.

The aim of the stuy was "identifying the researchable constraints in the biometrics of current NTFP resource assessment methods"Criteria for judging biometric quality are (a) Reporting of protocols: "whether protocols had been adequately reported"; (b) Randomisation – reducing bias: "whether the plots were distributed in such a way as to minimise potential bias in the results"; (c) Replication – sample size: "need to contain a number of plots. A good biometric study should be capable of generating sufficient data to calculate a mean and sampling error, which requires a number of plots; (d) Plot independence: "whether plots were independent of each other". “The overall conclusion of the biometric review is that only 38% of the 97 quantitative studies examined passed my four criteria of biometric quality. However, to be fair some of these studies may not need to be biometrically rigorous. What is perhaps more of a concern is that 43% of resource inventory and 90% of yield studies that failed in some way. Most NTFP studies are associated with management of resources in some form or other. As in all forms of management inventory the methods should be matched to the information needs of the management system and need not be biometrically rigorous as long as objectives are met."In summary the major problems in NTFP assessment methodology were identified as: 1. Problems with adopting traditional forest inventory techniques for NTFPs; 2. Lack of properly researched NTFP-specific sampling designs; 3. Little guidance available on development of appropriate NTFP measurement techniques; 4. No application to NTFPs of

- 52 -

List of References

[7461 !!]

sampling designs tailored to monitoring needs; 5. Difficulties in determination of the sustainability of harvesting; 6. Application of novel sampling strategies to NTFPs; 7. Cross-disciplinary exchange of ideas and methods suitable for use with NTFPs; 8. Effective communication of advice to fieldworkers and communities. (schp, 27.1.2007).

Ecological Functions, Regeneration, Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:AustraliaCountries:

Patil, G.P., Sinha, A.K. & Taillie, C. (1994): Ranked set sampling. - In: Patil, G.P. & Rao, C.R. (ed.): Environmental statistics. pp. 167-200, Elsevier Science, Amsterdam (Handbook of Statistics 12).


Paudel, S. & Wiersum, K.F. (2002): Tenure arrangements and management intensity of Butter tree (Diploknema butyracea) in Makawanpunr district, Nepal. - International Forestry Review 4 (3): 223-230.

[2530]

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Diploknema butyraceaTaxa:NepalCountries:

Peev, D. (ed.) (2003): Rapid ecological assessment of Rila monastery Nature Park. - 204 pp., §, §. Retrieved from http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNACY273.pdf, viewed: 31.7.2006.

[2470]

Rapid Assessment, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:BulgariaCountries:

Peres, C.A., Baider, C., Zidema, P.A., Wadt, L.O.H., Kainer, K.A., Gomes-Silva, D.A.P., Salomao, R.P., Simoes, L.L., Franciosi, E.R.N., Valverde, F.C., Gribel, R., Shepard, Jr G.H., Kanashiro, M., Coventry, P., Yu, D.W., Watkinson, A.R. & Freckleton, R.P. (2003): Demographic threats to the sustainability of Brazil nut exploitation. - Science 302: 2112-2114.


Demography & Population Structure, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Bertholletia excelsaTaxa:Bolivia, Brazil, PeruCountries:

Peters, C.M. (1990): Population ecology and management of forest fruit trees in Peruvian Amazonia. - In: Anderson, A.B. (ed.): Alternatives to deforestation. Steps towards sustainable use of the amazon rain forest. pp. 86-98, Columbia University Press, s.loc.


Resource AssessmentDescriptors:PeruCountries:

Peters, C.M. (1991): Plant demography and the management of tropical forest resources. A case study of Brosimum alicastrum in Mexico. - In: Gomez-Pompa, A., Whitmore, T.C. & Hadley, M. (ed.): Rain forest regeneration and management. pp. 265-272, UNESCO, Parthenon Press, Paris (MAB series 6).


Demography & Population Structure, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Brosimum alicastrumTaxa:MexicoCountries:

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List of References

Characteristics: Tree in extensive monospecific stands.Objectives: Fruit quantity, maximum sustainable fruit yield.Type of study: Demographic. Separate plots for each life stage and variable enumeration periodsScale: Research site - 3 year studyParticipants: ResearchersProtocol: Randomly located, non-nested plots used for each life stage: Adults (> 1 m tall) - 25, 20 x 20 m plots, all trees tagged & measured (ht & d). Seedlings - 100, 1 m² random plots. Size specific rates of growth (Ht. & d.) & mortality determined biweekly for 3 years for subsample of marked trees. Phenology - 10, 0.5 m² circular traps under canopy of 8 trees for 2 seasons. Pollination, fruit maturation & dispersal - direct observations.Analysis: Life table analysis. Change in population structure and size over time simulated using a modified transition matrix (Lefkovitch 1965).


Peters, C.M. (1994): Sustainable harvest of non-timber forest plant resources in tropical moist forest. An ecological primer. - WWF Biodiversity Support Program, Washington, D.C (Biodiversity Support Program Publications 39). Retrieved from http://www.worldwildlife.org/bsp/publications/bsp/sustainable_eng/sustainable06-14-99.pdf, viewed: 18.8.2006.

[7462 !!]

This paper is one of the few attempts to outline a step-wise approach which has to be followed to make meaningful resource management decisions. Focus of the manual is "exclusively on non-timber plant resources, with particular emphasis on trees". It is largely concerned with primary forests, either undisturbed or already subjected to some degree of exploitation. Definition: "A sustainable system for exploiting non-timber resources is defined as one in which fruits, nuts, latexes, and other products can be harvested indefinitely from a limited area of forest with negligible impact on the species being exploited."Structure: Section I summarizes the principal ecological characteristics of tropical plants that limit the nature and intensity of resource exploitation. Section II builds on this information by discussing the potential long-term ecological impacts resulting from the harvest of different plant parts. Section III takes a more applied field perspective. A general strategy for managing non-timber forest resources on a sustained-yield basis is outlined, and specific procedures for selecting resources, collecting baseline data, and monitoring the impact of harvesting are described. The complete process of sustainable exploitation is described by the author as composed of six basic steps: (1) species selection, (2) forest inventory, (3) yield studies, (4) regeneration surveys, (5) harvest assessments, and (6) harvest adjustments. He makes it very clear that "users must be actively involved in the six steps outlined in the manual, not just used as a source of limited information." The basic concept behind this proposed strategy or process is to "provide a constant flow of information about the ecological response of a species to varying degrees of exploitation. Sustainability is achieved through a continual process of adjustment in which any change in seedling establishment or population structure results in a corresponding change in harvest level." (schp, 2.8.2006).

Method Manual, Resource Assessment, SusceptibilityDescriptors:

Peters, C.M. (1995): Observations on the sustainable exploitation of non-timber tropical forest products. An ecologist's perspective. - In: Ruiz-Perez, M. & Arnold, J.E.M. (ed.): Current issues in non-timber forest products research. Proceedings of the Workshop "Research on NTFP" Hot Springs, Zimbabwe 28 August-2 September 1995. pp. 265-272, CIFOR, ODA, s.loc.

[7793]


Peters, C.M. (1996): Beyond nomenclature and use. A review of ecological methods for ethnobotanists. - In: Alexiades, M.N. & Wood Sheldon, J. (ed.): Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research. A field manual. pp. 241-276, New York Botanical Garden, New York (Advances in Economic Botany 10).

[7604]


Peters, C.M. (1996): Illipe nuts (Shorea spp.) in West Kalimantan. Use, ecology, and management potential of an important forest resource. - In: Padoch, C. & Peluso, N.L. (ed.): Borneo in transition. People, forests, conservation and development. pp. 230-244, Oxford University Press, Oxford.


Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Shorea atrinervosaTaxa:IndonesiaCountries:

- 54 -

List of References

Characteristics: Common, widely distributed forest tree reaching high densities in favoured habitats within mixed dipterocarp hill forest.Objectives: To determine: (1) Density of Illipe in residual forest. (2) Existence of varieties with atypical or annual fruiting. (3) Productivity of natural stands and potential for sustainable exploitation / management of Illipe.Type of study: ProductivityScale: Research site - Gunung PotengParticipants: ResearchersProtocol: Site chosen because of reported occurrence of annual fruiting Illipe. 1 ha plot marked into 25, 20x20m quadrants. All Illipe trees > 1m tall measured for height and diameter, mapped and labelled. Seedlings sampled in 200 randomly located 1m² plots. All the sp. > 5cm d also measured and mapped. Information on local nomenclature and use of each taxa recorded. Fruit production: selection of 4 isolated trees, 15 1m² plots randomly located beneath crown, number of intact and predated immature and mature recorded every 7-10 days. Long term PSP (established 1990 - paper reports results for 2 years).Analysis: Stand table. Exponential model fitted to fruit production against tree size. Use of regression and stand table to estimate total fruit production per ha. Potential for Illipe production from natural forest to improve income of rural households.


Peters, C.M. (1996): The ecology and management of non-timber forest resources. - vi+157 pp., World Bank, Washington (World Bank Technical Paper 322).

[7652]

Tropical forests contain a huge diversity of fruit, nut, oilseed, latex, resin, gum, spice and medicinal plants of great potential economic value. This report summarizes the current state of knowledge on the ecology of these non-timber resources and outlines a series of management recommendations for their sustainable harvest. The discussion is divided into 4 chapters. Chapter I summarizes the basic characteristics of tropical plant populations that limit the nature and intensity of resource exploitation. The major problem areas include the diversity and low density of tree species, the complexity of flowering and fruiting, the specificity of microsites for successful regeneration and growth, and the labile response of population structure to changes in the level of recruitment. Chapter II discusses the potential long-term ecological impacts resulting from the selective harvest of different plant tissues such as reproductive propagules (fruits, nuts, and oilseeds), plant exudates (latexes, resins, and gums), and vegetative structures (fibres, medicinals, rattans, and thatch). It is argued that most of the current commercial exploitation of non-timber resources is plagued by destructive harvesting, over-exploitation, and a basic disregard for the functional ecology of tropical plant populations. Chapter III outlines the basic inventory and yield data needed to develop a programme of sustainable resource use. Two different methodologies for defining a sustainable level of harvest are discussed. The first, a conceptually simple, inexpensive, and straightforward process called successive approximation, monitors the population impact of exploitation and sequentially adjusts harvest levels over time to obtain a sustainable yield. The second method uses plant demography, matrix models and computer simulations to estimate the maximum quantity of resources that can be harvested from the forest without damaging the long-term regeneration of the species under exploitation. Chapter IV provides an overviewof conventional and indigenous forms of forest management and proposes a general sequence of silvicultural operations for enhancing the regeneration, growth, and productivity of different non-timber forest resources. A glossary and extensive bibliography are included. (CABI-RAMP, 19960610241).

Non-wood forest products, Resource Assessment, Resource Management Procedures & Approaches

Descriptors:

Peters, C.M. (1999): A protocol for participatory inventories of timber and non-timber forest products in Cameroon. Consultancy report for Biodiversity International. - 8 pp., Unpublished, s.loc.

[7760]

Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:CameroonCountries:

Characteristics: Understorey plants in tropical high forest.Objectives: Description of a methodology for determining the distribution and abundance of timber and non-wood resources in the forests and woodlands of Cameroon.Type of study: ProtocolScale: Local -village scale.Participants: Trained members of local communitiesProtocol: Systematic sampling of parallel 10 m wide transects spaced 100m apart to give a SI of 0.1. The transects should run away from the village along compass bearings taking care to cross rivers rather than run alongside them. Transect distance can be varied according to the results of prior inventories suggest a lower SI would provide the same results. The length of the transect is determined by topography, the occurrence of extensive disturbed areas. Logistics or the judgement of the field crew. 2-5 km recommended.Analysis: Data collected can be used to: 1) examine the effect of habitat on the distribution and abundance of a particular species, 2) assess the impact of harvesting, 3) record seedling abundance and regeneration status, 4) document the relationship between resource abundance and village proximity.


Peters, C.M. (1999): Ecological research for sustainable non-wood forest product exploitation. An overview. - In: Sunderland, C.H., Clark, L.E. & Vantomme, P. (ed.): Non-wood forest products in central Africa. Current research issues and prospects for conservation and development. pp. 19-35, FAO, Rome.

[7739]


- 55 -

List of References

Peters, C.M. & Hammond, E.J. (1990): Fruits from the flooded forests of Peruvian Amazonia. Yield estimates for natural populations of three promising species. - Advances in Economic Botany 8: 159-176.


Biomass Production & Yields, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Grias peruviana, Myrciaria dubia, Spondias mombinTaxa:PeruCountries:

Characteristics: Trees in seasonally flooded forest. M. dubia: riparian shrub/small tree, G. peruviana: abundant understorey tree. S. mombin: large forest tree.Objectives: Estimation of fruit yield.Type of study: YieldScale: Research sitesParticipants: ResearchersProtocol: Populations located through interviews and exploration, site selection based on distribution & abundance, distance to town, accessibility and probability of logging. M. dubia - 10, 10x10 m contiguous plots (all trees tagged and measured for ht and basal d). G. peruviana - 15, 20x20 m contiguous plots - (all trees tagged and measured. ht < 1.5m tall; ht & d > 1.5m tall). S. mombin 125 contiguous 20x20 m plots (=5.0 ha plot), (all trees >1cm d counted, measured and mapped). Fruit production: M. dubia fruit marked with paint & counted on 25 adult trees for 2 fruiting seasons. G. peruviana: biweekly censuses of 15 adult trees for 1 year. S. mombin fruit production recorded using 8 randomly located litter traps of 0.5 m² emptied weekly under 8 trees across size range for 1 season.Analysis: Spatial distribution examined using Morisitas's Index of Dispersion (ID). Stem maps sampled using contiguous square plots of a range of sizes, ID tested for significance difference from 1 using F statistic to determine size of clumps. Size class distribution log transformed - linear regression fitted=negative exponential size distribution. Phenological charts. Regression of fruit production against diameter. Total fruit yield=mean yield x number in size class.


Philippi, T., Collins, B., Guisti, S. & Dixon, P.M. (2001): A multistage approach to population monitoring for rare plant populations. - Natural Areas Journal 21: 111-116.

[6466 !!]

Although many properties of populations, such as spatial dispersion and genetic structure, may be of interest, but population size is the fundamental property to monitor. The authors claim that for intermediate-sized populations, a demographic monitoring scheme should include a combination of monitoring levels within populations. Multistage sampling combines extensive plant counts with intensive demographic monitoring of subsets of individuals which provides both powerful monitoring and simultaneously allows continued use of potential prior data. In the second part of the paper, the authors report on their monitoring design for Echinacea laevigata populations in the eastern US and how the sampling techniques have been carefully adpated and improved over the years of monitoring. (schp, 15.8.2006).

Case Study, Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:Echinacea laevigataTaxa:United StatesCountries:

Phillips, O. (1993): The potential for harvesting fruits in tropical rainforests. New data from Amazonian Peru. - Biodiversity and Conservation 2: 18-38.

[7621 !!]FruitPart Used:

Non-wood forest products, Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:PeruCountries:

Characteristics: Species-rich Amazonian forests; Sandy terra firma, Clay terra firma, Alluvial, Seasonal swamp.Objectives: Fill information shortfalls concerning annual forest fruit productivity: (1) variability of productivity with forest type; (2) accessibility of fruits to ground based collector; (3) seasonality of fruit production.Type of study: YieldScale: Reserve -Zona Reservada TambopataParticipants: ResearchersProtocol: Tagged every woody stem and some smaller plants of species known to have edible fruits. Visual phenological observations and counts of immature and mature fruits made every month for 1 yr. For species with low on-plant predation, counts were made on fruits falling onto 1m² quadrats located randomly beneath canopy just after peak fruit-fall. Sample of palm fruits harvested and counted as a check on visual estimates. Sub-sample of fruits from a number of individuals was weighed to get average fruit productivity per plant. For Mauritia trees in swamp forest regression of fruit per raceme with tree height was generated from earlier direct observations. Modelled 'access-weighted' production based on ground collection. Utilised Smithsonian 1 ha PSP plots.Analysis: Statistical analyses facilitated by random selection of data from 10 (out of 20) subplots non-contiguous subplots. Annual fruit yield by forest type taking into account accessibility.


Phillips, O. (1996): Some quantitative methods for analysing ethnobotanical knowledge. - In: Alexiades, M.N. & Wood Sheldon, J. (ed.): Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research. A field manual. pp. 171-197, New York Botanical Garden, New York (Advances in Economic Botany 10).

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List of References

[7464]Ethnobotany, Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Pilz, D. & Molina, R. (ed.) (1996): Managing forest ecosystems to conserve fungus diversity and sustain wild mushroom harvests. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-371. - 104 pp., USDA Forest Service. Pacific Northwest Research Station, .


Pinard, M. (1993): Impacts of stem harvesting on populations of Iriartea deltoidea (Palmae) in an extractive reserve in Acre, Brazil. - Biotropica §: 2-14.

[7718]

Palms

SeedPart Used:

Plant Group:

Harvest Impact, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Iriartea deltoideaTaxa:

BrazilCountries:

Characteristics: Single-stemmed, stilt-rooted palm.Objectives: To describe the stability of the palm populations. ��Evaluate impacts of stem harvesting on palm populations.Type of study: DemographicScale: Reserve -Chico Mendes Extractive Reserve, Acre StateParticipants: ResearcherProtocol: Palms censused by size (height) class in streamside forest within a 10 min walk of residences. Sites (5) subjectively selected based on separation, presence of palm and hospitality of residents. At each site 5 10x40m plots randomly located. Count of leaf scars/assumed constant leaf production rate = estimate of age and number of years to reach a certain height. Used published leaf production rate. Young palms harvested for scar counts. Direct leaf scar counts made on stems < 5m. Mean scars per m used to estimate counts for stems >5m.Analysis: Life table model parameterised from pooled stand table. Lefkovitch population matrix model. Simulated harvesting scenarios by modifying survival percentages. Sensitivity and elasticity analyses of model coefficients.


Piñero, D., Martinez-Ramos, M. & Sarukhán, J. (1984): A population model of Astrocaryum mexicanum and a sensitivity analysis of ist finite rate of increase. - Journal of Ecology 72: 977-991.

[2650]PalmsPlant Group:Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Piñero, D., Sarukhán, J. & Alberdi, P. (1982): The costs of reproduction in a tropical palm, Astrocaryum mexicanum. - Journal of Ecology 70: 473-481.


Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Astrocaryum mexicanumTaxa:

Plowden, C., Uhl, C. & Oliveira, F. de A. (2002): Breu resin harvest by Tembé Indians and its dependence on a bark-boring beetle. - In: Stepp, J.R., Wyndham, F.S. & Zarger, R. (ed.): Ethnobiology and Biocultural Diversity. Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Ethnobiology. pp. 365-380, International Society of Ethnobiology, Athens GA.

[8000]

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Protium spp.Taxa:

Plowden, C., Uhl, C. & Oliveira, F. de A. (2003): The ecology and harvest potential of titica vine roots (Heteropsis flexuosa: Araceae) in the eastern Brazilian Amazon. - Forest Ecology and Management 182: 59-73.

[7918]RootPart Used:

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Heteropsis flexuosaTaxa:BrazilCountries:

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List of References

Pollak, H., Mattos, M. & Uhl, C. (1995): A profile of palm heart extraction in the Amazon Estuary. - Human Ecology 23: 357-385.

[7817]

Palms

SeedPart Used:

Plant Group:

Case Study, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Euterpe oleraceaTaxa:

BrazilCountries:

Characteristics: Multi-stemmed palm in flood plain forest.Objectives: Economic costs and returns of extraction. ��Impact of harvest intensity on population structure. ��Economic potential of sustainable managementType of study: Industry viability studyScale: Regional -Amazon estuaryParticipants: ResearchersProtocol: Extraction rates: interview of 50 extractors in 9 counties. Processing: visits to 30 factories and intensive interviews in 9 factories. Heart yield and size: measurements of d, height, weight & diameter of hearts for 68 wild stems across size range. Harvest impacts: high pressure = cutting 1-2 yrs: 2 10x100 m regularly spaced plots in 5 sites. Low pressure = 4-5 yrs: 2 10x100 m plots in 2 sites. Control: 2 10x50 m plots. Recorded number of clumps with stems > 2 m tall, d of all stems >= 2 m tall, number and diameter of recently cut stems. Recorded total living and dead clumps in 2 25x50m randomly located plots in each strata.Analysis: Descriptive statistics. Empirical equations relating height and d of stems with weight and diameter of heart. Equations used to estimate palm yield per ha. Proportion of population in height classes compared across harvesting intensities. Recommended minimum sizes for palm extraction. Economic potential- costs & benefits of 2 types of management.


Porkess, R. (1988): Dictionary of statistics. - 267 pp., Collins, London.


Posey, D.A. (ed.) (1999): Cultural and spiritual values of biodiversity. A complementary contribution to the global biodiversity assessment. - xx+731 pp., Intermediate Technology Publications, London.

[7611 !!]

Biodiversity, Illustration, Intellectual property rights, Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource Assessment

Descriptors:

Potthast, T. (ed.) (2004): Ökologische Schäden. Begriffliche, methodologische und ethische Aspekte. - x+209 pp., Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main (Theorie in der Ökologie 10).

[7941 !!]Ecological Damage, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Pozdnjakov, L.K. (1986): Lesnye rastitelnye resursy Srednej Sibiri, Krasnojarsk [Herbal forest resources in the middle of Sibirea, Krasnojarsk; in Russian]. - § pp., §, s.loc.


Prance, G.T., Balee, W., Boom, B.M. & Carneiro, R.L. (1987): Quantitative ethnobotany and the case for conservation in Amazonia. - Conservation Biology 1: 296-310.

[4073 !!]

Case Study, Ethnobotany, Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Bolivia, Brazil, VenezuelaCountries:

Characteristics: Trees in terra firme forest.Objectives: Evaluation of tree species and families that seem to be most useful to all four indigenous groups and to recommend measures to protect these species and their associated habitats.Type of study: Quantitative ethnobotanyScale: Supra-national - 4 forest peoples in Brazil, Venezulela and BoliviaParticipants: Researchers with local informantsProtocol: One subjectively located plot for each of 4 cultural groups Plot=1 ha. All trees > 10 cm tagged and vouchered for identification Uses categorised and scored as major=1 or minor=0.5 Use scores summed for each species and family.Analysis: Forest value compared using percentage of species in plot considered useful by different cultural groups. Plant use values compared using use scores


Prescott-Allen, R. & Prescott-Allen, C. (ed.) (1996): Assessing the sustainability of uses of wild species. Case

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List of References

studies and initial assessment procedure. - iv+135 pp., IUCN, Gland & Cambridge (Occasional Paper of the IUCN Species Survival Commission 12).

[5791 !!]Case Study, Ecological Damage, Resource Assessment, SustainabilityDescriptors:

Quinn, R.M., Lawton, J.H., Eversham, B.C. & Wood, S.N. (1994): The biogeography of scarce vascular plants in Britain with respect to habitat preference, dispersal ability and reproductive biology. - Biological Conservation 70: 149-157.

[4244 !!]

Abundance & Rarity, Life Form, Reproduction, Resource Assessment, ThreatDescriptors:United KingdomCountries:

Raatikainen, M. (1988): Estimates of wild berry yields in Finland. - Acta Botanica Fennica 136: 9-10.


Biomass Production & Yields, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:FinlandCountries:

Raimondo, D.C. & Donaldson, J.S. (2003): Responses of cycads with different life histories to the impact of plant collecting. Simulation models to determine important life history stages and population recovery times. - Biological Conservation 111: 345-358.

[7170 !!]

CycadsPlant Group:

Case Study, Demography & Population Structure, Regeneration, Resource Assessment, Susceptibility

Descriptors:

Encephalartos cycadifolius, Encephalartos villosusTaxa:


Ratsirarson, J., Silander Jr., J.A. & Richard, A.F. (1996): Conservation and management of a threatened Madagascar palm species, Neodypsis decaryi Jumelle. - Conservation Biology 10: 40-52.

[4526 !!]

The dynamics of a remnant population of Neodypsis decaryi are demographically characterized. This palm is a threatened keystone species restricted to a narrow ecological zone in SE MG. The population showed high mortality rates in the early stages of the life cycle. Continued biological monitoring is appropriate for the long-term conservation management of this palm inside the reserve. Outside the protected area the population appears to be declining rapidly, mainly because of fire and grazing impacts.Thresholds for sustainable harvesting of leaves and seeds are given. (from summary, 15.10.1996).

Palms

Fruit, LeafPart Used:

Plant Group:

Case Study, Demography & Population Structure, Population dynamics, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Neodypsis decaryiTaxa:

MadagascarCountries:

Reed, D.D. & Mroz, G.D. (1997): Resource assessment in forested landscapes. - 386 pp., Wiley & Sons, .

[7653]


Resit Akcakaya, H. & Sjögren-Gulve, P. (2000): Population viability analyses in conservation planning. An overview. - Ecological Bulletins 48: 9-21. Retrieved from http://www.ramas.com/PVA1.pdf, viewed: 31.8.2006.

[7924 !!]

Population viability analysis (PVA) is a collection of methods for evaluating the threats faced by populations of species, their risks of extinction or decline, and their chances for recovery, based on species-specific data and models. Compared to other alternatives for making conservation decisions, PVA provides a rigorous methodology that can use different types of data, a way to incorporate uncertainties and natural variabilities, and products or predictions that are relevant to conservation goals. The disadvantages of PVA include its single-species focus and requirements for data that may not be available for many species. PVAs are most useful when they address a specific question involving a focal (e.g., threatened, indicator, sensitive, or umbrella) species, when their level of detail is consistent with the available data, and when they focus on relative (i.e., comparative) rather than absolute results, and risks of decline rather than extinction. This overview provides guidelines for choosing a PVA model among three categories, from data-intensive individual-based population models to simple occupancy metapopulation models. (from summary, 31.8.2006).

Population Viability Analysis, Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:

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List of References

Richards, E.M. (1993): Commercialisation of non-timber forest products in Amazonia. - 26 pp., NRI, Chatham (Socio-economic series 2).

[7781]Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Richter, M. (2004): Ökologische Schäden. Definition und Begriffsverständnis. - In: Potthast, T. (ed.): Ökologische Schäden. Begriffliche, methodologische und ethische Aspekte. pp. 17-23, Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main (Theorie in der Ökologie 10).

[7943 !!]

The author first presents an internet survey on the usage of the term "ecological damage". A definition of ecological damage is suggested that is flexible enough to keep step with progress in natural sciences and that is independent from different social evaluative concepts of ecological goods. In a second step for specific environmental goods, specific regulations need to be defined to establish instruments for handling practical cases. (from summary, 10.9.2006).


Rijkers, T., Woldeselassie, O., Wessel, M. & Bongers, F. (2006): The effect of tapping for frankincense on sexual reproduction in Boswellia papyrifera. - Journal of Applied Ecology 43(6): 1188-1195.

[8007]Medicinal and aromatic plantsPlant Group:

Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Boswellia papyriferaTaxa:

Rijsoort, J.van & Zhang Jinfeng (2005): Participatory resource monitoring as a means for promoting social change in Yunnan, China. - Biodiversity and Conservation 14: 2543-2573.

[7666 !!]

Case Study, Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:ChinaCountries:

Rikhari, H.C., Palni, L.M.S., Sharma, S. & Nandi, S.K. (1998): Himalayan yew. Stand structure, canopy damage, regeneration and conservation strategy. - Environmental Conservation 25: 334-341.

[5560 !!]

At a study site in Uttar Pradesh the authors have compared disturbed (= harvested) sites of Taxus baccata subsp. wallichiana with relatively undisturbed sites regarding the demographic structure of the populations and the extent of canopy damage and regeneration. The study plots represented 8% of the total yew habitat in the region. This undercanopy species never forms extensive cover and needs deeply-shaded, moist and sheltered sites for seedling regeneration. This and the slow growth rate make it susceptible to over-utilization. The authors found 57.4% of the total canopy volume had been removed in the harvested plots. The unclear taxonomic status of T. wallichiana in relation to T. baccata is not discussed in the paper. (schp, 21.5.2001).


LeafPart Used:

Plant Group:

Demography & Population Structure, Population status, Resource Assessment, ThreatDescriptors:Taxus baccata subsp. wallichianaTaxa:

IndiaCountries:

Rock, J.H. (1996): The impact of harvesting ramps (Allium tricoccum Ait.) in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Internal report. - § pp., Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Gatlinburg.

[7693]


Herb, StemPart Used:

Plant Group:

Harvest Impact, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Allium tricoccumTaxa:


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List of References

Characteristics: Perennial spring ephemeral herb in eastern North American temperate hardwood forest.Objectives: To determine the impact of harvesting, at varying levels, on populations in the Park. To determine the impact of different harvest techniques on populations. To predict the number of years required for populations to regain pre-harvest levels after a single harvest.Type of study: Impact study. Experimental harvestScale: Reserve -Great Smoky Mountains National ParkParticipants: National Park staffProtocol: Harvesting level: 3 sites selected on ease of access, abundance (at least 15 m² with (20 plants m-²) and not regularly harvested). 15 1x1m plots (3 replicates of 5 treatments) in a non-linear arrangement at each site. Maximum leaf width of largest plant of each plant in plot measured (leaf width = bulb size). 5 harvesting treatments: control, 25, 50, 75 & 100% harvesting. Plants harvested without bias using traditional methods. Leaf widths and flower/fruit production of remaining plants and recruits measured for 4 years post-harvest without further harvesting. Harvest technique: 3 replicates of 3 0.5x0.5m plots established at one site. Plants harvested using three methods; control, complete removal and partial removal of plants. All plants too small to have been harvested removed from plots to avoid counting as regeneration in subsequent years.Analysis: Harvest level: Analysis of covariance used to test for differences between harvesting levels, changes over time and between site differences. Leaf totals per plot used in plot comparisons. Harvest technique: Not analysed because of loss of replicate due to windblow of tree onto plots.


Rock, J.H., Beckage, B. & Gross, L.J. (2004): Population recovery following differential harvesting of Allium tricoccum Ait. in the southern Appalachians. - Biological Conservation 116: 227-234.

[7654 !!]BulbPart Used:

Case Study, Regeneration, Resource Assessment, Sustainable Yield CalculationDescriptors:Allium tricoccumTaxa:United StatesCountries:

Ros-Tonen, M., Dijkman, W. & Lammet, E. (1995): Commercial and sustainable extraction of non-timber forest products. Towards and policy and management orientated research strategy. - 32 pp., Tropenbos Foundation, Wageningen.

[7788]

Resource Assessment, Resource Management PoliciesDescriptors:

Ros-Tonen, M.A.F. & al (1998): Methods for non-timber forest products research. The Tropenbos experience. - 31 pp., Tropenbos Foundation, Wageningen (Tropenbos Document 14).

[7697]


Ruiz Perez, M. & Byron, N. (1999): A methodology to analyze divergent case studies of non-timber forest products and their development potential. - Forest Science 45: 1-14.

[7747]


Runk, J.V. (1998): Productivity and sustainability of a vegetable ivory palm (Phytelephas aequatorialis, Arecaceae) under three management regimes in northwestern Ecuador. - Economic Botany 52 (2): 168-182.

[7627]

Palms

SeedPart Used:

Plant Group:

Case Study, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Phytelephas aequatorialisTaxa:

EcuadorCountries:

Characteristics: Large, single-stemmed palm that forms small monotypic stands.Objectives: Impact of tagua nut extraction on growth, reproduction and sustainability under three management regimes.Type of study: DemographicScale: Comuna Rio Santiago-Cayapas Research.Participants: Researchers with management/ seed collection by localsProtocol: Subjective plot location in three management regimes stratified by inundation. 20x30 m plots - all trees mapped and tallied into age classes (juvenile, sub-adult & adult). Enumerated adult density, distribution, sex, stem height, light exposure, foliage cover, number of living, cut and dead leaves, inflorescences, infructescences and health every 3 mths for 1 yr. Leaf, flower and fruit maturation monitored by painting emergent frond/fruit. Seed production estimated using mark/recapture during collection supplemented by count of those left behind.Analysis: Individual growth model (POMIB) using size-specific growth and survivorship General Linear Models for leaf and seed production with management, inundation, age and light level.


Rutkauskas A (1998): Non wood resource and their utilisation in Lithuania In: Lund H G Pajari B & Korhonen- 61 -

List of References

M. (ed.): Sustainable development of non-wood goods and benefits from boreal and cold temperate forests. pp. 93-101, European Forestry Institute, Joensuu (EFI Proceedings 23).

[7842]


FruitPart Used:

Plant Group:Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

LithuaniaCountries:

Characteristics: Wild populations in cold temperate native forest & timber plantations.Objectives: Statutory monitoringType of study: CensusScale: National -1.1 million compartments of 2.3 ha on 10 year cycle.Participants: State Forest Inventory and Management Institute staffProtocol: Compartment records of land use category, landowner, protected status, dominant tree species (forest type), tree species composition, age, stocking level, growing stock, site type, vegetation type, undergrowth, shrub and plant density, etc. NTFPs included since 1962. NTFP data obtained from stand-wise inventory or indirectly using correlated observations e.g. biology, exploitation yield, forage classes etc. Fauna dealt with by special game management unit.Analysis: Maps of berries and medicinal herbs (for commercial purchasers). Conversion of area in cover classes into equivalent area at 100% cover. Production areas defined according to stand characteristics. Exploitable harvest calculated from productivity standards for species depending on site index, forest type, harvest periodicity and biological part harvested.


Sagar, R. , Raghubanshi, A. S. , Singh, J. S. (2003): Tree species composition, dispersion and diversity along a disturbance gradient in a dry tropical forest region of India. - Forest Ecology and Management 186: 61-71.

[7939]

Forest inventory data were collected in 1998-2000 from fifteen 1 ha permanent plots along a disturbance gradient in a dry tropical forest region of India. A total of 4033 stems, 49 species, 44 genera and 24 families of adult trees (>= 30 cm CBH), occurred in the 15 ha of forest area. The study indicated that the dry tropical forest is characterised by a patchy distribution of species and individuals with mixed species composition, and the sites are represented by different combinations of the dominants and co-dominant species. A PCA ordination indicated that the variation in species composition of the sites is explained by the variation in soil nitrogen as well as the degree of disturbance. About half the analysed species showed changing nature in dispersion along the disturbance gradient. The distribution of Boswellia serrata, Holarrhena antidysenterica and Lannea coromandelica changed from clumped to uniform and the distribution of Butea monosperma, Cassia fistula and Elaeodendron glaucum changed from uniform to clumped as the degree of disturbance increased. The mean stem density was highest (419 stems ha-1) at the least disturbed site and lowest (35 stems ha-1) at the highly disturbed site, and for basal area, the highest value (13.78 m2 ha-1) was for the second least disturbed forest site and the lowest value (1.30 m2 ha-1) was for the most disturbed site. The total number of stems, indices of species richness, evenness and α-diversity decreased with disturbance. A strong influence of number of species per individual on β-diversity suggests that for resisting change in floristics due to disturbance, a site must have low species-individual ratio. (CABI-RAMP, 20033203546).


Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Boswellia serrataTaxa:

IndiaCountries:

Saiko, L.N. (1996): Isuchenie prirodnych resursow lekarstwennych rastenii (ekologo-geograficheskii podhod. Kartograficheskii metod) [Investigation of natural resources of medicinal plants (ecological-geographical approach; cartographic method). Dissertation ; in Russian]. - s.pag., Vilar, Moscow.


Sakai, A, Sakai, S. & Akiyama, F. (1997): Do sprouting tree species on erosion-prone sites carry large reserves of resources?. - Annals of Botany 79: 625-630.

[7466 !!]

TreesPlant Group:Regeneration, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

JapanCountries:

Sanders, S. & McGraw, J.B. (2005): Harvest recovery of goldenseal, Hydrastis canadensis L. - American Midland Naturalist 153 (1): 87-94.

Goldenseal, Hydrastis canadensis, is a herbaceous understorey plant of the eastern deciduous forest that is harvested from natural populations due to its medicinal value. The objectives of this study were to determine if regrowth from harvest varies between patches and to relate regrowth to preharvest leaf and patch size. We used data from 3 experimentally harvested natural patches and data on recovery of an illegally harvested patch harvested at the end of

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List of References

[7391]

the growing season. We found variation in patch regrowth which suggests that harvest technique and timing may be important. Experimental rhizome removal during mid-summer resulted in a slower recovery of leaf size relative to the patch that was illegally harvested. Leaf area decreased 2 years after harvesting. We also found variation in stem count between patches in response to harvest, which may be due to the preharvest size of ramets. The patch with larger preharvest ramets showed compensatory growth in the year immediately afterharvest while the patches comprised of smaller ramets did not. Our results indicate that response to, and recovery from, harvest varies between patches and that individual ramet leaf size may be a better predictor of patch recovery than stem count. Because regrowth may be affected by harvest timing, an established harvest season may alleviate some harvest pressure on H. canadensis. (CABI-RAMP, 20053038831).

Medicinal and aromatic plantsRootPart Used:

Plant Group:

Regeneration, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Hydrastis canadensisTaxa:

Sanders, S.M. & McGraw, J.B. (2002): Distribution, abundance, and population dynamics of goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.) in an Indiana Nature Preserve, USA. - Natural Areas Journal 22: 129-134.

[6841]

The expanding market for herbal remedies has stimulated increased harvest of goldenseal (H. canadensis) from the wild. We examined net population change of H. canadensis over 26 years in Bryan Nature Preserve, central Indiana, USA. Individuals were mapped and censused in 0.1 ha quadrats over the entire preserve, repeating a similar procedure carried out by others in 1974. The net trajectory of abundance was negative: H. canadensis was present in 46 quadrats in 1974, but had become extinct in 31 of those quadrats and decreased in 15; three quadrats contained new patches. Only 10 of the 99 patches present in 1974 were relocated. Fifteen new patches were found in 2000. The total number of quadrats with H. canadensis declined between the two censuses. The number of quadrats in which the abundance trajectory was positive between the two time periods was significantly less than the number showing a negative trajectory. Patches in edge quadrats had higher survival than those in the interior. Extinction probability was not dependent on population size. There is no known cause of the decline in H. canadensis in the preserve, although one possibility is the damage from a severe wind and ice storm that occurred in February 1991. Harvest history is unknown, although recent harvest was not evident. Periodic recensusing of this preserve is needed to understand the causes of H. canadensis decline. (CABI-RAMP, 20023064707).


Demography & Population Structure, Ecology, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Hydrastis canadensisTaxa:


Schreter, A.I., Krylova, I.L., Borisova, N.A., Kurlovitch, L.E. & Bocharov, I.W. (1986): Metodika opredelenija zapasow lekarstwennych rastenii [Methods to investigate resources of medicinal plants; in Russian]. - s.pag., National Commitee of the SSSR of Forest Economy, Moscow.


Schreuder, H.T., Gregoire, T.G. & Wood, G.B. (1993): Sampling methods for multiresource forest inventory. - 446 pp., John Wiley & Sons, New York.


Schreuder,H.T. (1995): Simplicity versus efficiency in sampling designs and estimation. - In: Köhl, M., Bachmann, P., Brassel, P. & Preto, G. (ed.): The Monte Veritá conference on forest survey designs. "Simplicity versus efficiency" and assessment of non-timber resources. Monte Veritá, Switzerland, 2-7 May 1994. pp. 56-63, Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research, Zürich.

[7728]


Schutte, A.L.,Vlok, J.H.J. & van Wyk, B.-E. (1995): Fire-survival strategy. A character of taxonomic, ecological and evolutionary importance in fynbos legumes. - Plant Systematics and Evolution 195: 243-259.

[7467]Case Study, Ecological Functions, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Schwartz, M.W. (1993): The search for pattern among rare plants. Are primitive species more likely to be rare?. - Biological Conservation 64: 121-127.

Abundance & Rarity, Rarity, Resource Assessment, Taxonomic Aspects, ThreatDescriptors:

- 63 -

List of References

[4248 !!]United KingdomCountries:

Schwedersky, T. (2000): Ressourcennutzungsplanung in Randzonen tropischer Wälder. - In: Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) & Bundesamt für Naturschutz (BfN) (ed.): Naturschutz in Entwicklungsländern. Neue Ansätze für den Erhalt der biologischen Vielfalt. pp. 213-220, Kasparek, Heidelberg.

[2495]


Schwezowa, N.E. (2005): Resursy nekotorych lekarstwennych i pischewych rastenij w basseinach rek Tungui-Suhara [Resources of some medicinal plants and food plants in the basin of the rivers Tungui-Suhara ; in Russian]. - Rastitel'nye Resursy 41: 65-72.


Scrimshaw, S. & Gleason, G.R. (1992): RAP. Rapid assessment procedures, qualitative methodologies and planning and evaluation of health related programmes. - 528 pp., International Nutrition Foundation for Developing Countries, Boston.

[2641]

Rapid Assessment, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (ed.) (2001): Sustainable management of non-timber forest resources. - 27 pp., SCBD, Montreal (CBD Technical Series 6).

[6685 !!]Medicinal and aromatic plantsPlant Group:Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Serna, C.B. (1990): Rattan resource supply situation and management. - In: Torreta, N.K. & Belen, E.H. (ed.): Rattan. Proceedings of the natinal symposium/workshop on rattan, Cebu City, June 1-3,1988. pp. 182, Philippine Council for Agriculture, Los Banos, Laguna (Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development Book Series 99).

[7820]



Characteristics: Climbing palms in natural forest.Objectives: Not given.Type of study: Multi-purpose resource inventory (timber, rattans, palms & bamboo)Scale: NationalParticipants: Forestry staffProtocol: Country divided into 12 forest regions, 2,100 clusters sampled to give a sampling error of 3%. Regions 10 & 11 trees sampled using systematic cluster sampling on 8x8 km grid. Clusters=4 20x250m strips (20x50m subplots) orientated in each cardinal direction offset 1 km from grid intersection. Rattans sampled in 10x10 m subplot centred on strip midline at beginning and every 100m (=3 per strip). All other regions - triangular arrangement of 6-point cluster (points and half way down sides of triangle) of 6 Bitterlich point samples with a basal area factor of K=9 m²ha-1 each 50m apart. Rattans sampled at corner points in a 5m radius plot. Enumeration: Rattan stems rooted within plot with diameters below and above 2 cm enumerated separately. Regeneration by species tallied. Tallies by diameter class and average length recorded for each species.Analysis: Summary tables showing rattan length per ha by vegetation type, region and species. National summaries of rattan lengths by size/use classes. Sustained yield cut (SYC) determined by formula: SYC = (AxD/R) x f. Where A=Forest area (ha) D=average length ha-1 R=rotation of 15 years f=recovery factor of 85%


Shaankar, U., Ganeshaiah, K.N. & Nageswara, R.M. (2001): Genetic diversity of medicinal plant species in deciduous forests of South India. Impact of harvest and other anthropogenic pressures. - Journal of Plant Biology 28: 91-97.

[7919]

Medicinal and aromatic plantsPlant Group:Genetic Variability, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

IndiaCountries:

Shackleton, C.M. (1993): Demography and dynamics of the dominant woody species in a communal and protected

- 64 -

List of References

area of the eastern transvaal lowveld. - South African Journal of Botany 59: 569-574.

[7468]

The paper defines the term "ecological damage" on the basis of existing approaches. The definition relates to specified objects/targets of nature conservation and argues that damages are not simply changes in the ecosystem but substantial impacts on the objects of nature conservation. One key distinction is that an ecological impact on the ecosystem can be measured with scientific methods, to call it a damage, however, is a man-made assessment. (schp, 8.8.2006).

Demography & Population Structure, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:South AfricaCountries:

Shankar, U., Murali, K.S., Uma Shaanker, R., Ganeshaiah, K.N. & Bawa, K.S. (1996): Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Ragan hills, India. 3. Productivity, extraction and prospects of sustainable harvest of Amla Phyllanthus emblica (Euphorbiacefae). - Economic Botany 50: 270-279.

[4906 !!]

This is the third of a series of three papers. It focusses on Phyllanthus emblica which has 496,6 tons of fruit sold by cooperative societies). They show that 60-80% of all fruits in the local P. emblica population are currently harvested, and that this may have a negative effect on recruitment of new trees into the population. Together, these three papers are important reading - particularly for those northern NGO's which have glamorised NFTP collection in terms of effort, returns or ecological impacts. (A.B. Cunningham, 6.2.1997).


FruitPart Used:

Plant Group:

Case Study, Demography & Population Structure, Non-wood forest products, Resource Assessment, Resource management

Descriptors:

Phyllanthus emblicaTaxa:

IndiaCountries:

Characteristics: Medium sized tree, widespread in scrub and dry deciduous vegetation.Objectives: Extraction, productivity levels and price appreciation.Type of study: Resource inventoryScale: Reserve -Biligiri Rangan Temple Wildlife SanctuaryParticipants: ResearchersProtocol: Transects 10x variable length up to 1000m located in 4 vegetation types, d measured for all P. emblica trees > 10 cm d except in scrub where trees >5 <10 were also enumerated. Extracted fruit recorded and weighted, visual estimate of quantities of unharvested fruit. Total extraction estimated from harvest records. Market survey - interviews and calculations of total revenue from market prices for fruit.Analysis: Stand density tables. Regression of fruit production vs. tree d. t test of mean d in vegetation types.


Shanley, P., Galvao, J. & Luz, L. (1997): Limits and strengths of local participation. A case study in eastern Amazonia. - § pp., IIED, London (PLA Notes 28. Sustainable Agriculture Programme).

[7837]


Sheil, D. (1995): A critique of permanent plot methods and analysis with examples from Budongo forest, Uganda. - Forest Ecology and Management 77: 11-34.

[7470 !!]

Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:UgandaCountries:

Sheil, D. (1998): Biometrics and planning of biodiversity assessments. - § pp., Unpublished, s.loc.


Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:Rubus fructicosus, Rubus idaeus, Sambucus nigra, Vaccinium myrtillus, Vaccinium vitis-idaeaTaxa:Czech RepublicCountries:

- 65 -

List of References

Characteristics: Indigenous shrubs & fungi in native forests and timber plantations.Objectives: Pilot figures demonstrating the national importance of NTFPs.Type of study: Household surveyScale: National -4 surveys 1994-7Participants: Researchers (University)Protocol: Sample of national population stratified on sex, age (> 15 years), education, profession, household size and district/region population density. 1994 n=856 households, 1995 n=991, 1996 n=1451. Main questions: number of forest visits per year, main purpose of visits, visiting costs, (estimated) weights (kgs) collected of berries and mushrooms, costs of collection, market prices, willingness to pay for forest visit.Analysis: Proportion of population engaged in NTFP collection. Estimated total weight of harvests. Regional variation in NTFP collection. Estimated value of berry and mushroom harvest.


Shiembo, N.P. (1999): The sustainability of eru (Gnetum africanum and Gnetum bucholzianum). Over-exploited non-wood forest product from the forests of Central Africa. - In: Sunderland, C.H., Clark, L.E. & Vantomme, P. (ed.): Non-wood forest products in central Africa. Current research issues and prospects for conservation and development. pp. 61-66, FAO, Rome.

[7720]

Medicinal and aromatic plantsLeafPart Used:

Plant Group:

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Gnetum africanum, Gnetum buchholzianumTaxa:

Shiver, B.D. & Borders, B.E. (1996): Sampling techniques for forest resource inventory. - 356 pp., Wiley, New York.


Siebert, S.F. (2000): Abundance and growth of Desmoncus orthacanthos Mart. (Palmae) in response to light and ramet harvesting in five forest sites in Belize. - Forest Ecology and Management 137.

[7920]

PalmsPlant Group:

Abundance & Rarity, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Desmoncus orthacanthosTaxa:

BelizeCountries:

Siebert, S.F. (2004): Demographic effects of collecting rattan cane and their implications for sustainable harvesting. - Conservation Biology 18 (2): 424-431.

[7662 !!]

PalmsPlant Group:

Demography & Population Structure, Harvest Impact, Resource Assessment, Sustainable Yield Calculation

Descriptors:

Calamus zollingeriTaxa:

IndonesiaCountries:

Silva, J.A.A. da & Vasconcelos, A.J.N. de (1996): Application of the relative efficiency methodology to select plot area and shape in forest inventories of the caatinga of Pernambuco-Brazil. - Commonwealth Forestry Review 75: 243-246.

[7819]

Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:BrazilCountries:

Sinclair, A., Catling, P.M. & Dumouchel, L. (2000): Notes on the pollination and dispersal of goldenseal, Hydrastis canadensis L., in southwestern Ontario. - The Canadian Field-Naturalist 114: 499-501.

[7097 !!]


Ecology, Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Hydrastis canadensisTaxa:

CanadaCountries:

Sinclair, A., Nantel, P. & Catling, P. (2005): Dynamics of threatened goldenseal populations and implications for recovery. - Biological Conservation 123: 355-360.

Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) is a North American perennial clonal herb highly prized for its medicinal value. It is

- 66 -

List of References

[7224 !!]

threatened at the northern range limit with only 20 populations known in Canada. To assist recovery planning, 13 populations were sampled to model dynamics. The fate of all ramets in one square meter was monitored from 1998 to 2001 in Ontario, Canada. Transition matrices were built for 2000-2001, using 3-stage classes based on size and reproductive status. A 6-stage pooled matrix, separating established ramets from newly produced ramets, was also constructed. Recruitment by seed was not observed and therefore excluded. The average population growth rate (λ) was 1.062 plus or minus 0.053, which did not significantly differ from the equilibrium value (1.0) suggesting that the northern population is stationary. However, growth rates among population samples varied largely and had wide confidence intervals. Populations with λ-values less than or close to 1.0 require environmental change to increase. Recovery of goldenseal, and possibly other woodland perennials at risk, requires intervention aimed at population size augmentation, habitat optimization, and targeted dispersal. (CABI-RAMP, 20053051467).


RootPart Used:

Plant Group:

Case Study, Demography & Population Structure, Population dynamics, Population Viability Analysis, Reproduction, Resource Assessment

Descriptors:

Hydrastis canadensisTaxa:

Canada, United StatesCountries:

Sinha, A. & Bawa, K.S. (2002): Harvesting techniques, hemiparasites and fruit production in two non-timber forest tree species in south India. - Forest Ecology and Management 168: 289-300.

[8002]

TreesPlant Group:

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Phyllanthus emblica, Phyllanthus indofischeriTaxa:

IndiaCountries:

Sisak, L. (1998): Importance of main non-wood forest products in the Czech Republic. - In: Lund, H.G., Pajari, B. & Korhonen, M. (ed.): Sustainable development of non-wood goods and benefits from boreal and cold temperate forests. pp. 79-85, European Forestry Institute, Joensuu (EFI Proceedings 23).


Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Czech RepublicCountries:

Slade, N., Gomulkiewicz, R. & Alexander, H. (1998): Alternatives to Robinson and Redford's method of assessing overharvest from incomplete demographic data. - Conservation Biology 12: 148-155.

[5507 !!]Resource Assessment, StatisticsDescriptors:

Soehartono, T. & Newton, A.C. (2000): Conservation and sustainable use of tropical trees in the genus Aquilaria. 2. The impact of gaharu harvesting in Indonesia. - Biological Conservation 97: 29-41.

[6231 !!]

In the second part of their study the authors assess the impact of agarwood or gaharu harvesting on populations of A. malaccensis and A. microcarpa in ID and the sustainability of the current harvesting levels. This was achieved by observing and measuring the harvesting activities of gaharu collectors by accompanying them on collecting trips. The quantity of gaharu obtained from felling was very low, 100-180 g per tree for the high grade gaharu. Combining these yield and overall trade figures the authors estimate that 30-100,000 trees per year are felled. The matrix model approaches used showed that A. malaccensis populations will decline if trees with a dbh of <10cm are harvested. A. microcarpa populations are only safe if trees >30cm dbh are used. (schp, 22.5.2001).


WoodPart Used:

Plant Group:

Collection, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Aquilaria malaccensis, Aquilaria microcarpaTaxa:

IndonesiaCountries:

Soehartono, T. & Newton, A.C. (2000): Conservation and sustainable use of tropical trees in the genus Aquilaria. 1. Status and distribution in Indonesia. - Biological Conservation 96: 83-94.

One rarely finds papers which primarilary focus on research of the conservation status of species threatened by over-utilization. Therefore this study is most welcome, especially in the context of additional CITES listings. Presently only A. malaccensis is on Appendix II. 6 Aquilaria species occur in ID. The annual export trade value from ID is estimated at US$ 6 million. The authors found population concentrations in Sumatra and eastern Kalimantan. Analysis of national forest inventory data indicated that population densities are low (<1.2 individuals / ha). Continuous recruitment was found in some areas but also a general absence of larger trees. All Aquilaria species in Indonesia are assessed as

- 67 -

List of References

[6089 !!]

Vulnerable according to the IUCN threat categories. (schp, 27.10.2000).


WoodPart Used:

Plant Group:

Distribution, Map, Population status, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Aquilaria beccariana, Aquilaria cumingiana, Aquilaria filaria, Aquilaria hirta, Aquilaria malaccensis, Aquilaria microcarpa

Taxa:

IndonesiaCountries:

Sotnik, W.F. (1968): K metodike ispolsowanja perfokart pri polewich i kameralnich rabotach po kartirowaniju resursow lekarstwennich rastenij [Methods for using perfo-maps for field work and editing data for mapping of medicinal plants; in Russian]. - Rastitel'nye Resursy 4(4): 580-585.


Sotnik, W.F. (1968): Opyt krupnomasschtabnogo kartirovanija zapasov toloknjanki v Kirovskoi oblasti [Experiences in large-scale mapping of bearberry resources in the region of Kirovskaja; in Russian]. - Rastitel'nye Resursy 4(3): 305-315.

[2570]


Spellerberg, I.F. (1992): Evaluation and assessment for conservation. - 260 pp., Chapman & Hall, London.


Ståhl, G., Ringvall, A. & Lämås, T. (2000): Guided transect sampling for assessing sparce populations. - Forest Science 46: 108-115.


Stepp, J.R., Wyndham, F.S. & Zarger, R. (ed.) (2002): Ethnobiology and Biocultural Diversity. Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Ethnobiology. - xiv+720 pp., International Society of Ethnobiology, Athens GA.

[8001]


Stockdale, M. (1999): Research priorities for the inventory of rattan. - In: Williams, J.T., Noor, Nur Spardi Md & Rao, I.V. Ramanuja (ed.): Inventory techniques and assessment of rattan and bamboo in tropical forests. Papers presented at an international meeting of experts at the Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) 27-28 March 1995. pp. 63-79, International Network for Bamboo and Rattan, s.loc. Retrieved from http://www.inbar.int/news/INBAR_Technical_Report_no11.pdf, viewed: 18.8.2006.

[7640 !!]

The paper begins by identifying the similarities and differences between timber tree and rattan inventories. In the latter, the measuring of length is most important, not diameter. Many rattans form clusters and inventories therefore count clusters as well as stems in clusters. Wild rattans are mostly harvested by people living close to the resource and they can be their major source of income. The author summarizes several good reasons why resource managers should attempt to involve local people in rattan inventory and to think of ways in which the skills and knowledge of both researchers and local people can be used. However, these methods based on local knowledge need to be cross-checked for accuracy.The author calls for a more standardized sampling design to improve comparison of studies. Sampling design should always be chosen in the light of the four criteria: accuracy, precision, cost efficiency, and simplicity. The paper compares the existing rattan studies in the light of stratification, the role of remote sensing, point vs. plot sampling, and systematic vs. random sampling. Re the latter, the author concludes that systematic sampling is more cost effective than random sampling. (schp, 24.7.2006).


Stockdale, M. (2005): Steps to sustainable and community-based NTFP management. A manual written with special reference to South and Southeast Asia. - vi+190 pp., NTFP Exchange Programme for South and Southeast Asia, Quezon City.

How to inventory a resource population: "A resource iventory estimates the quantity of a NTFP resource population in a specified area. It estimates both density (i.e. the number of resources per unit area) and abundance (i.e. the total

- 68 -

List of References

[7439 !!]

number of resources in a specified area)." Sampling design has to consider accuracy, cost efficiency and simplicity: Random vs. systematic sampling; stratification; plot size, plot shape, sampling intensity.How to study yield: "A yield study estimates the average yield, or the average amount of NTFP, collected from a resource in one harvest using specified harvesting practices. Harvested yield is the amount normally harvested in one harvest, potential yield is the amount that is possible to harvest if the plant is harvested as completely as possible."How to study recovery time: "A recovery time study determines the average time a NTFP plant resource needs to recover (if weakened or injured by non-destructive harvest of exudates, leaves, bark or roots), resprout (if resprouting after non-destructive harvest of stems or apical buds) or regrow (if reseeding after destructive harvest) after being harvested using specified harvesting practices." "Ideally, the recovery time should be long enough to ensure that the plant is in good health and is able to reproduce successfully before it is harvested again". "Recovery time studies are needed for all plants that are harvested for their vegetative structures (e.g. exudates, leaves, bark, roots, stems, apical buds or whole plants) whether non-destructively or destructively. Recovery time studies are not needed for plants harvested for their reproductive propagules (e.g. flowers, fruits or seeds), because this does not usually weaken, injure, reduce or destroy the plant."How to study regeneration: "A regeneration study quantifies the amount of regeneration that is present in a plant resource population at a given moment in time. It estimates both density (i.e. the number of plants per unit area) and abundance (i.e. the total number of plants in a specified area). "How to study demography: "A demography study looks how the population structure, or the distribution of individuals across life cycle stages, changes over time." "A demographic study estimates each life cycle stage's probability, over a given time period, of surviving, and if surviving, of growing up to the next stage or remaining within the same stage. For reproductively mature life cycle stages, also the average number of seeds produced by each stage is estimated. " (schp, 27.1.2007).

Method Manual, Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Stockdale, M. & Ambrose, B. (1996): Mapping and NFTP inventory. Participatory assessment methods for forest-dwelling communities in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. - In: (ed.): . pp. 170-211, , .

[2666]

Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:IndonesiaCountries:

Stockdale, M. & Corbett, J.M.S. (1999): Participatory inventory. A field manual written with special reference to Indonesia. - 383 pp., Oxford Forestry Institute, Oxford (Tropical Forestry Papers 38).

[7705]

Palms

Exudate, Fruit, HerbPart Used:

Plant Group:Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

IndonesiaCountries:

Characteristics: Useful plants in community forestObjectives: Trial of a new methodology for participatory resource assessment.Type of study: Participatory inventoryScale: Local -Long Tebulo & Semambu village landsParticipants: NGO and villagersProtocol: Determination of village objectives and resources for inventory. Design: systematic lines of 5 10x10m plots laid end to end. Lines orientated across topography. Sampling proportional to area so distance between lines not standardised. Random origin for survey lines. 10-15% of plots check surveyed. Vouchers collected.Analysis: Maps of resources. Tables of totals and mean density per ha for each resource (calculations on hand held calculators).


Stockdale, M. & Wright, H.L. (1996): Rattan inventory. Determining plot shape and size. - In: Edwards, D.S., Booth, W.E. & Choy, S.C. (eds.) (ed.): Tropical rainforest research - current issues. Proceedings of the conference held in Bandar Seri Begawan, April 1993. pp. §, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, Boston.

[7809]PalmsPlant Group:Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:

Stork, N. & Davies, J. (1996): Biodiversity inventories. - 1-34 pp., #, #.

[7590]Method Manual, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Strohbach, M & Cole, D. (2005): Populations dynamics and sustainable harvesting of the medicinal plant Harpagophytum procumbens DC (Devil's Claw) in Namibia. - vii+66 pp., Unpublished report, s.loc.


- 69 -

List of References

[2716]NamibiaCountries:

Subedi, B.P. (1998): Participatory utilization and conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants. A case from Western Nepal Himalaya. International Conference on Medicinal Plants, February 16-19, 1998, Bangalore, India. - 13 pp., Unpublished report, s.loc.

[2501]Medicinal and aromatic plantsPlant Group:Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Sullivan, S., Konstant, T.L. & Cunningham, A.B. (1995): The impact of utilization of palm products on the population structure of the vegetable ivory palm (Hyphaene petersiana, Arecaceae) in north-central Namibia. - Economic Botany 49: 357-370.

[4510 !]

Palms

Fruit, SeedPart Used:

Plant Group:

Case Study, Collection, Demography & Population Structure, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Hyphaene petersianaTaxa:

NamibiaCountries:

Characteristics: Multi-stemmed palm common and abundant in palm savanna.Objectives: Assess status of populations in selected areas. (1) Derive an understanding of the impact of utilisation on population structure. (2) Make predictions of possible population changes due to heavy exploitation. (3) Assess impact of human and livestock density.Type of study: Impact studyScale: Local -Onayena & Iikeke areas, north-central NamibiaParticipants: ResearchersProtocol: Systematic cluster sampling of 100x100 m quadrats placed systematically in lines of 2-3 at 100 m intervals. Each transect was situated approx. 1 km apart on two sites chosen to represent high and low human and livestock densities. 10 quadrats enumerated from each site with 2 from Forestry Dept. exclusion zone (recent regeneration). Enumeration: signs of utilisation, height, basal diameter, clump size, gender, numbers of stems per quadrat.Analysis: Comparison between sites and with other studies using percent occurrence. ANOVA tests on height and basal diameter between sites. Stand curves in height size classes by gender. Frequency distribution of clump size.


Sunderland, T., Ngo-Mpeck, M.L., Tchoundjeu, Z. & Akoa, A. (1999): The ecology and sustainability of Pausinystalia johimbe. An over-exploited medicinal plant of the forests of central Africa. - In: Sunderland, C.H., Clark, L.E. & Vantomme, P. (ed.): Non-wood forest products in central Africa. Current research issues and prospects for conservation and development. pp. 67-77, FAO, Rome.

[5968 !!]

The bark of yohimbe is used to treat male organic impotence and is exploited in large quantities for local and export markets. The demand is generating considerable over-exploitation and local scarcity. Concerned over future supplies, Boehringer Ingelheim, a German pharmaceutical company, commissioned ICRAF to undertake a pilot study. The report covers the following fields: natural distribution, population structure, reproduction biology, current commercial bark exploitation practices in Cameroon, impacts of exploitation, confusion between P. johimbe and P. macroceras, and potential for domestication. It remains to be seen which effect the marketing of Viagra has on the future demand for yohimbe. (schp, 24.5.2001).


BarkPart Used:

Plant Group:

Cultivation, Exploitation, Identification, Non-wood forest products, Resource Assessment, UseDescriptors:Pausinystalia johimbe, Pausinystalia macrocerasTaxa:

Cameroon, Equatorial GuineaCountries:

Sutherland, W.J. (ed.) (1996): Ecological census techniques. - 336 pp., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

[7599 !!]


Svenning, J.C. & Macia, M.J. (2002): Harvesting of Genoma macrostachya Mart. leaves for thatch. An exploration of sustainability. - Forest Ecology and Management 167: 251-262.

[8003]LeafPart Used:

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Genoma macrostachyaTaxa:

- 70 -

List of References

Tandug, L.M. (1978): Sampling method for inventory of Philippine rattan and its distribution. - Sylvatrop. Technical Journal of Philippine Ecosystems and Natural Resources 3: 155-170.

[7801]

PalmsPlant Group:Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:


Characteristics: Climbing palms occurring in dense thickets.Objectives: Determination of an efficient sampling technique for low-cost 'good' estimates. Dispersion, distribution and total counts.Type of study: Inventory methodologyScale: Research site 1 ha, BayuganParticipants: ResearchersProtocol: All rattans (seedlings and mature) counted and mapped within a 1ha plot. Within large plot 5x5m grid =400 quadrats. Records made of: a) average time to travel 10m between plots, b) average time to count rattans within a plot, c) diameter and total commercial length of rattan (of cut culms). 9 plot sizes and shapes (assembled from 5x5m quadrats) tested. Study repeated at second location for verification of conclusions.Analysis: Plot efficiency determined as SE per 3 hour cruise (best=10x10m plots). Fit of binomial, poisson and negative binomial to density distribution of rattan (best=-ve binomial).


Tandug, L.M. (1988): How to inventory rattan. - 6 pp., Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, DENR College, Laguna.

[7761]PalmsPlant Group:Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:

Temu, A.B. (1995): Assessment of non-timber resources in Africa. - In: Köhl, M., Bachmann, P., Brassel, P. & Preto, G. (ed.): The Monte Veritá conference on forest survey designs. "Simplicity versus efficiency" and assessment of non-timber resources. Monte Veritá, Switzerland, 2-7 May 1994. pp. 56-63, Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Research, Zürich.

[7840]Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Thompson, K, Gaston, K.J. & Band, S.R. (1999): Range size, dispersal and niche breadth in the herbaceous flora of central England. - Journal of Ecology 87: 150-155.

[7481 !!]

Abundance & Rarity, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:United KingdomCountries:

Thompson, S.K. (1991): Stratified adaptive cluster sampling. - Biometrika 78: 389-397.

[7805]


Ticktin, T. (2004): The ecological implications of harvesting non-timber forest products. - Journal of Applied Ecology 41: 11-21.

[7161 !!]

Despite growing concern over the conservation of NTFP species, information on the ecological implications of harvest is available only in disparate case studies. In this review 70 studies that quantify the ecological effects of harvesting NTFP from plant species were reviewed, with the aims of assessing the current state of knowledge and drawing lessons that can provide guidelines for management as well as better directing future ecological research in this area. The review showed that NTFP collection can affect ecological processes from individual and population to community and ecosystem level. The majority of research, however, was found to be focused at the population level.The authors conclude that there is a need for longer-term studies that focus on ecological levels ranging from genes to ecosystems and that assess the mechanisms underlying impacts. They urge researchers and forest managers to work with local harvesters in designing and evaluating management practices that can mitigate the negative effects of harvest. (schp, 29.7.2006).

Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Aquilaria malaccensis, Hydrastis canadensis, Panax quinquefolius, Prunus africanaTaxa:

Ticktin, T. (2005): Applying a metapopulation framework to management and conservation on non-timber forest species. - Forest Ecology and Management 206: 249-261.


- 71 -

List of References

[8004]

Ticktin, T. & Nantel, P. (2004): Dynamics of harvested populations of a tropical understory herb in old-growth versus secondary forests. - Biological Conservation 120 (4): 461-470.

[7643 !!]

As in [6854], the authors present results from their studies on Achmea magdalenae harvest in SE Mexico. The population dynamics of this understory bromeliad was compared between old-growth and secondary rainforests. Population projections using annual transition matrices show that secondary forest populations have finite rates of growth significantly higher than those of old-growth poulations, under both ramet harvest and no-harvest conditions. (schp, 29.7.2006).

LeafPart Used:

Case Study, Harvest Impact, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Aechmea magdalenaeTaxa:MexicoCountries:

Ticktin, T., Fraiola, H. & Whitehead, A.N. (2006): Non-timber forest product harvesting in alien-dominated forests. Effects of frond-harvest and rainfall on the demography of two native Hawaiian ferns. - Biodiversity and Conservation §§: §§. Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com/content/j0xv0884882744jx/fulltext.pdf, viewed: 7.12.2006.

[8005 !!]

Ferns

LeafPart Used:

Plant Group:

Demography & Population Structure, Harvest Impact, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Microlepia strigosa, Sphenomeris chinensisTaxa:


Ticktin, T., Nantel, P. & Ramirez, F. (2002): Effects of variation on harvest limits for nontimber forest species in Mexico. - Conservation Biology 16: 691-705.

[6854 !!]

Achmea magdalenae is a clonal understory bromeliad harvested from the buffer zone of the Las Tuxtlas Biosphere Reserve in Veracruz, Mexico. The strong, silky fiber extracted from the leaves is used for embroidering. The ramets are also harvested as vegetative propagules for use in forest cultivation programmes. The authors name three basic requirements to protect NTFPs from overharvesting: (1) the identification of optimal harvest regimes; (2) the accurate estimation of maximum harvest limits; and (3) the implementation of those limits among local harvesters. To determine the maximum sustainable harvest rates, they used a combination of participatory reasearch techniques and demographic modelling. Three types of variation on maximum harvest rates were examined: variation between forest types, between harvest regimes, and over time. Results: Maximum harvest rates were much higher from secondary forest populations than from primary forest. Populations concurrently harvested for leaves and ramets had higher maximum sustainable levels of ramet harvest than those harvested for ramets only. Participation of local harvesters in the research process enabled them to accept the harvest limits determined, to switch to a more sustainable harvest regime, and to pass a local law to protect the remaining primary forest because of its potential as A. magdalenae habitat. (schp, 29.7.2006).

LeafPart Used:

Case Study, Harvest Impact, Resource Assessment, Sustainable Yield CalculationDescriptors:Aechmea magdalenaeTaxa:MexicoCountries:

Ticktin, T., Whitehead, A.N. & Fraiola, H. (2006): Traditional gathering of native hula plants in alien-invaded Hawaiian forests. Adaptive practices, impacts on alien invasive species, and conservation implications. - Environmental Conservation 33 (3): 185-194.

[8006 !!]


Tripathi, G. & Schmitt, S. (2001): Part III: Rapid vulnerability assessment of medicinal plants. - In: Lama, Y., Ghimire, S. & Aumeeruddy, Y. (ed.): Conservation of plant resources, community development and training in applied ethnobotany at Shey-Phoksundo National Park and its buffer zone, Dolpa. pp. 158-193, WWF, § (WWF, Year 4 Report).

[2439]Medicinal and aromatic plantsPlant Group:Rapid Assessment, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Troy, A.R., Ashton, M.S. & Larson, B.C. (1997): A protocol for measuring abundance and size of a neotropical liana,

- 72 -

List of References

Desmoncus polyacanthos (Palmae), in relation to forest structure. - Economic Botany 51: 339-346.


Abundance & Rarity, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Desmoncus polyacanthosTaxa:

U.S. Forest Service (s. dat.): National strategy for special forest products. Executive summary. - Retrieved from http://www.sfp.forprod.vt.edu/pubs/strategy.pdf, viewed: 18.8.2006.

[7869 !!]

Non-wood forest products, Resource Assessment, Resource Management PoliciesDescriptors:United StatesCountries:

United Nations Industrial Developement Organization (s.dat.): Medicinal and aromatic plants. Importance, cultivation, analysis and industrial processing. - § pp., Unpublished draft report, §.


Vance, N.C. & Thomas, J. (ed.) (1997): Special forest products. Biodiversity meets the marketplace. - 163 pp., US Department of Agriculture, Washington DC (General Technical Report GTR-WO-63).

[6785 !!]

Medicinal and aromatic plantsPlant Group:Non-wood forest products, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:


Vásquez, R. & Gentry, A. (1989): Use and misuse of forest-harvested fruits in the Iquitos area. - Conservation Biology 3: 350-361.

[8009 !!]FruitPart Used:Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Vesk, P. & Westoby, M. (2004): Sprouting ability across diverse disturbances and vegetation types worldwide. - Journal of Ecology 92: 310-320.

[7438 !!]

Regeneration, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Virtucio, F.D. & Tomboc, C.C. (1994): Effect of thinning, cutting age and felling cycle on culm yield of Buho (Schizostachyum lumampao) natural stands. - In: IDRC, FAO & UNDP (ed.): Bamboo in Asia and the Pacific. Proceedings of the 4th International Bamboo Workshop. Chiangmai, Thailand, Nov 27-30, 1991. pp. 106-122, FORSPA, s. loc. (FORSPA Publication 6).

[7752]

Grasses, incl. bamboo

SeedPart Used:

Plant Group:

Harvest Impact, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Schizostachyum lumampaoTaxa:


Characteristics: Natural clumps.Objectives: To determine the effects of thinning, cutting age and felling cycle on the variation of clump productivity and harvest cut.Type of study: Experimental harvestsScale: Research -natural stands in Ilocos Norte.Participants: ResearchersProtocol: 54 clumps randomly assigned to treatments in a 3x3x2 factorial design (thinning, cutting & felling cycle) with 3 replicates. Treatments: (1) Thinning regimes: 6 clumps in each replicate treated with a range of thinning intensities: heavy= in 2nd yr of experiment all culms cut except those <= 1 yr old, moderate =in 3rd yr all culms cut except those <=2 yrs old, light =in 4th yr all culms cut. (2) Culm cutting age: culms cut at 3, 4 or 5 yrs of age. (3) Felling cycle: culms harvested every yr or every 2 years. Treatments carried on for 10 years (1979-1989).Analysis: Three main analyses: (1) Preparation of clumps for management (thinning) - Analysis of covariance. (2) Yearly assessment of clump sustainability - data for last 6 years of study. ANOVA (3) Overall yields and clump sustainability - ANOVA. Results indicate that optimal harvesting pattern is to cut 3 yr old culms on a 2 year felling cycle with moderate initial thinning of mature culms in the natural clumps.


- 73 -

List of References

Vitkova, A. & Evstatieva, L. (2000): Distribution and resource of medicinal plants in National Park "Rila". - In: Anon. (ed.): Herbs - Ecohorizont 2000. pp. 79-87, §, s.loc.

[2476]


BulgariaCountries:

Vitkova, A. & Evstatieva, L. (2000): Biodiversity of medicinal plants in Rila National Park. - In: Sakalian, M. (ed.): Biological diversity of the Rila National Park. pp. 79-116, USAID, Sofia.

[6966 !!]

The authors have prepared and present standardized medicinal plant inventories for various sites within the Rila National Park and they give recommendations for improved management of the investigated areas. For each site the medicinal plants with economic importance have been assessed regarding the quantity of the resource in kg for the given area. (schp, 15.2.2003).

Medicinal and aromatic plantsPlant Group:Biomass Production & Yields, Case Study, Population status, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

BulgariaCountries:

Vitkova, A. & Gyurova, D. (2006): Evaluation of the resources of medicinal plants in Lozenska Mt. - Phytologia Balcanica §: §.

[2482]


BulgariaCountries:

Vitkova, A. & Vulchev, V. (2003): Evaluation of Vaccinium myrtillus resource in Park Section "Klisura" in National Park "Central Balkan". - In: Gussev, Ch., Georgieva, K. & Boteva, D. (ed.): AAMP. ARD-Project. Biodiversity conservation and economic growth. pp. 129-142, §, s.loc.

[2480]

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Vaccinium myrtillusTaxa:BulgariaCountries:

Vitkova, A., Petrova, A. & Meshivev, T. (1993): Ecologo-biological characteristic of Hippophae rhamnoides L. Distribution and measures for protection of the species in Varna region. - In: Nedijalkov, S. (ed.): Ecology, economy and environment of Black Sea region, 3-4. Proceedings of scientific papers of third scientific conference. pp. 487-491, §, Varna.

[2478]

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Hippophae rhamnoidesTaxa:BulgariaCountries:

Voort, M.E. van der & McGraw, J.B. (2006): Effects of harvester behaviour on population growth rate affects sustainability of ginseng trade. - Biological Conservation 130 (4): 505-516.

[8008 !!]

When long-term, intense levels of harvest nearly extirpated Chinese ginseng (Panax ginseng C. Meyer) in the early 18th century, commercial harvest of American ginseng (P. quinquefolius L.) began and large quantities of the roots were exported to East Asia. Annual export figures have fallen over the past 200 years, but demand for wild American ginseng has not abated. Persistent harvest of long-lived, slow-maturing species can have negative impacts on population growth rates, yet those closest to wild resources are often in a position to be the best stewards of that resource. This study explored the consequences of different harvester behaviors on the population dynamics of American ginseng. Drawing on known behaviors, we developed three harvester 'types' and ran demographic simulations on wild ginseng populations, partitioning the sources of differences in population growth rates using a life table response experiment (LTRE). The simulations showed that ignoring size class limits and harvest season onset dates dramatically affected population growth rates. Existing laws in many states are not adequate to protect wild ginseng populations. A stewardship-oriented harvester, who delays harvest onset by two weeks, self-limits harvest intensity and plants ginseng seeds at the time of harvest can reverse declining population growth rates. (CABI-RAMP, 20063123257).


Harvest Impact, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Panax spp.Taxa:

Voort, M.E. van der, Bailey, B., Samuel, D.E. & McGraw, J.B. (2003): Recovery of populations of goldenseal

- 74 -

List of References

(Hydrastis canadensis L.) and American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) following harvest. - American Midland Naturalist 149 (2): 282-292.

[7084]

Goldenseal (H. canadensis) and American ginseng (P. quinquefolius) have been harvested commercially for the past few centuries. Harvested populations can recover if vegetative propagules remain in the soil. Experiment I tested the efficacy of vegetative reproduction in goldenseal and ginseng. Partial and intact rhizomes and roots of goldenseal and ginseng were planted in garden experiments in West Virginia (USA) in 1995 and 1996, respectively. Goldenseal was monitored for one year (1996) and ginseng for 4 years (1997, 1998, 1999 and 2000). During the experiment, more than 40% of the propagule types of goldenseal (n=5) and ginseng (n=7) sprouted. Sprouting varied from year to year in ginseng, and dormancy and/or death occurred in both species. Of the ginseng propagules that sprouted, 77% were dormant for at least one year and half of those were not present in the final year of the experiment. Sprouting and reproductive status were dependent on propagule type for both species. InExperiment II, we monitored recovery of wild populations of goldenseal and ginseng following natural and simulated harvests. After a harvest leaving only 4 visible plants at the site, a goldenseal population recovered to 932 stems in the first growing season. In the subsequent 3 years, the population declined numerically, but the size of individuals increased significantly. In a harvested ginseng population, less than half the original number of ginseng plants were present one year after harvest. By the second year, stem number exceeded the preharvest count, but the demographic structure of the population had changed dramatically. Before harvest, reproductive plants accounted for 78% of the population. There were no reproductive plants in the year immediately following harvest. In years 2, 3, 4 and 5 postharvest, 4, 7, 18 and 26% of the genets were reproductive, respectively. Both rhizomes and roots of goldenseal and ginseng were capable of regenerating plants, conferring a degree of short term resiliency following harvest. (CABI-RAMP, 20033065485).


Population dynamics, Regeneration, Resource Assessment, Resource managementDescriptors:Hydrastis canadensis, Panax quinquefoliusTaxa:


Vovides, A.P., Ogata, N., Sosa, V. & Peña-Garcia, E. (1997): Pollination of endangered Cuban cycad Microcycas calocoma (Miq.) A.DC. - Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 125: 201-210.

[5486 !!]

CycadsPlant Group:

Case Study, Distribution, Reproduction, Resource Assessment, ThreatDescriptors:Microcycas calocomaTaxa:

CubaCountries:

Vulchev, V. & Boteva, D. (2003): Evaluation of Vaccinium myrtillus resource in park section "Jakoruda" in National Park "Rila". - In: Gussev, Ch., Georgieva, K. & Boteva, D. (ed.): AAMP. ARD-Project. Biodiversity conservation and economic growth. pp. 114-128, §, s.loc.

[2481]

Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Vaccinium myrtillusTaxa:BulgariaCountries:

Walker, D.H., Thorne, P.J., Sinclair, F.L., Thapa, B., Wood, C.D. & Subba, D.B. (1999): A systems approach to comparing indigenous and scientific knowledge. Consistence and discriminatory power of indigenous and laboratory assessment of the nutritive value of tree fodder. - Agricultural Systems. International Journal 62: 87-103.

[7741]


Wang Jinxiu, Liu Hongmao, Hu Huabin & Gao Lei (2004): Participatory approach for rapid assessment of plant diversity through a folk classification system in a tropical rainforest. Case study in Xishuangbanna, China. - .

[7659 !!]

Case Study, Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Rapid Assessment, Resource Assessment, Taxonomic Aspects

Descriptors:

ChinaCountries:

Westoby, M., Falster, D.S., Moles, A.T., Vesk, P. & Wright, I.J. (2002): Plant ecological strategies. Some leading dimensions variation between species. - Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 33: 125-159.

[7437 !!]Ecological Functions, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Wet, L.-A. de (2005): Is Pelargonium reniforme in danger? The effects of harvesting on Pelargonium reniforme. - Veld & Flora 91 (4): 182-184.

- 75 -

List of References

[7685 !!]

Both Pelargonium sidoides and P. reniforme are endemic to South Africa. Both plants have red tubers that are harvested for medicinal purposes. Large quantities are collected and exported for a growing market. Some estimates are as high as 50 000 kg of tubers annually. It appears that only P. sidoides contains the active compound, but both species are obviously in demand. When not in flower, the two species are impossible to identify accuarately which may lead to indiscriminate collection. P. reniforme appears to be far more locally abundant than P. sidoides. Most of the trade in the plants is illegal since only very few permits have been granted. A study in 30 plots of harvested and unharvested populations was carried out to discover the impacts of harvesting on total biomass and to discover a measure of the aboveground parts of the plant that may give an indication of the size of the tubers. However, the paper presents no details on the methodology and little on the results and therefore remains superficial. No references are cited. (schp, 27.1.2007).


RootPart Used:

Plant Group:

Harvest Impact, Illustration, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Pelargonium reniforme, Pelargonium sidoidesTaxa:


Wickens, G.E. (2001): Economic botany. Principles and practices. - xiv+535 pp., Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht.

[6843!]


Wild, R.G. & Mutebi, J. (1996): Conservation through community use of plant resources. Establishing collaborative management at Bwindi Impenetrable and Mgahinga Gorilla National Parks, Uganda. - 45 pp., UNESCO, Paris (People and Plants Working Paper 5).

[2719]

Participation & Traditional Knowledge, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:UgandaCountries:

Williams, H.W. & Gaston, K.J. (1994): Measuring more of biodiversity. Can higher-taxon richness predict wholesale species richness?. - Biological Conservation 67: 211-217.

[4241 !!]FernsPlant Group:Resource Assessment, Species RichnessDescriptors:

Williams, J.T., Noor, Nur Spardi Md & Rao, I.V. Ramanuja (ed.) (1999): Inventory techniques and assessment of rattan and bamboo in tropical forests. Papers presented at an international meeting of experts at the Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) 27-28 March 1995. - 96 pp., International Network for Bamboo and Rattan, s.loc. Retrieved from http://www.inbar.int/news/INBAR_Technical_Report_no11.pdf, viewed: 18.8.2006.

[7639 !!]PalmsPlant Group:Resource Assessment, Sampling TechniquesDescriptors:

Williams, V.L., Witkowski, E.T.F. & Balkwill, K. (2006 in press): The use of incidence-based species richness estimators, species accumulation curves and similarity measures to appraise ethnobotanical inventories from South Africa. - Biodiversity and Conservation §: §. Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com/content/m6013422w1t456lu/fulltext.pdf, viewed: 7.12.2006.

Species richness, or the number of species in a sample of a specified size, is an instantly comprehensible expression of species diversity. Biologists often need to know how many species there are within an area or, they need to compare the number of species found in different areas. Complete enumeration of species richness within an extensive study area is, however, generally not feasible and consequently a number of different methods for estimating total species richness from a sample have been devised. The challenge is to know how complete the plant inventories are, i.e. how many more species would have been documented with increased sampling effort? Furthermore, how does a researcher objectively decide on the level of sampling effort required to satisfactorily complete a survey or draw conclusions on the adequacy of the effort already executed? Traditionally, species accumulation functions have been used for plotting species versus sampling effort to estimate visually whether a curve has asymptotically approached some ceiling (and hence whether sampling has been sufficient), as well as estimate the total richness of a site. While the methods for estimating species richness have been applied to the approximate assessment of species richness in faunal and floral groupings at comparative sites, the benefits of such an approach to applied quantitative ethnobotany have yet to be fully explored.Prediction of the species richness of a sample and the use of species accumulation functions have been addressed little in applied ethnobotany. In this paper, incidence-based (= based on presence/absence data) species richness estimators, species accumulation curves and similarity measures are used to compare and predict species richness, evaluate sampling effort and compare the similarity of species inventories for ethnobotanical data sets derived from the

- 76 -

List of References

[7928 !!]

trade in traditional medicine in Johannesburg and Mpumalanga, South Africa. (schp, 31.8.2006).

Medicinal and aromatic plantsPlant Group:Resource Assessment, Species RichnessDescriptors:


Witkowski, E.T.F. & Lamont, B.B. (1996): Nutrient losses from commercial picking and cockatoo removal of Banksia hookeriana blooms at the organ, plant and site levels. - Journal of Applied Ecology 33: 131-140.

[7921]FlowerPart Used:

Harvest Impact, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Banksia hookerianaTaxa:

Witkowski, E.T.F., Lamont, B.B. & Obbens, F.J. (1994): Commercial picking of Banksia hookeriana in the wild reduces subsequent shoot, flower and seed production. - Journal of Applied Ecology 31: 508-520.

[7922]

Harvest Impact, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Banksia hookerianaTaxa:

Wong, J. (2000): The biometrics of non-timber forest product resource assessment. A review of current methodology. - vi+174 pp., DFID, . Retrieved from http://www.etfrn.org/etfrn/workshop/ntfp/index.html, viewed: 18.8.2006.

[7613 !!]Method Manual, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Wong, J. (2001): The biometric rigour of current NTFP inventory methods. Overview of review paper and identified research themes. - In: Baker, N. (ed.): Developing needs-based inventory methods for non-timber forest products. Application and development of current research to identify practical solutions for developing countries. 4 - 5 May 2000, FAO, Rome. pp. 52-58, DFID, Oxford.

[7641 !!]Resource AssessmentDescriptors:

Wong, J. (2006): Developing biometric sampling systems and optimal harvesting methods for medicinal tree bark in southern Africa. Final technical report, DFID Forestry Research Programme, R8305. - 16 pp., Wild Resources Limited, Bangor.

[7927 !!]

The project built on two preceding projects; one on medicinal bark harvesting in South Africa and a FAO project developing generic inventory techniques for NWFPs. The project was implemented in three countries: Malawi, South Africa and Zambia. Outputs of the project were a series of field-practitioner-level publications which will cover everything from inventory techniques to cultivation and processing of herbs. (schp, 31.8.2006).


BarkPart Used:

Plant Group:Resource Assessment, Resource Management Procedures & ApproachesDescriptors:

Malawi, South Africa, ZambiaCountries:

Wong, J., Thornber, K. & Baker, N. (2001): Resource assessment of non-wood forest products. Experience and biometric principles. - xvii+109 pp., FAO, Rome (Non-wood Forest Products 13). Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/004/Y1457E/Y1457E00.HTM, viewed: 18.8.2006.

[6515 !!]

Method Manual, Population status, Resource Assessment, SustainabilityDescriptors:Prunus africanaTaxa:

Xiongwen Chen & Bai-Lian Li (2004): Quickly identifying tree species susceptible to extinction. A case study of seven tree species at Northeast China Transect. - Journal for Nature Conservation 12: 205-211.

[7672 !!]

TreesPlant Group:Demography & Population Structure, Resource Assessment, SusceptibilityDescriptors:

ChinaCountries:

Yang QingSong, Chen ShaoTian & Zhou ZheKun (2003): [Protection and sustainable utilization of traditional Tibetan

- 77 -

List of References

medicine "snow lotuses" (Saussurea) in Diqing Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan; in Chinese]. - Acta Botanica Yunnanica 25 (3): 297-302.

[7343]

The status of snow lotuses (Saussurea spp.) in Yunnan, China was investigated. There are 22 snow lotuses and one variety in the area. Among these, 5 species are being used as medicine and traded. Around 55000 snow lotuses are traded on markets per year. The number of these is reduced noticeably, particularly those of biennial snow lotuses. Three suggestions on the protection and sustainable utilization of these plants were proposed. Local people are being educated and a quota was set on the collection of snow lotuses. Annual lotus can be collected after September, when seeds of plants have been dispersed. Biennial lotus collection should be banned. (CABI-RAMP, 20033137742).


Population dynamics, Population status, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Saussurea spp.Taxa:

ChinaCountries:

Zirjanova, O.A. & Reismunt, W.W. (1986): Primenenie landschaftnoi osnowy pri izuchenii rastitelnych resursow [Implementation of the landscape-basis for the investigation of plant ressources; in Russian]. - In: Pozdnjakov, L.K. (ed.): Lesnye rastitelnye resursy Srednej Sibiri, Krasnojarsk [Herbal forest resources in the middle of Sibirea, Krasnojarsk; in Russian]. pp. 95-101, §, s.loc.

[2572]


Zuidema, P.A. & Boot, R.G.A. (1994): Demography of the Brazil nut tree (Bertholletia excelsa) in the Bolivian Amazon. Impact of seed extraction on recruitment and population dynamics. - Journal of Tropical Ecology 18: 1-31.

[7923]


FruitPart Used:

Plant Group:

Demography & Population Structure, Reproduction, Resource AssessmentDescriptors:Bertholletia excelsaTaxa:

BoliviaCountries:

- 78 -

2.1 DescriptorsReferences are listed in an abbreviated form. For a full citation refer to chapter 1.

Abundance & RarityBevill, R.L. & Louda, S.M. (1999): Comparisons of related rare and common species in the study of plant rarity.Bhattarai, N.K. (1984): Economic mapping of Skimmia laureola Sieb. & Zucc. ex Walp. in the Khaptad 'Lekh' and adjoining forests.Brown, J.H. (1984): On the relationship between abundance and distribution of species.Buckland, S.T., Anderson, D.R., Burnham, K.P. & Laake, J.L. (1993): Distance sampling. Estimating abundance of biological populations.Burnham, K.P., Anderson, D.R. & Laake, J.L. (1980): Estimation of density from line transect sampling of biological populations.Caniago, I. & Siebert, S.F. (1998): Medicinal plant ecology, knowledge and conservation in Kalimantan, Indonesia.Chazdon, R.L. & Coe, F.G. (1999): Ethnobotany of woody species in second-growth, old-growth, and selectively logged forests of Northwestern Costa Rica.Gaston, K.J. (1996): The multiple forms of the interspecific abundance-distribution relationship.Hedge, S.G. & Ellstrand, N.C. (1999): Life history differences between rare and common flowering plant species of California and the British Isles.Kalpesh Ishnava, Rao, V.R., Mohan, J.S.S., Kothari, I.L. & Parabia, F.M. (2005): Occurence of a rare medicinal plant Schweinfurthia papilionacea A.Br. (Scrophulariaceae) in Gujarat.Kier, G., Mutke, J., Dinerstein, E., Rickens, T.H. Küper, W., Kreft, H. & Barthlott, W. (2005): Global patterns of plant diversity and floristic knowledge.Kolb, A., Barsch, F. & Diekmann, M. (2006): Determinants of local abundance and range size in forest vascular plants.Kunin, W.E. & Gaston, K.J. (1997): The biology of rarity. Causes and consequences of rare-common differences.Lavergne, S., Thompson, J.D., Garnier, E. & Debussche, M. (2004): The biology and ecology of narrow endemic and wide-spread plants. A comparative study of trait variation in 20 congeneric pairs.Lawrence, D.C., Leighton, M. & Peart, D.R. (1995): Availability and extraction of forest products in managed and primary forest around a Dayak village in West Kalimantan, Indonesia.McGraw, J.B., Sanders, S.M. & van der Voort, M. (2003): Distribution and abundance of Hydrastis canadensis L. (Ranunculaceae) and Panax quinquefolius L. (Araliaceae) in the central Appalachian region.Mulligan, M.R. & Gorchov, D.L. (2004): Population loss of goldenseal, Hydrastis canadensis L. (Ranunculaceae), in Ohio.Mutke, J. & Barthlott, W. (2005): Patterns of vascular plant diversity at continental to global scales.Quinn, R.M., Lawton, J.H., Eversham, B.C. & Wood, S.N. (1994): The biogeography of scarce vascular plants in Britain with respect to habitat preference, dispersal ability and reproductive biology.Schwartz, M.W. (1993): The search for pattern among rare plants. Are primitive species more likely to be rare?.Siebert, S.F. (2000): Abundance and growth of Desmoncus orthacanthos Mart. (Palmae) in response to light and ramet harvesting in five forest sites in Belize.Thompson, K, Gaston, K.J. & Band, S.R. (1999): Range size, dispersal and niche breadth in the herbaceous flora of central England.Troy, A.R., Ashton, M.S. & Larson, B.C. (1997): A protocol for measuring abundance and size of a neotropical liana, Desmoncus polyacanthos (Palmae), in relation to forest structure.

Biomass Production & YieldsArvind Bhatt, Rawal, R.S. & Uppeandra Dhar (2006): Ecological features of a critically rare medicinal plant, Swertia chirayita, in Himalaya.Belonogova, T.V. (1988): Yield forecasting and optimization of berry harvesting in the forests of Southern Karelia, USSR.

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Descriptors

Cherkasov, A.Ph. (1988): The cranberry yield in the USSR.Evstatieva, L. & Vitkova, A. (2000): Biodiversity of medicinal plants in Central Balkan National Park.Evstatieva, L., Hardalova, R. (2000): Diversity and resources of medicinal plants.Kortesharju, J. (1988): Cloudberry yields and factors affecting the yield in northern Finland.Kuchko, A.A. (1988): Bilberry and cowberry yields and the factors controlling them in the forests of Karelia, USSR.Lieth, H. (1975): Primary production of the major vegetation units of the world.Nautiyal, B.P., Chauhan, R.S., Prakash, V., Purohit, H. & Nautiyal, M.C. (2003): Population studies for the evaluation of germplasm and threat status of the alpine medicinal herb, Nardostachys jatamansi.Nygren, P., Rebottaro, S. & Chavarria, R. (1993): Application of the pipe model theory to non-destructive estimation of leaf biomass and leaf area of pruned agrofrestry trees.Peters, C.M. & Hammond, E.J. (1990): Fruits from the flooded forests of Peruvian Amazonia. Yield estimates for natural populations of three promising species.Raatikainen, M. (1988): Estimates of wild berry yields in Finland.Singh, V. & Dogra, K.K. (1996): Characteristics, distribution, utilisation, regeneration, biomass and nutritional values of seabuckthorn (Hippophae).Stockdale, M.C. & Power, J.D. (1994): Estimating the length of rattan stems.Vitkova, A. & Evstatieva, L. (2000): Biodiversity of medicinal plants in Rila National Park.

Case StudyAditi Sinha & Brault, S. (2005): Assessing sustainability of nontimber forest product extractions. How fire affects sustainability.Ash, J. (1986): Demography of Leptopteris wilkesiana (Osmundaceae), a tropical tree-fern from Fiji.Ash, J. (1987): Demography of Cyathea hornei (Cyatheaceae), a tropical tree-fern in Fiji.Bernal, R. (1998): Demography of the vegetable ivory palm Phytelephas seemannii in Colombia, and the impact of seed harvesting.Bhattarai, N.K. (1984): Economic mapping of Skimmia laureola Sieb. & Zucc. ex Walp. in the Khaptad 'Lekh' and adjoining forests.Boot, R.G.A. & Gullison, R.E. (1995): Approaches to developing sustainable extraction systems for tropical forest products.Cardel, Y., Rico-Gray, V., Garcia-Franco, J.G. & Thien, L.B. (1997): Ecological status of Beaucarnea gracilis, an endemic species of the semiarid Tehuacán valley, México.Carpenter, S.G. & Cottam, G. (1982): Growth and reproduction of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) in Wisconsin, USA.Chazdon, R.L. (1991): Effects of leaf and ramet removal on growth and reproduction of Geonoma congesta, a clonal understorey palm.Chazdon, R.L. & Coe, F.G. (1999): Ethnobotany of woody species in second-growth, old-growth, and selectively logged forests of Northwestern Costa Rica.Clark-Tapia, R., Mandujano, M.C., Valverde, T., Mendoza, A. & Molina-Freaner, F. (2005): How important is clonal recruitment for population maintenance in rare plant species? The case of the narrow endemic cactus, Stenocereus eruca, in Baja California, Mexico.Cunningham, A.B. (1988): Leaf production and utilization in Hyphaene coriacea. Management guidelines for commercial harvesting.Cunningham, A.B. & Liebenberg, L. (1998): Bark, berchemia and basketmakers. Testing methods for local-level monitoring of plant resources, a case study in Binga district, western Zimbabwe. Report on a WWF/UNESCO/KEW People and Plants Initiative field workshop.Endress, B.A., Gorchov, D., Peterson, M.B. & Padrón Serrano, E. (2004): Harvest of the palm Chamaedorea radicalis, its effects on leaf production, and implications for sustainable management.Evstatieva, L. & Vitkova, A. (2000): Biodiversity of medicinal plants in Central Balkan National Park.Evstatieva, L., Hardalova, R. (2000): Diversity and resources of medicinal plants.Foster, P.F. & Sork, V.L. (1997): Population and genetic structure of the West African rain forest liana Ancistrocladus korupensis (Ancistrocladaceae).

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Descriptors

Gagnon, D. (10.5.1999): An analysis of the sustainability of American Ginseng harvesting from the wild. The problem and possible solutions. Final report to the Office of Scientific Authority of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. - http://www.nps.gov/plants/medicinal/pubs/ginseng.htmGagnon, D. (22.3.1999): A review of the ecology and population biology of Goldenseal, and protocols for monitoring its populations. Final report to the Office of Scientific Authority of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. - http://www.nps.gov/plants/medicinal/pubs/traffic.htmGeldenhuys, C.J. (2004): Meeting the demand for Ocotea bullata bark. Implications for the conservation of high-value and medicinal tree species.Geldenhuys, C.J. & van der Merwe, C.J. (1988): Population structure and growth of the fern Rumohra adiantiformis in relation to frond harvesting in the southern Cape forests.Gould, K., Howard, A.F. & Rodriguez, G. (1998): Sustainable production of non-timber forest products. Natural dye extraction from El Cruce Dos Aguadas, Peten, Guatemala.Gutierrez, L. & Vovides, A.P. (1997): An in situ study of Magnolia dealbata Zucc. in Veracruz. An endangered endemic tree of Mexico.Killmann, W., Ndeckere, F., Vantomme, P. & Walter, S. (2003): Developing inventory methodologies for non-wood forest products. Lessons learned from an analysis of case studies in African countries.Lawrence, A., Phillips, O.L., Reategui Ismodes, A., Lopez, M. Rose, S., Wood, D. & Farfan, A.J. (2005): Local values for harvested forest plants in Madre de Dios, Peru. Towards a more contextualised interpretation of quantitative ethnobotanical data.Lawrence, D.C., Leighton, M. & Peart, D.R. (1995): Availability and extraction of forest products in managed and primary forest around a Dayak village in West Kalimantan, Indonesia.Menges, E.S. (1990): Population viability analysis for an endangered plant.Mi Yoon Chung, Nason, J.D. & Myong Gi Chung (2004): Implications of clonal structure for effective population size and genetic drift in rare terrestrial orchid, Cremastra appendiculata.Midgley, J.J., Cowling, R.M., Hendricks, H., Desmet, P.G., Esler, K. & Rundel, P. (1997): Population ecology of tree succulents (Aloe and Pachypodium) in the arid western Cape. Decline of keystone species.Mulligan, M.R. & Gorchov, D.L. (2004): Population loss of goldenseal, Hydrastis canadensis L. (Ranunculaceae), in Ohio.Münzbergová, Z. (2006): Effect of population size on the prospect of species survival.Nantel, P., Gagnon, D. & Nault, A. (1996): Population viability analysis of American Ginseng and Wild Leek harvested in stochastic environments.Noble, J.C., Bell, A.D. & Harper, J.L. (1979): The population biology of plants with clonal growth 1. The morphology and structural demography fo Carex arenaria.O'Brien, T.G. & Kinnaird, M.F. (1996): Effect of harvest on leaf development of the Asian palm Livistona rotundifolia.Olmsted, I. & Alvarez-Buylia, E.R. (1995): Sustainable harvesting of tropical trees. Demography and matrix models of two palm species in Mexico.Philippi, T., Collins, B., Guisti, S. & Dixon, P.M. (2001): A multistage approach to population monitoring for rare plant populations.Pollak, H., Mattos, M. & Uhl, C. (1995): A profile of palm heart extraction in the Amazon Estuary.Prance, G.T., Balee, W., Boom, B.M. & Carneiro, R.L. (1987): Quantitative ethnobotany and the case for conservation in Amazonia.Prescott-Allen, R. & Prescott-Allen, C. (1996): Assessing the sustainability of uses of wild species. Case studies and initial assessment procedure.Raimondo, D.C. & Donaldson, J.S. (2003): Responses of cycads with different life histories to the impact of plant collecting. Simulation models to determine important life history stages and population recovery times.Ratsirarson, J., Silander Jr., J.A. & Richard, A.F. (1996): Conservation and management of a threatened Madagascar palm species, Neodypsis decaryi Jumelle.Rijsoort, J.van & Zhang Jinfeng (2005): Participatory resource monitoring as a means for promoting social change in Yunnan, China.Rock, J.H., Beckage, B. & Gross, L.J. (2004): Population recovery following differential harvesting of Allium tricoccum Ait. in the southern Appalachians.Runk, J.V. (1998): Productivity and sustainability of a vegetable ivory palm (Phytelephas aequatorialis, Arecaceae) under three management regimes in northwestern Ecuador.

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Schutte, A.L.,Vlok, J.H.J. & van Wyk, B.-E. (1995): Fire-survival strategy. A character of taxonomic, ecological and evolutionary importance in fynbos legumes.Shankar, U., Murali, K.S., Uma Shaanker, R., Ganeshaiah, K.N. & Bawa, K.S. (1996): Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Ragan hills, India. 3. Productivity, extraction and prospects of sustainable harvest of Amla Phyllanthus emblica (Euphorbiacefae).Sinclair, A., Nantel, P. & Catling, P. (2005): Dynamics of threatened goldenseal populations and implications for recovery.Sullivan, S., Konstant, T.L. & Cunningham, A.B. (1995): The impact of utilization of palm products on the population structure of the vegetable ivory palm (Hyphaene petersiana, Arecaceae) in north-central Namibia.Ticktin, T. & Nantel, P. (2004): Dynamics of harvested populations of a tropical understory herb in old-growth versus secondary forests.Ticktin, T., Nantel, P. & Ramirez, F. (2002): Effects of variation on harvest limits for nontimber forest species in Mexico.Vitkova, A. & Evstatieva, L. (2000): Biodiversity of medicinal plants in Rila National Park.Vovides, A.P., Ogata, N., Sosa, V. & Peña-Garcia, E. (1997): Pollination of endangered Cuban cycad Microcycas calocoma (Miq.) A.DC.Wang Jinxiu, Liu Hongmao, Hu Huabin & Gao Lei (2004): Participatory approach for rapid assessment of plant diversity through a folk classification system in a tropical rainforest. Case study in Xishuangbanna, China.

Critical AnalysisCunningham, A.B. (1994): Integrating local plant resources and habitat management.Evans, T. & Oulathong V. Viengkham (2001): Inventory time-cost and statistical power. A case study of a Lao rattan.Gill, G.J. (1993): OK, the data's lousy but its all we've got (being a critique of conventional methods).Godoy, R.O. & Bawa, K.S. (1993): The economic value and sustainable harvest of plants and animals from the tropical forest. Assumptions, hypotheses, and methods.Johannes, R.E. (June 1998): The case for data-less marine resource management. Examples from tropical nearshore finfisheries.Peters, C.M. (1999): Ecological research for sustainable non-wood forest product exploitation. An overview.Schreuder,H.T. (1995): Simplicity versus efficiency in sampling designs and estimation.

Demography & Population StructureAditi Sinha & Brault, S. (2005): Assessing sustainability of nontimber forest product extractions. How fire affects sustainability.Ash, J. (1987): Demography of Cyathea hornei (Cyatheaceae), a tropical tree-fern in Fiji.Ash, J. (1986): Demography of Leptopteris wilkesiana (Osmundaceae), a tropical tree-fern from Fiji.Bernal, R. (1998): Demography of the vegetable ivory palm Phytelephas seemannii in Colombia, and the impact of seed harvesting.Cardel, Y., Rico-Gray, V., Garcia-Franco, J.G. & Thien, L.B. (1997): Ecological status of Beaucarnea gracilis, an endemic species of the semiarid Tehuacán valley, México.Escalante, S., Montana, C. & Orellana, R. (2004): Demography and potential extractive use o f the liana palm, Desmoncus orthacanthos Martius (Arecaceae), in southern Quintana Roo, Mexico.Fashing, P.J. (2004): Mortality trends in the African cherry (Prunus africana) and the implication for colobus monkeys (Colobus guereza) in Kakamega Forest, Kenya.Foster, P.F. & Sork, V.L. (1997): Population and genetic structure of the West African rain forest liana Ancistrocladus korupensis (Ancistrocladaceae).Geldenhuys, C.J. & van der Merwe, C.J. (1988): Population structure and growth of the fern Rumohra adiantiformis in relation to frond harvesting in the southern Cape forests.Gould, K., Howard, A.F. & Rodriguez, G. (1998): Sustainable production of non-timber forest products. Natural dye extraction from El Cruce Dos Aguadas, Peten, Guatemala.Guedje, N.M., Lejoly, J., Nkongmeneck, B.A. & Jonkers, W.B.J. (2003): Population dynamics of Garcinia lucida (Clusiaceae) in Cameroonian Atlantic forests.

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Gutierrez, L. & Vovides, A.P. (1997): An in situ study of Magnolia dealbata Zucc. in Veracruz. An endangered endemic tree of Mexico.LaFrankie, J.V. (1994): Population dynamics of some tropical trees that yield non-timber forest products.Long ChangFeng, Kakiuchi, N., Zhong Guo Yue & Mikage, M. (2005): Survey on resources of Ephedra plants in Xinjiang.Martínez-Ballesté, A., Martorell, C., Martínez-Ramos & Caballero, J. (2005): Applying retrospective demographic models to assess sustainable use. The Maya management of Xa'an palms.Menges, E.S. (1990): Population viability analysis for an endangered plant.Midgley, J.J., Cowling, R.M., Hendricks, H., Desmet, P.G., Esler, K. & Rundel, P. (1997): Population ecology of tree succulents (Aloe and Pachypodium) in the arid western Cape. Decline of keystone species.Mikage, M. & Kakiuchi, N. (2005): The recent situation of the resources of Chinese crude drug Ma-huang, Ephedrae Herba.Murali, K.S., Shankar, U., Uma Shaanker, R., Ganeshaiah, K.N. & Bawa, K.S. (1996): Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Raga hills, India. 2. Impact of NTFP extraction on the regeneration, population structure and species composition.Nault, A. & Gagnon, D. (1993): Ramet demography of Allium tricoccum, a spring ephemeral, perennial forest herb.Noble, J.C., Bell, A.D. & Harper, J.L. (1979): The population biology of plants with clonal growth 1. The morphology and structural demography fo Carex arenaria.Nzilani, N.J. (2002): The status of Prunus africana (Syn. Pegium africanum Hook. F.) in Kakamega and South Nandi forests, Kenya.Olmsted, I. & Alvarez-Buylia, E.R. (1995): Sustainable harvesting of tropical trees. Demography and matrix models of two palm species in Mexico.Peres, C.A., Baider, C., Zidema, P.A., Wadt, L.O.H., Kainer, K.A., Gomes-Silva, D.A.P., Salomao, R.P., Simoes, L.L., Franciosi, E.R.N., Valverde, F.C., Gribel, R., Shepard, Jr G.H., Kanashiro, M., Coventry, P., Yu, D.W., Watkinson, A.R. & Freckleton, R.P. (2003): Demographic threats to the sustainability of Brazil nut exploitation.Peters, C.M. (1991): Plant demography and the management of tropical forest resources. A case study of Brosimum alicastrum in Mexico.Raimondo, D.C. & Donaldson, J.S. (2003): Responses of cycads with different life histories to the impact of plant collecting. Simulation models to determine important life history stages and population recovery times.Ratsirarson, J., Silander Jr., J.A. & Richard, A.F. (1996): Conservation and management of a threatened Madagascar palm species, Neodypsis decaryi Jumelle.Rikhari, H.C., Palni, L.M.S., Sharma, S. & Nandi, S.K. (1998): Himalayan yew. Stand structure, canopy damage, regeneration and conservation strategy.Sanders, S.M. & McGraw, J.B. (2002): Distribution, abundance, and population dynamics of goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.) in an Indiana Nature Preserve, USA.Shackleton, C.M. (1993): Demography and dynamics of the dominant woody species in a communal and protected area of the eastern transvaal lowveld.Shankar, U., Murali, K.S., Uma Shaanker, R., Ganeshaiah, K.N. & Bawa, K.S. (1996): Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Ragan hills, India. 3. Productivity, extraction and prospects of sustainable harvest of Amla Phyllanthus emblica (Euphorbiacefae).Siebert, S.F. (2004): Demographic effects of collecting rattan cane and their implications for sustainable harvesting.Sinclair, A., Nantel, P. & Catling, P. (2005): Dynamics of threatened goldenseal populations and implications for recovery.Sullivan, S., Konstant, T.L. & Cunningham, A.B. (1995): The impact of utilization of palm products on the population structure of the vegetable ivory palm (Hyphaene petersiana, Arecaceae) in north-central Namibia.Ticktin, T., Fraiola, H. & Whitehead, A.N. (2006): Non-timber forest product harvesting in alien-dominated forests. Effects of frond-harvest and rainfall on the demography of two native Hawaiian ferns.Xiongwen Chen & Bai-Lian Li (2004): Quickly identifying tree species susceptible to extinction. A case study of seven tree species at Northeast China Transect.Zuidema, P.A. & Boot, R.G.A. (1994): Demography of the Brazil nut tree (Bertholletia excelsa) in the Bolivian Amazon. Impact of seed extraction on recruitment and population dynamics.

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Descriptors

Ecological DamageAlonso, W. (1968): Predicting best with imperfect data.Amman, D. (2004): A model for defining biological damage thresholds.Bartz, R., Heink, U. & Kowarik, I. (2005): Ökologische Schäden durch Anwendungen der Agro-Gentechnik. Zum Schadensbegriff und dessen Operationalisierung.Breckling, B. & Potthast, T. (2004): Der ökologische Schadensbegriff. Eine Einführung.Hauhs, M. & Lange, H. (2004): Was ist ein ökologischer Schaden? Ein Ansatz für die Bestimmung virtueller Standards.Potthast, T. (2004): Ökologische Schäden. Begriffliche, methodologische und ethische Aspekte.Prescott-Allen, R. & Prescott-Allen, C. (1996): Assessing the sustainability of uses of wild species. Case studies and initial assessment procedure.Richter, M. (2004): Ökologische Schäden. Definition und Begriffsverständnis.

Ecological FunctionsMidgley, J.J. (1996): Why is the world's vegetation not totally dominated by resprouters. An architectural hypothesis.Mosquin, T. (1994): A conceptual framework for the ecological functions of biodiversity.Murray, B.R. Thrall, P.H., Gill, A.M. & Nicotra, A.B. (2002): How plant life-history and ecological traits relate to species rarity and commonness at varying spatial scales.Pate, J.S., Meney, K.A. & Dixon, K.W. (1991): Contrasting growth and morphological characteristics of fire-sensitive (obligate seeder) and fire-resistant (resprouter) species of Restionaceae (S. Hemisphere Restiads) from south-western Australia.Schutte, A.L.,Vlok, J.H.J. & van Wyk, B.-E. (1995): Fire-survival strategy. A character of taxonomic, ecological and evolutionary importance in fynbos legumes.Westoby, M., Falster, D.S., Moles, A.T., Vesk, P. & Wright, I.J. (2002): Plant ecological strategies. Some leading dimensions variation between species.

Genetic VariabilityCruse-Sanders, J.M., Hamrick, J.L. & Ahumada, J.A. (2005): Consequences of harvesting for genetic diversity in American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.). A simulation study.Foster, P.F. & Sork, V.L. (1997): Population and genetic structure of the West African rain forest liana Ancistrocladus korupensis (Ancistrocladaceae).Law, W. & Salick, J. (2005): Human-induced dwarfing of Himalayan snow lotus, Saussurea laniceps (Asteraceae).Mi Yoon Chung, Nason, J.D. & Myong Gi Chung (2004): Implications of clonal structure for effective population size and genetic drift in rare terrestrial orchid, Cremastra appendiculata.Shaankar, U., Ganeshaiah, K.N. & Nageswara, R.M. (2001): Genetic diversity of medicinal plant species in deciduous forests of South India. Impact of harvest and other anthropogenic pressures.

Harvest ImpactAditi Sinha & Brault, S. (2005): Assessing sustainability of nontimber forest product extractions. How fire affects sustainability.Chazdon, R.L. (1991): Effects of leaf and ramet removal on growth and reproduction of Geonoma congesta, a clonal understorey palm.Chen XiaoLi, Fang ZiSen & Zhang EnHe (2005): Characteristics of Notopterygium resources in Gansu and its exploitation [in Chinese].Clay, J.W. (1997): The impact of palm heart harvesting in the Amazon estuary.Cunningham, A.B. (1990): Income, sap yield and effects of sap tapping on palms in south-eastern Africa.Endress, B.A., Gorchov, D., Peterson, M.B. & Padrón Serrano, E. (2004): Harvest of the palm Chamaedorea radicalis, its effects on leaf production, and implications for sustainable management.

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Flores, C.F. & Ashton, P.M.S. (2000): Harvesting impact and economic value of Geonoma deversa, Arecaceae, and understory palm used for roof thatching in the Peruvian Amazon.Freckleton, R.P., Silva Matos, D.M., Bovi, M.L.A. & Watkinson, A.R. (2003): Predicting the impacts of harvesting using structured population models. The importance of density-dependence and timing of harvest for a tropical palm tree.Galetti, M. & Aleixo, A. (1998): Effects of palm heart harvesting on avian frugivores in the Atlantic rainforest of Brazil.Geldenhuys, C.J. (2004): Meeting the demand for Ocotea bullata bark. Implications for the conservation of high-value and medicinal tree species.Ghimire, S.K., McKey, D. & Aumeeruddy-Thomas, Y. (2005): Conservation of Himalayan medicinal plants. Harvesting patterns and ecology of two threatened species, Nardostachys grandiflora DC. and Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennel) Hong.Konstant, T.L., Sullivan, S. & Cunningham, A.B. (1995): The effects of utilization by people and livestock on Hyphaene petersiana (Arecaceae) basketry resources in the palm savanna of north-central Namibia.Milton, S.J. & Moll, E.J. (1988): Effects of harvesting on frond production of Rumohra adiantiformis (Pteridophyta: Aspidiaceae) in South Africa.Minore, D. & Weatherly, H.G. (1994): Effects of partial bark removal on the growth of Pacific yew.Nantel, P., Gagnon, D. & Nault, A. (1996): Population viability analysis of American Ginseng and Wild Leek harvested in stochastic environments.O'Brien, T.G. & Kinnaird, M.F. (1996): Effect of harvest on leaf development of the Asian palm Livistona rotundifolia.Pinard, M. (1993): Impacts of stem harvesting on populations of Iriartea deltoidea (Palmae) in an extractive reserve in Acre, Brazil.Rock, J.H. (1996): The impact of harvesting ramps (Allium tricoccum Ait.) in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Internal report.Siebert, S.F. (2004): Demographic effects of collecting rattan cane and their implications for sustainable harvesting.Ticktin, T. & Nantel, P. (2004): Dynamics of harvested populations of a tropical understory herb in old-growth versus secondary forests.Ticktin, T., Fraiola, H. & Whitehead, A.N. (2006): Non-timber forest product harvesting in alien-dominated forests. Effects of frond-harvest and rainfall on the demography of two native Hawaiian ferns.Ticktin, T., Nantel, P. & Ramirez, F. (2002): Effects of variation on harvest limits for nontimber forest species in Mexico.Virtucio, F.D. & Tomboc, C.C. (1994): Effect of thinning, cutting age and felling cycle on culm yield of Buho (Schizostachyum lumampao) natural stands.Voort, M.E. van der & McGraw, J.B. (2006): Effects of harvester behaviour on population growth rate affects sustainability of ginseng trade.Wet, L.-A. de (2005): Is Pelargonium reniforme in danger? The effects of harvesting on Pelargonium reniforme.Witkowski, E.T.F. & Lamont, B.B. (1996): Nutrient losses from commercial picking and cockatoo removal of Banksia hookeriana blooms at the organ, plant and site levels.Witkowski, E.T.F., Lamont, B.B. & Obbens, F.J. (1994): Commercial picking of Banksia hookeriana in the wild reduces subsequent shoot, flower and seed production.

Life FormHedge, S.G. & Ellstrand, N.C. (1999): Life history differences between rare and common flowering plant species of California and the British Isles.Murray, B.R. Thrall, P.H., Gill, A.M. & Nicotra, A.B. (2002): How plant life-history and ecological traits relate to species rarity and commonness at varying spatial scales.Quinn, R.M., Lawton, J.H., Eversham, B.C. & Wood, S.N. (1994): The biogeography of scarce vascular plants in Britain with respect to habitat preference, dispersal ability and reproductive biology.

Method ManualCochran, W.G. (1977): Sampling techniques. Third edition.Cotton, C.M. (1996): Ethnobotany. Principles and applications.

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Cunningham, A.B. (2001): Applied ethnobotany. People, wild plant use and conservation.Dallmeier, F. (1992): Long-term monitoring of biological diversity in tropical forest areas. Methods for establishment and inventory of permanent plots.Elzinga, C.L., Salzer, D.W. & Willoughby,, J.W. (1998): Measuring and monitoring plant populations.Given, D. (1994): Principles and practice of plant conservation.Martin, G. (1995): Ethnobotany. A methods manual.Myers, W.L. & Shelton, R.L. (1980): Survey methods for ecosystem management.Peters, C.M. (1996): Beyond nomenclature and use. A review of ecological methods for ethnobotanists.Peters, C.M. (1994): Sustainable harvest of non-timber forest plant resources in tropical moist forest. An ecological primer.Ros-Tonen, M.A.F. & al (1998): Methods for non-timber forest products research. The Tropenbos experience.Stockdale, M. (2005): Steps to sustainable and community-based NTFP management. A manual written with special reference to South and Southeast Asia.Stork, N. & Davies, J. (1996): Biodiversity inventories.Wickens, G.E. (2001): Economic botany. Principles and practices.Wong, J. (2000): The biometrics of non-timber forest product resource assessment. A review of current methodology.Wong, J., Thornber, K. & Baker, N. (2001): Resource assessment of non-wood forest products. Experience and biometric principles.

Participation & Traditional KnowledgeAbbott, J. & Guijt, I. (1998): Changing views on change. Participatory approaches to monitoring the environment.Barnes, M.A. & Musselman, V.P. (1996): Inventory and appraisal methodologies for special forest products prepared for North Santiam Canyon Economic Development Committee.Branney, P. (1994): Thumb rules for assessing the sustainability of harvesting by forest user groups. Nepal-UK Community Forestry Project.Caniago, I. & Siebert, S.F. (1998): Medicinal plant ecology, knowledge and conservation in Kalimantan, Indonesia.Carter, J. (1996): Recent approaches to participatory forest resource assessment.Close, C.H. & Hall, B. (2006): A GIS-based protocol for the collection and use of local knowledge in fisheries management planning.Cornwall, A. (1995): Towards participatory practice. PRA and the participatory process.Cunningham, A.B. & Liebenberg, L. (1998): Bark, berchemia and basketmakers. Testing methods for local-level monitoring of plant resources, a case study in Binga district, western Zimbabwe. Report on a WWF/UNESCO/KEW People and Plants Initiative field workshop.Davis-Case, D'A. (1989): Community forestry. Participatory assessment, monitoring and evaluation.Davis-Case, D'A. (1990): The community's toolbox. The idea, methods and tools for participatory assessment, monitoring and evaluation in community forestry.Dunn, R. & Otu, D. (1996): A community forest inventory for productive forest management in Cross River State, Nigeria.Elisabetsky, E. (1996): Community ethnobotany. Setting foundations for an informed decision on trading rain forest resources.Geldenhuys, C.J. (2004): Bark harvesting for traditional medicine. From illegal resource degradation to participatory management.Gronow, J. & Safo, E. (1996): Collaborative forest resource assessment surveys for the management of community forest reserves in Ghana.Guijt, I. & Hinchcliffe, F. (1998): Participatory valuation of wild resources. An overview of the Hidden Harvest methodology.Havel, V. (1996): The World Bank participation sourcebook. - http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/sourcebook/sbhome.htmIngles, A., Jackson, B., Singh, H.B., Dev, O.P. & Branney, P. (1996): Resource assessment for forest management by user groups. Two case studies from Nepal.

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Descriptors

Inglis, A. (1991): Harvesting local forestry knowledge. A comparison of RRA and conventional surveys.Kinhal, G.A., Jagannatha Rao R. & Lawrence, A. (2006): A methodological template for participatory planning and designing for sustainable harvesting of medicinal plants.Lama, Y., Ghimire, S. & Aumeeruddy, Y. (2001): Conservation of plant resources, community development and training in applied ethnobotany at Shey-Phoksundo National Park and its buffer zone, Dolpa.Lawrence, A. (): 'No personal motive?' Volunteers, biodiversity, and the false dichotomies of participation.Lawrence, A. & Elphick, M. (2002): Policy implications of participatory biodiversity assessment. ETFRN international seminar for policy-makers and implementers, 21 May 2002 at the Department for International Development, 1 Palace St, London, UK.Lawrence, A. & Román, F.S. (1996): The role of inventory in the communally managed forests of Quinata Roo, Mexico.Lawrence, A., Phillips, O.L., Reategui Ismodes, A., Lopez, M. Rose, S., Wood, D. & Farfan, A.J. (2005): Local values for harvested forest plants in Madre de Dios, Peru. Towards a more contextualised interpretation of quantitative ethnobotanical data.Malhotra, K.C., Poffenberger, M., Bhattacharya, A. & Dev D. (1991): Rapid appraisal methodology trials in Southwest Bengal. Assessing natural forest regeneration patterns and non-wood forest product harvesting practice.Messerschmidt, D.A. & Hammett, A.L. (1998): Local knowledge of alternative forest resources. Its relevance for resource management and economic development.Oltheton, T.M.P. (1995): Participatory approaches to planning for community forestry.Peters, C.M. (1999): A protocol for participatory inventories of timber and non-timber forest products in Cameroon. Consultancy report for Biodiversity International.Phillips, O. (1996): Some quantitative methods for analysing ethnobotanical knowledge.Posey, D.A. (1999): Cultural and spiritual values of biodiversity. A complementary contribution to the global biodiversity assessment.Prance, G.T., Balee, W., Boom, B.M. & Carneiro, R.L. (1987): Quantitative ethnobotany and the case for conservation in Amazonia.Rijsoort, J.van & Zhang Jinfeng (2005): Participatory resource monitoring as a means for promoting social change in Yunnan, China.Shanley, P., Galvao, J. & Luz, L. (1997): Limits and strengths of local participation. A case study in eastern Amazonia.Stockdale, M. & Ambrose, B. (1996): Mapping and NFTP inventory. Participatory assessment methods for forest-dwelling communities in East Kalimantan, Indonesia.Stockdale, M. & Corbett, J.M.S. (1999): Participatory inventory. A field manual written with special reference to Indonesia.Subedi, B.P. (1998): Participatory utilization and conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants. A case from Western Nepal Himalaya. International Conference on Medicinal Plants, February 16-19, 1998, Bangalore, India.Walker, D.H., Thorne, P.J., Sinclair, F.L., Thapa, B., Wood, C.D. & Subba, D.B. (1999): A systems approach to comparing indigenous and scientific knowledge. Consistence and discriminatory power of indigenous and laboratory assessment of the nutritive value of tree fodder.Wang Jinxiu, Liu Hongmao, Hu Huabin & Gao Lei (2004): Participatory approach for rapid assessment of plant diversity through a folk classification system in a tropical rainforest. Case study in Xishuangbanna, China.Wild, R.G. & Mutebi, J. (1996): Conservation through community use of plant resources. Establishing collaborative management at Bwindi Impenetrable and Mgahinga Gorilla National Parks, Uganda.

Population Viability AnalysisEllis, S. & Seal, U.S. (1995): Tools of the trade to aid decision making for species survival.Menges, E.S. (1990): Population viability analysis for an endangered plant.Menges, E.S. (2000): Population viability analyses in plants. Challenges and opportunities.Morris, W., Doak, D., Groom, M., Kareiva, P., Fieberg, J., Gerber, L., Murphy, P. & Thomson, D. (1999): A practical handbook for population viability analysis.Münzbergová, Z. (2006): Effect of population size on the prospect of species survival.

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Descriptors

Nantel, P., Gagnon, D. & Nault, A. (1996): Population viability analysis of American Ginseng and Wild Leek harvested in stochastic environments.Resit Akcakaya, H. & Sjögren-Gulve, P. (2000): Population viability analyses in conservation planning. An overview.Sinclair, A., Nantel, P. & Catling, P. (2005): Dynamics of threatened goldenseal populations and implications for recovery.

Rapid AssessmentHealey, J.R. & al. (1998): Rapid assessment of plant biodiversity.Higgins, M.A. & Ruokolainen, K. (2004): Rapid tropical forest inventory. A comparison of techniques based on inventory data from western Amazonia.Kerr, J.T., Sugar, A. & Packer, L. (2000): Indicator taxa, rapid biodiversity assessment, and nestedness in an endangered ecosystem.Peev, D. (2003): Rapid ecological assessment of Rila monastery Nature Park.Scrimshaw, S. & Gleason, G.R. (1992): RAP. Rapid assessment procedures, qualitative methodologies and planning and evaluation of health related programmes.Tripathi, G. & Schmitt, S. (2001): Part III: Rapid vulnerability assessment of medicinal plants.Wang Jinxiu, Liu Hongmao, Hu Huabin & Gao Lei (2004): Participatory approach for rapid assessment of plant diversity through a folk classification system in a tropical rainforest. Case study in Xishuangbanna, China.

RegenerationAnderson, M.K. & Rowney, D.L. (1999): The edible plant Dichelostemma capitatum. Its vegetative reproduction response to different indigenous harvesting regimens in California.Bergeron, M.E. & Lapointe, L. (2000): Impact of one year crozier removal on long-term fron production Matteuccia struthiopteris.Carpenter, S.G. & Cottam, G. (1982): Growth and reproduction of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) in Wisconsin, USA.Cunningham, A.B. (1988): Leaf production and utilization in Hyphaene coriacea. Management guidelines for commercial harvesting.Egoshina, T.L. & Skopin, A.E. (2005): Resources of Vaccinium vitis-idaea (in Russian).Endress, B.A., Gorchov, D., Peterson, M.B. & Padrón Serrano, E. (2004): Harvest of the palm Chamaedorea radicalis, its effects on leaf production, and implications for sustainable management.Fashing, P.J. (2004): Mortality trends in the African cherry (Prunus africana) and the implication for colobus monkeys (Colobus guereza) in Kakamega Forest, Kenya.Geldenhuys, C.J. & van der Merwe, C.J. (1988): Population structure and growth of the fern Rumohra adiantiformis in relation to frond harvesting in the southern Cape forests.Ghimire, S.K., McKey, D. & Aumeeruddy-Thomas, Y. (2005): Conservation of Himalayan medicinal plants. Harvesting patterns and ecology of two threatened species, Nardostachys grandiflora DC. and Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennel) Hong.Kruger, L.M., Midgley, J.J. & Cowling, R.M. (1997): Resprouters vs reseeders in South African forest trees. A model based on forest canopy height.Larsen, H.O. (2005): Impact of replanting on regeneration of the medicinal plant Nardostachys grandiflora DC. (Valerianaceae).Manipula, B.M., Gianan, N. So. & Virtucio, F.D. (1996): Culm removal effect on culm yield and biomass productivity of laak (Bambusa sp. 2) in flatland and hillyland sites in Pandapan, Tagum, Davao del Norte.Midgley, J.J. (1996): Why is the world's vegetation not totally dominated by resprouters. An architectural hypothesis.Milton, S. (1987): Effects of harvesting on four species of forest ferns in South Africa.Minore, D. & Weatherly, H.G. (1994): Effects of partial bark removal on the growth of Pacific yew.Novak, S. (1999): Valeriana celtica. Der echte Speik. Ein altes Naturprodukt als alternativer Erwerbszweig. Forschungsstudie im Auftrag des Bundesministeriums für Land- und Forstwirtschaft, des Jubiläumsfonds der Österr. Nationalbank und der Kärntner Landesregierung.O'Brien, T.G. & Kinnaird, M.F. (1996): Effect of harvest on leaf development of the Asian palm Livistona rotundifolia.

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Descriptors

Olmsted, I. & Alvarez-Buylia, E.R. (1995): Sustainable harvesting of tropical trees. Demography and matrix models of two palm species in Mexico.Pate, J.S., Froend, R.H., Bowen, B.J., Hansen, A. & Kuo, J. (1990): Seedling growth and storage and characteristics of seeder and resprouter species of Mediterranean-type ecosystems of south-western Australia.Pate, J.S., Meney, K.A. & Dixon, K.W. (1991): Contrasting growth and morphological characteristics of fire-sensitive (obligate seeder) and fire-resistant (resprouter) species of Restionaceae (S. Hemisphere Restiads) from south-western Australia.Raimondo, D.C. & Donaldson, J.S. (2003): Responses of cycads with different life histories to the impact of plant collecting. Simulation models to determine important life history stages and population recovery times.Rock, J.H., Beckage, B. & Gross, L.J. (2004): Population recovery following differential harvesting of Allium tricoccum Ait. in the southern Appalachians.Sakai, A, Sakai, S. & Akiyama, F. (1997): Do sprouting tree species on erosion-prone sites carry large reserves of resources?.Sanders, S. & McGraw, J.B. (2005): Harvest recovery of goldenseal, Hydrastis canadensis L.Singh, V. & Dogra, K.K. (1996): Characteristics, distribution, utilisation, regeneration, biomass and nutritional values of seabuckthorn (Hippophae).Stockdale, M.C. & Power, J.D. (1994): Estimating the length of rattan stems.Vesk, P. & Westoby, M. (2004): Sprouting ability across diverse disturbances and vegetation types worldwide.Voort, M.E. van der, Bailey, B., Samuel, D.E. & McGraw, J.B. (2003): Recovery of populations of goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.) and American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) following harvest.

ReproductionAsh, J. (1987): Demography of Cyathea hornei (Cyatheaceae), a tropical tree-fern in Fiji.Ash, J. (1986): Demography of Leptopteris wilkesiana (Osmundaceae), a tropical tree-fern from Fiji.Carpenter, S.G. & Cottam, G. (1982): Growth and reproduction of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) in Wisconsin, USA.Clark-Tapia, R., Mandujano, M.C., Valverde, T., Mendoza, A. & Molina-Freaner, F. (2005): How important is clonal recruitment for population maintenance in rare plant species? The case of the narrow endemic cactus, Stenocereus eruca, in Baja California, Mexico.Ganeshaiah, K.N., Shaanker, R.U., Murali, K.S., Shankar, U. & Bawa, K.S. (1998): Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Rangan Hills, India. 5. Influence of dispersal mode on species response to anthropogenic pressures.Ghimire, S.K., McKey, D. & Aumeeruddy-Thomas, Y. (2005): Conservation of Himalayan medicinal plants. Harvesting patterns and ecology of two threatened species, Nardostachys grandiflora DC. and Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennel) Hong.Green, D.F. & Johnson, E.A. (1994): Estimating the mean annual seed production of trees.Kruger, L.M., Midgley, J.J. & Cowling, R.M. (1997): Resprouters vs reseeders in South African forest trees. A model based on forest canopy height.Lamont, B.B., le Maitre, D.C., Cowling, R.M. & Enright, N.J. (1991): Canopy seed storage in woody plants.Männi, R. (1988): Biology and berry production of the cowberry in Estonian SSR.Münzbergová, Z. (2006): Effect of population size on the prospect of species survival.Mustart, P.J. & Cowling, R.M. (1992): Impact of flower and cone harvesting on seed banks and seed set of serotinous Agulhas Proteaceae.Nguvulu, C.Z. (1997): Fruit production in indigenous multipurpose tree species at Chati, Zambia. BSc Agroforestry Special Project.Olmsted, I. & Alvarez-Buylia, E.R. (1995): Sustainable harvesting of tropical trees. Demography and matrix models of two palm species in Mexico.Oyama, K. (1990): Variation in growth and reproduction in the neotropical dioecious palm Chamaedorea tepejilote.Paal, J. & Paal, T. (1993): Estimation of cowberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) yields.Pate, J.S., Froend, R.H., Bowen, B.J., Hansen, A. & Kuo, J. (1990): Seedling growth and storage and characteristics of seeder and resprouter species of Mediterranean-type ecosystems of south-western Australia.

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Descriptors

Pate, J.S., Meney, K.A. & Dixon, K.W. (1991): Contrasting growth and morphological characteristics of fire-sensitive (obligate seeder) and fire-resistant (resprouter) species of Restionaceae (S. Hemisphere Restiads) from south-western Australia.Phillips, O. (1993): The potential for harvesting fruits in tropical rainforests. New data from Amazonian Peru.Piñero, D., Sarukhán, J. & Alberdi, P. (1982): The costs of reproduction in a tropical palm, Astrocaryum mexicanum.Quinn, R.M., Lawton, J.H., Eversham, B.C. & Wood, S.N. (1994): The biogeography of scarce vascular plants in Britain with respect to habitat preference, dispersal ability and reproductive biology.Rijkers, T., Woldeselassie, O., Wessel, M. & Bongers, F. (2006): The effect of tapping for frankincense on sexual reproduction in Boswellia papyrifera.Sinclair, A., Nantel, P. & Catling, P. (2005): Dynamics of threatened goldenseal populations and implications for recovery.Vovides, A.P., Ogata, N., Sosa, V. & Peña-Garcia, E. (1997): Pollination of endangered Cuban cycad Microcycas calocoma (Miq.) A.DC.Zuidema, P.A. & Boot, R.G.A. (1994): Demography of the Brazil nut tree (Bertholletia excelsa) in the Bolivian Amazon. Impact of seed extraction on recruitment and population dynamics.

Resource Management PoliciesChamberlain, J.L., Bush, R.J., Hammett, A.L., Araman, P.A. (2000): Managing national forests of the Eastern United States for non-timber forest products.Clark, L. & Tchanou, N. (1998): Non-wood forest product research in Central Africa. A state of the sector. 2nd edition.Heywood, V.H. & Watson, R.T. (1995): Global biodiversity assessment. Summary for policy-makers.Lawrence, A. & Elphick, M. (2002): Policy implications of participatory biodiversity assessment. ETFRN international seminar for policy-makers and implementers, 21 May 2002 at the Department for International Development, 1 Palace St, London, UK.Ros-Tonen, M., Dijkman, W. & Lammet, E. (1995): Commercial and sustainable extraction of non-timber forest products. Towards and policy and management orientated research strategy.U.S. Forest Service (s. dat.): National strategy for special forest products. Executive summary. - http://www.sfp.forprod.vt.edu/pubs/strategy.pdf

Resource Management Procedures & ApproachesGeldenhuys, C.J. (2004): Bark harvesting for traditional medicine. From illegal resource degradation to participatory management.Gould, K., Howard, A.F. & Rodriguez, G. (1998): Sustainable production of non-timber forest products. Natural dye extraction from El Cruce Dos Aguadas, Peten, Guatemala.Molina, R., Pilz, D., Fischer, C & Luoma, D. (1994): Developing an inventory and monitoring protocol for commercially harvested forest mushrooms.Peters, C.M. (1996): The ecology and management of non-timber forest resources.Wong, J. (2006): Developing biometric sampling systems and optimal harvesting methods for medicinal tree bark in southern Africa. Final technical report, DFID Forestry Research Programme, R8305.

Sampling TechniquesAcharya, B., Bhattarai, G., de Gier, A. & Stein, A. (2000): Systematic adaptive cluster sampling for the assessment of rare tree species in Nepal.Adlard, P.G. (1990): Procedures for monitoring tree growth and site change.Alder, D. & Synnott, T.J. (1992): Permanent sample plot techniques for mixed tropical forest.Boon, D.A. (1962): Plot size and variability.Branney, P. (1994): Handbook for baseline forest resource assessment. Nepal-UK Community Forestry Project.Brown, J.A. (s.dat.): The application of adaptive cluster sampling to ecological studies.Burkhart, H.E. & Gregoire, T.G. (1994): Forest biometrics.

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Descriptors

Burnham, K.P., Anderson, D.R. & Laake, J.L. (1980): Estimation of density from line transect sampling of biological populations.Chhikara, R.S. (s.dat.): Efficient sampling designs for estimating ecological resources.Cochran, W.G. (1977): Sampling techniques. Third edition.Cunningham, A.B. (2001): Applied ethnobotany. People, wild plant use and conservation.Dallmeier, F. (1992): Long-term monitoring of biological diversity in tropical forest areas. Methods for establishment and inventory of permanent plots.Dallmeier, F., Kabel, M. & Rice, R. (1992): Methods for long-term biodiversity inventory plots in protected tropical forest.Gagnon, D. (22.3.1999): A review of the ecology and population biology of Goldenseal, and protocols for monitoring its populations. Final report to the Office of Scientific Authority of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. - http://www.nps.gov/plants/medicinal/pubs/traffic.htmGagnon, D. (10.5.1999): An analysis of the sustainability of American Ginseng harvesting from the wild. The problem and possible solutions. Final report to the Office of Scientific Authority of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. - http://www.nps.gov/plants/medicinal/pubs/ginseng.htmGillison, A.N. & Brewer, K.R.W. (1985): The use of gradient directed transects or gradsects in natural resource surveys.Gregoire, T.G. & Köhl, M. (2000): Editorial. Statistical ecology and forest biometry.Gregoire, T.G., Valentine, H.T. & Furnival, G.M. (1995): Sampling methods to estimate foliage and other characteristics of individual trees.Hall, P. & Bawa, K. (1993): Methods to assess the impact of extraction of non-timber tropical forest products on plant populations.Halls, L.K. & Dell, T.R. (1966): Trial of ranked-set sampling for forage yields.Higgins, M.A. & Ruokolainen, K. (2004): Rapid tropical forest inventory. A comparison of techniques based on inventory data from western Amazonia.Khali, A.H., Aminuddin, M. & Azmy, Hj. M. (1995): Bamboo resource mapping using remote sensing.Killmann, W., Ndeckere, F., Vantomme, P. & Walter, S. (2003): Developing inventory methodologies for non-wood forest products. Lessons learned from an analysis of case studies in African countries.Laurance, W.F., Ferreira, L.V., Rankin-de Merona, J.M. & Hutchings, R.W. (1998): Influence of plot shape on estimates of tree diversity and community composition in Central America.Lund, H.G. (1998): A comparison of multipurpose resource inventories throughout the world.Lund, H.G. (1998): IUFRO Guidelines for designing multipurpose resource inventories.McIntyre, G.A. (1952): A method for unbiased selective sampling, using ranked sets.Muttlak, H.A. & McDonald, L.L. (1990): Ranked set sampling with size-biased probability of selection.Myers, W.L. & Patil, G.P. (1995): Simplicity, efficiency, and economy in forest surveys.Nur Supardi, Md. N., Shalihin, S. & Aminuddin, M. (1995): Sampling methods for rattan inventory.Nusser, S.M., Breidt, F.J. & Fuller, W.A. (1998): Design and estimation for investigating the dynamics of natural resources.Philippi, T., Collins, B., Guisti, S. & Dixon, P.M. (2001): A multistage approach to population monitoring for rare plant populations.Resit Akcakaya, H. & Sjögren-Gulve, P. (2000): Population viability analyses in conservation planning. An overview.Schreuder, H.T., Gregoire, T.G. & Wood, G.B. (1993): Sampling methods for multiresource forest inventory.Sheil, D. (1995): A critique of permanent plot methods and analysis with examples from Budongo forest, Uganda.Sheil, D. (1998): Biometrics and planning of biodiversity assessments.Shiver, B.D. & Borders, B.E. (1996): Sampling techniques for forest resource inventory.Silva, J.A.A. da & Vasconcelos, A.J.N. de (1996): Application of the relative efficiency methodology to select plot area and shape in forest inventories of the caatinga of Pernambuco-Brazil.Ståhl, G., Ringvall, A. & Lämås, T. (2000): Guided transect sampling for assessing sparce populations.Stockdale, M. & Wright, H.L. (1996): Rattan inventory. Determining plot shape and size.Sutherland, W.J. (1996): Ecological census techniques.

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Descriptors

Tandug, L.M. (1988): How to inventory rattan.Tandug, L.M. (1978): Sampling method for inventory of Philippine rattan and its distribution.Thompson, S.K. (1991): Stratified adaptive cluster sampling.Williams, J.T., Noor, Nur Spardi Md & Rao, I.V. Ramanuja (1999): Inventory techniques and assessment of rattan and bamboo in tropical forests. Papers presented at an international meeting of experts at the Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) 27-28 March 1995.

Species RichnessKerr, J.T., Sugar, A. & Packer, L. (2000): Indicator taxa, rapid biodiversity assessment, and nestedness in an endangered ecosystem.Williams, H.W. & Gaston, K.J. (1994): Measuring more of biodiversity. Can higher-taxon richness predict wholesale species richness?.Williams, V.L., Witkowski, E.T.F. & Balkwill, K. (2006 in press): The use of incidence-based species richness estimators, species accumulation curves and similarity measures to appraise ethnobotanical inventories from South Africa.

StatisticsBrashares, J.S. & Sam, M.K. (2005): How much is enough? Estimating the minimum sampling required for effective monitoring of African reserves.Carpenter, G., Gillison, A.N. & Winter, J. (1993): DOMAIN. A flexible modelling procedure for mapping potential distributions of plants and animals.Caswell, H. (1982): Optimal life histories and the maximization of reproductive value. A general theorem for complex life cycles.Caswell, H. (1982): Stable population structure and reproductive value for populations with complex life cycles.Evans, T. & Oulathong V. Viengkham (2001): Inventory time-cost and statistical power. A case study of a Lao rattan.Fowler, J. & Cohen, L. (1995): Practical statistics for field biology.Jessen, R.J. (1955): Determining the fruit count on a tree by randomized branch sampling.Lefkovitch, L.P. (1965): The study of population growth in organisms grouped in stages.Ludwig, D., Walker, B. & Holling, C.S. (1997): Sustainability, stability, and resilience.Marriott, F.H.C. (1990): A dictionary of statistical terms. Fifth edition.Patil, G.P., Sinha, A.K. & Taillie, C. (1994): Ranked set sampling.Porkess, R. (1988): Dictionary of statistics.Slade, N., Gomulkiewicz, R. & Alexander, H. (1998): Alternatives to Robinson and Redford's method of assessing overharvest from incomplete demographic data.

Sustainable Yield CalculationBhatt, I.D., Ranbeer, S.R. & Dhar U. (2000): The availability, fruit yield, and harvest of Myrica esculenta in Kumaun (West Himalaya), India.Branney, P. (1994): Thumb rules for assessing the sustainability of harvesting by forest user groups. Nepal-UK Community Forestry Project.Clemente Munoz, M.A., Navarro Cerillo, R.M., Kasimis, N., Hernandez Bermejo, J.E., Padron Cedres, E., Martin-Consuegra Fernandez, E., Hernandez Clemente, R. & Garcia-Ferrer Porras, A. (2006): Evaluation of the harvest of Prunus africana bark on Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). Guidelines for a management plan.Emanuel, P.L., Shackleton, C.M. & Baxter, J.S. (2005): Modelling the sustainable harvest of Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra fruits in th South African lowveld.Gould, K., Howard, A.F. & Rodriguez, G. (1998): Sustainable production of non-timber forest products. Natural dye extraction from El Cruce Dos Aguadas, Peten, Guatemala.Olmsted, I. & Alvarez-Buylia, E.R. (1995): Sustainable harvesting of tropical trees. Demography and matrix models of two palm species in Mexico.

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Descriptors

Rock, J.H., Beckage, B. & Gross, L.J. (2004): Population recovery following differential harvesting of Allium tricoccum Ait. in the southern Appalachians.Siebert, S.F. (2004): Demographic effects of collecting rattan cane and their implications for sustainable harvesting.Ticktin, T., Nantel, P. & Ramirez, F. (2002): Effects of variation on harvest limits for nontimber forest species in Mexico.

Taxonomic AspectsSchwartz, M.W. (1993): The search for pattern among rare plants. Are primitive species more likely to be rare?.Wang Jinxiu, Liu Hongmao, Hu Huabin & Gao Lei (2004): Participatory approach for rapid assessment of plant diversity through a folk classification system in a tropical rainforest. Case study in Xishuangbanna, China.

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2.2 Plant SpeciesReferences are listed in an abbreviated form. For a full citation refer to chapter 1.

Acacia nilotica

Lund, H.G. (1998): A comparison of multipurpose resource inventories throughout the world.

Adansonia digitata

Killmann, W., Ndeckere, F., Vantomme, P. & Walter, S. (2003): Developing inventory methodologies for non-wood forest products. Lessons learned from an analysis of case studies in African countries.

Aechmea magdalenae

Ticktin, T. & Nantel, P. (2004): Dynamics of harvested populations of a tropical understory herb in old-growth versus secondary forests.Ticktin, T., Nantel, P. & Ramirez, F. (2002): Effects of variation on harvest limits for nontimber forest species in Mexico.

Alchemilla vulgaris

Evstatieva, L., Hardalova, R. (2000): Diversity and resources of medicinal plants.

Allium tricoccum

Nantel, P., Gagnon, D. & Nault, A. (1996): Population viability analysis of American Ginseng and Wild Leek harvested in stochastic environments.Nault, A. & Gagnon, D. (1993): Ramet demography of Allium tricoccum, a spring ephemeral, perennial forest herb.Rock, J.H. (1996): The impact of harvesting ramps (Allium tricoccum Ait.) in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Internal report.Rock, J.H., Beckage, B. & Gross, L.J. (2004): Population recovery following differential harvesting of Allium tricoccum Ait. in the southern Appalachians.

Aloe dichotoma

Midgley, J.J., Cowling, R.M., Hendricks, H., Desmet, P.G., Esler, K. & Rundel, P. (1997): Population ecology of tree succulents (Aloe and Pachypodium) in the arid western Cape. Decline of keystone species.

Aloe pillansii


Ancistrocladus korupensis

Foster, P.F. & Sork, V.L. (1997): Population and genetic structure of the West African rain forest liana Ancistrocladus korupensis (Ancistrocladaceae).

Aquilaria beccariana

Soehartono, T. & Newton, A.C. (2000): Conservation and sustainable use of tropical trees in the genus Aquilaria. 1. Status and distribution in Indonesia.

Aquilaria cumingiana


Aquilaria filaria


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Plant Species

Aquilaria hirta


Aquilaria malaccensis

LaFrankie, J.V. (1994): Population dynamics of some tropical trees that yield non-timber forest products.Soehartono, T. & Newton, A.C. (2000): Conservation and sustainable use of tropical trees in the genus Aquilaria. 1. Status and distribution in Indonesia.Soehartono, T. & Newton, A.C. (2000): Conservation and sustainable use of tropical trees in the genus Aquilaria. 2. The impact of gaharu harvesting in Indonesia.Ticktin, T. (2004): The ecological implications of harvesting non-timber forest products.

Aquilaria microcarpa

Soehartono, T. & Newton, A.C. (2000): Conservation and sustainable use of tropical trees in the genus Aquilaria. 1. Status and distribution in Indonesia.Soehartono, T. & Newton, A.C. (2000): Conservation and sustainable use of tropical trees in the genus Aquilaria. 2. The impact of gaharu harvesting in Indonesia.

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi

Evstatieva, L., Hardalova, R. (2000): Diversity and resources of medicinal plants.Mukhina, V.F. (1995): Fruit bearing in Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng. in central Yakutiya [in Russian].

Arnica montana

Michler, B. , Rotar, I. , Pacurar, F. , Stoie, A. (2005): Arnica montana, an endangered species and a traditional medicinal plant. The biodiversity and productivity of its typical grasslands habitats.

Astrocaryum mexicanum

Piñero, D., Sarukhán, J. & Alberdi, P. (1982): The costs of reproduction in a tropical palm, Astrocaryum mexicanum.

Banksia hookeriana

Witkowski, E.T.F. & Lamont, B.B. (1996): Nutrient losses from commercial picking and cockatoo removal of Banksia hookeriana blooms at the organ, plant and site levels.Witkowski, E.T.F., Lamont, B.B. & Obbens, F.J. (1994): Commercial picking of Banksia hookeriana in the wild reduces subsequent shoot, flower and seed production.

Beaucarnea gracilis

Cardel, Y., Rico-Gray, V., Garcia-Franco, J.G. & Thien, L.B. (1997): Ecological status of Beaucarnea gracilis, an endemic species of the semiarid Tehuacán valley, México.

Berchemia discolor

Cunningham, A.B. & Liebenberg, L. (1998): Bark, berchemia and basketmakers. Testing methods for local-level monitoring of plant resources, a case study in Binga district, western Zimbabwe. Report on a WWF/UNESCO/KEW People and Plants Initiative field workshop.

Bertholletia excelsa

Boot, R.G.A. & Gullison, R.E. (1995): Approaches to developing sustainable extraction systems for tropical forest products.Peres, C.A., Baider, C., Zidema, P.A., Wadt, L.O.H., Kainer, K.A., Gomes-Silva, D.A.P., Salomao, R.P., Simoes, L.L., Franciosi, E.R.N., Valverde, F.C., Gribel, R., Shepard, Jr G.H., Kanashiro, M., Coventry, P., Yu, D.W., Watkinson, A.R. & Freckleton, R.P. (2003): Demographic threats to the sustainability of Brazil nut exploitation.

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Plant Species

Zuidema, P.A. & Boot, R.G.A. (1994): Demography of the Brazil nut tree (Bertholletia excelsa) in the Bolivian Amazon. Impact of seed extraction on recruitment and population dynamics.

Betonica officinalis


Bombax ceiba

Griffiths, A.D., Philips, A. & Godjuwa, C. (2003): Harvest of Bombax ceiba for Arboriginal arts industry, central Arnhem Land, Australia.

Boswellia papyrifera

Rijkers, T., Woldeselassie, O., Wessel, M. & Bongers, F. (2006): The effect of tapping for frankincense on sexual reproduction in Boswellia papyrifera.

Boswellia serrata

Sagar, R. , Raghubanshi, A. S. , Singh, J. S. (2003): Tree species composition, dispersion and diversity along a disturbance gradient in a dry tropical forest region of India.

Brosimum alicastrum

Peters, C.M. (1991): Plant demography and the management of tropical forest resources. A case study of Brosimum alicastrum in Mexico.

Calamus poilanei

Evans, T. & Oulathong V. Viengkham (2001): Inventory time-cost and statistical power. A case study of a Lao rattan.

Calamus zollingeri

Siebert, S.F. (2004): Demographic effects of collecting rattan cane and their implications for sustainable harvesting.

Carex arenaria

Noble, J.C., Bell, A.D. & Harper, J.L. (1979): The population biology of plants with clonal growth 1. The morphology and structural demography fo Carex arenaria.

Cercis canadensis

Anderson, M.K. (1991): California Indian horticulture. Management and use of redbud by the Southern Sierra Miwok.

Cetraria islandica


Chamaedorea radicalis

Endress, B.A., Gorchov, D., Peterson, M.B. & Padrón Serrano, E. (2004): Harvest of the palm Chamaedorea radicalis, its effects on leaf production, and implications for sustainable management.

Chamaedorea tepejilote

Oyama, K. (1990): Variation in growth and reproduction in the neotropical dioecious palm Chamaedorea tepejilote.

Cimicifuga racemosa

Chamberlain, J.L., Bush, R.J., Hammett, A.L., Araman, P.A. (2000): Managing national forests of the Eastern United States for non-timber forest products.

Cinnamomum mollissimum

LaFrankie, J.V. (1994): Population dynamics of some tropical trees that yield non-timber forest products.

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Plant Species

Coccothrinax readii

Olmsted, I. & Alvarez-Buylia, E.R. (1995): Sustainable harvesting of tropical trees. Demography and matrix models of two palm species in Mexico.

Combretum micranthum


Cremastra appendiculata

Mi Yoon Chung, Nason, J.D. & Myong Gi Chung (2004): Implications of clonal structure for effective population size and genetic drift in rare terrestrial orchid, Cremastra appendiculata.

Cyathea hornei

Ash, J. (1987): Demography of Cyathea hornei (Cyatheaceae), a tropical tree-fern in Fiji.

Desmoncus orthacanthos

Escalante, S., Montana, C. & Orellana, R. (2004): Demography and potential extractive use o f the liana palm, Desmoncus orthacanthos Martius (Arecaceae), in southern Quintana Roo, Mexico.Siebert, S.F. (2000): Abundance and growth of Desmoncus orthacanthos Mart. (Palmae) in response to light and ramet harvesting in five forest sites in Belize.

Desmoncus polyacanthos

Troy, A.R., Ashton, M.S. & Larson, B.C. (1997): A protocol for measuring abundance and size of a neotropical liana, Desmoncus polyacanthos (Palmae), in relation to forest structure.

Dichelostemma capitatum

Anderson, M.K. & Rowney, D.L. (1999): The edible plant Dichelostemma capitatum. Its vegetative reproduction response to different indigenous harvesting regimens in California.

Diploknema butyracea

Paudel, S. & Wiersum, K.F. (2002): Tenure arrangements and management intensity of Butter tree (Diploknema butyracea) in Makawanpunr district, Nepal.

Durio spp.

Lawrence, D.C., Leighton, M. & Peart, D.R. (1995): Availability and extraction of forest products in managed and primary forest around a Dayak village in West Kalimantan, Indonesia.

Echinacea laevigata

Philippi, T., Collins, B., Guisti, S. & Dixon, P.M. (2001): A multistage approach to population monitoring for rare plant populations.

Encephalartos cycadifolius

Raimondo, D.C. & Donaldson, J.S. (2003): Responses of cycads with different life histories to the impact of plant collecting. Simulation models to determine important life history stages and population recovery times.

Encephalartos spp.

Donaldson, J.S. (1993): Mast-seeding in the cycad genus Encephalartos. A test of the predator satiation hypothesis.

Encephalartos villosus


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Plant Species

Eusideroxylon zwageri


Euterpe oleracea

Pollak, H., Mattos, M. & Uhl, C. (1995): A profile of palm heart extraction in the Amazon Estuary.

Frangula alnus

Kalinowski, M. (1998): Non-wood forest products in Poland.

Garcinia lucida

Guedje, N.M., Lejoly, J., Nkongmeneck, B.A. & Jonkers, W.B.J. (2003): Population dynamics of Garcinia lucida (Clusiaceae) in Cameroonian Atlantic forests.

Genoma macrostachya

Svenning, J.C. & Macia, M.J. (2002): Harvesting of Genoma macrostachya Mart. leaves for thatch. An exploration of sustainability.

Geonoma congesta

Chazdon, R.L. (1991): Effects of leaf and ramet removal on growth and reproduction of Geonoma congesta, a clonal understorey palm.

Geonoma deversa

Flores, C.F. & Ashton, P.M.S. (2000): Harvesting impact and economic value of Geonoma deversa, Arecaceae, and understory palm used for roof thatching in the Peruvian Amazon.

Gnetum africanum

Shiembo, N.P. (1999): The sustainability of eru (Gnetum africanum and Gnetum bucholzianum). Over-exploited non-wood forest product from the forests of Central Africa.

Gnetum buchholzianum

Killmann, W., Ndeckere, F., Vantomme, P. & Walter, S. (2003): Developing inventory methodologies for non-wood forest products. Lessons learned from an analysis of case studies in African countries.Shiembo, N.P. (1999): The sustainability of eru (Gnetum africanum and Gnetum bucholzianum). Over-exploited non-wood forest product from the forests of Central Africa.

Grias peruviana

Peters, C.M. & Hammond, E.J. (1990): Fruits from the flooded forests of Peruvian Amazonia. Yield estimates for natural populations of three promising species.

Harpagophytum procumbens

Hachfeld, B. (2003): Ecology and utilisation of Harpagophytum procumbens (Devil's Claw) in southern Africa.Mpho Mosate (): Natural resource monitoring concepts and tools of veld products research and development.

Heteropsis flexuosa

Plowden, C., Uhl, C. & Oliveira, F. de A. (2003): The ecology and harvest potential of titica vine roots (Heteropsis flexuosa: Araceae) in the eastern Brazilian Amazon.

Hevea brasiliensis


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Plant Species

Hippophae rhamnoides

Vitkova, A., Petrova, A. & Meshivev, T. (1993): Ecologo-biological characteristic of Hippophae rhamnoides L. Distribution and measures for protection of the species in Varna region.

Hydrastis canadensis

Chamberlain, J.L., Bush, R.J., Hammett, A.L., Araman, P.A. (2000): Managing national forests of the Eastern United States for non-timber forest products.Gagnon, D. (22.3.1999): A review of the ecology and population biology of Goldenseal, and protocols for monitoring its populations. Final report to the Office of Scientific Authority of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. - http://www.nps.gov/plants/medicinal/pubs/traffic.htmMcGraw, J.B., Sanders, S.M. & van der Voort, M. (2003): Distribution and abundance of Hydrastis canadensis L. (Ranunculaceae) and Panax quinquefolius L. (Araliaceae) in the central Appalachian region.Mulligan, M.R. & Gorchov, D.L. (2004): Population loss of goldenseal, Hydrastis canadensis L. (Ranunculaceae), in Ohio.Sanders, S. & McGraw, J.B. (2005): Harvest recovery of goldenseal, Hydrastis canadensis L.Sanders, S.M. & McGraw, J.B. (2002): Distribution, abundance, and population dynamics of goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.) in an Indiana Nature Preserve, USA.Sinclair, A., Catling, P.M. & Dumouchel, L. (2000): Notes on the pollination and dispersal of goldenseal, Hydrastis canadensis L., in southwestern Ontario.Sinclair, A., Nantel, P. & Catling, P. (2005): Dynamics of threatened goldenseal populations and implications for recovery.Ticktin, T. (2004): The ecological implications of harvesting non-timber forest products.Voort, M.E. van der, Bailey, B., Samuel, D.E. & McGraw, J.B. (2003): Recovery of populations of goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.) and American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) following harvest.

Hyphaene coriacea

Cunningham, A.B. (1988): Leaf production and utilization in Hyphaene coriacea. Management guidelines for commercial harvesting.Cunningham, A.B. (1990): Income, sap yield and effects of sap tapping on palms in south-eastern Africa.

Hyphaene petersiana

Konstant, T.L., Sullivan, S. & Cunningham, A.B. (1995): The effects of utilization by people and livestock on Hyphaene petersiana (Arecaceae) basketry resources in the palm savanna of north-central Namibia.Sullivan, S., Konstant, T.L. & Cunningham, A.B. (1995): The impact of utilization of palm products on the population structure of the vegetable ivory palm (Hyphaene petersiana, Arecaceae) in north-central Namibia.

Iriartea deltoidea

Anderson, P. & Putz, F.E. (2002): Harvesting and conservation. Are both possible for the palm, Iriartea deltoidea?.Pinard, M. (1993): Impacts of stem harvesting on populations of Iriartea deltoidea (Palmae) in an extractive reserve in Acre, Brazil.

Ischnosiphon polyphyllus

Nazakono, E.M., Bruna, E.M. & Mesquita, R.C.G. (2004): Experimental harvesting of the non-timber forest product Ischnosiphon polyphyllus in central Amazonia.

Leptopteris wilkesiana

Ash, J. (1986): Demography of Leptopteris wilkesiana (Osmundaceae), a tropical tree-fern from Fiji.

Livistona rotundifolia

O'Brien, T.G. & Kinnaird, M.F. (1996): Effect of harvest on leaf development of the Asian palm Livistona rotundifolia.

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Plant Species

Magnolia dealbata

Gutierrez, L. & Vovides, A.P. (1997): An in situ study of Magnolia dealbata Zucc. in Veracruz. An endangered endemic tree of Mexico.

Matteuccia struthiopteris

Bergeron, M.E. & Lapointe, L. (2000): Impact of one year crozier removal on long-term fron production Matteuccia struthiopteris.

Microcycas calocoma

Vovides, A.P., Ogata, N., Sosa, V. & Peña-Garcia, E. (1997): Pollination of endangered Cuban cycad Microcycas calocoma (Miq.) A.DC.

Microlepia strigosa

Ticktin, T., Fraiola, H. & Whitehead, A.N. (2006): Non-timber forest product harvesting in alien-dominated forests. Effects of frond-harvest and rainfall on the demography of two native Hawaiian ferns.

Myrciaria dubia


Myrica esculenta

Bhatt, I.D., Ranbeer, S.R. & Dhar U. (2000): The availability, fruit yield, and harvest of Myrica esculenta in Kumaun (West Himalaya), India.

Nardostachys grandiflora

Ghimire, S.K., McKey, D. & Aumeeruddy-Thomas, Y. (2005): Conservation of Himalayan medicinal plants. Harvesting patterns and ecology of two threatened species, Nardostachys grandiflora DC. and Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennel) Hong.Larsen, H.O. (2005): Impact of replanting on regeneration of the medicinal plant Nardostachys grandiflora DC. (Valerianaceae).

Nardostachys jatamansi

Nautiyal, B.P., Chauhan, R.S., Prakash, V., Purohit, H. & Nautiyal, M.C. (2003): Population studies for the evaluation of germplasm and threat status of the alpine medicinal herb, Nardostachys jatamansi.

Neodypsis decaryi

Ratsirarson, J., Silander Jr., J.A. & Richard, A.F. (1996): Conservation and management of a threatened Madagascar palm species, Neodypsis decaryi Jumelle.

Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora

Ghimire, S.K., McKey, D. & Aumeeruddy-Thomas, Y. (2005): Conservation of Himalayan medicinal plants. Harvesting patterns and ecology of two threatened species, Nardostachys grandiflora DC. and Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennel) Hong.

Nypa fruticans

Fong, F.W. (1992): Perspectives for sustainable resource utilization and management of Nipa vegetation.

Ocotea bullata

Geldenhuys, C.J. (2004): Meeting the demand for Ocotea bullata bark. Implications for the conservation of high-value and medicinal tree species.Geldenhuys, C.J. (2004): Bark harvesting for traditional medicine. From illegal resource degradation to participatory management.

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Plant Species

Pachypodium namaquanum


Panax quinquefolius

Carpenter, S.G. & Cottam, G. (1982): Growth and reproduction of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) in Wisconsin, USA.Cruse-Sanders, J.M., Hamrick, J.L. & Ahumada, J.A. (2005): Consequences of harvesting for genetic diversity in American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.). A simulation study.Gagnon, D. (10.5.1999): An analysis of the sustainability of American Ginseng harvesting from the wild. The problem and possible solutions. Final report to the Office of Scientific Authority of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. - http://www.nps.gov/plants/medicinal/pubs/ginseng.htmKauffman, G. (2006): Conservation assessment for American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.).McGraw, J.B., Sanders, S.M. & van der Voort, M. (2003): Distribution and abundance of Hydrastis canadensis L. (Ranunculaceae) and Panax quinquefolius L. (Araliaceae) in the central Appalachian region.Nantel, P., Gagnon, D. & Nault, A. (1996): Population viability analysis of American Ginseng and Wild Leek harvested in stochastic environments.Ticktin, T. (2004): The ecological implications of harvesting non-timber forest products.Voort, M.E. van der, Bailey, B., Samuel, D.E. & McGraw, J.B. (2003): Recovery of populations of goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.) and American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) following harvest.

Panax spp.

Voort, M.E. van der & McGraw, J.B. (2006): Effects of harvester behaviour on population growth rate affects sustainability of ginseng trade.

Pausinystalia johimbe

Killmann, W., Ndeckere, F., Vantomme, P. & Walter, S. (2003): Developing inventory methodologies for non-wood forest products. Lessons learned from an analysis of case studies in African countries.Sunderland, T., Ngo-Mpeck, M.L., Tchoundjeu, Z. & Akoa, A. (1999): The ecology and sustainability of Pausinystalia johimbe. An over-exploited medicinal plant of the forests of central Africa.

Pausinystalia macroceras

Sunderland, T., Ngo-Mpeck, M.L., Tchoundjeu, Z. & Akoa, A. (1999): The ecology and sustainability of Pausinystalia johimbe. An over-exploited medicinal plant of the forests of central Africa.

Pedicularis furbishiae

Menges, E.S. (1990): Population viability analysis for an endangered plant.

Pelargonium reniforme

Wet, L.-A. de (2005): Is Pelargonium reniforme in danger? The effects of harvesting on Pelargonium reniforme.

Pelargonium sidoides


Phoenix reclinata

Cunningham, A.B. (1990): Income, sap yield and effects of sap tapping on palms in south-eastern Africa.

Phyllanthus emblica

Aditi Sinha & Brault, S. (2005): Assessing sustainability of nontimber forest product extractions. How fire affects sustainability.

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Plant Species

Murali, K.S., Shankar, U., Uma Shaanker, R., Ganeshaiah, K.N. & Bawa, K.S. (1996): Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Raga hills, India. 2. Impact of NTFP extraction on the regeneration, population structure and species composition.Shankar, U., Murali, K.S., Uma Shaanker, R., Ganeshaiah, K.N. & Bawa, K.S. (1996): Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Ragan hills, India. 3. Productivity, extraction and prospects of sustainable harvest of Amla Phyllanthus emblica (Euphorbiacefae).Sinha, A. & Bawa, K.S. (2002): Harvesting techniques, hemiparasites and fruit production in two non-timber forest tree species in south India.

Phyllanthus indofischeri

Sinha, A. & Bawa, K.S. (2002): Harvesting techniques, hemiparasites and fruit production in two non-timber forest tree species in south India.

Phytelephas aequatorialis

Runk, J.V. (1998): Productivity and sustainability of a vegetable ivory palm (Phytelephas aequatorialis, Arecaceae) under three management regimes in northwestern Ecuador.

Phytelephas seemannii

Bernal, R. (1998): Demography of the vegetable ivory palm Phytelephas seemannii in Colombia, and the impact of seed harvesting.

Primula elatior


Primula veris


Protium spp.

Plowden, C., Uhl, C. & Oliveira, F. de A. (2002): Breu resin harvest by Tembé Indians and its dependence on a bark-boring beetle.

Prunus africana

Clemente Munoz, M.A., Navarro Cerillo, R.M., Kasimis, N., Hernandez Bermejo, J.E., Padron Cedres, E., Martin-Consuegra Fernandez, E., Hernandez Clemente, R. & Garcia-Ferrer Porras, A. (2006): Evaluation of the harvest of Prunus africana bark on Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). Guidelines for a management plan.Fashing, P.J. (2004): Mortality trends in the African cherry (Prunus africana) and the implication for colobus monkeys (Colobus guereza) in Kakamega Forest, Kenya.Nzilani, N.J. (2002): The status of Prunus africana (Syn. Pegium africanum Hook. F.) in Kakamega and South Nandi forests, Kenya.Ticktin, T. (2004): The ecological implications of harvesting non-timber forest products.Wong, J., Thornber, K. & Baker, N. (2001): Resource assessment of non-wood forest products. Experience and biometric principles.

Rubus fructicosus

Sheil, D. (1998): Biometrics and planning of biodiversity assessments.

Rubus idaeus


Rumohra adiantiformis

Geldenhuys, C.J. & van der Merwe, C.J. (1988): Population structure and growth of the fern Rumohra adiantiformis in relation to frond harvesting in the southern Cape forests.

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Plant Species

Milton, S. (1987): Effects of harvesting on four species of forest ferns in South Africa.Milton, S.J. & Moll, E.J. (1988): Effects of harvesting on frond production of Rumohra adiantiformis (Pteridophyta: Aspidiaceae) in South Africa.

Sabal uresana

Joyal, E. (1996): The palm has its time. An ethnoecology of Sabal uresana in Sonora, Mexico.

Sabal yapa

Martínez-Ballesté, A., Martorell, C., Martínez-Ramos & Caballero, J. (2005): Applying retrospective demographic models to assess sustainable use. The Maya management of Xa'an palms.

Sambucus nigra


Saussurea laniceps

Law, W. & Salick, J. (2005): Human-induced dwarfing of Himalayan snow lotus, Saussurea laniceps (Asteraceae).

Saussurea medusa


Saussurea spp.

Yang QingSong, Chen ShaoTian & Zhou ZheKun (2003): [Protection and sustainable utilization of traditional Tibetan medicine "snow lotuses" (Saussurea) in Diqing Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan; in Chinese].

Schizostachyum lumampao

Virtucio, F.D. & Tomboc, C.C. (1994): Effect of thinning, cutting age and felling cycle on culm yield of Buho (Schizostachyum lumampao) natural stands.

Sclerocarya birrea

Emanuel, P.L., Shackleton, C.M. & Baxter, J.S. (2005): Modelling the sustainable harvest of Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra fruits in th South African lowveld.

Scorzonera hispanica

Münzbergová, Z. (2006): Effect of population size on the prospect of species survival.

Shorea atrinervosa

Peters, C.M. (1996): Illipe nuts (Shorea spp.) in West Kalimantan. Use, ecology, and management potential of an important forest resource.

Shorea stenoptera


Skimmia laureola

Bhattarai, N.K. (1984): Economic mapping of Skimmia laureola Sieb. & Zucc. ex Walp. in the Khaptad 'Lekh' and adjoining forests.

Sphenomeris chinensis


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Plant Species

Spondias mombin


Stenocereus eruca

Clark-Tapia, R., Mandujano, M.C., Valverde, T., Mendoza, A. & Molina-Freaner, F. (2005): How important is clonal recruitment for population maintenance in rare plant species? The case of the narrow endemic cactus, Stenocereus eruca, in Baja California, Mexico.

Swertia chirayita

Arvind Bhatt, Rawal, R.S. & Uppeandra Dhar (2006): Ecological features of a critically rare medicinal plant, Swertia chirayita, in Himalaya.

Swietenia macrophylla

Boot, R.G.A. & Gullison, R.E. (1995): Approaches to developing sustainable extraction systems for tropical forest products.

Taxus baccata subsp. wallichiana

Rikhari, H.C., Palni, L.M.S., Sharma, S. & Nandi, S.K. (1998): Himalayan yew. Stand structure, canopy damage, regeneration and conservation strategy.

Taxus brevifolia

Minore, D. & Weatherly, H.G. (1994): Effects of partial bark removal on the growth of Pacific yew.

Terminalia bellirica

Murali, K.S., Shankar, U., Uma Shaanker, R., Ganeshaiah, K.N. & Bawa, K.S. (1996): Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Raga hills, India. 2. Impact of NTFP extraction on the regeneration, population structure and species composition.

Terminalia chebula


Thrinax radiata


Vaccinium myrtillus

Kalinowski, M. (1998): Non-wood forest products in Poland.Kuchko, A.A. (1988): Bilberry and cowberry yields and the factors controlling them in the forests of Karelia, USSR.Sheil, D. (1998): Biometrics and planning of biodiversity assessments.Vitkova, A. & Vulchev, V. (2003): Evaluation of Vaccinium myrtillus resource in Park Section "Klisura" in National Park "Central Balkan".Vulchev, V. & Boteva, D. (2003): Evaluation of Vaccinium myrtillus resource in park section "Jakoruda" in National Park "Rila".

Vaccinium vitis-idaea

Egoshina, T.L. & Skopin, A.E. (2005): Resources of Vaccinium vitis-idaea (in Russian).Kuchko, A.A. (1988): Bilberry and cowberry yields and the factors controlling them in the forests of Karelia, USSR.Männi, R. (1988): Biology and berry production of the cowberry in Estonian SSR.

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Plant Species

Paal, J. & Paal, T. (1993): Estimation of cowberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) yields.Sheil, D. (1998): Biometrics and planning of biodiversity assessments.

Valeriana celtica

Novak, S. (1999): Valeriana celtica. Der echte Speik. Ein altes Naturprodukt als alternativer Erwerbszweig. Forschungsstudie im Auftrag des Bundesministeriums für Land- und Forstwirtschaft, des Jubiläumsfonds der Österr. Nationalbank und der Kärntner Landesregierung.

Zanthoxylum armatum

Hertog, W.H. den & Wiersum, K.F. (2000): Timur (Zanthoxylum armatum) production in Nepal. Dynamics in nontimber forest resource management.

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2.3 Plant (Use) GroupsReferences are listed in an abbreviated form. For a full citation refer to chapter 1.

CycadsDonaldson, J.S. (1993): Mast-seeding in the cycad genus Encephalartos. A test of the predator satiation hypothesis.Fong, F.W. (1992): Perspectives for sustainable resource utilization and management of Nipa vegetation.Raimondo, D.C. & Donaldson, J.S. (2003): Responses of cycads with different life histories to the impact of plant collecting. Simulation models to determine important life history stages and population recovery times.Vovides, A.P., Ogata, N., Sosa, V. & Peña-Garcia, E. (1997): Pollination of endangered Cuban cycad Microcycas calocoma (Miq.) A.DC.

FernsAsh, J. (1986): Demography of Leptopteris wilkesiana (Osmundaceae), a tropical tree-fern from Fiji.Ash, J. (1987): Demography of Cyathea hornei (Cyatheaceae), a tropical tree-fern in Fiji.Bergeron, M.E. & Lapointe, L. (2000): Impact of one year crozier removal on long-term fron production Matteuccia struthiopteris.Geldenhuys, C.J. & van der Merwe, C.J. (1988): Population structure and growth of the fern Rumohra adiantiformis in relation to frond harvesting in the southern Cape forests.Milton, S. (1987): Effects of harvesting on four species of forest ferns in South Africa.Milton, S.J. & Moll, E.J. (1988): Effects of harvesting on frond production of Rumohra adiantiformis (Pteridophyta: Aspidiaceae) in South Africa.Ticktin, T., Fraiola, H. & Whitehead, A.N. (2006): Non-timber forest product harvesting in alien-dominated forests. Effects of frond-harvest and rainfall on the demography of two native Hawaiian ferns.Williams, H.W. & Gaston, K.J. (1994): Measuring more of biodiversity. Can higher-taxon richness predict wholesale species richness?.

Grasses, incl. bambooHalls, L.K. & Dell, T.R. (1966): Trial of ranked-set sampling for forage yields.Khali, A.H., Aminuddin, M. & Azmy, Hj. M. (1995): Bamboo resource mapping using remote sensing.Manipula, B.M., Gianan, N. So. & Virtucio, F.D. (1996): Culm removal effect on culm yield and biomass productivity of laak (Bambusa sp. 2) in flatland and hillyland sites in Pandapan, Tagum, Davao del Norte.McIntyre, G.A. (1952): A method for unbiased selective sampling, using ranked sets.Virtucio, F.D. & Tomboc, C.C. (1994): Effect of thinning, cutting age and felling cycle on culm yield of Buho (Schizostachyum lumampao) natural stands.

Medicinal and aromatic plantsAlexan, M. (s.dat.): Methodology of economic mapping methods for the collection, drying, primary formulation and storage of medicinal plants. Technico-economic aspects.Arvind Bhatt, Rawal, R.S. & Uppeandra Dhar (2006): Ecological features of a critically rare medicinal plant, Swertia chirayita, in Himalaya.Bartz, R., Heink, U. & Kowarik, I. (2005): Ökologische Schäden durch Anwendungen der Agro-Gentechnik. Zum Schadensbegriff und dessen Operationalisierung.Bhattarai, N.K. (1984): Economic mapping of Skimmia laureola Sieb. & Zucc. ex Walp. in the Khaptad 'Lekh' and adjoining forests.Bojor, O. (s.dat.): Economic listing and mapping of medicinal plants in a geographical area.Bojor, O. (1991): Methodology of economic mapping of medicinal plants in the spontaneous flora.Borisova, N.A. (1977): O roli wiborochnych metodov pri izychenii zapasov syr`ja dikorastuschich lekarstwennych rastenii [About the significance of sampling-methods regarding the assessment of medicinal plant resources in the forest area].

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Plant (Use) Groups

Borisova, N.A. & Reznikova A.S. (1978): Metodika ispol`zovanija materialov lesoustroistva pri opredelenii zapasov syrja lekarstvennych rastenii w lesnoi zone [Methodology for the utilization of forestry materials for the assessment of medicinal plant resources in the forest area].Borisova, N.A. & Schreter, A.I. (1966): K Metodike utschöta i kartirowanija resursow lekarstwennich rastenij [Methods for gathering and mapping medicinal plants; in Russian].Caniago, I. & Siebert, S.F. (1998): Medicinal plant ecology, knowledge and conservation in Kalimantan, Indonesia.Carpenter, S.G. & Cottam, G. (1982): Growth and reproduction of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) in Wisconsin, USA.Chazdon, R.L. & Coe, F.G. (1999): Ethnobotany of woody species in second-growth, old-growth, and selectively logged forests of Northwestern Costa Rica.Chikov, P.S., Saiko, L.N. & Shreter, A.I. (1983): Atlas arealov i resursov lekarstevennych rastenij SSSR. 2 volumes [Atlas of the areas and resources of medicinal plants of the USSR; in Russian].Clemente Munoz, M.A., Navarro Cerillo, R.M., Kasimis, N., Hernandez Bermejo, J.E., Padron Cedres, E., Martin-Consuegra Fernandez, E., Hernandez Clemente, R. & Garcia-Ferrer Porras, A. (2006): Evaluation of the harvest of Prunus africana bark on Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). Guidelines for a management plan.Cruse-Sanders, J.M., Hamrick, J.L. & Ahumada, J.A. (2005): Consequences of harvesting for genetic diversity in American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.). A simulation study.Egoshina, T.L. & Skopin, A.E. (2005): Resources of Vaccinium vitis-idaea (in Russian).Evstatieva, L. (2003): Biodiversity and resources of medicinal plants in Rila Monastery Nature Park.Evstatieva, L. & Vitkova, A. (2000): Biodiversity of medicinal plants in Central Balkan National Park.Evstatieva, L., Hardalova, R. (2000): Diversity and resources of medicinal plants.Evstatieva, L., Hardalova, R. & Stoyanova, K. (s.dat.): Biodiversity of medicinal plants in Bulgaria. Assessment, conservation and utilisation.Evstatieva, L., Velichkov, V., Vulyovska, N. (2003): Nature Park. Medicinal plant resources assessment and potential profit.Fashing, P.J. (2004): Mortality trends in the African cherry (Prunus africana) and the implication for colobus monkeys (Colobus guereza) in Kakamega Forest, Kenya.Foster, P.F. & Sork, V.L. (1997): Population and genetic structure of the West African rain forest liana Ancistrocladus korupensis (Ancistrocladaceae).Gagnon, D. (10.5.1999): An analysis of the sustainability of American Ginseng harvesting from the wild. The problem and possible solutions. Final report to the Office of Scientific Authority of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. - http://www.nps.gov/plants/medicinal/pubs/ginseng.htmGagnon, D. (22.3.1999): A review of the ecology and population biology of Goldenseal, and protocols for monitoring its populations. Final report to the Office of Scientific Authority of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. - http://www.nps.gov/plants/medicinal/pubs/traffic.htmGeldenhuys, C.J. (2004): Bark harvesting for traditional medicine. From illegal resource degradation to participatory management.Geldenhuys, C.J. (2004): Meeting the demand for Ocotea bullata bark. Implications for the conservation of high-value and medicinal tree species.Genova, E., Evstatieva, L., Vitkova, A., Gussev, Ch., Stoeva, T., Peshevski, N. (1996): Mapping of medicinal plants of the Znepole floristic region.Ghimire, S.K., McKey, D. & Aumeeruddy-Thomas, Y. (2005): Conservation of Himalayan medicinal plants. Harvesting patterns and ecology of two threatened species, Nardostachys grandiflora DC. and Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Pennel) Hong.Guedje, N.M., Lejoly, J., Nkongmeneck, B.A. & Jonkers, W.B.J. (2003): Population dynamics of Garcinia lucida (Clusiaceae) in Cameroonian Atlantic forests.Hachfeld, B. (2003): Ecology and utilisation of Harpagophytum procumbens (Devil's Claw) in southern Africa.Hagen, B. von, Weigand, J.F., McLain, R., Fight, R. & Christensen, H.H. (1996): Conservation and development of of non-timber forest products in the Pacific Northwest. An annotated bibliography.Isaev, D.I., (2005): Resursy dikorastuschich lekarstwennich rastenij zagatalskogo rajona (Azerbaidschan) [Resources of wild growing medicinal plants in the region of Zagatal'skij (Aserbaidschan); in Russian].Jong, R.J. & Bonnor, G.M. (1995): Pilot inventory for Pacific Yew.

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Plant (Use) Groups

Kauffman, G. (2006): Conservation assessment for American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.).Kier, G., Mutke, J., Dinerstein, E., Rickens, T.H. Küper, W., Kreft, H. & Barthlott, W. (2005): Global patterns of plant diversity and floristic knowledge.Kuzmanow, B. (1989): Postigenija i perspektiwi na izsledwane, opazwane i razionalno izpolzwane na lechebnite rastenija w Instituta po botanika s botanicheska gradina pri BAN [Research on conservation and sustainable use of medicinal plants; in Russian].Lammerts van Bueren, E.M & Blom, E. (1997): Hierarchical framework for the formulation of sustainable forest management standards.Larsen, H.O. (2005): Impact of replanting on regeneration of the medicinal plant Nardostachys grandiflora DC. (Valerianaceae).Law, W. & Salick, J. (2005): Human-induced dwarfing of Himalayan snow lotus, Saussurea laniceps (Asteraceae).Lawrence, A. (2003): No forest without timber?.Lawrence, A. (): 'No personal motive?' Volunteers, biodiversity, and the false dichotomies of participation.McGraw, J.B., Sanders, S.M. & van der Voort, M. (2003): Distribution and abundance of Hydrastis canadensis L. (Ranunculaceae) and Panax quinquefolius L. (Araliaceae) in the central Appalachian region.Michler, B. , Rotar, I. , Pacurar, F. , Stoie, A. (2005): Arnica montana, an endangered species and a traditional medicinal plant. The biodiversity and productivity of its typical grasslands habitats.Minore, D. & Weatherly, H.G. (1994): Effects of partial bark removal on the growth of Pacific yew.Misra, M.K. (2003): Base line information on medicinal plants conservation and sustainable utilisation. Overview report.Mukhina, V.F. (1995): Fruit bearing in Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng. in central Yakutiya [in Russian].Mulligan, M.R. & Gorchov, D.L. (2004): Population loss of goldenseal, Hydrastis canadensis L. (Ranunculaceae), in Ohio.Murali, K.S., Shankar, U., Uma Shaanker, R., Ganeshaiah, K.N. & Bawa, K.S. (1996): Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Raga hills, India. 2. Impact of NTFP extraction on the regeneration, population structure and species composition.Mutke, J. & Barthlott, W. (2005): Patterns of vascular plant diversity at continental to global scales.Nantel, P., Gagnon, D. & Nault, A. (1996): Population viability analysis of American Ginseng and Wild Leek harvested in stochastic environments.Nautiyal, B.P., Chauhan, R.S., Prakash, V., Purohit, H. & Nautiyal, M.C. (2003): Population studies for the evaluation of germplasm and threat status of the alpine medicinal herb, Nardostachys jatamansi.Newidomov, A.M. & Petuchov, N.W. (2001): [Biological active resources of forests (birch sap, turpentine, food plants, technical plants and medicinal plants) ; in Russian].Noss, R.F. (1990): Indicators for monitoring biodiversity. A hierarchical approach.Novak, S. (1999): Valeriana celtica. Der echte Speik. Ein altes Naturprodukt als alternativer Erwerbszweig. Forschungsstudie im Auftrag des Bundesministeriums für Land- und Forstwirtschaft, des Jubiläumsfonds der Österr. Nationalbank und der Kärntner Landesregierung.Nzilani, N.J. (2002): The status of Prunus africana (Syn. Pegium africanum Hook. F.) in Kakamega and South Nandi forests, Kenya.Pozdnjakov, L.K. (1986): Lesnye rastitelnye resursy Srednej Sibiri, Krasnojarsk [Herbal forest resources in the middle of Sibirea, Krasnojarsk; in Russian].Rijkers, T., Woldeselassie, O., Wessel, M. & Bongers, F. (2006): The effect of tapping for frankincense on sexual reproduction in Boswellia papyrifera.Rikhari, H.C., Palni, L.M.S., Sharma, S. & Nandi, S.K. (1998): Himalayan yew. Stand structure, canopy damage, regeneration and conservation strategy.Rock, J.H. (1996): The impact of harvesting ramps (Allium tricoccum Ait.) in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Internal report.Rutkauskas, A. (1998): Non-wood resource and their utilisation in Lithuania.Sagar, R. , Raghubanshi, A. S. , Singh, J. S. (2003): Tree species composition, dispersion and diversity along a disturbance gradient in a dry tropical forest region of India.

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Plant (Use) Groups

Saiko, L.N. (1996): Isuchenie prirodnych resursow lekarstwennych rastenii (ekologo-geograficheskii podhod. Kartograficheskii metod) [Investigation of natural resources of medicinal plants (ecological-geographical approach; cartographic method). Dissertation ; in Russian].Sanders, S. & McGraw, J.B. (2005): Harvest recovery of goldenseal, Hydrastis canadensis L.Sanders, S.M. & McGraw, J.B. (2002): Distribution, abundance, and population dynamics of goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.) in an Indiana Nature Preserve, USA.Schreter, A.I., Krylova, I.L., Borisova, N.A., Kurlovitch, L.E. & Bocharov, I.W. (1986): Metodika opredelenija zapasow lekarstwennych rastenii [Methods to investigate resources of medicinal plants; in Russian].Schwezowa, N.E. (2005): Resursy nekotorych lekarstwennych i pischewych rastenij w basseinach rek Tungui-Suhara [Resources of some medicinal plants and food plants in the basin of the rivers Tungui-Suhara ; in Russian].Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2001): Sustainable management of non-timber forest resources.Shaankar, U., Ganeshaiah, K.N. & Nageswara, R.M. (2001): Genetic diversity of medicinal plant species in deciduous forests of South India. Impact of harvest and other anthropogenic pressures.Shankar, U., Murali, K.S., Uma Shaanker, R., Ganeshaiah, K.N. & Bawa, K.S. (1996): Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Ragan hills, India. 3. Productivity, extraction and prospects of sustainable harvest of Amla Phyllanthus emblica (Euphorbiacefae).Shiembo, N.P. (1999): The sustainability of eru (Gnetum africanum and Gnetum bucholzianum). Over-exploited non-wood forest product from the forests of Central Africa.Sinclair, A., Catling, P.M. & Dumouchel, L. (2000): Notes on the pollination and dispersal of goldenseal, Hydrastis canadensis L., in southwestern Ontario.Sinclair, A., Nantel, P. & Catling, P. (2005): Dynamics of threatened goldenseal populations and implications for recovery.Soehartono, T. & Newton, A.C. (2000): Conservation and sustainable use of tropical trees in the genus Aquilaria. 1. Status and distribution in Indonesia.Soehartono, T. & Newton, A.C. (2000): Conservation and sustainable use of tropical trees in the genus Aquilaria. 2. The impact of gaharu harvesting in Indonesia.Sotnik, W.F. (1968): K metodike ispolsowanja perfokart pri polewich i kameralnich rabotach po kartirowaniju resursow lekarstwennich rastenij [Methods for using perfo-maps for field work and editing data for mapping of medicinal plants; in Russian].Strohbach, M & Cole, D. (2005): Populations dynamics and sustainable harvesting of the medicinal plant Harpagophytum procumbens DC (Devil's Claw) in Namibia.Subedi, B.P. (1998): Participatory utilization and conservation of medicinal and aromatic plants. A case from Western Nepal Himalaya. International Conference on Medicinal Plants, February 16-19, 1998, Bangalore, India.Sunderland, T., Ngo-Mpeck, M.L., Tchoundjeu, Z. & Akoa, A. (1999): The ecology and sustainability of Pausinystalia johimbe. An over-exploited medicinal plant of the forests of central Africa.Tripathi, G. & Schmitt, S. (2001): Part III: Rapid vulnerability assessment of medicinal plants.United Nations Industrial Developement Organization (s.dat.): Medicinal and aromatic plants. Importance, cultivation, analysis and industrial processing.Vance, N.C. & Thomas, J. (1997): Special forest products. Biodiversity meets the marketplace.Vitkova, A. & Evstatieva, L. (2000): Biodiversity of medicinal plants in Rila National Park.Vitkova, A. & Evstatieva, L. (2000): Distribution and resource of medicinal plants in National Park "Rila".Vitkova, A. & Gyurova, D. (2006): Evaluation of the resources of medicinal plants in Lozenska Mt.Voort, M.E. van der & McGraw, J.B. (2006): Effects of harvester behaviour on population growth rate affects sustainability of ginseng trade.Voort, M.E. van der, Bailey, B., Samuel, D.E. & McGraw, J.B. (2003): Recovery of populations of goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.) and American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) following harvest.Wet, L.-A. de (2005): Is Pelargonium reniforme in danger? The effects of harvesting on Pelargonium reniforme.Williams, V.L., Witkowski, E.T.F. & Balkwill, K. (2006 in press): The use of incidence-based species richness estimators, species accumulation curves and similarity measures to appraise ethnobotanical inventories from South Africa.

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Plant (Use) Groups

Wong, J. (2006): Developing biometric sampling systems and optimal harvesting methods for medicinal tree bark in southern Africa. Final technical report, DFID Forestry Research Programme, R8305.Yang QingSong, Chen ShaoTian & Zhou ZheKun (2003): [Protection and sustainable utilization of traditional Tibetan medicine "snow lotuses" (Saussurea) in Diqing Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan; in Chinese].Zuidema, P.A. & Boot, R.G.A. (1994): Demography of the Brazil nut tree (Bertholletia excelsa) in the Bolivian Amazon. Impact of seed extraction on recruitment and population dynamics.

MushroomsDyke, A.J. & Newton, A.C. (1999): Commerical harvesting of wild mushrooms in Scottish forests. Is it sustainable?.Hosford, D. (1996): Study 13. Shiro analysis of matsutake in the Central Washington Cascade Range..Hosford, D., Pilz, D., Molina, R. & Amaranthus, M. (1997): Ecology and management of the commercially harvested American Mathsutake mushroom. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-412.Kukuev, Y. (1999): Non-wood forest products in northwest Russia.Molina, R., O'Dell, T., Luoma, D., Amaranthus, M., Castellano, M. & Russell, K. (1993): Biology, ecology, and social aspects of wild edible mushrooms in the forests of the Pacific Northwest. A preface to managing commercial harvest.Molina, R., Pilz, D., Fischer, C & Luoma, D. (1994): Developing an inventory and monitoring protocol for commercially harvested forest mushrooms.Morris, W., Doak, D., Groom, M., Kareiva, P., Fieberg, J., Gerber, L., Murphy, P. & Thomson, D. (1999): A practical handbook for population viability analysis.Pilz, D. & Molina, R. (1996): Managing forest ecosystems to conserve fungus diversity and sustain wild mushroom harvests. General Technical Report PNW-GTR-371.

OrchidsMi Yoon Chung, Nason, J.D. & Myong Gi Chung (2004): Implications of clonal structure for effective population size and genetic drift in rare terrestrial orchid, Cremastra appendiculata.

PalmsAnderson, P. & Putz, F.E. (2002): Harvesting and conservation. Are both possible for the palm, Iriartea deltoidea?.Bernal, R. (1998): Demography of the vegetable ivory palm Phytelephas seemannii in Colombia, and the impact of seed harvesting.Chazdon, R.L. (1991): Effects of leaf and ramet removal on growth and reproduction of Geonoma congesta, a clonal understorey palm.Clay, J.W. (1997): The impact of palm heart harvesting in the Amazon estuary.Cunningham, A.B. (1988): Leaf production and utilization in Hyphaene coriacea. Management guidelines for commercial harvesting.Cunningham, A.B. (1990): Income, sap yield and effects of sap tapping on palms in south-eastern Africa.Emanuel, P.L., Shackleton, C.M. & Baxter, J.S. (2005): Modelling the sustainable harvest of Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra fruits in th South African lowveld.Endress, B., Gorchov, D. & Noble, R.B. (2004): Non-timber forest production extraction. Effects of harvest and browsing in an understory palm.Endress, B.A., Gorchov, D., Peterson, M.B. & Padrón Serrano, E. (2004): Harvest of the palm Chamaedorea radicalis, its effects on leaf production, and implications for sustainable management.Escalante, S., Montana, C. & Orellana, R. (2004): Demography and potential extractive use o f the liana palm, Desmoncus orthacanthos Martius (Arecaceae), in southern Quintana Roo, Mexico.Evans, T. & Oulathong V. Viengkham (2001): Inventory time-cost and statistical power. A case study of a Lao rattan.Flores, C.F. & Ashton, P.M.S. (2000): Harvesting impact and economic value of Geonoma deversa, Arecaceae, and understory palm used for roof thatching in the Peruvian Amazon.Freckleton, R.P., Silva Matos, D.M., Bovi, M.L.A. & Watkinson, A.R. (2003): Predicting the impacts of harvesting using structured population models. The importance of density-dependence and timing of harvest for a tropical palm tree.Galetti, M. & Aleixo, A. (1998): Effects of palm heart harvesting on avian frugivores in the Atlantic rainforest of Brazil.

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Plant (Use) Groups

Joyal, E. (1996): The palm has its time. An ethnoecology of Sabal uresana in Sonora, Mexico.Konstant, T.L., Sullivan, S. & Cunningham, A.B. (1995): The effects of utilization by people and livestock on Hyphaene petersiana (Arecaceae) basketry resources in the palm savanna of north-central Namibia.Martínez-Ballesté, A., Martorell, C., Martínez-Ramos & Caballero, J. (2005): Applying retrospective demographic models to assess sustainable use. The Maya management of Xa'an palms.Nandakumar, U.N. & Menon, A.R.R. (1992): Resource survey of rattans. Problems and prospects.Nur Supardi, Md. N., Shalihin, S. & Aminuddin, M. (1995): Sampling methods for rattan inventory.O'Brien, T.G. & Kinnaird, M.F. (1996): Effect of harvest on leaf development of the Asian palm Livistona rotundifolia.Olmsted, I. & Alvarez-Buylia, E.R. (1995): Sustainable harvesting of tropical trees. Demography and matrix models of two palm species in Mexico.Oyama, K. (1990): Variation in growth and reproduction in the neotropical dioecious palm Chamaedorea tepejilote.Pinard, M. (1993): Impacts of stem harvesting on populations of Iriartea deltoidea (Palmae) in an extractive reserve in Acre, Brazil.Piñero, D., Martinez-Ramos, M. & Sarukhán, J. (1984): A population model of Astrocaryum mexicanum and a sensitivity analysis of ist finite rate of increase.Piñero, D., Sarukhán, J. & Alberdi, P. (1982): The costs of reproduction in a tropical palm, Astrocaryum mexicanum.Pollak, H., Mattos, M. & Uhl, C. (1995): A profile of palm heart extraction in the Amazon Estuary.Ratsirarson, J., Silander Jr., J.A. & Richard, A.F. (1996): Conservation and management of a threatened Madagascar palm species, Neodypsis decaryi Jumelle.Runk, J.V. (1998): Productivity and sustainability of a vegetable ivory palm (Phytelephas aequatorialis, Arecaceae) under three management regimes in northwestern Ecuador.Serna, C.B. (1990): Rattan resource supply situation and management.Siebert, S.F. (2004): Demographic effects of collecting rattan cane and their implications for sustainable harvesting.Siebert, S.F. (2000): Abundance and growth of Desmoncus orthacanthos Mart. (Palmae) in response to light and ramet harvesting in five forest sites in Belize.Stockdale, M. (1999): Research priorities for the inventory of rattan.Stockdale, M. & Corbett, J.M.S. (1999): Participatory inventory. A field manual written with special reference to Indonesia.Stockdale, M. & Wright, H.L. (1996): Rattan inventory. Determining plot shape and size.Sullivan, S., Konstant, T.L. & Cunningham, A.B. (1995): The impact of utilization of palm products on the population structure of the vegetable ivory palm (Hyphaene petersiana, Arecaceae) in north-central Namibia.Tandug, L.M. (1988): How to inventory rattan.Tandug, L.M. (1978): Sampling method for inventory of Philippine rattan and its distribution.Troy, A.R., Ashton, M.S. & Larson, B.C. (1997): A protocol for measuring abundance and size of a neotropical liana, Desmoncus polyacanthos (Palmae), in relation to forest structure.Williams, J.T., Noor, Nur Spardi Md & Rao, I.V. Ramanuja (1999): Inventory techniques and assessment of rattan and bamboo in tropical forests. Papers presented at an international meeting of experts at the Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) 27-28 March 1995.

SucculentsCardel, Y., Rico-Gray, V., Garcia-Franco, J.G. & Thien, L.B. (1997): Ecological status of Beaucarnea gracilis, an endemic species of the semiarid Tehuacán valley, México.Clark-Tapia, R., Mandujano, M.C., Valverde, T., Mendoza, A. & Molina-Freaner, F. (2005): How important is clonal recruitment for population maintenance in rare plant species? The case of the narrow endemic cactus, Stenocereus eruca, in Baja California, Mexico.Midgley, J.J., Cowling, R.M., Hendricks, H., Desmet, P.G., Esler, K. & Rundel, P. (1997): Population ecology of tree succulents (Aloe and Pachypodium) in the arid western Cape. Decline of keystone species.

TreesAcharya, B., Bhattarai, G., de Gier, A. & Stein, A. (2000): Systematic adaptive cluster sampling for the assessment of rare tree species in Nepal.

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Plant (Use) Groups

Adlard, P.G. (1990): Procedures for monitoring tree growth and site change.Alder, D. & Synnott, T.J. (1992): Permanent sample plot techniques for mixed tropical forest.Dallmeier, F., Kabel, M. & Rice, R. (1992): Methods for long-term biodiversity inventory plots in protected tropical forest.Dunn, R. & Otu, D. (1996): A community forest inventory for productive forest management in Cross River State, Nigeria.Green, D.F. & Johnson, E.A. (1994): Estimating the mean annual seed production of trees.Gregoire, T.G., Valentine, H.T. & Furnival, G.M. (1995): Sampling methods to estimate foliage and other characteristics of individual trees.Griffiths, A.D., Philips, A. & Godjuwa, C. (2003): Harvest of Bombax ceiba for Arboriginal arts industry, central Arnhem Land, Australia.Higgins, M.A. & Ruokolainen, K. (2004): Rapid tropical forest inventory. A comparison of techniques based on inventory data from western Amazonia.Jessen, R.J. (1955): Determining the fruit count on a tree by randomized branch sampling.Kruger, L.M., Midgley, J.J. & Cowling, R.M. (1997): Resprouters vs reseeders in South African forest trees. A model based on forest canopy height.Lamont, B.B., le Maitre, D.C., Cowling, R.M. & Enright, N.J. (1991): Canopy seed storage in woody plants.Lawrence, A. & Román, F.S. (1996): The role of inventory in the communally managed forests of Quinata Roo, Mexico.Sakai, A, Sakai, S. & Akiyama, F. (1997): Do sprouting tree species on erosion-prone sites carry large reserves of resources?.Sinha, A. & Bawa, K.S. (2002): Harvesting techniques, hemiparasites and fruit production in two non-timber forest tree species in south India.Xiongwen Chen & Bai-Lian Li (2004): Quickly identifying tree species susceptible to extinction. A case study of seven tree species at Northeast China Transect.

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2.4 Plant Parts UsedReferences are listed in an abbreviated form. For a full citation refer to chapter 1.

Bark

Clemente Munoz, M.A., Navarro Cerillo, R.M., Kasimis, N., Hernandez Bermejo, J.E., Padron Cedres, E., Martin-Consuegra Fernandez, E., Hernandez Clemente, R. & Garcia-Ferrer Porras, A. (2006): Evaluation of the harvest of Prunus africana bark on Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). Guidelines for a management plan.

Geldenhuys, C.J. (2004): Bark harvesting for traditional medicine. From illegal resource degradation to participatory management.

Geldenhuys, C.J. (2004): Meeting the demand for Ocotea bullata bark. Implications for the conservation of high-value and medicinal tree species.

Jeanrenaud, J.-P. & Thompson, I. (1986): Daphne (Lokta), bark biomass production management implications for paper making in Nepal.



Wong, J. (2006): Developing biometric sampling systems and optimal harvesting methods for medicinal tree bark in southern Africa. Final technical report, DFID Forestry Research Programme, R8305.

Bark, Fruit


Bark, Wood

Gould, K., Howard, A.F. & Rodriguez, G. (1998): Sustainable production of non-timber forest products. Natural dye extraction from El Cruce Dos Aguadas, Peten, Guatemala.

Bulb

Rock, J.H., Beckage, B. & Gross, L.J. (2004): Population recovery following differential harvesting of Allium tricoccum Ait. in the southern Appalachians.

Exudate


Lund, H.G. (1998): A comparison of multipurpose resource inventories throughout the world.

Exudate, Fruit, Herb

Stockdale, M. & Corbett, J.M.S. (1999): Participatory inventory. A field manual written with special reference to Indonesia.

Exudate, Fruit, Seed, Wood


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Plant Part Used

Flower


Mustart, P.J. & Cowling, R.M. (1992): Impact of flower and cone harvesting on seed banks and seed set of serotinous Agulhas Proteaceae.

Witkowski, E.T.F. & Lamont, B.B. (1996): Nutrient losses from commercial picking and cockatoo removal of Banksia hookeriana blooms at the organ, plant and site levels.

Fruit


Belonogova, T.V. (1988): Yield forecasting and optimization of berry harvesting in the forests of Southern Karelia, USSR.



Cherkasov, A.Ph. (1988): The cranberry yield in the USSR.


Jessen, R.J. (1955): Determining the fruit count on a tree by randomized branch sampling.


Kortesharju, J. (1988): Cloudberry yields and factors affecting the yield in northern Finland.

Kuchko, A.A. (1988): Bilberry and cowberry yields and the factors controlling them in the forests of Karelia, USSR.

Kukuev, Y. (1999): Non-wood forest products in northwest Russia.

Männi, R. (1988): Biology and berry production of the cowberry in Estonian SSR.

Morris, W., Doak, D., Groom, M., Kareiva, P., Fieberg, J., Gerber, L., Murphy, P. & Thomson, D. (1999): A practical handbook for population viability analysis.

Mukhina, V.F. (1995): Fruit bearing in Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng. in central Yakutiya [in Russian].

Nguvulu, C.Z. (1997): Fruit production in indigenous multipurpose tree species at Chati, Zambia. BSc Agroforestry Special Project.

Nusser, S.M., Breidt, F.J. & Fuller, W.A. (1998): Design and estimation for investigating the dynamics of natural resources.

Paal, J. & Paal, T. (1993): Estimation of cowberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) yields.

Paal, T. & Saastamoinen, O. (1998): Non-wood plant products in Estonian forests.

Peres, C.A., Baider, C., Zidema, P.A., Wadt, L.O.H., Kainer, K.A., Gomes-Silva, D.A.P., Salomao, R.P., Simoes, L.L., Franciosi, E.R.N., Valverde, F.C., Gribel, R., Shepard, Jr G.H., Kanashiro, M., Coventry, P., Yu, D.W., Watkinson, A.R. & Freckleton, R.P. (2003): Demographic threats to the sustainability of Brazil nut exploitation.



Peters, C.M. (1990): Population ecology and management of forest fruit trees in Peruvian Amazonia.

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Plant Part Used


Phillips, O. (1993): The potential for harvesting fruits in tropical rainforests. New data from Amazonian Peru.

Raatikainen, M. (1988): Estimates of wild berry yields in Finland.

Rutkauskas, A. (1998): Non-wood resource and their utilisation in Lithuania.

Shankar, U., Murali, K.S., Uma Shaanker, R., Ganeshaiah, K.N. & Bawa, K.S. (1996): Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Ragan hills, India. 3. Productivity, extraction and prospects of sustainable harvest of Amla Phyllanthus emblica (Euphorbiacefae).


Sisak, L. (1998): Importance of main non-wood forest products in the Czech Republic.

Vásquez, R. & Gentry, A. (1989): Use and misuse of forest-harvested fruits in the Iquitos area.


Fruit, Leaf


Fruit, Seed

Sullivan, S., Konstant, T.L. & Cunningham, A.B. (1995): The impact of utilization of palm products on the population structure of the vegetable ivory palm (Hyphaene petersiana, Arecaceae) in north-central Namibia.

Herb, Stem

Rock, J.H. (1996): The impact of harvesting ramps (Allium tricoccum Ait.) in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Internal report.

Leaf

Bergeron, M.E. & Lapointe, L. (2000): Impact of one year crozier removal on long-term fron production Matteuccia struthiopteris.


Cunningham, A.B. (1988): Leaf production and utilization in Hyphaene coriacea. Management guidelines for commercial harvesting.





Gregoire, T.G., Valentine, H.T. & Furnival, G.M. (1995): Sampling methods to estimate foliage and other characteristics of individual trees.

Konstant, T.L., Sullivan, S. & Cunningham, A.B. (1995): The effects of utilization by people and livestock on Hyphaene petersiana (Arecaceae) basketry resources in the palm savanna of north-central Namibia.

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Plant Part Used


Milton, S. (1987): Effects of harvesting on four species of forest ferns in South Africa.

Milton, S.J. & Moll, E.J. (1988): Effects of harvesting on frond production of Rumohra adiantiformis (Pteridophyta: Aspidiaceae) in South Africa.




Shiembo, N.P. (1999): The sustainability of eru (Gnetum africanum and Gnetum bucholzianum). Over-exploited non-wood forest product from the forests of Central Africa.

Svenning, J.C. & Macia, M.J. (2002): Harvesting of Genoma macrostachya Mart. leaves for thatch. An exploration of sustainability.

Ticktin, T. & Nantel, P. (2004): Dynamics of harvested populations of a tropical understory herb in old-growth versus secondary forests.


Ticktin, T., Nantel, P. & Ramirez, F. (2002): Effects of variation on harvest limits for nontimber forest species in Mexico.

Root

Carpenter, S.G. & Cottam, G. (1982): Growth and reproduction of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) in Wisconsin, USA.

Cruse-Sanders, J.M., Hamrick, J.L. & Ahumada, J.A. (2005): Consequences of harvesting for genetic diversity in American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.). A simulation study.

Gagnon, D. (22.3.1999): A review of the ecology and population biology of Goldenseal, and protocols for monitoring its populations. Final report to the Office of Scientific Authority of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. - http://www.nps.gov/plants/medicinal/pubs/traffic.htm

Gagnon, D. (10.5.1999): An analysis of the sustainability of American Ginseng harvesting from the wild. The problem and possible solutions. Final report to the Office of Scientific Authority of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. - http://www.nps.gov/plants/medicinal/pubs/ginseng.htm


Hachfeld, B. (2003): Ecology and utilisation of Harpagophytum procumbens (Devil's Claw) in southern Africa.

Mulligan, M.R. & Gorchov, D.L. (2004): Population loss of goldenseal, Hydrastis canadensis L. (Ranunculaceae), in Ohio.

Nantel, P., Gagnon, D. & Nault, A. (1996): Population viability analysis of American Ginseng and Wild Leek harvested in stochastic environments.



Sanders, S. & McGraw, J.B. (2005): Harvest recovery of goldenseal, Hydrastis canadensis L.

Sinclair, A., Nantel, P. & Catling, P. (2005): Dynamics of threatened goldenseal populations and implications for recovery.

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Plant Part Used


Seed


Donaldson, J.S. (1993): Mast-seeding in the cycad genus Encephalartos. A test of the predator satiation hypothesis.

Galetti, M. & Aleixo, A. (1998): Effects of palm heart harvesting on avian frugivores in the Atlantic rainforest of Brazil.

Green, D.F. & Johnson, E.A. (1994): Estimating the mean annual seed production of trees.

Khali, A.H., Aminuddin, M. & Azmy, Hj. M. (1995): Bamboo resource mapping using remote sensing.

Lamont, B.B., le Maitre, D.C., Cowling, R.M. & Enright, N.J. (1991): Canopy seed storage in woody plants.

Nur Supardi, Md. N., Shalihin, S. & Aminuddin, M. (1995): Sampling methods for rattan inventory.

Pinard, M. (1993): Impacts of stem harvesting on populations of Iriartea deltoidea (Palmae) in an extractive reserve in Acre, Brazil.




Wood

Soehartono, T. & Newton, A.C. (2000): Conservation and sustainable use of tropical trees in the genus Aquilaria. 2. The impact of gaharu harvesting in Indonesia.


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2.5 CountriesReferences are listed in an abbreviated form. For a full citation refer to chapter 1.

Australia

Carpenter, G., Gillison, A.N. & Winter, J. (1993): DOMAIN. A flexible modelling procedure for mapping potential distributions of plants and animals.

Gillison, A.N. & Brewer, K.R.W. (1985): The use of gradient directed transects or gradsects in natural resource surveys.

Griffiths, A.D., Philips, A. & Godjuwa, C. (2003): Harvest of Bombax ceiba for Arboriginal arts industry, central Arnhem Land, Australia.

Pate, J.S., Froend, R.H., Bowen, B.J., Hansen, A. & Kuo, J. (1990): Seedling growth and storage and characteristics of seeder and resprouter species of Mediterranean-type ecosystems of south-western Australia.

Pate, J.S., Meney, K.A. & Dixon, K.W. (1991): Contrasting growth and morphological characteristics of fire-sensitive (obligate seeder) and fire-resistant (resprouter) species of Restionaceae (S. Hemisphere Restiads) from south-western Australia.

Austria


Azerbaijan

Isaev, D.I., (2005): Resursy dikorastuschich lekarstwennich rastenij zagatalskogo rajona (Azerbaidschan) [Resources of wild growing medicinal plants in the region of Zagatal'skij (Aserbaidschan); in Russian].

Belize

Campbell, K. & Mitchell, A. (1998): Survey of non-timber forest products in villages surrounding the Columbia River forest reserve.

Siebert, S.F. (2000): Abundance and growth of Desmoncus orthacanthos Mart. (Palmae) in response to light and ramet harvesting in five forest sites in Belize.

Benin


Bolivia


Broekhoven, G. (1996): Non-timber forest products. Ecological and economic aspects of exploitation in Colombia, Ecuador and Bolivia.

DeWalt, S.J., Bourdy, G., Chávez de Michel, L.R. & Quenevo, C. (1999): Ethnobotany of the Tacana. Quantitative inventories of two permanent plots of northwestern Bolivia.


Prance, G.T., Balee, W., Boom, B.M. & Carneiro, R.L. (1987): Quantitative ethnobotany and the case for conservation in Amazonia.

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Countries


Botswana

Mpho Mosate (): Natural resource monitoring concepts and tools of veld products research and development.

Brazil

Clay, J.W. (1997): The impact of palm heart harvesting in the Amazon estuary.

Galetti, M. & Aleixo, A. (1998): Effects of palm heart harvesting on avian frugivores in the Atlantic rainforest of Brazil.


Pinard, M. (1993): Impacts of stem harvesting on populations of Iriartea deltoidea (Palmae) in an extractive reserve in Acre, Brazil.




Silva, J.A.A. da & Vasconcelos, A.J.N. de (1996): Application of the relative efficiency methodology to select plot area and shape in forest inventories of the caatinga of Pernambuco-Brazil.

Bulgaria

Egoshina, T.L. & Skopin, A.E. (2005): Resources of Vaccinium vitis-idaea (in Russian).

Evstatieva, L. (2003): Biodiversity and resources of medicinal plants in Rila Monastery Nature Park.

Evstatieva, L. & Vitkova, A. (2000): Biodiversity of medicinal plants in Central Balkan National Park.


Evstatieva, L., Hardalova, R. & Stoyanova, K. (s.dat.): Biodiversity of medicinal plants in Bulgaria. Assessment, conservation and utilisation.

Peev, D. (2003): Rapid ecological assessment of Rila monastery Nature Park.

Vitkova, A. & Evstatieva, L. (2000): Biodiversity of medicinal plants in Rila National Park.

Vitkova, A. & Evstatieva, L. (2000): Distribution and resource of medicinal plants in National Park "Rila".

Vitkova, A. & Gyurova, D. (2006): Evaluation of the resources of medicinal plants in Lozenska Mt.

Vitkova, A. & Vulchev, V. (2003): Evaluation of Vaccinium myrtillus resource in Park Section "Klisura" in National Park "Central Balkan".

Vitkova, A., Petrova, A. & Meshivev, T. (1993): Ecologo-biological characteristic of Hippophae rhamnoides L. Distribution and measures for protection of the species in Varna region.

Vulchev, V. & Boteva, D. (2003): Evaluation of Vaccinium myrtillus resource in park section "Jakoruda" in National Park "Rila".

Cameroon

Clark, L. & Tchanou, N. (1998): Non-wood forest product research in Central Africa. A state of the sector. 2nd edition.

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Countries

Dijk, J.F.W. van (1999): Non-timber forest products in the Bipindi-Akom II Region, Cameroon. A socio-economic and ecological assessment.

Dijk, J.F.W. van (1999): An assessment of non-wood forest product resources for the development of sustainable commercial extraction.


Guedje, N.M., Lejoly, J., Nkongmeneck, B.A. & Jonkers, W.B.J. (2003): Population dynamics of Garcinia lucida (Clusiaceae) in Cameroonian Atlantic forests.


Peters, C.M. (1999): A protocol for participatory inventories of timber and non-timber forest products in Cameroon. Consultancy report for Biodiversity International.


Canada

Kerr, J.T., Sugar, A. & Packer, L. (2000): Indicator taxa, rapid biodiversity assessment, and nestedness in an endangered ecosystem.

Nantel, P., Gagnon, D. & Nault, A. (1996): Population viability analysis of American Ginseng and Wild Leek harvested in stochastic environments.

Sinclair, A., Catling, P.M. & Dumouchel, L. (2000): Notes on the pollination and dispersal of goldenseal, Hydrastis canadensis L., in southwestern Ontario.


Central African Republic


China


Rijsoort, J.van & Zhang Jinfeng (2005): Participatory resource monitoring as a means for promoting social change in Yunnan, China.

Wang Jinxiu, Liu Hongmao, Hu Huabin & Gao Lei (2004): Participatory approach for rapid assessment of plant diversity through a folk classification system in a tropical rainforest. Case study in Xishuangbanna, China.

Xiongwen Chen & Bai-Lian Li (2004): Quickly identifying tree species susceptible to extinction. A case study of seven tree species at Northeast China Transect.

Yang QingSong, Chen ShaoTian & Zhou ZheKun (2003): [Protection and sustainable utilization of traditional Tibetan medicine "snow lotuses" (Saussurea) in Diqing Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan; in Chinese].

Colombia



Duivenvoorden, J.F., Balslev, H., Cavalier, J., Grandez, C., Toumisto, H. & Valencia, R. (1999): Non-timber forest plant resource assessment in NW Amazonia.

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Countries

Congo, The Democratic Republic of the


Costa Rica

Chazdon, R.L. & Coe, F.G. (1999): Ethnobotany of woody species in second-growth, old-growth, and selectively logged forests of Northwestern Costa Rica.

Cuba

Vovides, A.P., Ogata, N., Sosa, V. & Peña-Garcia, E. (1997): Pollination of endangered Cuban cycad Microcycas calocoma (Miq.) A.DC.

Czech Republic

Münzbergová, Z. (2006): Effect of population size on the prospect of species survival.


Sisak, L. (1998): Importance of main non-wood forest products in the Czech Republic.

Ecuador




Equatorial Guinea


Clemente Munoz, M.A., Navarro Cerillo, R.M., Kasimis, N., Hernandez Bermejo, J.E., Padron Cedres, E., Martin-Consuegra Fernandez, E., Hernandez Clemente, R. & Garcia-Ferrer Porras, A. (2006): Evaluation of the harvest of Prunus africana bark on Bioko (Equatorial Guinea). Guidelines for a management plan.


Estonia

Männi, R. (1988): Biology and berry production of the cowberry in Estonian SSR.

Paal, T. & Saastamoinen, O. (1998): Non-wood plant products in Estonian forests.

Fiji

Ash, J. (1987): Demography of Cyathea hornei (Cyatheaceae), a tropical tree-fern in Fiji.

Ash, J. (1986): Demography of Leptopteris wilkesiana (Osmundaceae), a tropical tree-fern from Fiji.

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Countries

Finland

Kortesharju, J. (1988): Cloudberry yields and factors affecting the yield in northern Finland.

Raatikainen, M. (1988): Estimates of wild berry yields in Finland.

France

Lavergne, S., Thompson, J.D., Garnier, E. & Debussche, M. (2004): The biology and ecology of narrow endemic and wide-spread plants. A comparative study of trait variation in 20 congeneric pairs.

Gabon


Germany

Kolb, A., Barsch, F. & Diekmann, M. (2006): Determinants of local abundance and range size in forest vascular plants.

Ghana

Brashares, J.S. & Sam, M.K. (2005): How much is enough? Estimating the minimum sampling required for effective monitoring of African reserves.

Falconer, J. (1992): Non-timber forest products in Southern Ghana. Main report.

Gronow, J. & Safo, E. (1996): Collaborative forest resource assessment surveys for the management of community forest reserves in Ghana.

Guatemala

Gould, K., Howard, A.F. & Rodriguez, G. (1998): Sustainable production of non-timber forest products. Natural dye extraction from El Cruce Dos Aguadas, Peten, Guatemala.

India


Arvind Bhatt, Rawal, R.S. & Uppeandra Dhar (2006): Ecological features of a critically rare medicinal plant, Swertia chirayita, in Himalaya.


Ganeshaiah, K.N., Shaanker, R.U., Murali, K.S., Shankar, U. & Bawa, K.S. (1998): Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Rangan Hills, India. 5. Influence of dispersal mode on species response to anthropogenic pressures.

Kinhal, G.A., Jagannatha Rao R. & Lawrence, A. (2006): A methodological template for participatory planning and designing for sustainable harvesting of medicinal plants.

Mahapatra, A., & Mitchell, C.P. (1997): Sustainable development of non-timber forest products. Implications for forest management in India.

Malhotra, K.C., Poffenberger, M., Bhattacharya, A. & Dev D. (1991): Rapid appraisal methodology trials in Southwest Bengal. Assessing natural forest regeneration patterns and non-wood forest product harvesting practice.

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Countries


Nandakumar, U.N. & Menon, A.R.R. (1992): Resource survey of rattans. Problems and prospects.

Nautiyal, B.P., Chauhan, R.S., Prakash, V., Purohit, H. & Nautiyal, M.C. (2003): Population studies for the evaluation of germplasm and threat status of the alpine medicinal herb, Nardostachys jatamansi.


Sagar, R. , Raghubanshi, A. S. , Singh, J. S. (2003): Tree species composition, dispersion and diversity along a disturbance gradient in a dry tropical forest region of India.

Shaankar, U., Ganeshaiah, K.N. & Nageswara, R.M. (2001): Genetic diversity of medicinal plant species in deciduous forests of South India. Impact of harvest and other anthropogenic pressures.

Shankar, U., Murali, K.S., Uma Shaanker, R., Ganeshaiah, K.N. & Bawa, K.S. (1996): Extraction of non-timber forest products in the forests of Biligiri Ragan hills, India. 3. Productivity, extraction and prospects of sustainable harvest of Amla Phyllanthus emblica (Euphorbiacefae).

Sinha, A. & Bawa, K.S. (2002): Harvesting techniques, hemiparasites and fruit production in two non-timber forest tree species in south India.

Indonesia

Caniago, I. & Siebert, S.F. (1998): Medicinal plant ecology, knowledge and conservation in Kalimantan, Indonesia.

Edwards, I. (1991): Quantitative ethnobotanical survey of a hectare of tropical forest near Toraut, Dumogo Bone National Park, Northern Sulawesi, Indonesia. Sulawesi Ethnobotanical Project. Preliminary Report.




Siebert, S.F. (2004): Demographic effects of collecting rattan cane and their implications for sustainable harvesting.


Soehartono, T. & Newton, A.C. (2000): Conservation and sustainable use of tropical trees in the genus Aquilaria. 2. The impact of gaharu harvesting in Indonesia.

Stockdale, M. & Ambrose, B. (1996): Mapping and NFTP inventory. Participatory assessment methods for forest-dwelling communities in East Kalimantan, Indonesia.

Stockdale, M. & Corbett, J.M.S. (1999): Participatory inventory. A field manual written with special reference to Indonesia.

Japan

Sakai, A, Sakai, S. & Akiyama, F. (1997): Do sprouting tree species on erosion-prone sites carry large reserves of resources?.

Kenya

Emerton, L. (1996): Valuing the subsistence use of forest products in Oldonyo Orok Forest, Kenya.

Fashing, P.J. (2004): Mortality trends in the African cherry (Prunus africana) and the implication for colobus monkeys (Colobus guereza) in Kakamega Forest, Kenya.


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Countries

Nzilani, N.J. (2002): The status of Prunus africana (Syn. Pegium africanum Hook. F.) in Kakamega and South Nandi forests, Kenya.

Korea, Republic of

Mi Yoon Chung, Nason, J.D. & Myong Gi Chung (2004): Implications of clonal structure for effective population size and genetic drift in rare terrestrial orchid, Cremastra appendiculata.

Lao People's Democratic Republic

Evans, T. & Oulathong V. Viengkham (2001): Inventory time-cost and statistical power. A case study of a Lao rattan.

Gilmour, D. & Inthavong, C. (1997): Sustainable utilisation of non-timber forest products Lao PDR. Report of review and evaluation mission December 1996.

Lithuania

Rutkauskas, A. (1998): Non-wood resource and their utilisation in Lithuania.

Madagascar


Malawi



Malaysia

Fong, F.W. (1992): Perspectives for sustainable resource utilization and management of Nipa vegetation.

Khali, A.H., Aminuddin, M. & Azmy, Hj. M. (1995): Bamboo resource mapping using remote sensing.

LaFrankie, J.V. (1994): Population dynamics of some tropical trees that yield non-timber forest products.

Nur Supardi, Md. N., Shalihin, S. & Aminuddin, M. (1995): Sampling methods for rattan inventory.

Mexico

Cardel, Y., Rico-Gray, V., Garcia-Franco, J.G. & Thien, L.B. (1997): Ecological status of Beaucarnea gracilis, an endemic species of the semiarid Tehuacán valley, México.

Clark-Tapia, R., Mandujano, M.C., Valverde, T., Mendoza, A. & Molina-Freaner, F. (2005): How important is clonal recruitment for population maintenance in rare plant species? The case of the narrow endemic cactus, Stenocereus eruca, in Baja California, Mexico.


Escalante, S., Montana, C. & Orellana, R. (2004): Demography and potential extractive use o f the liana palm, Desmoncus orthacanthos Martius (Arecaceae), in southern Quintana Roo, Mexico.

Gutierrez, L. & Vovides, A.P. (1997): An in situ study of Magnolia dealbata Zucc. in Veracruz. An endangered endemic tree of Mexico.

Joyal, E. (1996): The palm has its time. An ethnoecology of Sabal uresana in Sonora, Mexico.

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Countries

Lawrence, A. & Román, F.S. (1996): The role of inventory in the communally managed forests of Quinata Roo, Mexico.




Ticktin, T. & Nantel, P. (2004): Dynamics of harvested populations of a tropical understory herb in old-growth versus secondary forests.

Ticktin, T., Nantel, P. & Ramirez, F. (2002): Effects of variation on harvest limits for nontimber forest species in Mexico.

Namibia


Konstant, T.L., Sullivan, S. & Cunningham, A.B. (1995): The effects of utilization by people and livestock on Hyphaene petersiana (Arecaceae) basketry resources in the palm savanna of north-central Namibia.

Strohbach, M & Cole, D. (2005): Populations dynamics and sustainable harvesting of the medicinal plant Harpagophytum procumbens DC (Devil's Claw) in Namibia.

Sullivan, S., Konstant, T.L. & Cunningham, A.B. (1995): The impact of utilization of palm products on the population structure of the vegetable ivory palm (Hyphaene petersiana, Arecaceae) in north-central Namibia.

Nepal

Acharya, B., Bhattarai, G., de Gier, A. & Stein, A. (2000): Systematic adaptive cluster sampling for the assessment of rare tree species in Nepal.


Branney, P. (1994): Thumb rules for assessing the sustainability of harvesting by forest user groups. Nepal-UK Community Forestry Project.


Hertog, W.H. den & Wiersum, K.F. (2000): Timur (Zanthoxylum armatum) production in Nepal. Dynamics in nontimber forest resource management.

Ingles, A., Jackson, B., Singh, H.B., Dev, O.P. & Branney, P. (1996): Resource assessment for forest management by user groups. Two case studies from Nepal.

Jeanrenaud, J.-P. & Thompson, I. (1986): Daphne (Lokta), bark biomass production management implications for paper making in Nepal.

Kleinn, C., Laamanen, R. & Malla, S.B. (1996): Integrating the assessment of non-wood forest products into the forest inventory of a large area. Experiences from Nepal.

Lama, Y., Ghimire, S. & Aumeeruddy, Y. (2001): Conservation of plant resources, community development and training in applied ethnobotany at Shey-Phoksundo National Park and its buffer zone, Dolpa.

Larsen, H.O. (1999): The importance, management systems and possible inventory methods of non-timber forest products in Nepal. MSc thesis.

Paudel, S. & Wiersum, K.F. (2002): Tenure arrangements and management intensity of Butter tree (Diploknema butyracea) in Makawanpunr district, Nepal.

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Countries

Peru



Higgins, M.A. & Ruokolainen, K. (2004): Rapid tropical forest inventory. A comparison of techniques based on inventory data from western Amazonia.

Lawrence, A., Phillips, O.L., Reategui Ismodes, A., Lopez, M. Rose, S., Wood, D. & Farfan, A.J. (2005): Local values for harvested forest plants in Madre de Dios, Peru. Towards a more contextualised interpretation of quantitative ethnobotanical data.


Peters, C.M. (1990): Population ecology and management of forest fruit trees in Peruvian Amazonia.


Phillips, O. (1993): The potential for harvesting fruits in tropical rainforests. New data from Amazonian Peru.

Philippines

Manipula, B.M., Gianan, N. So. & Virtucio, F.D. (1996): Culm removal effect on culm yield and biomass productivity of laak (Bambusa sp. 2) in flatland and hillyland sites in Pandapan, Tagum, Davao del Norte.

Serna, C.B. (1990): Rattan resource supply situation and management.

Tandug, L.M. (1978): Sampling method for inventory of Philippine rattan and its distribution.


Poland


Romania


Russian Federation

Belonogova, T.V. (1988): Yield forecasting and optimization of berry harvesting in the forests of Southern Karelia, USSR.

Cherkasov, A.P. (1988): Classification on nontimber resources in the USSR.

Cherkasov, A.Ph. (1988): The cranberry yield in the USSR.

Chikov, P.S., Saiko, L.N. & Shreter, A.I. (1983): Atlas arealov i resursov lekarstevennych rastenij SSSR. 2 volumes [Atlas of the areas and resources of medicinal plants of the USSR; in Russian].

Jakowlew, G.P. (1998): O resursowedenii lekarstwennych rastenii w Rossii [About the research of plant resources in Russia, 'Pharmvestnik, Nr. 8, 16 - 30 April 1998; in Russian]. - http://www.pharmvestnik.ru/

Kuchko, A.A. (1988): Bilberry and cowberry yields and the factors controlling them in the forests of Karelia, USSR.

Kukuev, Y. (1999): Non-wood forest products in northwest Russia.

- 129 -

Countries

Mukhina, V.F. (1995): Fruit bearing in Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng. in central Yakutiya [in Russian].

South Africa

Cunningham, A.B. (1988): Leaf production and utilization in Hyphaene coriacea. Management guidelines for commercial harvesting.



Geldenhuys, C.J. (2004): Meeting the demand for Ocotea bullata bark. Implications for the conservation of high-value and medicinal tree species.

Geldenhuys, C.J. (2004): Bark harvesting for traditional medicine. From illegal resource degradation to participatory management.



Kruger, L.M., Midgley, J.J. & Cowling, R.M. (1997): Resprouters vs reseeders in South African forest trees. A model based on forest canopy height.


Milton, S. (1987): Effects of harvesting on four species of forest ferns in South Africa.

Milton, S.J. & Moll, E.J. (1988): Effects of harvesting on frond production of Rumohra adiantiformis (Pteridophyta: Aspidiaceae) in South Africa.


Shackleton, C.M. (1993): Demography and dynamics of the dominant woody species in a communal and protected area of the eastern transvaal lowveld.


Williams, V.L., Witkowski, E.T.F. & Balkwill, K. (2006 in press): The use of incidence-based species richness estimators, species accumulation curves and similarity measures to appraise ethnobotanical inventories from South Africa.


Sri Lanka

Gunatilake, H.M., Senaratne, M.A.H. & Abeygunawardena, P. (1993): Role of non-timber forest products in the economy of the peripheral communities of Knuckles National Wilderness Area of Sri Lanka. A farming systems approach.

Turks and Caicos Islands

Close, C.H. & Hall, B. (2006): A GIS-based protocol for the collection and use of local knowledge in fisheries management planning.

Uganda

Sheil, D. (1995): A critique of permanent plot methods and analysis with examples from Budongo forest, Uganda.

Wild, R.G. & Mutebi, J. (1996): Conservation through community use of plant resources. Establishing collaborative management at Bwindi Impenetrable and Mgahinga Gorilla National Parks, Uganda.

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Countries

United Kingdom

Hedge, S.G. & Ellstrand, N.C. (1999): Life history differences between rare and common flowering plant species of California and the British Isles.

Noble, J.C., Bell, A.D. & Harper, J.L. (1979): The population biology of plants with clonal growth 1. The morphology and structural demography fo Carex arenaria.

Quinn, R.M., Lawton, J.H., Eversham, B.C. & Wood, S.N. (1994): The biogeography of scarce vascular plants in Britain with respect to habitat preference, dispersal ability and reproductive biology.

Schwartz, M.W. (1993): The search for pattern among rare plants. Are primitive species more likely to be rare?.

Thompson, K, Gaston, K.J. & Band, S.R. (1999): Range size, dispersal and niche breadth in the herbaceous flora of central England.

United States

Anderson, M.K. (1991): California Indian horticulture. Management and use of redbud by the Southern Sierra Miwok.

Anderson, M.K. & Rowney, D.L. (1999): The edible plant Dichelostemma capitatum. Its vegetative reproduction response to different indigenous harvesting regimens in California.

Barnes, M.A. & Musselman, V.P. (1996): Inventory and appraisal methodologies for special forest products prepared for North Santiam Canyon Economic Development Committee.

Carpenter, S.G. & Cottam, G. (1982): Growth and reproduction of American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) in Wisconsin, USA.

Chamberlain, J.L. (2004): A strategy for nontimber forest products research and technology transfer for southern United States.

Chamberlain, J.L., Bush, R.J., Hammett, A.L., Araman, P.A. (2000): Managing national forests of the Eastern United States for non-timber forest products.

Clay, J.W. (1997): Business and biodiversity. Rainforest marketing and beyond.

Cruse-Sanders, J.M., Hamrick, J.L. & Ahumada, J.A. (2005): Consequences of harvesting for genetic diversity in American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.). A simulation study.

Gagnon, D. (22.3.1999): A review of the ecology and population biology of Goldenseal, and protocols for monitoring its populations. Final report to the Office of Scientific Authority of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. - http://www.nps.gov/plants/medicinal/pubs/traffic.htm

Gagnon, D. (10.5.1999): An analysis of the sustainability of American Ginseng harvesting from the wild. The problem and possible solutions. Final report to the Office of Scientific Authority of the US Fish and Wildlife Service. - http://www.nps.gov/plants/medicinal/pubs/ginseng.htm

Hedge, S.G. & Ellstrand, N.C. (1999): Life history differences between rare and common flowering plant species of California and the British Isles.

Kauffman, G. (2006): Conservation assessment for American Ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.).

McGraw, J.B., Sanders, S.M. & van der Voort, M. (2003): Distribution and abundance of Hydrastis canadensis L. (Ranunculaceae) and Panax quinquefolius L. (Araliaceae) in the central Appalachian region.

Menges, E.S. (1990): Population viability analysis for an endangered plant.


Molina, R., O'Dell, T., Luoma, D., Amaranthus, M., Castellano, M. & Russell, K. (1993): Biology, ecology, and social aspects of wild edible mushrooms in the forests of the Pacific Northwest. A preface to managing commercial harvest.

Mulligan, M.R. & Gorchov, D.L. (2004): Population loss of goldenseal, Hydrastis canadensis L. (Ranunculaceae), in Ohio.

Philippi, T., Collins, B., Guisti, S. & Dixon, P.M. (2001): A multistage approach to population monitoring for rare plant populations.

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Countries

Rock, J.H. (1996): The impact of harvesting ramps (Allium tricoccum Ait.) in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Internal report.

Rock, J.H., Beckage, B. & Gross, L.J. (2004): Population recovery following differential harvesting of Allium tricoccum Ait. in the southern Appalachians.

Sanders, S.M. & McGraw, J.B. (2002): Distribution, abundance, and population dynamics of goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.) in an Indiana Nature Preserve, USA.



Ticktin, T., Whitehead, A.N. & Fraiola, H. (2006): Traditional gathering of native hula plants in alien-invaded Hawaiian forests. Adaptive practices, impacts on alien invasive species, and conservation implications.

U.S. Forest Service (s. dat.): National strategy for special forest products. Executive summary. - http://www.sfp.forprod.vt.edu/pubs/strategy.pdf

Vance, N.C. & Thomas, J. (1997): Special forest products. Biodiversity meets the marketplace.

Voort, M.E. van der, Bailey, B., Samuel, D.E. & McGraw, J.B. (2003): Recovery of populations of goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis L.) and American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) following harvest.

Venezuela


Zambia


Nguvulu, C.Z. (1997): Fruit production in indigenous multipurpose tree species at Chati, Zambia. BSc Agroforestry Special Project.


Zimbabwe

Campbell, B.M., Luckert, M. & Scoones, I. (1997): Local-level valuation of savanna resources. A case study from Zimbabwe.


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Documents

Annotated Bibliography on Plant Resource Assessment Methods for