Charles Sturt UniversityMaster of Environmental Management

Analysis of state policy formulation and implementation

Case Study – Energy Efficiency Policy in New South Wales

Subject: Environmental Policy

Assignment 2Due Date 29 April 2016

Name of Author:

David Holland

Analysis of state policy formulation and implementation | David Holland

Table of ContentsIntroduction...............................................................................................................................2

The NSW policy to be discussed is Energy Efficiency...............................................................2This plan has a two pronged objectives.............................................................................................2The Plans goals are:............................................................................................................................3

Environmental issues around the policy..................................................................................3

The Policy Scope........................................................................................................................3The goal is simply to provide ways to achieve a 16,000 GWH saving by 2020 to NSW power users....................................................................................................................................................4The policy aims to provide energy efficiency plans for Businesses, the government and the home...................................................................................................................................................4The objectives of the plan..................................................................................................................4

The stages of Policy formulation..............................................................................................4

Involvement of government, non government and the public in the policy formulation.....5These additional NSW policy areas are:............................................................................................6

Policy mechanisms used in Policy development......................................................................7Policy development approaches and a short explanation................................................................7

Regulation...................................................................................................................................7Self regulation.............................................................................................................................7Community enforcement...........................................................................................................8

Market based......................................................................................................................................8The following policy segments demonstrate energy efficient use of resources:.......................8Other forms of market regulation..............................................................................................9

Education and information.................................................................................................................9The energy efficiency policy has two main components for education.....................................9

Research and Development...............................................................................................................9

A critical analysis of the NSW State policy of Energy Efficiency............................................10Policy formulation............................................................................................................................10Policy Implementation.....................................................................................................................11

Conclusion................................................................................................................................11

References...............................................................................................................................12

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Analysis of state policy formulation and implementation | David Holland

Introduction The Kyoto Protocol came into affect for Australia on the 16th of February 2005 after being signed in 1997. It took 7 years for enough countries to commit to the protocol in the Annex 1 group of countries before Australia committed to the protocol. Russia was a crucial influence for Australia at the time. It became clear to the governments of these countries that the effects of climate change would be devastating to the economies of the world, the lifestyle of its peoples and impact heavily on the social cohesion within society with probable impacts on global peace. The original policy for Australia was for an increase of green house gases based on 1990 levels to be pegged at 108% by 2020. Then in 2005 Australia committed to a 5 % reduction target by 2020 on 2000 levels of emissions. Most recently, in 2015 after going to the Paris climate change conference the target has been pushed out to 2030 with a commitment of between 26-28% reduction of green house gas emissions on 2005 levels. This is all very confusing as the level of emissions is always progressively based on a later year of emissions as a benchmark. But references explain that this level of emissions would be 13% lower than the year 2000 levels. (Australian Government 2015)

The NSW policy to be discussed is Energy Efficiency Australia is now committed to a reduction of green house gases and it is incumbent upon every state and territory of Australia to contribute to the target. Through the Council of Australian Governments (COAG) agreement each State agreed to work towards the Australian target. As part of this contribution New South Wales (NSW) has committed to a range of policies to reduce carbon emissions. They include:

reduced emissions from existing generators generated electricity using low emission technologies improved energy efficiency sequestered carbon in forests reduced emissions from industrial processes in large energy consuming industries.

Although the NSW government refocused its efforts in 2012 on these greenhouse gas reduction programs by winding up the Green house Gas Abatement Scheme (GGAS) it has continued to be committed to Energy Efficiency Policy through the Energy Efficiency Action Plan. This plan has a two pronged objectives. One to contribute to the reduction of CO2 produced through coal fired power stations which is about 90% of the power generated in NSW and secondly to tackle the cost of living in NSW.

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Analysis of state policy formulation and implementation | David Holland

The Plans goals are: achieve a savings of 16,000 GWh in energy per year by 2020 support 220,000 low income households to reduce energy use by up to 20 per cent by

2014 assist 50 per cent of NSW commercial floor space achieve a four-star NABERS energy and

water rating by 2020, through the delivery of high-standard building retrofit programs. (Office of Environment and Heritage, (Nov 2015)

(National Australian Built Environment Rating System (NABERS) is a Commonwealth program under the Commonwealth Building Energy Efficiency Disclosure Act, which encourages manufacturers and end users to produce and buy energy and water efficient products by using a six star system. One star represents poor performance and 6 stars represents a market leader)

Environmental issues around the policy The Environmental issues that resulted in the formulation and implementation of the policy was clearly that NSW had to enact its commitment to the COAG agreement to reduce gas emissions. The formulation of the strategy is related to a range of activities within NSW that contribute to greenhouse emissions. The issues related to this policy are global, but will be felt in a noticeable way at the local level. Cumulatively the producing of greenhouse gas increases the level of heat retained in the atmosphere from the sun. This heat as it approaches 2 degrees Celsius above pre industrial levels will impact on the earths environment. Below are just some of the ways Australia and in particular NSW's environment will be impacted.

Sea levels will rise due to ice melts in various locations from ice packs, glaciers and permafrost. Sea levels will rise due to water expansion Inland regions will have less rainfall while coastal regions will have higher levels of

precipitation in shorter periods accompanied by larger storm events. Usable agricultural land will become more scarce due to more coastal flooding and less rainfall

in marginal areas. Fauna and flora species will be impacted by the change in climatic conditions. Few will be

mobile enough to adapt to better conditions in neighbouring regions. In coastal regions migrations if possible will be inhibited by commercial development patterns.

There will be a range of economic impacts which will not be discussed at length in this assignment, but include coastal property price trauma due to sea level rise and new flooding pattern. Agricultural production will potentially drop with a potential for many farmers leaving the land and water prices for agriculture could rise as a scarcity develops from lack of rainfall and the potential for coastal aquifers to become more saline due to sea level rise. (Holland 2016)(Crowley 2012)

The Policy Scope In NSW the policy scope is to encourage users of electric power to consider the way they use the power. The policy action plan provides ways a consumer can reduce power consumption in an effort to use power more efficiently.

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Analysis of state policy formulation and implementation | David Holland

The goal is simply to provide ways to achieve a 16,000 GWH saving by 2020 to NSW power users.

But in conjunction with that goal, the NSW government want to provide 220,000 low income household with a 20% reduction in power costs through efficiency gains. In addition, the government want to implement programs that will achieve a 4 star under the NAPERS for 50% of all commercial floor space in NSW. The policy aims to provide energy efficiency plans for Businesses, the government and the home. The objectives of the plan

To promote sustainable living, through water saving to waste reduction and recycling and the use of more efficient appliances. All practical aspects of sustainability.

To save energy and therefore money in the home through a range of retrofitting and building designs. This includes energy efficient lighting, cooling, heating, appliances. It includes building design features including home orientation window size, shading, thermal mass of building materials and overall insulation capability of building materials.

To save water by the use of rainwater tanks and education.

To promote sustainable living through education on transport use, cleaning products and natural vegetation near waterways, etc.

To harness renewable energy sources including solar, wind and Hydro power.

To promote solar energy by providing government assistance. NSW runs a "Feed-In-Tariff" payment for the energy produced by the solar systems.

To build on the Home Power Saving Program which provided for 220,000 low income households ending in 2014, with the Home Energy Action Program that provides $26.8 million to support energy efficiency for low income households.

The stages of Policy formulation Ian Thomas (2007 p.168-169) suggests that there is a cyclical pattern that is evident in most policy formulation. It starts with a period of limited awareness and an identification of a problem. To elevate the problem, it takes media coverage. After media coverage of an event caused by the problem, the public reaction could be 'alarmist', as Thomas puts it, 'euphoric enthusiasm follows from the dramatic event'. Pressure is then put on the government of the day to do something about the cause of the problem. (Thomas 2007 p. 168) Though this, energy efficiency policy in NSW was initiated by Australia signing the Kyoto Protocol. The next step in policy formulation is a period of discussion between the public and politicians to flesh out ideas on what the issues, causes and potential solutions are.

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Analysis of state policy formulation and implementation | David Holland

As Portney (1992) cited Thomas (2007 p.168-169), governments hold inquiries and appear to be doing something. This activity may be the passing of legislation. In the case of the NSW energy efficiency policy development, workshops were probably held and the result was a widening of the scope of the policy to include sustainable development and sustainable living. Then as Thomas (2007 p.169) explains, a period of reassurance occurs as people start to feel that something is being done. In the case of the energy efficiency policy, money was spent to help low income household save money on their power bills. But then a period on low interest may occur, where the public thinks that the problems had been dealt with. It is as the implementation of the policy bites that the real cost of the policy starts to impact on the population and there is renewed interest in the policy settings. People who have been disadvantaged by the policy are singled out by the media and politicians are asked to remove the policy. Clearly energy savings have been evident right across society, but power costs rose in NSW over the period. Power companies saw an opportunity to regain revenues lost due to power efficiency gains. This loss in revenue was so dramatic that base maintenance costs were at rise of not being covered. (Indianna Energy Association, 2015) Power companies applied to the Independent Pricing and Regulatory Tribunal (IPART) for power price increases to cover infrastructure costs to build more robust power grid systems, where power would be available in very high demand situations without a power outage. The government has since found that these contingencies were excessive, citing a number of redundant power systems in existence that have never been turned on. (Infrastructure NSW, 2015) Then as Thomas (2007 p.169) so eloquently puts it the problem can re-emerge and we have a post-problem stage. This is where public interest has waned and where policy programs have been initiated to tackle the original problem. Then another problem emerges and the policy cycle begins again. The energy efficiency policy in NSW is no different, although many have not woken up to the inadequacies of the energy saving policy. Energy companies have expected to grow at a pre determined rate. Their investment model did not sufficiently change to accommodate the new usage patterns. As more renewable energy is produced, energy efficiency is going to be less important. CO2 is not going to be produced with this new energy source. The policy settings will become redundant.

Involvement of government, non government and the public in the policy formulation As mentioned above although NGO's had a role to play in the push to get the main pillar of the climate change amelioration agreement at Kyoto, they had little to practically do, in my opinion, until the details of State policy was being formulated. The process was largely driven from COAG (30 April 2009) and a need for the State of NSW to find ways to reduce CO2 emissions. As Thomas (2007, p.334-347) suggests, that professionals trained in science and economics, would have an initial influence in the formulation of the policy. There possibly would have been closed room discussions with power providing organisations. Industry organisation, including unions may have had a voice in contributing to the mix of policy objectives.

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Analysis of state policy formulation and implementation | David Holland

There would have been a mix of values at the table. Different organisations would have had perspectives on the way energy efficiency policy should work. Thomas (2007 p.348) suggests that this process puts in play an unlimited set of alternatives and trade-offs which can be a complex maize for public official to pick through. He suggests when managing the group there will be polarisation, winners and losers. The NSW energy efficiency policy is a practical solution to an environmental problem, but to a large degree has an economic solution. So how should we extrapolate the result and predict the process that produced it? In NSW most of the policy settings were straight out of the COAG agreement, but there are some aspects of the policy that are a seemingly tacked on. This primarily is the sustainable living component. This component may be the only initiative unique to NSW and not specified under the agreement. These additional NSW policy areas are:

Green Living - Using biodegradable produces Etc. Rural Living - Nutrient capture, erosion control etc. Commuting - low energy commuting. Gardening - Garden waste, water consumption and worm farms Waste and recycling - household waste and grey water management. Renewable Energy – on site clean energy

Below is a table on how the additional policy influence could have come about from different sectors of the community:

Issue Government Non Government The Public

Group dynamics Minister, Government agencies, consultants

Other political parties, unions, peak environmental NGOs, Business peak bodies

Pressure groups including householders, non aligned experts, business owners, lobbyists

The role of each stakeholder

To ensure policy is developed without a political backlash

To ensure that the interests of the group is represented at the table when formulating the policy

These groups and individuals are not generally at the policy formulation table but influence policy through submissions and interaction with politicians who are at the table

How much influence do each stakeholder have in the policy development

Governments through the COAG process would have had a large influence on the agreement which is the basis of the NSW policy

These stakeholders are at the table and would have a large influence on the detail of the policy. This is where the sustainable living

These stakeholders in the ears of politicians who influences policy formulation.

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Analysis of state policy formulation and implementation | David Holland

component of the policy would have been initiated.

Was there conflict or consciences in the policy detail discussions

The Government may have had some conflict in the COAG discussion due to coal fire power generation in the State of NSW.

It is clear that there would be winners and losers, but detailed discussions would have produced a consciences on sustainable living.

There would be some costs associated with readjusting but the policy advocated a voluntary approach to compliance producing a probable consensus.

Table 1 - This table was derived from Thomas 2007 chapter 15 In many cases it is an individual who leads the way to getting a set of ideas put into policy. Thomas (2007 p. 355 - 356) describes these individuals as entrepreneurs, who champion a course. Environmental groups such as the Australian Conservation Council may have been involved directly with the policy development and others would have sent submissions. (Thomas 2007 p.358-359) Policy committees of political parties and unions influence political policy. These groups have tremendous influence, and eventually in some form put pressure on parliaments and governments to modify policy. Policy mechanisms used in Policy development Policy development approaches and a short explanation.

Regulation Based on legislation and is legally enforceable. According to Thomas (2007 p.267) there are two main approaches to implementation. (a) a maximum and a minimum approach, when outside a range penalties apply(b) permission to discharge to a level. ie. pollution cap Gunningham (1994) is cited in Thomas (2007 p. 268) demonstrates a range of levels of regulation, from the highest enforcement level of licence withdrawal through, licence suspension, criminal penalties, mandatory audits, civil penalties, incentives, self regulation. It is interesting to note that the author has licence withdrawal as a high level of enforcement. For example, if a licence is withheld or lost, the operation cannot continue and money is lost to the enterprise thus stopping the breach. Whereas with criminal penalties, legal costs or fines business often carries on.

Self regulation Codes of conduct within an industry sets a standard for self regulation. Often to get a lucrative government contract, conditions to a contract could be certification within ISO9001 QMS or ISO14001 EMS standards. Anon (1998, p.4) cited in Thomas (2007 p.273) briefly outlines the scope of self regulation with the following headings:

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Analysis of state policy formulation and implementation | David Holland

Legally binding – Contractual agreements entered into by an industry or with the government

Mandatory – a condition of membership within an industry association.

Compulsory – code of conduct compliance or an organisation will not purchase goods or services

Self regulation used as a way to ensure compliance with laws (Thomas 2007)

Community enforcement If a company is found to be negligent, a local community boycotted could be put on the purchase of products and service. (Thomas 2007, p.272) An American film called “A Civil Action” staring John Travolta, depicts a case where a family who had children die due to toxic waste dumped by a big company and through legal action and community support, the company had to admit liability and change the way it did business. Court cases like this one can gain support from the community and government and public pressure can alter legislation to curb this kind of company misbehaviour.

Market based

This is mostly incorporated in a regulatory framework as a disincentive to do an activity. ie "polluter pays". Although it is not a fine it is a cost that applies when the activity is undertaken. It often is manifest as a tax which is designed as an economic disincentive. (Thomas 2007 p. 280) Cairncross (1995) cited in Thomas (2007 p.277) suggests that governments poorly second guesses what the market will do by drafting specific regulation and advocates that market based approaches of regulation is a better form of regulation. Stewart (1993) cited by Thomas (2007 p. 277-278) suggests that this method of regulation gives efficient use of resources. This method of regulation is based on individual and company decisions to make or save money. The following policy segments demonstrate energy efficient use of resources:

Energy savings through lighting, heating, cooling, appliances and insulation.

Building energy efficient homes through building design and landscaping

Energy saving systems in the workplace

Reducing water costs

Reducing energy costs through on site renewable energy generation.

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Analysis of state policy formulation and implementation | David Holland

Other forms of market regulation (Thomas 2007 p. 280-284)

Credit Trading - eg. pollution credits or biobanking

Feebate - fee charge for inefficient use of resources

Tax congestion - disincentives to consume a product, ie. cigarettes

Subsidies - solar panel installation, tree planting etc.

Tradable permits - Trade property rights, ie water in Murray Darling basin

Performance bond - Payment to ensure clean up at end of project - mining etc.

Deposit refund - financial incentive to recycle items

Education and information The energy efficiency policy has two main components for education.

1. The Office of Environment web site for energy efficiency and

2. A more formal learning experience through a range of modules aimed at business to improve energy efficiency and the business's bottom line.

The individually designed course to fit a particular business draws modules from:

Business Planning for Sustainability Resource Productivity Employee Engagement Supply-Chain Management Carbon Management Climate Change Risk and Adaptation Environmental Risk and Responsibility External Stakeholder Engagement Green Lean

A discussion on a survey done in Melbourne on energy conservation where one group was given information of economic benefits and another on environmental benefits. Through gauging the energy consumption of the two groups it was found that the economic information group used slightly less energy. (Thomas 2007 p.287) But Thomas (2007) suggests that the most important aspect of education is a sustained message effecting habit changes.

Research and Development Energy efficiency is a key area for new produce research and development. With this State policy in action, entrepreneurs and inventors will be able to see untapped new markets for energy saving products, more efficient appliances and ways to generate clean power.

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Analysis of state policy formulation and implementation | David Holland

However, research costs money. With government funding offered for business through this policy initiative to engage and learn to save energy, a potential boom market may be created for producers. In a boom market risks in research and development will be lower and more products are likely to succeed. However, Gang, Wang and Hawkins (1998) are less bullish about this type of opportunity and attempt to analyse the pitfalls in doing R & D in a regulated environment.

A critical analysis of the NSW State policy of Energy Efficiency

Policy formulation It seems that the policy formulation was done by a committee. It has a wide scope and about one third of the policy has nothing to do with the original mandate agreed to under the COAG agreement. Australia's commitment to Kyoto has driven the COAG agreement and that was about reducing greenhouse gases to in turn reduce global warning. (The Conversation 17th April 2014) As explained above there is a large component of the policy devoted to sustainable living. Sustainable living is a good practice to get into, but this component creates a few inconsistencies in the policy. The sustainable living side of the policy is basically an education driven exercise which is designed to make people thinks about the resources they have and appropriate ways to manage them. Things like the management of waste, fencing off parts of rural properties to reduce impacts of natural environments and catchment and water management on both rural and residential land. (Office of Environment and Heritage, Energy Efficiency, Rural Living) And in the sustainable advantage model for business, training modules cover things like environmental risk and responsibility and 'Green Lean' design for organisations wishing to streamline systems. (Office of Environment and Heritage, Energy Efficiency, Sustainability Advantage modules) These are all good ideas, but has little to do with the reduction of carbon gas emissions. The aim of the policy is stated as: "Helping to reduce living costs and achieve greater energy efficiency in New South Wales." But we ended up with a wide range of objectives many unrelated to the above aim. Davis (1993) cited in Thomas (2007 p.222) is probably closest to how the formulation of this policy proceeded. Rather than the rational approach, this policy took the incremental approach as a result a range of values were incorporated into the policy to satisfy most at the policy table. It is likely that there were two groups involved in the formulation of this policy. A group of agency bureaucrats and business organisations and then later a group consisting of peak environmental NGO's. In addition, input could have come from submissions. This seems to be the model described by Jones (1984) cited in Thomas (2007 p. 206)

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Analysis of state policy formulation and implementation | David Holland

Given the comments made by Wittrock (1981) cited in Thomas (2007 p.210: Box 10.3), consensus is often achieved if the planning time is short, rather than long where negative interests can block the process for a policy, this is probably the case for this policy. Also Wittrock's second point where participants from differing sectors create a comprehensive policy is also relevant. His point about immunisation is pertinent in that strong agency and group viewpoints probably prevailed and the solution was to incorporate all the recommendations. Policy Implementation The government, when implementing this policy, has not considered the bigger question of, is energy efficiency always going to be a needed goal when considering new technology and renewable energy? Costs of clean energy will come down and CO2 emissions will be small in the future as the renewable energy component of the policy matures. Mann (1982, p. 5) cited in Thomas (2007 p. 251) eludes to this by suggesting the policy implementation is a 'thorny' task and that often things change in the economic, political and behavioural landscape of the policy environment. Should have the policy makers predicted this? Glasbergen (1992) cited in Thomas (2007 p. 248) seems to give an option in policy implementation that allows for a package of tools. How will the government wind back funding for business and will the markets establish through this policy be sustainable? Lorentsen (1998) cited in Thomas (2007 p. 248) advocates that policy implementation "should be flexible in the face of changing environmental and economic conditions", which in this case means that changes in the orientation of the policy over time should happen as a response to renewable energy technology increases in use.

Conclusion It is evident that the policy was a direct response to the COAG agreement which was a response to Australia's commitment to the Kyoto protocol. However, NSW policy makers went further and incorporated sustainable living with the stated aim of the policy that was to reduce CO2 emission through energy efficiency.

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Analysis of state policy formulation and implementation | David Holland

References

Australian Conservation Foundation, (19 February, 2010), Fix and extend energy efficiency programs, https://www.acfonline.org.au/news-media/media-release/fix-and-extend-energy-efficiency-programs, cited April 2016.

Australian Conservation Foundation, (19 February, 2010), Fix and extend energy efficiency programs, https://www.acfonline.org.au/news-media/media-release/fix-and-extend-energy-efficiency-programs, cited April 2016

Australian Government, (2015), Australia’s 2030 climate change target Australia is taking a strong, credible and responsible commitment to the Paris climate change conference.http://www.environment.gov.au/system/files/resources/c42c11a8-4df7-4d4f-bf92-4f14735c9baa/files/factsheet-australias-2030-climate-change-target.pdf, cited 16.4.16

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COAG, (30 April 2009), National strategy on energy efficiency 2009-2020, Memorandum of understanding, between the Commonwealth Government and the States and Territories, National_strategy_energy_efficiency_MOU.rtf, cited April 2016.

Crowley, K., Walker K.J, (Editors) (2012), Environmental Policy - The Australian Story, Tilde University Press. David I. Stern, (2012), Modelling international trends in energy efficiency David I. Stern, Energy Economics Crawford School of Economics and Government, Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia, Published Elsevier, https://acbee.crawford.anu.edu.au/distribution/newsletter/research-newsletter/pdf/stern-modelling-international-trends-in-energy-efficiency.pdf, cited April 2016 David J. Crossley, (November 2008), Tradable energy efficiency certificates in Australia, Energy Efficiency, Volume 1, Issue 4, pp 267-281, First online: 31 July 2008, http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12053-008-9018-6#/page-1, Cited April 2016

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EEX, (9 Dec 2013), Energy White Paper terms of reference release, The bottom line on energy efficiency, A Joint initiative of Australian, State and Territory Governments, http://eex.gov.au/2013/12/energy-white-paper-terms-of-reference-released/

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Gann David M., Wang Yusi and Hawkins Richard, (1998), Do regulations encourage innovation? the case of energy efficiency in housing SPRU, University of Sussex, Mantell Building, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9RF, UK, http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/096132198369760, cited April 2016.

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IPART, Green House Gas reduction scheme (GGAS), (2013), http://www.ipart.nsw.gov.au/Home/Industries/Electricity/Greenhouse_Gas_Reduction_Scheme, Cited 16.4.16

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Minchin, Liz, The Conversation, April 17, 2014, Australia trounced Kyoto climate target, new report reveals, https://theconversation.com/australia-trounced-kyoto-climate-target-new-report-reveals-25744, cited: 16.4.2016.

Office of Environment and Heritage, (Nov 2015), Energy efficiency policy, http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/energyefficiencyindustry/energy-efficiency-policy.htm, cited 16.4.16. Office of Environment and Heritage, (Nov 2015), Energy Efficiency, Rural Living,http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/households/rural-living.htm, cited 2016.

Office of Environment and Heritage, (Nov 2015), Energy Efficiency, Sustainability Advantage modules, http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/sustainabilityadvantage/modules.htm, cited 2016.

Office of Environment and Heritage, (Nov 2015), Energy efficiency for your business, Unlock productivity gains, reduce emissions and drive competitive advantage, http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/business/energy-saver.htm, cited April 2016.

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Office of Environment and Heritage, (Nov 2015), Recognition schemehttp://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/sustainabilityadvantage/recognition.htm, cited April 2016

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Schleich, Joachim; Rogge, Karoline S.; Betz, Regina,(2008), Econstor, Working Paper Incentives for energy efficiency in the EU Emissions Trading Scheme Working paper sustainability and innovation, No. S2/2008, Information Centre for Economics, http://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/28518/1/608699160.pdf, Cites April 2016

Vinea, Edward; Hamrinb, Jan; Eyrec, Nick; Crossley David; Maloney, Michelle; Watt, Greg; (2003), Energy Policy 31 405–430, Public policy analysis of energy efficiency and load management in changing electricity businesses Energy Analysis Department, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Environmental Energy Technology Division, Building 90-4000, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA, Center for Resource Solutions, USA, Energy Saving Trust, UK, Energy Futures Australia Pty Ltd, Australia, Published Elsevier, http://www.hmwinternational.com/Publications/Public_Policy_Analysis_of_Energy_Efficiency_and_Load_Management.pdf, cited April 2016

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