ANNA THURING HIVCN EREAWTE AEBD NTOIREPRRE E

NÄYTTÄMÖ JA TUTKIMUS 8 | ANNA THURING . BETWEEN ARCHIVE AND REPERTOIRE | 261

ANNA THURING

BETWEEN ARCHIVE AND REPERTOIRE Asian Martial Arts in Transcultural Performer Training

Vertaisarviointitunnuksen merkitseminen julkaisuihin

Käyttöoikeuden saanut tiedekustantaja merkitsee tunnuksella vertais-arvioinnin läpikäyneet kirjat ja artikkelit. Tunnus tulee asetella julkai-suun siten, että käy yksiselitteisesti ilmi, mitkä kirjoituksista on vertai-sarvioitu. Tunnuksesta on olemassa kaksi versiota:

tekstillä varustettu ja tekstitön.

1. Tunnuksen tekstiä sisältävä versio liitetään aina vertaisarvioitu-ja kirjoituksia sisältävän lehden tai kirjan nimiölehdelle tai muualle julkaisutietojen yhteyteen. Jos julkaisu on kokonaan vertaisarvioitu, merkintä nimiösivuilla tai vastaavalla riittää.

2. Kun julkaisu sisältää sekä arvioituja että arvioimattomia kirjoituk-sia, tunnus merkitään myös:

• sisällysluetteloon (tekstitön versio)• yksittäisten vertaisarvioitujen lukujen/artikkelien yhteyteen

(kumpi tahansa versio)

3. Elektronisissa julkaisuissa on suositeltavaa merkitä tunnuksen teks-tillä varustettu versio kaikkien vertaisarvioitujen artikkelien etusivul-le, jotta kuvan merkitys käy ilmi yksittäistä artikkelia tarkastelevalle lukijalle.

Alla on esitetty, miten tunnus merkitään julkaisun nimiösivulle, sisäl-lysluetteloon sekä painettuun ja elektroniseen artikkeliin. Esimerkkejä merkintätavoista voi katsoa myös tunnusta käyttävien kustantajien julkaisuista. Abstract

Asian martial arts constitute an integral part of both traditional

Asian and modern international performer training. Particularly im-

portant they are in those systems, methods or approaches that aim at

educating transcultural, physically (or psychophysically) skilled

performers. The focus here is in three contemporary transcultural

performer training systems or approaches, namely Yoshi Oida’s, Akira

Hino’s and Phillip B. Zarrilli’s, that integrate Asian martial arts

in their corpus of exercises and training philosophies. The paper will

explore these processes through the concepts of “archive” and “reper-

toire,” as defined by Diana Taylor in The Archive and the Repertoire.

Performing cultural Memory in the Americas (2003). It argues that both

Asian martial arts and the transcultural training systems using them

negotiate constantly between archive and repertoire and create layers

of intertwined interactions that provide material for understanding

preservation and transformation of cultural traditions.

Tiivistelmä

Aasialaiset taistelutaidot kuuluvat useiden perinteisten aasialais-

ten esittävien taiteiden koulutukseen. Niitä käytetään myös monissa

kansainvälisissä teatterin ja esittävän taiteen koulutuksissa. Ar-


tikkelissa tarkastellaan kolmea koulutusmenetelmää: Yoshi Oidan ja

Akira Hinon luomia järjestelmiä, jotka hyödyntävät erilaisia japani-

laisia taistelutaitoja ja niiden filosofioita, sekä yhdysvaltalaisen

Phillip B. Zarrillin psykofyysistä lähestymistapaa, jossa intialai-

nen kalarippayattu yhdistyy joogaan ja kiinalaiseen taijihin. Näitä

menetelmiä tarkastellaan Diana Taylorin ”archive” ja ”repertoire”

käsitteiden avulla, ja tutkitaan erityisesti sitä, miten nämä kolme

järjestelmää liikkuvat jatkuvasti näiden käsitteiden välillä hyö-

dyntäen sekä kirjallisia että ei-kirjallisia perinteitä – ja samalla

luoden tässä prosessissa omia liukuvia ”archive” ja ”repertoire”

kenttiään.

Various forms of Asian martial arts constitute an integral part

of both traditional Asian and modern international performer

training. They are particularly important in those systems,

methods or approaches that aim at educating transcultural, physical-

ly (or psychophysically) skilled performers. The paper touches only

briefly some Asian performance traditions in which martial arts are

used. Its main focus is on three contemporary transcultural performer

training systems or approaches, namely Yoshi Oida’s, Akira Hino’s and

Phillip B. Zarrilli’s, that weave Asian martial arts in their corpus

of exercises and training philosophies. The reason for choosing these

three cases over some other relevant options1 is that they are inter-

nationally used and documented approaches in performer training and

that I have some personal and even embodied experience of them.2 Of

these three, Zarrilli and Oida specialize in actor training, whereas

Hino caters a wider clientele, among them dancers and athletes. Hino’s

1 Such as A.C. Scott, Herbert Blau, Eugenio Barba, Jerzy Grotowski, and Tadashi Suzuki, to name a few. Unfortunately, the scope of the article does not allow a detailed examination of all these cases.

2 I have taken a short workshop by Zarrilli and had some brief discussions with him (2011). I have also met Akira Hino and talked with him and some artists who have found his method useful for their work (2017). Oida I have seen only on stage in Peter Brook’s Mahabharata (1987), but since his texts have been translated also into Finnish (The Invisible Actor became Näkymätön näyttelijä in Lauri Sipari’s translation in 2004) and resonate to some extent in Finnish actor training, I find it relevant for this particular publication.


published work is not as extensive or internationally known as Oida’s

or, especially, Zarrilli’s, but I find it a relevant example because

of his heterodox use of a wide variety of Japanese martial art styles.

The aim of this paper is not to examine how and how well these systems

serve individual performers in their practice but to look critically

at their historical and cultural formation under the themes of memo-

ry, archive and performance.3 The paper will explore these processes

through the concepts of “archive” and “repertoire”, as defined by Diana

Taylor in The Archive and the Repertoire. Performing cultural Memory

in the Americas (2003). I shall argue that both Asian martial arts and

the transcultural training systems using them negotiate constantly

between archive and repertoire. During this process, they create layers

of intertwined interactions that provide material for understanding

preservation and transformation of cultural traditions.

Asian Martial Arts as Archive and Repertoire

Martial arts are considered to be systems that blend the physical

components of combat with strategy, philosophy, tradition, or other

features that distinguish them from pure physical reaction (in other

words, a technique, armed or unarmed, employed randomly or idiosyn-

cratically would not be considered a martial art).4

The term “Asian martial arts” comprises of multiple co-existing

forms, traditions and schools. Yet, the emphasis on mental mastery

that equals the physical skills seems to be essential for all of them,

whether they are classified “hard”, such as karate or taek-won-do, or

“soft”, as aikido or taijiquan. Sometimes they are defined as exter-

nal practices, in which the emphasis is on force against force, and

3 The first version of this paper was written for the symposium Shifting Dialogues III: Documenting Asian Art and Performance: Embodied Knowledge, Virtuality & the Archive, organized in December 2014 by University of the Arts Helsinki and the Shifting Dialogues Research Project, funded by the Academy of Finland. Of Hino’s work, I have previously given a paper at the International Federation for Theatre Research (IFTR) Regional Conference, organized by the IFTR Asian Theatre Working Group and the Uni-versity of Philippines Diliman in Manila in 2018.

4 Green 2001, xvi.


internal ones that aim to develop qi, the internal energy assumed to

circulate through the body.5 In practice, both elements are present

in different forms, following the principle of yin and yang.6 Often,

practice of these arts is linked either to Buddhist, Daoist, Hindu

or Confucian religions and philosophies. Meditational practices are

often integrated into them. They can even be said to be embodied ex-

pressions of these philosophies or “the subtraction of thought itself

from practice”.7

Most Asian martial arts are based on generational transmittance

of physical and mental or spiritual skills from a master-teacher to

a disciple or disciples. It is assumed that this takes a considerable

amount of time. A commitment to one master teacher is often taken for

granted. At least in theory, the student is not expected to go around

“master (s)hopping” but to delve into one system as deeply as possible

with one master who, presumably, has learned his skills and philosophy

from his own master.

Because of the strong interpersonal learning, as well as the grad-

ual building of skills and character, Asian martial arts seem to fall

more into the area of ephemeral “repertoire” of embodied practice/

knowledge, such as spoken language, dance, sports, ritual rather than

to the territory of the “archive” consisting of supposedly endur-

ing materials, texts or documents, resisting change and allowing a

possibility for re-examination (even if these materials can also be

re-interpreted and are by no means free of resisting change and ma-

nipulation), as Diana Taylor defines the difference between these two

concepts. Taking a post-colonial stand, Taylor’s discussion aims to

enforce the importance of the repertoire that “enacts embodied memo-

ry: performances, gestures, orality, movement, dance, singing” that

are usually thought as non-reproducible knowledge. She also emphasiz-

es the requirement of presence and participation in the repertoire.8

5 Zarrilli 2008, 73.

6 Originally a Chinese philosophical principle (particularly in Daoism) that presents dualism as two oppo-site, yet closely intertwined elements: yin (passive, dark, etc.) and yang (active, light, etc.).

7 Bowman, 2012, 8 and 15.

8 Taylor 2003, 19–20.


Dichotomy between archive and repertoire is not absolute nor

categorical. As Taylor herself states, there are areas that do not

completely fit into the division. Rather, she wishes to point out

that the Western logocentric culture tends to ignore or downplay the

repertoire, a form of knowledge that does not have written documen-

tation as its central component9. There are processes of convergence

that create grey areas between these two. Taylor’s concept of “sce-

nario” refers to the processes of interaction that fall between the

two main concepts. “[- -] the notion of the scenario allows us to more

fully recognize the many ways in which archive and repertoire work to

constitute and transmit social knowledge”10.

[- -] there is also an advantage to looking at scenarios

that are not reducible to narrative because they demand

embodiment. Scenarios, like narrative, grab the body and

insert it into a frame. The body in the scenario, however,

has space to maneuver because it is not scripted… Critical

distance between social actor and a character – the sce-

nario more fully allows us to keep both the social actor

and the role in view simultaneously and thus recognize the

uneasy fits and areas of tension.11

As will be seen, the concept of scenario seems to align smoothly

with such embodied practices as Asian martial arts and transcultural

performer training. However, in this article, I shall use the dichot-

omy of archive and repertoire in order to pinpoint the territories

where these two are negotiated and take up the concept of scenario in

those cases where it clearly seems the most appropriate option.

There is plenty of written heritage pertaining to Asian martial

arts, and it is often used to legitimize the length and continuation of

the tradition. Additionally, other types of archived components can

be found. As Taylor writes, the archive can consist of other enduring

9 Ibid, 24.

10 Taylor 2003, 33.

11 Ibid, 55.


materials than texts12. In martial arts, they can be weapons or other

fight-related items and even temples or dojos or kalaris where the

training takes place. In the history of performance, masks, costumes,

and props form an integral part of the archived tradition. This is

the case in, for example, Japanese no theatre where they are valued

treasures that legitimize the right to the tradition.

Even if there is written evidence of the tradition, there are con-

troversies about the length of the traditions. Many Asian martial art

schools present themselves in a lineage of ancient traditions even if

that is not really the case. Alexus McLeod writes:

Another common misunderstanding (one common even among many

martial arts practitioners) is that modern martial arts

[- -] are ancient in their origins, and that the arts we

practice today in dojos and other training halls are mani-

festations of ancient systems of martial art constructed by

revered martial sages. While they may have some connection

to early practices (especially in the form of inspiration),

the martial arts practiced today did not exist as such much

prior to the 20th century. Martial arts as we know and prac-

tice them are modern arts. Despite the modern origins of

what are commonly called “traditional martial arts”, there

are many ancient origin stories associated with the arts.

Every style and school has such a story – though some are

more forthright about their modern origins than others.13

In many cases, the “pure Asian-ness” is also a fiction. “In fact,

the modern martial arts are a fusion of modern Asian and Western tech-

niques, systematized by figures in China, Japan, and Korea in between

the late 19th and mid 20th centuries-indeed, this may be some of the

reason these arts have caught on so well in the West.”14

12 Ibid, 19.

13 McLeod 2018, 10.

14 Ibid, 2.


Yet another twist is that many of the written materials pertaining

to Asian martial arts use poetic style and are open for multiple inter-

pretations, depending on the reader. The practice of koans (riddles)

that the master-teacher may give to the student verbally or in writing

in order to enhance the student’s learning process, are an example.

They are not expected to be understood in the same way by the master

and the student. It is assumed that the student can internalize the

wisdom in the course of her/his training and development, i.e. koans

are in constant dialogue with the embodied practices of repertoire

and resonate well with Taylor’s concept of scenario.

Martial arts also replicate themselves through their own struc-

tures and codes. The elements of secrecy and ritualization are in many

ways, even if not strictly preserved in written form, but still they

can be understood as part of change-resisting archives.

Martial Arts and Performing Arts Training

A wide variety of Asian martial arts are used in the training for tra-

ditional Asian performance styles. For example, jingju or Peking opera

uses wushu or kung fu. In Keralan kathakali, kalarippayattu is manda-

tory basic training. They aim to improve bodily strength, alertness,

contact and special awareness, as well as balance and agility of the

performer. Oftentimes, the training extends to mastering certain roles

on the stage. In some role categories, they work only in the background.

Regardless of their origin or preferred performing genres, many

individual contemporary performers around the world have discovered

the benefits of martial or meditational training in their profession.

Especially the soft techniques, such as aikido, taijiquan, or yoga

suit well for most performers.15 They can be trained without extreme

15 As a reviewer of this article wisely pointed out, the average Asian martial arts body is a non-disabled, masculine body. This frame can be problematic when the techniques are used with diverse groups of per-formers. However, both in Asia and in countries around the world, martial arts have been and are practised by individuals of different sexes and genders and also with different physical capabilities. When used in per-former training, they are inevitably “applied martial arts” that are used to achieve desired creative results with different kinds of trainees.


physical excess and do not necessarily require any long-term commit-

ment. Theatre and dance schools can also integrate courses on Asian

martial arts into the curriculum. For example, Christel Weiler argues

for using taijiquan in actor training in Germany

I am far from suggesting that practicing Taijikuan would

solve all problems. [- -] I would rather like to take it as

one example, one possibility to think through a different

model of intercultural actor training that, on the one hand,

supports the actor-to-be on various levels and, on the other

hand, could be a signpost for their life in general, i.e.

something that keeps its value after graduating from drama

school. [- -] Creativity, expressive and imaginative free-

dom, sensory awareness, all these demanded qualities are

less actor- or theatre-bound but rather connected to living

a full and rich life.16

Weiler is not alone nor the first one in propagating taijiquan’s

benefits for performer training. In the United States, Herbert Blau

and A.C. Scott integrated taijiquan into actor training curriculum

at the end of the 1960s and, as will be seen, taijiquan constitutes a

central part in Phillip B. Zarrilli’s psychophysical training system.

“Performing arts training” means various methods, approaches,

systems and traditions that are used to coach individuals in pro-

fessional skills as an actor, dancer, circus or performance artist.

Such terms as “intercultural performer training” and “transcultural

performer training” are complex and have been under discussion for

decades.17 In this paper, “intercultural performer training” means

training that uses elements from different performance cultures.

“Transcultural performer training” is in most cases intercultural

but adds the global dimension: the training is not located in any

16 Weiler 2019, 172.

17 For example, a recent book Intercultural Acting and Performer Training (2019), edited by Phillip B. Zarrilli, T. Sasitharan and Anuradha Kapur, has chosen the word “intercultural” but is also bringing in terms cross-cultural, multicultural, intracultural, global and/or interwoven, etc.


particular geographical area but can be taught in workshops in differ-

ent parts of the world for students originating from varied cultural

backgrounds. The three cases that are examined in this paper, can, in

my opinion, be best classified as “transcultural”.

Eugenio Barba is one of the most well-known inter- and transcul-

tural performer trainers and performing arts theoreticians of the 20th

century. Leo Rafolt has found similarities between Barba’s principles

of contemporary performer training and Japanese martial arts (budo)

training as follows:

Eugenio Barba formulated this as five functions of a per-

former’s own training: (1) interpretation of a dramatic

text; (2) transmission of a performance text; (3) transmis-

sion of secrets; (4) self-expression; and (5) group-forma-

tion (Barba & Savarese, 1999, p. 248). Besides being ritu-

al-like, these functions are easily translated into budo

terminology as, respectively: interpretative self-training

(kata-geiko), the principle of direct and personal heredi-

tary transmission of a craft by and within a traditional art

school (iemoto), secret learning (ryu-densho, menkyo kaid-

en, mokuroku or any other secret transmission principle),

self-educative and self-expressive values (shugyo), and

the communitas principle, designated as a group-society,

school, lineage, or preservation group (kan, kai, kaikan).18

Eugenio Barba’s, Jerzy Grotowski’s and Tadashi Suzuki’s views

and explorations would also have been relevant for the topic of this

paper. This time, however, I have chosen to focus on three other con-

temporary performer training systems, methods or approaches, namely,

Yoshi Oida’s (b. 1933), Akira Hino’s (b. 1948) and Phillip B. Zarril-

li’s (b. 1947)19. The terms “system”, “method” and “approach” are

18 Rafolt 2015, 98.

19 Phillip Zarrilli passed away in April 2020. Nevertheless, I have not changed the tense of the senten-ces in this paper that was written some months earlier. After all, his valuable work still lives with all of us who are interested in Asian performance and actor training.


fluid and even fuzzy. Hino talks about his training as a method and a

theory. In Oida’s case, it might be more appropriate to talk about an

approach or philosophy. Zarrilli can be said to have an articulated

system that aims to enhance the psychophysical qualities of an actor.

The aim of this paper is not to seek similarities or differences

between the methods but to consider how these methods integrate Asian

martial arts and to investigate how the dynamics of archive and reper-

toire appear in this process. The reason why I have chosen these three

examples is that all of them use Asian martial arts as an important

part of the training and that the creators have articulated their

training methods and ideas in writing, i.e. there is an archive that

can be used. Yet, they are used in live workshops in transcultural,

global contexts and use elements, such as the Asian martial arts and

meditation techniques, that cannot completely be subsumed into the

concept of an archive but hover between archive and repertoire. Be-

cause of this, these systems provide, in my opinion, relevant cases

for discussion on archive and repertoire as defined by Diana Taylor.

Oida and Hino are of Japanese origin, Zarrilli is an American based

in the United Kingdom and with a thorough knowledge of Asian, espe-

cially Indian, culture and performance practice and theory. Regard-

less of their cultural backgrounds, their methods can be classified

as transcultural since they are taught internationally in workshops

either for open groups or in connection with specific productions.

Oida’s and Zarrilli’s systems are specifically linked to performer

training and, as directors, they also use them closely intertwined

with productions. Hino teaches his method for a wide variety of cus-

tomers including businessmen and athletes but has also worked with

actors and dancers. For example, choreographer William Forsythe has

found the Hino Method useful for his performers. Hino has also created

and directed a few own theatre productions. This paper concentrates

only on training and does not look at any specific performances or

outcomes of training. The training processes connected to productions

would require a detailed analysis that is not possible here. Just like

the individual training of martial arts or martial arts as a part of a

curriculum, these systems can be studied and used selectively. They do

not formally require a long-term commitment nor do they have different

levels of competence that could be demonstrated through the years.


Before looking at the nature of Asian martial arts as part of the

training systems, it is relevant to ask what is the role of archive and

repertoire when it comes to the overall information on these methods.

The workshops and production-related training by Zarrilli, Hino, and

Oida are clearly something that can be seen as repertoire even if they

are based on exercises and patterns that in one form or another are re-

peated in different training occasions and/or written down in manuals.

All three have written about their training approaches. Zarrilli

has been the most prolific writer of them and from early stages of his

career, he has also addressed questions of using martial arts in ac-

tor training20. Oida has written three books with Lorna Marshall. They

comprise of his memoirs, philosophy, and references to the training.

The last one of these, An Actor’s Tricks, contains also an appendix

of exercises used in Oida’s workshops. Hino has published one book,

Don’t Think, Listen to the Body that explains his method. Some of the

training sessions or parts of them have been recorded and found their

way to the internet. This way they can be said to have been transported

to the realm of archive, even if a limited live experience is captured

in these mediated products.21 They are verbal or physical testimonies

of the practice, not complete presentations of the methods. Yet they,

like written archives, can be returned to for further examination. As

far as the teachings of Zarrilli, Hino and Oida are concerned, there

are these publicly available video materials, such as lectures, in-

terviews, and recordings of workshops. Zarrilli’s book Psychophysi-

cal Acting. An Intercultural Approach after Stanislavski (2008) also

includes a DVD-ROM documenting the exercises of his method.

In the following, I shall look at the role of the Asian martial arts

in the three training systems as they are expressed in the writings

that are available in English. The questions that I shall address are:

What are the Asian martial arts used in these systems and how they are

understood and appropriated? How were/are they combined or subsumed

20 This book (Asian Martial Arts in Actor Training) was published in 1984. Unfortunately, it seems to be out of print and I have not been able to find it from libraries. Also, Diana Daugherty mentions about the hard availability of the book in her review in Asian Theatre Journal Vol 13 1996.

21 Taylor 2003, 20.


into the training system? In a sense, I shall be tracking the traces

of repertoire in the archive.

Yoshi Oida’s Theatrical Research into Japanese Culture

Yoshi Oida’s three books are written with his collaborator, the Brit-

ish director and performer trainer Lorna Marshall. The first is An

Actor Adrift, published in 1992, the second, The Invisible Actor,

from 1997, and the most recent one, An Actor’s Tricks that dates from

2007. These books convey Oida’s life, philosophy as well as perfor-

mance practice and theory.

A constant theme in the books are comparisons between Eastern (Jap-

anese) and Western attitudes in various areas of life and theatre. Be-

fore leaving Japan to join Peter Brook’s international theatre research

and performance venture22, Oida had studied kyogen for twenty years and

was thus familiar with this part of nogaku23. This apprenticeship was

accomplished by learning the kata, the movement and vocal patterns of

the form, from his master Yataro Okura, i.e. through bodily transmis-

sion and repetition in interpersonal learning situations.

The functions of kata are similar in Asian martial arts as in tra-

ditional theatre. Leo Rafolt summarizes them in budo:

There are several functions of kata that are preserved in

modern budo: the metacognitive function, since kata is es-

sentially always training of bodily cognition; pedagogical

functions, because this is the way to transmit knowledge of

a particular pattern of movement in a martial arts school;

and archival function, because the exact learning and

relearning of formative and ritualized patterns of kata

22 Centre International de Reseaches Théâtrales (CIRT), and later Centre International de Créations Théâtrales (CICT).

23 Nogaku consist of no and kyogen. The acting techniques are same even if certain actors/schools spe-cialize in no and the others in kyogen, the comical form. Oida refers to his kyogen teacher/master Yataro Okura sometimes as a no teacher. Oida is not a member of a kyogen family. Mostly he writes about studying kyogen but there is a mention in An Actors Tricks (p. 81) that he sometimes performed in kyogen plays.


preserves all of the structures of movements in the existing

style, employing aesthetic experience as a dominant one.24

According to Taylor, the repertoire enacts embodied memory: per-

formances, gestures, orality, movement, dance, singing with a re-

quirement of presence, participation and constant repetition.25 Oida

himself writes passionately about the importance of repetition, em-

phasizing that it should not be rigid but rather a mental exercise.

Even in the martial arts, you must be careful to choose a

good teacher, since the exercises are very powerful. If they

are badly taught, they can become rigid or over-programmed,

which can contribute to mental inflexibility.26

Repetitional and generational transfer of the tradition in as un-

altered form as possible can be seen also holding elements of archive.

Taylor writes:

Embodied memory, because it is live, exceeds the archive’s

ability to capture it. But that does not mean that perfor-

mance – as ritualized, formalized, or recitative behav-

ior – disappears. Performances also replicate themselves

through their own structures and codes. This means that the

repertoire, like the archive, is mediated. The process of

selection, memorization or internalization, and transmis-

sion takes place within (and in turn helps to constitute)

specific systems of re-presentation. [- -] Embodied and

performed acts generate, record, and transmit knowledge.27

An additional twist is that nogaku also has its written tradition,

namely Zeami’s writings. Oida refers to them often and part of the

24 Rafolt 2015, 103.

25 Taylor 2003, 20.

26 Oida 1997, 45.

27 Taylor 2003, 20–21.


books are more or less citing and paraphrasing Zeami’s thoughts. 28 When

looking at Oida’s nogaku learning, we might see a ‘Taylorian’ example

of “the archive and repertoire working in tandem and with other systems

of transmission. [- -] materials from the archive shape embodied prac-

tice in innumerable ways, yet never totally dictate the embodiment.”29

Oida does not refer to martial arts extensively in his books.

Sometimes he mentions aikido or taijiquan. For example, from T’ai

Chi or taijiquan, he chooses exercises of breathing.30 Martial arts

movements are for him mainly a good way to explore response and re-

lationship. He does not value the compulsive desire for survival or

winning in them.31 Oida does not even see martial arts automatically

the best way ‘to find freedom’ – any physical training could work as

well.32 The exercises that are presented in the books do not include

any direct fighting drills.

Clearly, Oida’s use of traditions is more in the meditational

component of the Asian martial arts than in fighting skills. He res-

onates most with the ultimate purpose of the martial arts, as defined

in Zen Buddhism: attaining the Emptiness33. Oida started to study Zen

Buddishim seriously after his first European residence in the late

1960s. Return to Japan created in him a desire to delve into his own

traditions.34 He writes about the ways of Zen as presented by the head

priest of a Rinzai sect temple in Saitama, Keizan Hakusui:

In Za-zen (sitting meditation), there are three important

things: the energy in the Tan Den (a point in the lower

abdomen), “Kufu” (“Exploring the paths”) and “San-mai”

28 Oida 1997, for example in pages 32–35, and Chapter 5: Learning, pages 112–118. This chapter is also reprinted in The Actor Training Reader (2015, 44–47), edited by Mark Evans.

29 Taylor 2003, 20.

30 Oida 1997, 91.

31 Ibid, 74 and 82. This is not to say that he would not have played the roles of fighters, most notably the role of invincible Drona in Mahabharata. He also mentions having played a samurai in an unnamed film (Oida 1997, 104)

32 Ibid 1997, 112.

33 Ibid 1997, 124.

34 Oida 1992, 28.


(“Self-immersion”). As you work towards understanding of

“Mu” (“Nothingness”), it is not empty “Nothingness” that

you pursue. It has to be “Mu” imbued with force and energy.

You cannot reach the state of “Nothingness” without re-

ligious self-examination. You have to explore many paths

within yourself. That is “Kufu”. Once you are in the state

of “Mu”, you simply concentrate. Do nothing. Nothing at

all. These are the ways of Zen. And the same ways can be

applied in the theatre.35

Already in 1970, Oida “used to invite Japanese priests, both Bud-

dhist and Shinto, to come to Europe for workshops to introduce Euro-

pean actors and dancers to some of the physical and mental disciplines

of the two religions”.36

Again, after three years abroad, Oida returned to Japan and wished

to research incantations, sounds, and sacred movements of Buddhism

and sought his way to a Shingon sect’s Buddhist temple in Mount Koyama.

In the process of studying mantras and mudras and going through the

training for priesthood, he felt that the unity of Shin (movement of

the body), Kou (utterance) and Yi (mental focus) that are crucial in

this form of esoteric Buddhism were similar to the process of acting.

“When performing a role, the actor must transform his speech, his

action and his thought”37. The training and transfer of knowledge took

place learning through practice and he states that “in the esoteric

Buddhism, there are no books or manuals to follow”38. His training

and residence without manuals lasted three months and heightens the

notion of repertoire in these practices. There is, however, an inter-

esting additional notion:

35 Oida 1992, 29–30.

36 Ibid, 56.

37 Ibid, 117.

38 Ibid, 118. The mantras were recited in Sanskrit (126). Around the same time, Oida practised also yoga and studied Indian philosophy (120).


The high priest, Aoki, was a truly great man. His followers

told me that in his extensive library were many books on

esoteric Buddhism. In every one of those books you would

find thin red lines marking the text, following the tracks

of the master’s study. But the great man who had absorbed

all this vast knowledge spoke only in very simple terms.39

Oida named those three months during 1973-74 ‘Theatrical Research

into Japanese Culture’40 and this research was to continue after yet

another period in Europe when he was about to direct his own work and

select performers in Japan. At that point, his research extended also

to martial arts.

In Japan, there have always been strong links between re-

ligion, the arts, and the martial arts. [- -] they all seem

to seek the truth via the physical body rather than the

intellect. [- -] The participants I chose came from various

disciplines, including Shintoism, Buddhism, martial arts

and Noh theatre.41

He continues that in each location of the performance tour or “as-

cetic training through travelling”42 the group set up workshops, using

the title ‘Movement and Voice in Japanese Culture’. They did not give

lectures or presentations: “[- -] Rather than explaining Japanese

culture through words, we asked the students to do exercises in voice

and movement”, explains Oida.43 For example, they used exercises from

a number of different sects of Shintoism, such as cleansing (Misogi),

vigorous physical movement (Furutama), meditation (Chin-kon). From

Shingon Buddhism, they appropriated breathing and hand movements.

From no, came the principles of jo-ha-kyu.

39 Ibid, 126.

40 Ibid, 131.

41 Oida 1992, 143.

42 Oida uses the Japanese term, angya that can also be translated as pilgrimage.

43 Ibid, 144.


During the martial arts workshop, we didn’t do the exer-

cises in order to learn fight technique. Instead we wanted

to discover where the fighter’s energy comes from, and how

it is used. It also trains people to respond directly to

each other, since the martial arts are totally based on

the idea of ‘partnership’.44

Releasing the powerful sounds and visualization were also part

of the martial arts sections. Eventually, the explorations became a

combination of workshops and performances and were taken to an inter-

national tour, Global Angya, in 1975. ‘Movement and Voice in Japanese

Culture’ workshops remained part of the package and Oida continued to

invite different masters to guide them.45

There was a vision and method in this research-performance project

but it is slightly problematic to say that Oida has a concise training

system or method. The three books provide an archive of Yoshi Oida’s

training philosophy and practice. They also give a report on how he

assimilated traditional martial arts or rather, the philosophies be-

hind them, into his teachings. This process is revealed especially in

An Actor Adrift. In The Invisible Actor, the exercises are embedded in

the text that is commented and clarified by Lorna Marshall. The text

of The Invisible Actor reminds of spoken text or, indeed, a recording

of something that a master would convey to the students in his/her

sessions, and what the students would subsequently carry with them as

memories of stories, anecdotes, or occasional riddles.

It is actually interesting if Oida’s books would have come into

being without Lorna Marshall’s contribution. Oida as a person comes

through as an extremely modest individual who might have left his

achievements undocumented and transferred his knowledge in person-

al encounters that would have remained in the field of repertoire.

Thinking about Marshall’s role, Taylor’s notion on the epistemolog-

ical status of word and writing in Western culture is worth of con-

sideration.

44 Ibid, 149.

45 Ibid, 159.


The written/oral divide does, on one level, capture the

archive/repertoire difference I am developing in this

study insofar as the means of transmission differ, as do

the requirements of storage and dissemination. The reper-

toire, whether in terms of verbal and nonverbal expression,

transmits live, embodied actions. As such, traditions are

stored in the body, through various mnemonic methods, and

transmitted “live” in the here and now to a live audience.

Forms handed down from the past are experienced as present.

It is only because Western culture is wedded to the

word, whether written or spoken, the language claims such

epistemic and explanatory power.46

It would be too extreme to claim that Marshall’s writing and ex-

planations “bring about the disappearance of embodied knowledge”

and that “the dominance of language and writing start to “stand for

meaning itself”. Yet, in An Actor’s Tricks Marshall’s contribution

is clearly more palpable than in the two previous books. The book’s

Appendix contains Marshall’s verbal rendering on Yoshi’s workshops

with a list of exercises with a notion “that the exercises themselves

change constantly and there is no fixed curriculum. Nevertheless, it

is possible to discern certain themes that constantly recur in his

teaching and the existence of a shaped journey for the student.”47

Phillip Zarrilli ‘s Psychophysical Actor Training

Phillip B. Zarrilli does not need a mediator in conveying his philoso-

phy and practice of performer training: he has the advantage of having

English as a native language and a capability of expressing his ideas

for both academic and artist contingencies. He has written several

books and articles about transcultural performer training and Indi-

an, mostly Keralan, performance and martial arts traditions. His The

46 Taylor 2003, 25.

47 Marshall in Oida 2007, 93.


Kathakali Complex, a study on kathakali dance-drama was published in

India in 1984. In the introduction, Zarrilli writes that the book “is

intended for two audiences: those whose interest in Kathakali stems

from their own participation in the creative arts, especially dance

and theatre, and those who specialize in the study of cross-cultural

performance”.48

In this process, Zarrilli could be seen as a typical Western in-

dividual using the epistemological power of the word and transform-

ing the repertoire into archive. However, it is somewhat unjust to

blame Zarrilli for contributing to the Western epistemology’s role

of bringing about the disappearance of embodied knowledge that it so

frequently announces. Before this book was published, Zarrilli had

already studied kathakali for several years and collaborated with

kathakali professionals. Already in the 1970s, he had criticized the

blatant Western mystifying of kathakali and, partially, the book was

born from this de-mystifying project. The introductory chapter of The

Kathakali Complex shows humility in front of a tradition and awareness

of limitations in understanding the traditions of another culture and

the difficulties of translating the understanding of kathakali into

Western acting terminology.49

Kathakali was Zarrilli’s springboard to Indian performance cul-

ture. The most relevant part for the examination of the role of martial

arts is his practice is the martial arts form, kalarippayattu, and

its role in the kathakali training.

Kalarippayattu directly influenced the techniques and

content of numerous traditional forms of performance such

as folk dances; ritual performances such as the teyyam of

northern Kerala where deified heroes are worshipped; the

now internationally known kathakali dance-drama, which en-

acts stories of India’s epic heroes based on the Mahabhara-

48 Zarrilli 1984, xi.

49 Ibid, xxi.


ta, Ramayana, and puranas; and the Christian dance-drama

form, cavittu natakam, which used martial techniques.50

The Kathakali Complex includes chapters on kalarippayattu as a

part of kathakali training.51However, the later Kathakali dance-dra-

ma (2000) barely touches kalarippayattu and other technical issues

since it, indeed, focuses on kathakali texts in performance. Did

something happen in the way to the forum? Probably. Unlike The Kath-

akali Complex, this book is published and printed by a Western company

and functions both as documentation of research and introduction to

kathakali. This is kathakali ‘archived’ and brought to the epistemo-

logical sphere of the word.

However, as it happens, two years before the publication of Kath-

akali dance-drama, Zarrilli published a separate ethnographic mono-

graph on kalarippayattu, When the Body Becomes All Eyes (1998). This

book was published in India. There is an element of participating to

re-discovery and preservation the tradition whose existence even some

of the kathakali performers did not seem to be aware when Zarrilli

visited Kerala in the 1970s.52

During the modern era kalarippayattu was first brought

to general public attention during the 1920s in a wave of

rediscovery of indigenous arts. Despite increasing public

awareness within the north Malabar region in particular,

and in the state capital, kalarippayattu continued to be

little known as a practical martial and healing art to the

general public in Kerala and in India as late as the 1970s.53

Zarrilli’s main motivation for writing the book is clearly the

desire to document and preserve the tradition in written form. An-

50 Zarrilli 2001, 247.

51 Zarrilli 1984, 107–123.

52 Zarrilli 1998, 12.

53 Zarrilli, 2001, 247.


other motivation was to correct misunderstandings of the form that

had started to spread because of an ambitious teacher in Malaysia who

veered the form towards flashy self-defence style.

The current history and practice of kalarippayattu cannot

be considered without taking into account the emergence

of Asian martial arts/self-defence as a global form of

cosmopolitanism, a phenomenon attributable to the spread

of popular martial arts films and other forms of popular

literature on the martial arts.54

Indeed, in the mid-1970s, for example, Bruce Lee’s films had be-

come popular around the world, also in India, and started to shape

the understanding of martial arts and created also a renaissance of

martial arts in India.

Here it might be interesting to return to the contested history

of some martial arts forms discussed in the beginning of the paper,

and play briefly with the concept of “prosthetic memory”, as used

by Alison Landsberg.55 By this concept, Landsberg refers to memories

that are adopted as the result of a person’s experience with a mass

cultural technology of memory that dramatizes or recreates a histo-

ry he or she did not live. It could be applied also to the processes

that take place in training that, in a way, mediate traditional Asian

martial arts into contemporary context. Prosthetic memories are not

authentic but derive from mediated representations of the past. They

are useful products and commodities that promise enhanced skills and

capabilities that give the possibility or illusion to reach something

that cannot be obtained otherwise. The cinematic representations of

martial arts can be seen as a sensuous engagement with the past that

through the cinematic illusion are shared by diverse communities

around the globe. They, in a way, form a fictional archive that turns

into repertoire.

54 Zarrilli 1998, 3.

55 Landsberg 2003. This is a short re-interpretation of Landsberg’s ideas. She, actually, sees also posi-tive elements in the prosthetic memory.


Zarrilli, of course, took a critical stand against superficial

appropriation of traditional martial arts and chose a path of engaging

in serious research (archive) and embodied practice (repertoire) of

the form that eventually became a cornerstone of his psychophysical

actor training system presented in his book Psychophysical Acting

(2008). The use of martial techniques in actor training opened him new

doors to understanding both the place of physical training in Indian

culture and the problems of intercultural transmission.56 The use of

martial training derives from the origins of kathakali as a form de-

veloped by the military cast (Nairs or Nayars) and is also behind the

historical tradition of men playing women’s roles in this form. As

far as the embodied transfer of the knowledge is concerned, Zarrilli

assumes that the early basic kalari training did not necessarily fol-

low the master-pupil (gurukkula) pattern but that this way developed

later when the performance form solidified and performers advanced.57

Kalarippayattu is clearly the element in Zarrilli’s training

system that he has written about most extensively, and his own bod-

ily practice of it has helped in formulating the key principles of

psychophysical acting. Yoga also came along with this practice since

it is the base of kalarippayttu training. Possibly in order to avoid

the martial arts/self-defence label, Zarrilli emphasizes that kala-

rippayattu is 80 per cent mental and only the remainder is physical.58

The traditional practice of kalarippayattu is informed by

key principles and assumptions about the body, conscious-

ness, the body-mind relationship, health, and exercise

drawn from Kerala’s unique versions of yoga practice and

philosophy, South Asian medicine (called Ayurveda [San-

skrit; science of life]), and religious mythology, prac-

tices, and histories.59

56 Zarrilli 1984, xii.

57 Ibid, 74–75.

58 Zarrilli 2008, 63.

59 Zarrilli 2001, 248.


The third (or second if yoga is seen as a part of kalarippayattu)

Asian element, taijiquan (Wu style) is Zarrilli’s heritage from Uni-

versity of Wisconsin in Madison where A.C. Scott started using the

form in actor training in Asian/Experimental Theatre Program already

in the late 1960s. The yearlong training regime that ran two hours a

day for six days a week aimed to teach the students directness, sim-

plicity and intensity60. After Scott retired, his successor, Zarrilli,

continued with the training. 61

Chapter on the source traditions in Psychophysical Acting concen-

trates in yoga, kalarippayattu and taijiquan that he has “organized

into a systematic daily training for the actor”62 Yoga practised by

martial artist and performers is a practice that helps the ego become

quiet and the emotions calm. This applies also to the kalarippayattu

practitioner, who “at first tames both the body and mind via poses,

body exercises, and breath-control exercises aiming for the complete

control of the body. Eventually, the external exercise regime leads

to mental and total psychophysical development.63 “This gradual dis-

covery of a form and its application reflects the general cultural

assumption that long-term practice of psychophysical exercises cul-

tivates a certain form of bodymind awareness”.64

For the martial artist (or the actor!) simply mimicking

an external form is never enough to attain inner actual-

ization of awakening. [- -] Actualizing free circulation

of the vital energy (prana-vayu) within allows the prac-

titioner to dynamically release and shape this energy

for healing therapies and/or for concentrated attack in

fighting.65

60 Liu 2011, 420–422. In addition to profound knowledge of Chinese performance, A.C. Scott was familiar with Japanese theatre, especially kabuki and bunraku.

61 Ibid, 422.

62 Zarrilli 2008, 65. N.B. There a different ways of spelling taijiquan in English. In Psychophysical Acting, Zarrilli spells it taiqiquan.

63 Ibid, 66–69.

64 Ibid, 70.

65 Zarrilli 2008, 70.


These are some of Zarrilli’s learnings from his kalarippayttu

teacher, Gurukkal Govindankutty Nayar, and also things that he wants

to convey to his own students. He himself learned the form in embod-

ied practice from his teacher, proceeding from harsh external regime

towards the point in which he often describes as when the learner’s

body-mind has “become all eyes”. Repeating the external exercises can

be seen as transferring the (bodily) archive from a master to student

same way as kata is passed to the apprentice in Japanese martial arts,

as well as in traditional theatre and dance forms. The philosophy

behind yoga and kalarippayattu (and traditional Indian theatre and

dance forms) has also its written (archive) tradition in vedas and

especially in Natyashastra. Yet, the practice itself in which the

body and mind become together resides in the field of repertoire. It

cannot be articulated or captured totally into a written form. It is

in constant move and process of transformation.

Integrating taijiquan and kalarippayattu in Zarrilli’s system works

seamlessly. Yoga, in a way, works as a bridge between the two tradi-

tions, and the concepts of prana-vayu and qi are close to each other.

Attaining internal equilibrium through practice of tai-

qiquan and the closely associated practices of qigong is

accomplished through gaining use of qi – breath, energy,

air, the enlivening vital force. Qigong literally means

“exercises of the vital breath”. Taoist breathing tech-

niques are similar to those of yoga. [- -] In Chinese cul-

ture it is not necessary to conceptualize qi; rather what

is important is to functionally perceive and understand

what it does.66

Zarrilli’s psychophysical actor training system is a deliberate

mixture of traditions from West and two Asian cultural areas, whereas

Oida’s approach is more strongly grounded on Japanese soil – although,

of course, influenced by Western performer training methods with

which he became familiar when working with Peter Brook. Like Oida’s

66 Zarrilli 2008, 74.


training, Zarrilli’s approach is transcultural, syncretic, and de-

signed to appeal to global audiences. They both have an interest in

deconstructing the differences in ‘Eastern’ and ‘Western’ approaches

to performer training but also transcending these differences in em-

bodied practice. The archive of conceptualization and the repertoire

of exploring areas that cannot be subsumed in a solid intellectually

graspable form are in constant dialogue.

Akira Hino’s Method of Human Body and Movement Control

Both Yoshi Oida and Phillip B. Zarrilli tap into Asian sources, among

them martial arts, in their training. Compared to Oida’s and Zarril-

li’s approaches, Akira Hino’s method and theory are even more linked

specifically to Asian martial arts, to ”Budo, the martial way of the

martial arts”, as he states in the introduction to the book, Don’t

Think, Listen to the Body! Introduction to the Hino Method and Theory

of Human Body and Movement Control (2017). In the introduction, he

also writes that his theory is not rooted in Western culture nor is

it a theory from a vague “Eastern” tradition but that it is a theory

rooted in authentic Japanese culture.67 His dream is no less than to

restore the technique of legendary martial arts masters of Japan,

such as Ito Ittosai and Miyamoto Musashi.68 It is tempting to comment

here that his bold style of expressing himself is more yang than his

fellow countryman Oida’s modest yin.

Hino’s method is based on embodied experiences of training dif-

ferent Japanese martial arts forms. In a way, he is very un-Japanese

in his approach since he is not a follower of one style but combines

freely from different practices that he has studied. He has also es-

tablished his own Hino Budo Institute in Kumano, Wakayama. Hino gives

credit to the contemporary masters whom he has trained with, but he is

also legitimizing his own method by referring primarily to the past

masters, Ittosai and Miyamoto.

67 Hino 2017, 10.

68 Ibid, 197.


Budo is difficult to learn and to apply it to our current

lives because the historical background from which it was

born is something that does not happen in current times.

It is also because there are only the words of the masters

left for us as the key to actualize the forms of their

techniques. In other words, the words of the masters are

the only hint for doing Budo.69

This is a fascinating statement from the perspective of the ar-

chive and repertoire discussion. Hino decides to go to the archive of

the old, 16th-century samurai master’s writings (archive) in order to

revive the current repertoire and to create his own archive, as far as

the written book is concerned. It can also be seen as a contemporary

example of how many modern Asian martial arts became solidified as

part of an ancient history or tradition.

It is interesting how freely Hino plays with traditions or, in

some cases, with invented traditions. When analyzing the practice of

Eastern movement forms in the West, David Brown and Aspasia Leledaki

present three concepts or cultural forces: Orientalism, reflexive

modernity and commodification.70 In my opinion, all these are evident

in Hino’s training system. Firstly, he uses certain amounts of Ori-

entalism (or, in this case, auto-Orientalization) when appropriating

Japanese martial arts traditions and reaching to the origins of these

traditions. Secondly, his method is also an example of reflexive mod-

ernism in its attempt to challenge and heal the dysfunctional movement

patterns of contemporary dancers and other performers, as well as

athletes or even businessmen. Thirdly, his method is clearly a commod-

ified product intended for both Japanese and international markets.

From the three cultural forces, Brown and Leledaki conclude three ba-

sic dispositions: preservationist, conservationist, and modernizing.

The preservationist disposition [- -] seeks to halt the

development of these movement forms entirely (in terms of

69 Hino 2017, 204.

70 Brown & Leledaki 2010, 123–154.


form content and purpose), lock them in time, and attempt

to close down change of any part of their ritualized prac-

tice. The conservationist disposition is more progressive

[- -] but attempts to retain some sense of essence or core

principles based on ideas and influences claimed to have

been passed down over generations by the abbot, guru, swa-

mi, sensei, or sifu of the movement form in question. [- -]

Finally, is the modernizing disposition, which seeks to

update any and all aspects of the cultural practice to fit

into the perceived prevailing (scientific and market-led)

needs of the moment.71

I would say that especially Hino’s method not only falls into the

last category but also has some touches of the conservationist dispo-

sition. And, indeed, the same can be said about Oida’s and Zarrilli’s

approaches even if the role of the conservationist disposition seems

stronger in their work.

In spite of some theoretical considerations, Hino’s Don’t Think,

Listen to the Body! is primarily a practical manual and, at least,

for the time being, the only written book by him in English. Natu-

rally, it is assumed that a student would not learn only from it, but

also through embodied practice. Its aim is to work in tandem with the

repertoire. Some of the theoretical concepts that Hino presents are

familiar and can be found from Oida’s and Zarrilli’s writings. Also

for Hino, body is a psychophysical entity and martial arts are a way

to help to create contact between body and mind. He emphasizes the

importance of flexibility (jukozo) as a way of adapting to any changes

and uncertainty because to get fixated on something leads to death.72

Perhaps this can be interpreted as a powerful statement on behalf of

the repertoire!

This brings us to the core of Akira Hino’s training philosophy as

expressed in the title of his book: Don’t Think, Listen to the Body!

Yoshi Oida uses almost the same words in The Invisible Actor: “One

71 Ibid, 143.

72 Ibid, 25.


of my masters said, ‘As an actor, you shouldn’t be a theorist. Don’t

be too logical and rely on intellectual understanding. Learn through

the body. “73 He continues: “Every time you find yourself in a certain

position or movement pattern, the body will want to do something in

response. You must learn to listen to what the body wants to do.”74

Phillip Zarrilli’s way of expressing the same idea is:

Long-term training in taiqiquan, kalarippayattu, and yoga

allows the practitioner to develop the bodymind’s percep-

tual awareness to a point in which one literally “thinks

with the body and acts with the mind”. This is the optimal

state of “no-mind” where all intentionality disappears.75

As Zarrilli writes in the introduction of The Psychophysical Act-

ing, the greatest of the villains for the actor or any performer or a

fighter is intentionality that destroys the effortless ease filled

with subtle energy.76 With this, both Oida and Hino would certainly

agree.

Conclusion

In this paper, I have looked at different manifestations of archive

and repertoire, as defined by Diane Taylor, in Asian martial arts

and in three transcultural performer training systems that use Asian

martial arts as their central elements. As source material, I have

deliberately used only books or other written materials by Yoshi Oida,

Phillip B. Zarrilli and Akira Hino and traced signs of repertoire that

are hidden between the lines of these documents. I have also looked

at the Asian martial arts traditions that are used in these systems

and discerned how they found their way to the methods.

73 Oida 1997, 28.

74 Ibid, 35.

75 Zarrilli 2008, 70.

76 Ibid, 4.


The interplay between Asian martial arts traditions, that in

themselves manifest the tensions between archive and repertoire, and

performance training that uses them reveals layers of interactions

that surely would deserve more detailed examination that would in-

tegrate, if not researcher’s own embodied engagement, at least par-

ticipatory observation and discussions with participants who follow

these systems. The written materials that I have looked at are born

from embodied practice of the three individuals and since the train-

ing methods are used in live workshops in varied, transnational con-

texts, they can never totally dictate the actual embodiment. In these

environments, it is the combination or tension between the archive

and the repertoire that creates the platform for performer training.

The methods keep the discipline but the multiple shifts and layers

give freedom for individual choices and expressivity. Indeed, Tay-

lors notion of scenario as presented in the beginning of this paper77

and while examining the work of Oida, Zarrilli and Hino seems most

appropriate for understanding the processes that are not strictly

archive or repertoire but both. However, introducing the territory of

scenario does not remove the tensions and cultural and social power

politics imbedded in martial arts training and performer training

systems using martial arts. It would be most useful to study these

mechanisms through a combination of theoretical and practice-based

research projects in different cultural contexts and with partici-

pants from multiple cultural and socio-economic backgrounds.

All three, Oida, Zarrilli, and Hino work in global context, in

global performer training market where an archived and “packaged”

training programs are an asset. The more known, convincing and char-

ismatic the teacher is, the more likely he or she is to attract paying

students. By writing and publishing the philosophy and practical

parts of the system, it is possible to establish a claim for owner-

ship that would not be possible if the training stayed in the area of

ephemeral repertoire.

Without wishing to be overly critical, it also seems that Phillip

Zarrilli and Lorna Marshall, who has co-written Oida’s books, have

77 Taylor 2003, 33 and 55.


fully embraced the opportunities to write down and document the meth-

ods. Could this originate from their “Western” background? Surely,

Akira Hino has also published his theory and practice in a book form

but it is fairly modest both textually and theoretically as compared

to, for example, Zarrilli’s corpus or the texts compiled of Oida’s

thoughts and memories. Zarrilli, as a native speaker of English,

has written his own texts.78 Oida and Hino have been assisted by col-

laborators who are in command of the English language. The question

of language in the dynamics of archive and repertoire is extremely

interesting and evokes disturbing thoughts on what exactly happens

when repertoire transcends into an archive and what happens when an

archive is tapped and remodeled into repertoire through psychophys-

ical performer training.

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Zarrilli, Phillip B. 2008. Psychophysical Acting after Stanislavski. An Intercultural Approach after Stanislavski. With a DVD-ROM by Peter Hulton. London: Routledge.

https://doi.org/10.11649/ch.2015.006

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