Anderson - German Romanticism as an Ideology of Cultural Crisis (J Hist of Ideas v2n3 1941)

7/29/2019 Anderson - German Romanticism as an Ideology of Cultural Crisis (J Hist of Ideas v2n3 1941)

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German Romanticism as an Ideology of Cultural CrisisAuthor(s): Eugene N. AndersonSource: Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 2, No. 3 (Jun., 1941), pp. 301-317Published by: University of Pennsylvania PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2707133

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GERMANROMANTICISM AS AN IDEOLOGY OFCULTURAL CRISISBY EUGENE N. ANDERSON

The Romantic movementin Germany accompanied and ex-pressed one reactionto the social transformation romthe cultureof caste and absolutism to that of class and constitutional rule.The Romanticistssoughtto formulate he ideals of a society n themaking. While dependentfor lack of practical experience upon-aestheticsor ethicsfor theirbasic standards, theystrove to com-pass thewholeof ife.The influence f theFrench Revolution greatlyaccelerated thesocial changes in Germany and stimulated the young GermanRomanticists to an outburst of creativeness in all phases of life.The decade or so beginning n the last half of the 1790s saw theculminationof movements already under way in both the socio-political and the aesthetic-intellectual pheres. The participantsin each spurred on those in the other, and in this short time ofcrisis, cultural forms and directionswhichhave conditionedGer-man life down to the presentwere fixed. In reflecting he char-acteristics of the crisis, Romanticismmanifested,sometimes inexaggerated ways, those of the cultural change which the crisisbrought o a head.During thesefew years the youngGermanRomanticistsfelt thedanger to GermanculturefromtheFrench Revolutionand Napo-leon to be less political than intellectual and spiritual, and theyendeavored to oppose it by ideas. While consideringall aspectsof life, ncludingthepolitical,theywere especially concernedwiththe emancipationof individualitiesand thediscoveryof the mani-fold richnessof the world. This period witnessedthe fullest ex-pression of German Romanticismas a total way of life. In thesucceedingyears thedangerbecame acutely political,and theGer-man Romanticistswere compelledto subordinatetheirpreoccupa-tion with the widening of art and the enrichment f individualexperience to social and political ideas and actions, particularlyas formulated n nationalismand conservatism. These three cul-tural ideals, Romanticism,nationalism and conservatism,sharedqualities evokedby the common situationof crisis; but by estab-301


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302 EUGENE N. ANDERSONlishing exclusive, impersonal standards of value the latter twodestroyedtheuniquefeaturesof theirpredecessor.GermanRomanticism has usually been studiedwith a view todiscoveringits unique, differentiatingeatures. While recogniz-ing the value of theseinvestigations, hisessay will seek to exhibitin Romanticism certain commoncharacteristics mposed upon theresponses of individuals by the conditionof cultural transforma-tion and crisis. It will avoid definition n favor of culturalanalysis. It will show how Romanticism used elements which,individually,were notpeculiar to it alone, but which,brought ntorelationship by the situation, constituted he essential patterns ofRomantic thought nd action.The young German Romanticists in the period under discus-sion, though differing n many points of detail, were all acutelyaware of thefact that they ived in a time of swifttransitionfromone culture to another. Their philosophizing about historyandtheir describing of utopias manifested a deep concern with theproblems of this cultural crisis; theywished to know where theystood in the course of history and wlhere hat course was takingthem.' The French Revolution,theythought,marked the dividingline between twoages, either as the last phase of the old age or asthe firstof the new, and they wished that German Romanticismshould provide the essential forms for the future. The writersregarded themselves as media of expression of this culture,thecoming of which they tended to regard as inevitable.2The fact of living in a time of cultural crisis conditionedthethinking nd actingofthe youngGerman Romanticists as no otherexperience did. It forced them to deal not merelywith a singleaspect of lifebut withthe totalityofman,societyand the universe.The crisis involved all values; it affectednot merely the parts ofman's ex:istence ut the whole. While compellingeach person toseek his own salvation as best he could, it also forcedhimto lookfor supportfromthe group. In the decade or so beginningwiththe late 1790s Romanticism offered way of deliverance for per-sons caught n a crisis.As is to be expected, the fundamental deology of German Ro-manticismhas to do withthe nature of theparticular, ofthewhole,and ofthe relations between them. The Romanticistsapplied this

1 Novalis's Die Christenheit der Europa, 1799, may be offered s typical ofthis concern.2 See Novalis,Schriften,ditedbyPaul Kluckhohn nd Richard Samuel, I, 78.


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GERMAN ROMANTICISM: AN IDEOLOGY OF CRISIS 303ideology to every element n the world,whetherman or divinity,familyornation, ndividual or state, peace orwar, concept or book,speaker or audience,an act or an institution. The particular, theythought, houldbe an individual expressionof thewhole. "Everyman," wrote Schleiermacher, should in his own way representhumanity, or as Friedrich Schlegel said, "No man is only a man,but really and in truthhe can and should also be thewhole of hu-manity." In the same manner the whole is also an individuality,and the Romanticistscould not conceiveof the existence of a par-ticular apart fromthe totality. "Community,pluralism, is ourinmost characteristic," wrote Novalis, and his friend FriedrichSchlegel declared,"Whoever out of exaggerated egoism separateshimself fromthe total worldmust in the end lose all true higherreality,for this depends upon commonalty;only in union, n con-nection with thetotalityof all spiritualforcesof theuniversecanone develop one's self completelyand achieve eternity." In an-otherplace he wrote,"Entire humanity hall become an individu-ality, lovinglyunitedandmorallydevelopedwhole, or as Novalissaid, "a universal individuality." And Novalis regarded societyas " nothing more than living in common (gemeinschaftlichesLeben): an indivisiblethinking nd feelingperson."'If both the particular and thewhole should be individualistic,each initsownway,the Romanticistshad to find means forbring-ing theminto intimate relation. The difficulty hich they con-fronted n doing so is attested to by the diverse formulationsoftheir answer. In every case, however, the solution was funda-mentallythe same. "Every man," Friedrich Schlegel wrote,"isa small world: the more many-sidedlyhe develops his character-3These quotations are all taken fromPaul Kluckhohn,Pers6nlichkeitundGemeinschaft. Studien zur Staatsauffassungder deutschenRomantik. (Halle,1925), pp. 5, 6,19-21. This excellent ookhas beenextensively sed forthisessay.It contains a wealthof quotationsfromthe sources,whichwere more judiciouslyselectedthan nterpreted.But Kluckhohn's hortbook is indispensableforanyoneworkingn the field f GermanRomanticism. In addition, have found useful thewritingsof Alfred von Martin,Andreas Muller, and the many excellentarticlesespecially n two ournals, Die deutscheVierteljahrschriftir Literaturwissenschaftund Getstesgeschichtend Dichtungund Volkstum. The writings f JosefNadler,Carl Schmitt, riedrichGundolf,Julius Petersen,Fritz Strichand Franz Schulzwere of less use than thoseby the scholars mentioned bove. My reading in thesources has beenmainlyconfinedo theworksof FriedrichSchlegel,Adam Muller,Baader, Novalis, Eichendorff, orres,and the sources published n the volumes ntheseries,DeutscheLiteratur n Entwicklungsreihen,Leipzig, 1928 If.).


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304 EUGENE N. ANDERSONistics in a higher sense, the more the purpose of the world, theendless richness,will be attained." Steffens applied the samethoughtto education. "Education has a two-fold im: it shouldplace the whole in the parts, and indeed wholly,undivided,ruth-lessly, as if the wholewere there entirelyfor the particulars, . . .so that the peculiarity in question should develop itself withouthindrance; but it should also sacrifice heparticularforthewholeas ifthe particularexistedonlyforthewhole. . . ." Novalisspoke ofthe state in similar terms: "the more spiritual and livingare themembers, hemore ivingand individual s the state. AndSteffens xpressedthis view as follows: "If theburgher s boundtothe state not withhis whole lifebut withonlya part of it,he is ofnecessitya servant; for all tearing asunder of the individual manmakes him unfree.a The Romantic solution to the problemofrelationshipbetweenthe particular and the whole may be summedup in the old formula,so paradoxical to rationalists: one servesthe groupbestby realizingone's self mostcompletely; one is mostfree when one is mostwillingto sacrificeone's self for thegroup.4It is a formulawitha dialecticas thecore.A societyfunctioningt a fairlyeven pace would denythe prac-ticalityof such views; but to a people in a time of swift culturalchange anythingwas possible. The Romanticistswitnessed thedestruction f forms nd ways that had seemedeternal,the suddenupsurge of novelties ofwhichtheyhad onlydreamed. With insti-tutionscollapsing,unknownmenbecomingrulers,boundaries madeflexible, erfs obtainingfreedomand property,with,in short,acondition fseemingly ompleteflux, hepotentialitiesofthe singleindividual expandedenormously. God no longerkindly amedowntoman,theRomanticiststhought, utman could and should climbtowardHeaven ;5 transcending he restrictions fmere rationalityman could and shouldbecome a total personality, completeunityofbody,mindand soul, theimage of theuniverse.6 The Romanti-

3a Kluckhohn, p. 8, 24, 53, 86.4 A contrast etween he social situationout of whicharose this idea and thatof the principle of enlightened elfishnesshouldprove interesting. The two ideas

have some points n common. In fact, the latter dea amounts o about one-half fthe former, nd might asily develop ntothe group ideal if a situationof culturalcrisis should arise.5 "Of his own accord whennothingmorebindshimman climbs owardHeaven."Novalis, I, 77.6 See Novalis's remarks bout "a universal ndividuality, new history, new


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GERMAN ROMANTICISM: AN IDEOLOGY OF CRISIS 305cists were exaggeratingand universalizingthe emancipatingandexciting haracteristics fthefirst hase ofa culturalcrisis.By undermining tandards while at the same time stimulatingemotionaland thoughtprocesses, the crisis led the Romanticiststoexplore the metaphysical nd religious bases of ideas and practices.The early maturity f individuals whichthe situation of swiftcul-tural change entailed7 urned theirattentionupon theprofoundestquestions of life and death, of the state and nation,of personalityand of God. Taking seriously Kant's epistemological dualism,8manyof themrefusedto be deprived of the Ding-an-sichand as-sertedtherealityofboththe sensuous and the supernaturalworld.9The relationshipbetween the particular and thetotal grew so richand complex that it could only be expressed by a symbol. Themystery f the God-manbecame aicised and universalized; mysteryenteredinto the simplest thing; even the state, the Romanticiststhought,should reach its highest character by becoming poetic.Romanticismreflected he astonishment voked by the extraordi-nary events of these years of crisis. Could human beings alone,even though exalted as they should be, have brought about theFrench Revolution, transformedEuropean culture, opened up anew era? The most incredibleact seemed themost credible. Byway of semantics,the keen interest n which is characteristicof atime of rapid change in culturalvalues, the Romanticiststried tofindthe appropriate symbolfor the union of earthly and tran-scendental elements to be found in the state, the personality, neverything."0humanity." "Who doesnot with sweet shamefeel himself o be of good hope?" heasked. Novalis, I, 79.

7 In AhnungundGegenwartcompletedn1812) Eichendorff rote:"Our youthenjoyedno light, are-free lay,no joyous quiet,as our fathersdid; the seriousnessof life gripped us early. We were born in battle,and in battlewe shall perish,eitherdefeated r victorious." Hermann FreiherrvonEichendorff,oseph FreiherrvonEichendorff. Sein Leben und seine Schriften. Dritte Auflage, dited by KarlFreiherrvon Eichendorffnd WilhelmKosch (Leipzig, 1923), p. 67.8 See Muller's criticism f Kant forhavingfurthered he belief n the separa-tionofbodyand spirit. Adam Miiller,Vorlesungeniber die deutscheWissenschaftundLiteratur, ditedbyArthur alz (Munich,1920), p. 111.9"I will not let myselfbe robbedof the real world," quoted from Novalis byAlfred von Martin, "Das Wesen der romantischen eligiositiit," eutsche Viertel-jahrschrift urLiteraturwissenschaftnd Geistesgeschichte,I (1924), 375 ff.10 We live in an age in whichbecause of thegeneral confusion f speech andofviewsof things ne can workthrough o natureand to the truth nly by way of a


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306 EUGENE N. ANDERSONThe search for realities focussed the Romanticists' attentionupon the process of living. The speed with which thingswerechangingaround them,the importanceof organic force in condi-tioning these changes,the zest and excitement f so much action,heightenedtheir appreciation of the sheer fact of being alive.Everything eemed nmovement,man, nature,God, and thehistoricresults of theirwork. Referringrepeatedlyto theeducative influ-ence of the crisis, Adam Muller shaped his theory to the fact oflivingmovement. He condemned ll previous analyses ofthe stateand ofpolitical economyforhavingdealt withthese institutionsna conditionof peace. He declared that in peaceful times egocen-tricityand materialism dominate the individual, the state fallsapart, and thetheoristdescribes a situationof decay." The pres-ent crisis had shown thecircumstances,he said, in whichthe statebecomes completely tself. It must be in the natural conditionofsimultaneouspeace and war,wheneach element n the state fulfillsits total potentialitiesand mergeswith all the others n a commonpurpose and a commonlife.'2 Since Muller was fashioning hisideas in thecrisis situation,he screwed up his courage by claiminguniversal validityfor them. European revolutionsand wars de-manded suchfurious iving,such strenuousdefense of the right tolive, that the Romanticists rushed to the extremeposition of re-garding these conditionsas normal,or of believing that, if theywerenotnormal, hey hould be. The conceptionofthe state as ofthe personality expressed the Romanticists' proposals for copingwiththeplightofthetimes. It reflectedn excessive concernwiththeorganicand the iving,withmovement nd action, withthe totalsteelingofone's self for therigorsofthis swift-changing ge.The cultural crisis produced sinister effects s well, and these

strictbutflexible, nabstract nd living speculation." Adam Muller,Die Elementeder Staatskunst F. W. Hendel Verlag, Leipzig), p. 60.11 See Miller, Die Elemente der Staatskunst,pp. 54, 288-289, and elsewhere.12 This idea is a main themeof Miller's volumeon Die Elemente der Staats-kunst. See forexample the following tatement: The close union,the marriageofthespiritofpeace and arms undertheguardianship f one and thesame divine dea

. . .constitutes the natureof thestate; when once separated . . . they nvolvethestate in a strugglefor life and death. Energeticwar separatedfrom iving peace. . .leads to brutality; peace without the accompaniment nd omnipresence fweapons results in slackness. Both elements,which in union would have beenheightened nd mellowed o a glorious manifestation f life, now waste and poisoneachother." (P. 151.)


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GERMAN ROMANTICISM: AN IDEOLOGY OF CRISIS 307had to be overcome. The individual became uprooted, isolated,anxious. The uncertainty xcitedhis nerves and strainedhis emo-tions. He confronted world of turmoil and danger, the harshimpact of unexpectedforces. He became remarkably ensitive toproblems of relationship with elements-human or otherwise-which affected him, and he craved unitywith those capable ofaiding him. The Romanticists sought to assure themselves ofintimacy with other individuals and with things in many ways.They made a cult of friendship; they lived togetherin intimategroups; theyfrequently ollaboratedwith suchharmonythat theycalled the resultingworka childof theirmarriage. Literaryformsusing the spoken word were favored because of their personalquality. The Romanticistspersonalized all things, and put theminrelationshipwitheach other.The longing for unitywith others drove the Romanticists toglorify hefamily and the corporativesocial orders, gilds, estates,the church, ansas, republics, he state. " The geniusofthestate,wroteNovalis, " shines n everytrueStaatsbiirger, " a comfortingbelieffor one seeking social unity. Such a Staatsbiirgerwould feelthe indispensabilityof the "organs," "living members,"14nter-mediariesbetweenthe ndividualperson and the ever larger formsofthe social and governmentalhierarchy. The monarch, he stateand the nationoccupiedthemost exaltedplaces, fortheyrelatedtheotherforms withhumanity nd with God. Novalis's descriptionof the position and character of the monarch resembles that ofChrist. And Adam Muller wrotethat "Nature wishes particularstates,basic nationality,with thewholerevolutionary pparatus ofthis age."'5 The Romanticistsrecognizedthat thepast could notbe restored,and expressed ideals especially about the state whichwould preserveGermanculture nthepresentcrisis and inauguratethehappy age to come. The experienceof the times, theywrote,had provedthat n orderto survive a state must have a constitutionwhich s bothmonarchical nd republican,or,as FriedrichSchlegelsaid, "The complete tate shouldbe notmerelydemocraticbut alsoaristocraticand monarchical, nd all be organized into an absolutetotality." Novalis declared that "Every Staatsbiirger is a stateofficial. He has his incomeonlyas such. '6 Therebyhe demanded

13 Quoted n Kluckhohn, . 52.14 Quoted n ibid.,pp. 71-73.'5 Kluckhohn, . 77.16 Kiuckhohn, p. 75, 60, 48.


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308 EUGENE N. ANDERSONthe extremeformof political unity,which, f takenliterally,wouldhave allowed smallroomfor nitiative nd independence n thepartof the individual. Novalis did not mean the statementto be sosharply nterpreted, ut thefact thathe wrote t reveals the strainwhichthe crisis imposed upon theseRomanticists.When the German Romanticistswrote about economicaffairs,they startedwith the same objective in mind that theyhad in dis-cussingall social forms. Theywished to bindindividualstogetherinto a workingunit. It was Adam Miiller whomostfully appliedthese conceptions in the economic sphere, asserting that evenlanded propertyhad mobility;and he weighedthe significance fthings, s he did that of persons, according to the influencewhichthese thingsorpersonsexercised n society. The characteristicallyRomantic economic theory which Muller elaborated from suchpremises has beenawell analyzed by Professor Briefs,and need notbe setforthhere. It is to be noted,however, hat Muller continuedan older tradition, n treatingeconomicmatters as political econ-omy, and that he endeavored to associate the theorist and thepractitioner in close working relationship. Thereby he wouldhave elevated himself,the theorist,to a position of public im-portance; but even apart frompersonal considerations he arguedthat only in this way are relations most intimate, living mostabundant,the state secure.The GermanRomanticists shared withthe nationalists a com-mon distrustofguidance ofhuman actionby reason. No rationalinstitution, oman-made ssociation wouldreassure them, ortheyhad seen thesefail in theFrenchRevolution. The insecuritywhichresultsfrom conditionof cultural transitionforced the Romanti-cists to exalt those forms n whichrelationshipsare based on ir-rational ties, marriage, the family, organism (if not taken tooliterally)," and to use themas models for less closelyknit nstitu-tions ikethestate. Theyattributed omanthe nstincts nd drivesby means of whichcomplete unitywithotherswould be achieved.Gbrres and Eichendorffspoke of the " instinct of freedom," of" loyalty, of" obedience, of" lovingdevotion. " In every asethe Romantic assumptions about the nature of man are funda-

17 The figure f theorganismwas notmuchemployedby theRomanticists ur-ingthe1790s,but thegeneral enseof it was tobe found n thewritings hen s wellas later. See Kluckhohn, p. 84-85.18 Kluckhohn, pp. 95-96.


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GERMAN ROMANTICISM: AN IDEOLOGY OF CRISIS 309mentally the same, and in every case the power of love suffusesthese instinct-driven ndividuals and binds tllem irrevocably to-gether. The uncertaintynd insecurity f theperiodwere counter-balanced by the super-chargedemotionality f romantic ove; theeasy relationsoftherococoperiod tightened ntotheseclose bonds.Excessive danger to the individual in a society in travail calledforth he unusual demandforsupport, hereassurance of ove fromothers.'9 The Romanticists' thoughts nd feelingsfocusseduponlove; their most profound experience was that of love. "Lovemakes individuals able to communicate nd to understand,"wroteNovalis. "Unselfish love in theheart and itsmaximsin the head,that is the sole, eternal basis of all true, indissoluble union," headded. Baader called love "the trueorganic and organizing prin-ciple of life," "the truecommon pirit," or as Steffens aid, "thefoundation of entire existence even in the state. FriedrichSchlegel declared,withno intention freligious mpropriety, I donotknow whether could worshiptheuniversewithmy wrhole oulif had never oved a woman," while Novalis wrote that one "livesin the state in the sense in which one lives in one's beloved."Faith in romantic love made certain that social unity could beachieved and underlaythe Romanticists' conceptionof the state orofany important roupas a marriage.19a The analogy harmonizedwiththeRomanticists'metaphysical ssumptionthatthe particularpotentially contained the totality. Irrational and transcendentalpowers, the heart and the spirit,the poetic and the philosophic,enabled each individual, isolated, uncertain, anxious, to realizeonenesswith thegroup.The speed of cultural change, the occurrenceof so many un-expected events, also awakened in the Romanticists a profoundsense ofthesignificance f time. Living,movement, elation, ime,these four elementsconstituteddifferent spects of the romanticWeltanschauung. The Romanticists had to live intenselywhilethey could; theymust compress into each occasion the totality ofexistence. A unitof timehad a full ife of its own. The sensitivityto the presentwas accentuatedby the speed of its passing. Butthe rate ofchangealso arousedwithin heRomanticiststhe onging

19 See the excellentarticleby Erich Fromm,"Selfishness nd Self-Love," inPsychiatry. Journalof theBiologyand Pathology of InterpersonalRelations, I,Nov., 1939.19a Kluckhohn, p. 22-24, 48, 88, 52.


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310 EUGENE N. ANDERSONfor somethingwhich persisted. Duration seemed to thema basicstandard of value. Institutions,in which time condensed, pre-servedthe wisdom ofhumanexperience, nd tradition and customrevealed transcendental powers. The spirit of the folk spokethrough hem and keptman fromerringtoo far fromthe laws ofGod and nature. The analogy of the live beingportrayedthe re-lation between present,past and future. The sense of past timeled to thestudyofhistory nd thewish to preserveone s heritage;it disclosed fixedvalues and lent assurance as to the course ofmankind. The sense of futuretimemade one aware of one's re-sponsibility orthatwhichwas to comeand to desire reform oritssake. The living thing endures for its allotted time, leaves itsimprint, nd passes away. It harmonizes the qualities of move-ment and duration; the inorganic does not. The Romanticists,eager to be themselves in an age of seeming chaos, everywhereapplied theconceptionofa living ndividuality.When movement s so pervasive it demands explanation. TheRomanticists' acute awareness of the changes going on was mani-fested n theirabidingconcernwith thisproblem. They explainedchange bymeans of thedialecticand thetheory fopposites,whichin spite ofvariations in emphasis and detail essentiallyconformedto a pattern. "Unity can never be representedexcept in diver-sity," wroteAdam Muller,"or diversityexcept in unity."20 TheRomanticistswere describingto their own satisfactionthat whichseemedto occur aroundthem. In the crisis theone extremegene-rated a contraryextreme; a new formarose, only to initiate theprocess all over again. The theoryaffordedgreat comfortto asociety nthecourseofdisintegration.2"The inevitablefunctioningof the dialectic even relieved the individual of responsibilityforsocial action. The natural law of opposites would restore therighteous nd destroythewicked. It assured theRomanticists ofthevictoryof theirrevolutionagainst theFrench Revolution; thelivingideal would conquer the dead one,humanitywould enteran

20Kluckhohn, . 64 note.21In Versuch einer-neuen Theorie des Geldes (Jena, 1922), p. 120, AdamMuller wrote: "Whennaturehas meant twothingsforeach other nd wishes to seethemfirmly nd enduringly ound, it gives them such a great difference,uch adefiniteendency owardeternalhostility, hattheycan do nothing lse thanunitefor life and death. . . Wishingunity, t orderedduality,the separation of allcreatures nto two sexes, in which the endless and completehostilitymust bringaboutan endlessunion and satisfaction."


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GERMAN ROMANTICISM: AN IDEOLOGY OF CRISIS 311age in whichthe deas fundamental orculturalcreativenesswouldbe restoredto power and would guide mankindalong the path ofeternal progress. The worse conditionsbecame, the more opti-misticAdam Muller felt,for he recognized the infallible sign ofspeedyrevival.22The situation in Germanyseemed especially favorable to thefloweringfRomanticism. Althoughclassicism had takenvigoroushold of German intellectual ife, especially in the eighteenth en-tury, s contrastedwithFrance and Italy the nfluence ad enduredfor a relatively hort time. The classical culture providedfortheRomance countries the fundamental elements which the Gothictradition did for Germany. The German Romnanticiststtachedthemselvesto this tradition,and feared that the flourishing n-tellectual and spiritual life in Germanymightbe harmed or de-stroyed by French domination.23 The German people couldscarcely have initiateda revolution n the name of rationalism,forthey lacked any means of unified public action. An EstatesGeneral could not have convenedin Germany,or even in that ac-cumulationof territories,Prussia. The German revolution tooktheformof a counter-movementgainst the revolution n France.From the beginningGermanRomanticismsought to defendGer-man culture against the French Enlightenment; a few years ofexperiencewiththeFrenchRevolutionaroused theyoungRomanti-cists activelyand ardentlyto oppose their deals to it. Conserva-tismwas implicit n GermanRomanticism,not in the sense of anysubsequent political party,but as a potential attitude. One candefendor conserveany type of social system. The Germanshadto maintainagainst rationalismand the French a culturewhich nits institutional tructurewas that of the ancien regieme. GermanRomanticism accepted it,wished to reform t somewhat, dealizedit, and defended the idealization as the supreme culture of theworld.24 This was the Germancounter-revolution.

22 Novaliswrote: "That the timeof resurrection as come,and just the eventswhich eem to be directed gainst its revivaland threaten o complete ts fall,havebecome he mostfavorable ignsof its regeneration-this annotremaindoubtful oan historicalmind." Novalis, I, 77.

23 I do not wishto implythatthe GermanRomanticists ejectedall of classi-cism. Theyfound n thehistory f classical antiquitymanyelementswhichsuitedtheirneedsand views, nd adoptedthem.24 See the quotationsfromthe Romanticists iven in Kluckhohn,p. 94. Onewrote: "The simplest nd strongest uarantee s thehistorical nterdependentiving


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312 EUGENE N. ANDERSONThe individualswho formulated heRomantic deals constituteda relativelysmall numberof intellectuals. That they originatedin various social groups, and in both Protestant and Catholic cir-cles, attests to the emancipatingand stimulatingeffect f a situ-ation of crisis. These persons of diverse backgroundscould mostreadily come together round ideals which romanticizedthe insti-tutional status quo. Their criticismof rationalismas incompletewas in conformitywith the irrationalityof the crisis, and theRo-manticdesiretorecognizerealities and the needfortheunion ofallin defendingGerman culture against the French Enlightenmentand theRevolutionstrengthened his attitude. The acute menaceto the Germanway of life led to the exaltationof thisway to thepointofdivinity. The Romanticistseven consecratedto defensivepurposes thebelief ncosmopolitanism,he one respect n whichtheGermanhad escaped fromtheessential controlof theGermancul-tural structure. They endowedtheirculturewithuniversal valid-ity and asserted that it enjoyed the devotion of nature and God,thatif it were destroyed humanitywould be vitally wounded.The conditionof swiftcultural transitionfavored the idealsand activitiesofyouthand earlymanhood. The opportunitiesforachieving great things seemed limitless; if the individual wouldseize them,his throbbingheart (one had no timeforthedrudgeryof rationalistic study), his enthusiasm joined with some talentpromised success. Youth thought t could create or seek new,sub-jective values in harmonywith its emotions. Faustian passiondrove it to compass all life, past, present,and future,and it feltanarchyto be thegenerative groundof its perfection. Exaggera-tions and superlatives belongto youthand crisis, and theybelongtoRomanticism.The Romanticistswere as active as circumstances llowed. Toaccuse themof aesthetic dleness,or to condemnthem for nothav-ing been Bismareks or hard capitalists seems grosslyunfair. Intheareas open to themthey ived strenuously, urningout numer-ous books,establishingand editingmagazines, tryingmanyforms

ofkingand folk n an indivisiblenationalwhole, hecenturies-oldond of love anddevotion n common oy and want, in otherwords, not the dead concept of anabstractkingwith an arithmetical umberof subjects to be ruled,but the livingindividualking." Anotherwrote:"Themore oyously nd freely he statedevelops,the more powerfully, randlyand in every respect purely does the royal powercometo thefore. The natureof theroyal powerariseswhollyfrom he freedom ftheburghers; veryrepublic s necessarily monarchy."


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GERMAN ROMANTICISM: AN IDEOLOGY OF CRPtISIS 313of expression, absorbinigmany varieties of knowledge. The de-votionto the blue flower id not reduce their energy. Scarcely anyage in historyhas been more productive n writing and music,ormore fertile n ideas. The Romanticistseveniwished eagerlyto bepolitically mportant, nd when the War of Liberation broke out,theyused theirpowers to the full in fighting nd in propaganda.It took courage to denounce Napoleon and to exalt the Germans,tobe partisan in internal conflicts ver reforms. The Romanticistsshowed far more bravery than many of their carping contempo-raries. None the less, it is true that in their trust in spiritualvalues, the Romanticistseasily inclined to substitute deals forma-terial and political realities. Ideals narcotized these young en-thusiasts against the unpleasant featuresof the time and securedthema retreatin the romanticworld of their own making. TheRomanticists compensatedfor the weakness of earthly forces bybelief n theenormous trength f transcendentalpower. Wishingideal and practice to harmonize, hey could consummate he unionmosteasily in therealmofimagination. The crisis stimulatedthetrafficn ideas, which, ike Romantic interest n magic, mightpro-vide short-cuts o security; but it did not favor systematization,and the stress upon guidance by feelingreducedplanning to relativeinsignificance.The romantic deal of identity nd immanencehas a conserva-tive tendency. The belief that each object personifies n its par-ticular way the total universe affordsa total basis for a totaldefenseoftheindividuality. The highestcriterionof value to theRomanticist onsisted n an individuality's containing ts own usti-fication, ts own purpose. This view precludedany attackagainsttheparticular n the name ofan objectivestandard. Wherenatureand God reveal themselves n the ndividualthe defense seemscom-plete. The GermanRomanticistswere interested,not in theques-tion of what to conserve,but ratherin that of how to conserveit.Differing rom the nationalists in that they recognizedthenationas butone among many individualities, hey providedthe ideologi-cal foundation orthedefensiveunion of all Germangroups againstthe French. The low estimateofrationalism and the exaltationofcustom,tradition, nd feeling, he conceptionof societyas an alli-ance of thegenerations, he belief n theabidingcharacter of ideasas contrastedwith the ephemeral nature of concepts, these andmanyotherromanticviews bolsteredup the existingculture. The


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314 EUGENE N. ANDERSONconcernwith relations ed the Romanticiststo praise the hierarchi-cal order of the Stdndestaat and to regard everything nd every-one as an intermediary. The acceptance of the fact of inequalityharmonized with that of the ideals of service, duty, faithfulness,order,sacrifice-admirable traits for serf or subject or soldier.Not confining hemselves o this earth, he Romanticists mposedtheir social views upon the relations between God and man. Godwas transformed nto a super-romantic ndividual, an "endless in-dividuum," "an abyss of individuality,""the mostpersonal of allforms. 5 No longer an absentee Creator or an arbitrary patri-arch,God actedas a romanticmonarch, he fatherofa large roman-ticfamily, he head ofthe social and transcendental rderofwhichtheRomanticists pproved. Christ's roleas mediatorbetweenGodand man was impartedto all the units n thesocial hierarchy;fromthesimplest temto the mostcomplex nstitution, ach should serveas an intermediary.26Adam Muller maintainedthathe was fash-ioninghis plans for the state accordingto Christianteaching; butin doing so he forced Christto condemnthe ideals of the FrenchRevolution,to sanctionthe principles of inequality, estates, mon-archy, nd to justify,mirabiledictu,the existence and practices,atleast in idealized form,of themodern state. God and Christ be-came the patrons of the German cultural lag, and were endowedwith the appropriate qualities forfulfillingheir new duties.27Muiller nd theRomanticistsfound God and Christso amenablethattheymobilizedthedeities for theirplans for thefuture. Godand Christdutifully pposed the universal domination fNapoleon,assured thefutureprimacyof Germanculture,and supportedtheideal of theunionofmankind, ivided nto nations and states,underonereligion nd onechurch.28 " Christwillremain, Mullerwrote,

25 Kluckhohn, . 8.26 See amongothersAdam Muller,Die ElementederStaatskunst, . 422.27 See Muller,Die Elementeder Staatskunst, . 401, where the chapterbeginswhich s entitled That Christdied not merelyfor men but also for the states."Mullercomplained hat while theprivatecharacter f Christ had been understood,thepoliticalhad notbeen. But not stoppingat this point,he added: "The secretof rule lies in obedience; all exaltation,whichthe soul desires, ies in free subjec-tion; all freedom,n devotion o the fatherland nd to Christ." Ibid., pp. 434-435.

28 See Alfred von Martin,"Der preussischeAltkonservatismus nd der poli-tische Katholizismus in ihren gegenseitigenBeziehungen," Deutsche Vierteljahr-schrift ir Literaturwissenschaftnd Geistesgeschichte,II (1929), 489 ff.; AlfredvonMartin, Das Wesen derromantischen eligiositait,"bid., I (1924), 375 ff.


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GERMAN ROMANTICISM: AN IDEOLOGY OF CRISIS 315"the center nd ruler ofall national and federative ife,"29 nd thevery title ofNovalis s famous work,Die Christenheit der Europa,resounds with similar cry. These Romanticists imed not merelyat a newworldorder but at a rebirthof Christianity, omanticizedtobe sure,as theunifying nd guiding force ofthis order. "Havepatience," Novalis declared, "the holy age of eternal peace willcome, t mustcome, when the new Jerusalem will be the capital ofthe world."30During a crisis the Romantic dialectic assists the elementsofchange or reformbut also those of conservatism. Where thereis freedom, heremustbe counter-freedom, hereequality, nequal-ity,where a follower, leader, where movement, tability. Multi-plicity of formsis necessary for completeness; out of the inter-action of opposites God and nature create life. The ancienregiime,with ts variety of estates, privileges,ways and customs ofmany ages and many places, offeredfruitful oil for the creativefunctioning f thedialectic. Adam Muller expressed the Romanticwill to stand above partisanship and findthe true answer in theposition of the higher hird, he mate to Hegel's synthesis. By thismeans theRomanticists provided authoritarianismwith a naturaland divine foundation. The crisis-situationmight accelerate theworkingof the opposites and stimulate rapid cultural change; butthedialecticsanctioned strongresistanceto changeevenduringthecrisis. Once the latter had passed, the dialecticceased to expressa social need, and ifpreservedas a theory t was made to functionso slowlythata single culturalsystem could appear as a norm.TheRomanticconception f relationshippostulates the presenceof twooriginalelements, heparticular and thewhole. When thistheory s applied to society, t may easily lead to a struggleforsupremacybetweenthem. Appreciatingthe threat of thesuperiorforce of thewholeover theparticular,Romianticwritersenhancedthesignificance f the attertothepointofbeinga totality n itself.During a crisis the freedomof the creativeparticular is vital, andthe Romanticistspraised it with enthusiasm. None the less, thewhole preserves its potential power, and the Romanticiststendedto ignorethefact that it mightbe dominatedby an absolute mon-arch,a self-centeredristocracy,determined o maintainas fully spossible theexistingsocial structure. One halfof therelationship

29 Die Elemente der Staatskunst'p. 423.30 Novalis, I, 84.


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316 EUGENE N. ANDERSONmightdo its part in thecrisis whilethe otherobstructed he effortsto free the individualitiesfor action. The polaritybetweenindi-vidual freedom nd initiativeand group compulsionand authoritywas one whichtheRomanticists were never able to escape. Theyremainedswingingbetweenthe two extremes. But society,whichwas organizedaround group institutions, oundthe issue easier todecide: it simplypreservedmostofthe groupinstitutions, y sheerforceof inertia,and the individualhad to conform. That was thecase in Germany.The Romantic theoryfunctionsonly if aggressive leaders likeStein are present, eaders whofeelwiththeRomanticiststheeffectsofthecrisis situationbutwho bringto this situationa rich,practi-cal experience. The Romanticists themselves could not haveexecuted fundamental reforms. By reverencingtradition,theypreservedthepower of the backward-looking oyaltyand aristoc-racy. The threatof conservatism nd restoration ay in constantattendance upon the active individuality. The Romantic idealtendedto intoxicatea groupof intellectuals n a culturalcrisis. Itwas admirablysuited to theriskypositionof a bureaucrat-profes-sor or a writereager forstate favor: it could be eitherradical orconservative, dealistic or realistic,accordingto need; it beautifiedand transcendentalized russian society;it could mean to everyonethatwhich he wished it to mean withoutrunningmuchdanger ofmodifyinghestatus quo. It was as socially safe an ideal as couldappear in a crisis.On thewhole the Romantic eaders did not claim to be messiahs.Their effort o know reality and their view of all persons andthingsnot as isolated unitsbutas intermediaries Mittler) betweenothers intimatelyrelated to them, indicate a certain modesty.Those among them who inclined to estimate their historic im-portanceat an unusuallyhighrate were ofburgheror peasant ori-gin. Loose from heirsocial bases, they trovetowardpositionandfame. Since political activitywas practicallyclosed to them, ndsince the economicopportunitiesopen to a burgherwere meagreand carrieda social stigma,theychose the somewhat rresponsibleand specious career of a writer. During the crisis, theyrose withtherising power of ideas; butmateriallyand psychologically heyremained dependentupon the institutionalstatus quo. As theygrewolder,they ostthe youthful apacityforromantic nthusiasm.By the timeNapoleon crushed Austria and Prussia, theywere al-


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GERMAN ROMANTICISM: AN IDEOLOGY OF CRISIS 317ready transferring heir nterestfrompersonal problems to socialand political ones. They were discoveringthat some thingswereworth fighting or. While their work contributedto the Stein-Hardenberg reforms, it also furthered the Junker resistanceagainst thesereforms. The Romanticistsbegan to repudiatetheirown ideals. They began to seek solace and security n revelation,to revereformand authoritarianism. Catholicism,which sharedso many common characteristicswith Romanticism,affordedarefuge for some.31 After 1815 the Restoration served a similarneed. Transcendental dogma, either religious or secular, gavethesefootloose ntellectuals he solidbasis whichcaste and propertyprovided for thearistocracy and the thronefor royalty. Romanti-cismas a fullway of ife asted as longas the cultural crisis favoredthe ferment f ideas and the accompanyingenthusiasticoptimism.The ideology of Romanticismbecame as traditional for Ger-many as that of the French Revolution for France. Much ofGermanhistoryduringthepast centurypertainsto the search forunity nd defense. Much of it portrays the struggle of theforcesof the ancien regime, so powerful n Germany,against industrialcapitalism. German conservatism, iberalism and socialism alikewere affectedby the persistence of this cultural conflict nd ingreater or less degree absorbed elementsof Romanticism. In anationwhichthrough enturieshad acquired thehabits of particu-larism,Romanticism fferedhe best ideologicalmeans fordrawingtogetherthe diverse elements. Whenever a crisis threatenedoroccurred,Romantictheoryreappeared."2

The American University31 Alfred von Martin, "RomantischeKonversionen,"Logos, XVII (1928),146 ff.32 The similarity etween he situation ut of which rose GermanRomianticismand thatof National Socialism s evident. A cultural ransformation hichquicklycame to a head in a political crisis evokedthe demandfor a total reintegrationfideas and life and the search for a total view of things, ventsand personalities.The Romanticperiod dealt within this essay deservesto be re-studiedbecause itsoughtanswers to problemswhich have become acute once more in our own day.

None the ess, t shouldnot be forgottenhat the aesthetie alues and the ndividual-ismof theRomanticistswould be anathemato the political-mindednessnd group-domination f National Socialism.

Documents

Anderson - German Romanticism as an Ideology of Cultural Crisis (J Hist of Ideas v2n3 1941)