An Essay on the History of Civil Society (1767) - Adam Ferguson Facs Copy

8/14/2019 An Essay on the History of Civil Society (1767) - Adam Ferguson Facs Copy

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E S S A YON THE

H I S T 0 R YOF

CIVIL SOCIETY.

By ADAM FERGUSON, LL.D.Profeffor of Moral Philofophy in the Univerfity ef

]_DINBUKGH.

THE FIFTH EDITION.

LONDON:Printed for T. CADELL, in the Strand ; and W. Curca,

and J. BrLL, Edinburgh.M DCCLXXXII.


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C O-N T E N T SI

PART I.

Of the general Chara&eri_ics of HumanNature.

SECTION 1.Of the _ueflionrelating to the State of Nature, Page I

SECT. It.Of the principles of Self-pre_rvaticn, x7

S E C T. III.Of the principles of Union among Mankind, a6

SECT. 1V.Of the principles of War and Diffentio_, 3a

SECT. V. ,-Of IntellecTual Powers, . - . 42

SECT, "VI.Of Moral 8entiment_ . - $_

S E C T. VII.Of Happi,efs, - - - . 6ZAka


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iv CONTENTS.S E C T. VIII.

fhe fame fubjec7 continued, - - 80SECT. IX.

Of National Fdidty, - " " 95SECT. X.

_he fame fubjec7 continued, - - Io4

PART II.

Of the Hiftory of Rude Nations.SECT. I.

Of the informations on this fubjecT, which arederived from _tntiquity, - 123.

SECT. II.Of Rude Nations, prior to the Eflab!i_ment of

Property, 135S E C T. III.

Of Rude Nations, under the lmpre27ionsof Pro-. wrty and lntereJt, - - - x6o

P A R T III.Of the Hiftory of Policy and Arts.

SECT. I.Of the Influences of Climate and Situation, t 81


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C O N T F. N T S. vSECT. II.

_be Hiflory of Political Eflablifhments, 233S E C T. III.

Of National Objem ingeneral, andof JEflabliJh-raentsandManners relatingto them, _6

SECT. IV.Of Populationand Wealth, 23

SECT. V.Of National Defenceand Conquefi, 245

SECT. VI.Of Civil Liberty, 258

S E C T. VII,Of the Hifioryof Arts, 080

S E C T. VIII,Of the HiJto_ of Literature, _86

PART IV.Of Confequences that refult from the Ad-vancement of Civil and Commercial Arts.

SECT. I.Of the Separationof Arts and Profeff,ons, 3oiSECT. II.Of the Subordinationconfe_uentto the 8opara-_ionof Arts and Profe_ons, .308


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t4 C O N T E N T S.S E C T. lII.

Of the Manners of PoliJbed and CommercialNations, - - 315

SECT. IV._'b, fame fubjec7 c_ntinued, 32z

PART V.Of the Decline of Nations.

SECT. I.Of fuppofed National Eminence, and of theFiciffitudes of Human Affairs, 34 l

SECT. II,Of tbe 7"emporaryEfforts and Relaxations of the

National Spirit, - " 35 _S E C T. III.

Of Relaxations in the National Spirit incidentto Polifhed Nations_ - 358

SECT. IV._'befame fubjec7 continued, - 376

SECT. V.Of National tVafle, - - 388

PART VI.Of Corruption and Political Slavery.

SECT. I.Of Corruption in general, .. $95


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CONTENTS. viiSECT. II.

Of Luxury, - " - 4oSS E C T. III.

Of the Corruption incident to Poli./hed Nations, 416SECT. IV.

The fame fubje_ continued, - - 4z 7SECT. V,

Of Corruption, as it tends to Political Slavery, 437SECT. VI.

Of the Progrefs aM q_erminatien( DefpoIifm 45_


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Of the queflion re:e:#Tgto Part I.tinued to a greater extent than in that of any otheranimal. Not only the individual advances frominfancy to manhood, but the fpecies itfelf fromrudenefs to civilization. Hence the fuppofed de-parture of mankind from the ftate of their nature ;hence our conje&ures arid different opinionsofwhatman muf'c have been in the ErR age of his being.The poet, the hiflcorian, and the moralifi frequentlyallude to.this ancient time; and l)ndet the emblemsof gold, or of iron, reprefent a condition, and amanner of life, from which mankind ha_ oitherdegenerated, or on which they have greatly im-proved. On either fuppofition, the fir_ flcate ofour nature mutt have borne no refemblance to whatmen have exhibited in any fubfequent period; hif-torical monuments, even of the ear lie_ date, are tobe confutered as novelties ; axedthe mot_ coaxamoncliablithments of human fociety, are to be claffedamong the encroachments which fraud, oppref-fon, or a bury invention, have made upon thereign of nature, by which the chief of our griev-ances or bleffmgs were equally with-held.

Amo_ro the writers who have attempted to dh"ofinguilh, in the human chara&er_ its original qua-lities, _nd to point out the limits between natureand art, fome have reprefented mankind in theirFa'f_condkion, as poffeffed of mere ani_aI fenfibi-lity) without any exercife of the faculties that render_hem fuperior _ the brutes, without any politicalwn_n, wkhout any means of explaining their fen-

t_etlts)


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Se&. I. the State of Nature. 3timents, and even without poffeffing any of theapprehenfions and paflions which the voice andtlae gefture are fo well fitted to exprefs. Othershave made the l_ate of nature to confift in perpe-tual wars kindled by competition for dominion andinteret_, where every individual had a feparatequarrel with his kind, and where the prefence ofa fellow-creature was the fignal of battle.

THE defire of laying the foundation of a favour-ite fyftem, or a fond expe&ation, perhaps, thatwe may be able to penetrate the fecrets of nature,to the very fource of exiftence, have, on this fub--ject, led to many fruitlefs inquiries, and givenrife to many wild fuppofitions. Among the variousqualities which mankind poffefs, we fetec't one ora few particulars on which to ef_ablifh a theory.and in framing our account of what man Was inlbme imaginary ftate of nature, we overlook whathe has always appeared within the reach of ourown obfervation, and in the records of hiftory.

IN every other inffance, however, the naturalhiftorian thinks himfelf obliged to collect facts,not to offer conjectures. When he treats of anyparticular fpecies of animals, he fuppofes that theirprefent difpofitions and inftincts are the famewhichthey originally had, and that their prefent mannex'of life is a continuance of their firf_ deftination.He admits, that his knowledge of the materiat_fyftem of the world confiffs in a c_lle&ion of fat%,B" : or


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4 Of the _ueflion relatiJ_g to Part I.or at moff, in general tenets derived from parti-cular obfervations and experiments. It is only inwhat relates to himfelf, and in matters the moil:important and the moPc eafily known, that hefubflcitutes hypothefis inffead of reality, and con-founds the provinces of imagination and reafon,of poetry and fcience.

BVT without entering any further on queflionseither in moral or phyfical thbje&s, relating to themanner or to the origin of our knowledge ; with-out any difparagementto that fubtilty which wouldanalyfe every fentiment, and trace every mode ofbeing to its fource; it may be fafely affirmed,That the chara&er of man, as he now exifts) thatthe laws of his animal and intelle&ual fyftem, onwhich his happinefs now depends, deferve our prin-cipal ftudy i and that general principles relating tothis or any other fubje&, are ufeful only fo far asthey are founded on ]uricobfervation, and lead tothe knowledge of important c(,nfequences, or fofar as they enable us to a& with fuccefs when wewould apply either the intellec'_ual or the phyficalpowers of nature, to the purpofes of human life.

Ir both the earliefl: and the lateflcaccounts col-le&ed from every quarter of the earth, reprefentmankind as affembled in troops and companies ;and the individual always joined by affe&ion toparty, while he is poffibly oppofed to another ;employed in the exercife ofrecolle&ion and fore-fight ;


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Sect. I. the State of Nature.fight; inclined to communicate his own fenti-ments, and to be made acquainted with thole ofothers; there fac2"smuff be admitted as the founda-tion of all our reafoning relative to man. Hismixed difpofition to friendthip or enmity, his rea-fon, his ufe of language and articulate founds, likethe thape and the erect pofition of his body, are tobe confidered as fo many attributes of his nature :they are to be retained in his de]cription, as thewing and the paw are in that of the eagle and thelion, and as difft'ren1: degrees of fiercenefs, vigi-lance, timidity, or fpeed, have a place in the na-tural hifiory of different animals.

IF the queffion be put, What the mind of mancould perform, when left to itfelf, and without theaid of any foreign direction ? we are to look forou/" anfwer in the hifl:ory of mankind. Particularexperiments which have been found fo ufeful ineftablifhing the principles of other fciences, couldprobably, on this fubject, teach us nothing im-portant, or new: We are to take the hifiory ofevery active being from his conduct in the fituationto which he is formed, not from his appearance inany forced or uncommon condition ; a wild mantherefore, caught in the woods, where he had al-ways lived apart from his fpecies, is a fingular in-fiance, not a fpecimen of any general character.As the anatomy of the eye which had never receivedthe impreffions of light, or that of an ear which hadnever felt the imputfe of founds, would probably

B 3 exhibit


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6 Of tloequeflionrelating to Part I..exhibit defe&s in the very flcruc"tureof the organsthemfelves, arifing from their not being _,pplied totheir proper fun&ions _fQany particular cat_ of thisfort would only/hew in what degree the powers ofapprehenfion and fentiment could exifl,where theyhad not been employed, and what would be. thedefe&s and imbecilities ofaheart in which the emo-tions that arife in fociety had never been felt.MANKIND are to be taken in groupes, as theyhave always fubfiffed. The hiflcoryof the individu-

al is but a detail of the fentiments and the thoughtshe has entertained in the view of his fpeeies : andevery, experiment relative to this fubje& fhould bemade with entire focicties, not with tingle men.We have every reafon_ however, to believe, thatin the care of fuch an experiment made, we/hailfuppofe, with a colony of children tranfplantedfrom the nurfery, and left to form a fociety apart_untaught, and undifciplilaed, we lhoutldonly havethe fame things repe_ted, which_ in fo many dif-ferent parts of the earth, hs.ve"been tranfa&ed al-ready. The members of our little fociety would,feed and fleep, would herd together and play,would have a language of their own, would quar.,rel and divide, would he to one another the moltimportant obje&s of the fcene, and, in the ardour.of their friend/hips and competitions, would over.:_look their pertbnal danger, and fufpend the carsof their felf-prefervation. Has not the human_ce heen pla_.ted like the colony in queftion ?


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Se&. L. the State of Nature. 7Who has directed their courfe ? whole inftru&ionhave they heard ? or whofe example have theyfollowed ?

N^a't-t_E, therefore, we fhall prefume, havinggiven to every animal its mode of exiftence, itsdifpofitions and manner of life, has dealt equallywith the human race l and the natural hiforianwho would colle& the properties of this fpecies,may fill up every article now as well as he couldhave done in any former age. The attainments ofthe parent do not defcend in the blood of hischildren, nor is the progrefs of man to be confi-dered as aphyfical mutation of the fpecies. Theindividual, in every age, has the fame race to runfrom infancy to manhood, and every infant, or ig-norant perfon, now, is a model of what man was inhis original fate. He enters on his career with ad-vantages peculiar to his age; but his natural talentis probably the fame. The ufe and applic,.ati.on ofthis talent is changing, and men continue theirworks in progreltion through many ages together :They build on foundations laid by their_ancefors ;and in a fucceffion of years, tend to a perle&ion inthe application of their faculties, to which the aidof long experience is required, and to which manygenerations muff have combined their endeavours.We obferve the progrefs they have made _ we dif-fin&ly enumerate many of its feps ; _e can tracethem back to a diffant antiquity; of which no re-cord remains, nor'any monument is preferred, toB 4 inform


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$ Of the _u_ion relating to Part I.inform us what were the openings of this wonder-ful fcene. The confequence is, that inftead of at-tending to the charac"ter of our fpecies, where theparticulars are vouched by the fureft authority,we endeavour to trace it through ages and fcenesunknown ; and, inffead offuppofing that the bo-ginning of our ftory was nearly of a piece with thefequel, we think ourfelves warranted to reje& everycircumftance of our prefent condition and frame,as adventitious, and foreign to our nature. Theprogrefs of mankind, from a fuppofed f_ateof animalenfibility, to the attainment of reafon, to the ufeof language, and to the habit of fociety, has beenaccordingly painted with a force of imagination,and its fteps have been marked with a boldnefs ofinvention, that would tempt us to admiq among thematerials of hil_ory, the fuggeftions of fancy, andto receive, perhaps, as the model of our nature in-its original ftate, rome of the animals whole lhapehas the greateft refemblance tO ours*.Ir would be ridiculous to affirm_ as a difcovery,

that the fpecies of the horfe was probably never!:he fame with that of the lion i yet, in oppofitionto what has dropped from the pens 'of eminentwriters, we are oblis"cd to obferve, that men havealways appea_d among animals a dit_in6_ and a fia-.perior rgce_ d_a ne!ther the poffefllon of-fimilarorgkns:0imr theapproximation oflhape, nor the uf

of


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Sc&. x. the State of Nature. 9of the hand *, nor the continued intercourfe Withthis fovereign artift, has enabled any other,fpeciesto blend their nature or their inventions with his jthat, in his rudeft Rate, he is found to be abovethem ; and in his greateft degeneracy, never de-fcends to their level. He is, in thort, a man inevery condition; and we can lefirn nothing of hisnature from the analogy of other animals, if wewould know him, we mut_ attend'to himfelf, to thecourfe of his life, and the tenour of his condu&.With him the fociety appears to be as old as theindividual, and the ufe of the tongue as univerfaIas that of the band or the foot. If there was 2dmein wtaich he had his acquaintance "with his ownfpecies to make, and his faculties to acquire, it isa time of which we have no record, and ]n rcJationto which our opinions can ferve no pur?o1_, andare fupported by no evidence.

W_ are 6ften tempted into there boundtefs re-gions of ignorance or co,je_ure_ by a fancy whichdelights in creatingrather than in Merely retainingI;he forms which are prefented before it: we are thedupes of a fubtihy, which prdmifcs to fupplF everydefe& of otn- knowledge, and, by filling up a fewblanks in the Rory of nature, pretends to condu&,our apprehenfion nearer to the fource ofexit_eace.Dn the creditofa few obfervationsj we are apt to_ref_a_.e, tMt the feeret may foor_ be laid own,

" - "lh_-de l'61"l_rli.' and /&


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Io Of the qu_ion relating to Part I.and that what is termed vifdom in nature, may bereferred to the operation ofphyfical powers. Weforget that phyfical powers employed in fucceffionor together, and combined to a falutary purpofe_conffitute thole very proofs of defign from whichwe infer the exiffence of God ; and that this truthbeing once admitted, we are no longer to fearchfor the fource ofexiffence j we can only colle& thelaws which the Author of nature has effablithed ;and in our latePcas well as our earlieff difcoveries_only perceive a mode of creation or providencebefore unknown.

Wz fpeak of art as dit_inguifhed from nature ;but art iffelf is natural to man. I_e is in romemeafure the artificer of his own frame, as well as ofhis fortune, and is deffined, from the firff age ofhis being, to invent and contrive. He applies thefame talents to a variety of purpofes, and a&s near-ly the fame part in very different fcenes. He wouldbe always improving on his fubjecc, and he carriesthis intention wherever he moves, through theffreets of the populous city, or the wilds of theforefh While he appears equally fitted to eve_condition, he is upon this account unable to fettlein any. At once obPcinate and fickle, he complains(_f innovations_ and is never fated with novelty.He is perpetually buried in reformations, and iscontinually wedded to his errors. If he dwell in_.cave, he would improve it into a cottage _ if he_h_s already built_ he would Rill build to a greatere_tcnt,


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_e&. _. the 8tatt of Nature. .xtextent. But he does not propofe to make rapid andharry tranfitions; his fteps arc progreflive and flowand his force, like the power of a fpring, filentlypreffes on every refiliance ; an effe& is fometimesproduced before the caufc is perceived ; and withall his talent for pro je&s, his work is often accom-plifhed before the plan is devit_d. It appears,perhaps, equally di_ult to retard or to quickenhis pace_ if the projetor complain he is tardy, themoralift thinks him unf_able; and whether his mo-tions be rapid or flow, the fcenes of human affairsperpetually change in his management : His em-blem is a pafling ftream, not a liagnating pool.We may defire to dire& his love of improvementto its proper obje&, we may wifh for liability ofcondu&_ but we m]ftake human nature, if we wifhfor a termination of labour, or a fcene of repofe,

TH_ occupations of men, in every condition,befpeak their freedom of choice, their variousopinions, and the multipl_ity of wants hy whichthey are'urged : but they enjoy, or endure, withfenfibility, or a phlegm, which are he,fly the famoin every fituation. They" poffcfs the lhores of theCafpian, or the Atlantic, by a different tenure, butwith equal eafe. On the one they are fixed to thefoil, and feem_ be formed for fettlement, and theaccommodation of cities : The names l:heyon a nation, and on its ten, itory, are the fame.On the o_her they are mere animals of paffage,prepared to roam on the face of the earth, and withtheir


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I_ Of the queflion relating to Part I.their herds, in fearch of new pafture and favourablefeafons, to follow the fun in his annual courfe.MA_ finds his lodgment alike in the cave, the

cottage, and the palace; and his fubfiftence equal-ly in th_ woods, _.n the dairy, or the farm. Heaffumes the diftin&ion of titles, equipage, anddrefs; he devifez regular fyftems of government,and a complicated body of laws; or naked in thewoods has no badge offuperiority but the ftrengthof his limbs and the fagacity of his mind; no ruleofconduc't but choice; no tie with his fellow-crea-tures but affection, the love of company, and thedefire of fafety. Capable of a great variety of arts,yet dependent on none in particular for the prefer-ration of his being; to whatever length he hascarried his artifice, there he feems to enjoy theconveniences that fuit his nature, and to havefound the condition to which he is deftined. Thetree which an American, on the banks of theOroonoko*, has chofen to climb for the retreat,and the lodgment of his family, is to him a con-,venient dwdling. The fopha, the vauhed dome,and the colonade, do not more effe&ually contenttheir native inhabitant.

IF we are a/ked therefore, Where the ffate ofnature is to be found ? we may anfwer, It is here ;gnd h matters not whether we are underPcood tofpeak iathe ifland of Great Britain, at the Cape of

' : " Lat/iau m_ars des fauvages.Good


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Se_. I. the State of Nature. 13Good Hope, or the Strai_s of Magellan. Whilethis a&ive bein_ is in the train of employing histalents, and of operating on the fubje&s aroundhim, all fituations are equally natural. Ifwe aretold, That vice, at leaf_, is contrary to nature; wemay anfwer, It is worfe; it is folly and wretched-hers. But if nature is only oppofed to art, in whatfituation of the human race are the footfteps ofart unknown ? In the condition of the ravage, aswell as in that of the citizen, are many proofs ofhuman invention ; and in either is not in any per-manent f_ation, but a mere ftage through whichthis travelling being is deftined to pals. If thepalace be unnatural, the cottage is fo no lefs ; andthe higheft refinements of political and moral ap-prehenfion, are not more artificial in their kind,than the firl_ operations of fentiment and reatbn.

IF we admit that man is fufceptible of improve-ment, and has in himfclf a principle ofprogre_on,and a defire of perfe_ion, it appears improper tofay, that he has quitted the ftate of his nature,when he has begun to proceed ; or tl_at he finds aflation for which he was not intended, while, likeother animals, he only follows the difpofition, andemploys tile powers that nature has given.

THE lateft efforts of human invention are butcontinuation of certain devices which were prac-titbd in the earlieft ages of the world, and in therudcl_ flate of mankind. What the ravage pro-

je&s,


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*4 Of the _ueflion relating to Part 5,je&s, or obferves, in the fore_, are the fleps whichted nations, more advanced, from the archite&ureof the cottage to that of the palace, and condu&edthe human mind from the perceptions of/_nfe, tothe gener,'d conclufions of fcience.

AelisowL_DO_l_ defe&s are to man in everycondition matter of diflike. Ignorance and imbe-cility are obje&s of contempt: penetration andcondu& give eminence, and procure efteem. Whi-ther fnould his feelings and apprehenfions on thefefubje&s lead him ? To a progrefs, no doubt, inwhich the favage, as well as the philolbpher, isengaged; in which they have made different ad-vances, but in which their ends are the fame. Theadmiration which Cicero entertained for literature,eloquence, and civil accomptithments, was notmore real than that ofa Scythian for fuch a meafureof fimilar endowments as his own apprehenfioncould reach. " Were I to boaft," fays a Tartarprince*, " it would be of that wifdom I have re-" ceived from God. For as, on the one hand, I *" yield to none in the condu& of war, in the difo- pofition ot"armies, whether of horfe or of foot," and in dire&ing the movements ofgreator finall

,_,. cc bodies ; fo, on the other, I have my talent in_; " writing, inferior perhaps only to thole who in-

' habit the gTeat cities of Perfia or India. Of other,, nations, unknown to me, I do not fpeak."

t AbulgazeBahadurChan; tiittory of the Tartars.I_AN


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Se_, _. the.State of.Nature, s5MAs may miflaketheobje&s of hispuffuit

he may mifapply hi_ indufl:ry, and mifplace hisimprovements. If, under a fenfe of fuch poffibleerrors, he would find a ftandard by which to judgeof his own proceedings, and arrive at the be_ fcateof his nature, he cannot find it perhaps in the prac-tice of any individual, or of any nation whatever;not even in the fenfe of the majority, or the pre-vailing opinion of his kind. He mu_ look for itin the befl: conceptions of his tmderffanding, inthe befl: movements of his heart; he mtfff thencedifcover what is the perfection and the happinefsof which he is capable. He will find, on thefcrutiny, that the proper ftate of his nature, takenin this fenfe, is not a condition from which man-kind are for ever removed, but one to which theymay now attain ; not prior to the exercife of theirfaculties, but procured by theirjuft application.

Ov all the terms that we employ in treating ofhuman affairs,. _ofe of natural and unnatural are the leafi determinate in their meaning. Oppofed

to affe&ation, frowardnefs, or any other defe& ofthe temper or character, the natural is an epithetof praife ; but employed to fpecify a condu&which proceeds from the nature of man, can ferveto diftinguith nothing: for all the actions of menare equally the refuk of their nature. At molt,this language can only refer to the general andprevailing fenfe or practice of mankind ; and thepurpofe of every important inquiry on this fubje&

3 may


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*t6 Of the _ueflion, &e. Part i',may be ferved by the ufe of. a language equallyfamiliar and moreprecife. What isjuec,or unjuf_._What is happy or wretched, in the manners ofmen ? What, in their various fituations, is favour-

" able or adverfe to their amiable qualities ? arequettions to which we may expe& a fatisfac"toryanfwer; and whatever may have been the originalRate of our fpecies, it is of more importance toknow the condition to which we ourfelves thouldafpire, than that which our anceftors may be fup-poled to have left.

SECT.


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f

SECT. II.Of the principles of Self-prefervation.

F in human nature there are qualities by whicht is diRingui/hed from every other part of theanimal creation, this nature itfdf is in differentclimates and in different ages greatly diverfified.The varieties merit our attention, and the courfeof every Rream into which this mighty currentdivides, deferves to be followed to its fource. Itappears neceffary, however, that we attend to theuniverfal qualities of our nature, before we regardits varieties, or attempt to explain differences con-firing in the unequal poffeffion or application ofdifpofitions and powers that are in rome meafurecommon to all mankind.

MA_, like the other animals_ has certain inRine-t tire propenfities, which, prior to the perceptionof pleafure or pain, and prior to the experience of

what is pernicious or ufeful, lead him to performmany fun&ions which terminate in himfelf, orhave a relation to his fellow-creatures. He hasone let of difpofitions which tend to his animalprefervation, and to the continuance of his race ;another which lead to fociety, and by inliffinghim on the fide of one tribe or community, fre-quently engage him in w_r and contention with thgrl_ of mankind. His power._of difcernment, orC his


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18 Of the "principtes Part I,his intellectual faculties, which, under the appeb,lation of reafon, arediftinguiflaed from the analo-gous endowments of other animals, refer to theobjec2s around him, either as they are fubjeCts ofmere knowledge, or as they are fubie&s of appro-bation or cenfure. He is formed not only to know,but likewife to admire and to contemn ; and there

proceedings of his mind have a principal reference_to his own chara&er, and to that of his fellow-creatures, as being the fubje&s on which he ischiefly concerned to diftinguifh what is right from_hat is wrong. He enjoys his felicity likewife oncertain fixed and determinate conditions; andeither as an individual apart, or as a member ofcivil foeiety, mut_ take a particular courfe, in orderto reap the advantages of his nature. He is,withal, in a very high degree fufceptible of habits ;and can, by forbearance or exercil_, fo far weaken,confirm, or even diverfify his talents, and his dif-pofitions, as to appear, in a great meafure, the ar-biter of his own rank in nature, and the author of_all the varieties which are exhibited in the a&ualhiftory of his fpecies. The univerFal chara&erif-tics, in the mean time, to which we have nowreferred, mut_, when we would treat of any part ofthis hiftory, conftitute the firft fubje& of our at-tention ; and they require not only to be enume.rated, but to be diftin&ly confidered.

TH_ difpofitions which tend to the prefervatioaof the individual, while they continue to operateiu


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Se&. 2. of Sdf-_re/ervatiou. t 9in the manner ofinfiin&ive deOres, are nearly thefame in man that they are _n the other animals:But in him they are fooner or later combined withref_ec_tionand forefight; they give rife to his appre-henfions on the fubjec'-tof property, and make himacquainted with that obje& of care which he callshis intereft. Without the inftin&s which teach thebeaver and the fquirrel, the ant and the bee, tomake up their little hoards for winter, at firft im-provident, and, where no immediate objec"t ofpaflion is near, addi&ed to floth, he becomes, inprocefs of time, the great ftoremafter among ani-mals. He finds in a provifion of wealth, which heis probably never to employ, an obje& of hisgreateft folicitude, and the principal idol of hismind. He apprehends a relation between his per,-,fort and his property, which renders what he callshis own in amanner a part ofhimfelf, a conftituentof his rank, his condition, and his charac"ter, iawhich, independent of any real enjoyment, he may.

* be fortunate or unhappy; and, independent of anyperfonal merit, he may be an obje& of confidera-tion or neglect; and in which he may be woundedand'injured, while his perfon is fafe_ and ever/'want of his nature is completely fupplied.Jr there apprehenfions, while other pa_iions

only operate occafionally, the intere_ed find theobje& of their ordinary cares ; their motive to thepra&iee of mechanic and commercial arts j theirtemptation to trefpafs on the laws ofjm_ice ; and,C a when


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_0 Of the principles Part I.when extremely corrupted, the price of their pro-ttitutions, and the _andard of theii" opinions onthe fubje& of good and of evil. Under this in-fluence, they would enter, if not reftrained by thelaws of civil fociety, on a fcene of violence ormeannet_, which would exhibit our fpecies, byturns, under an afpec"t more terrible and odious,or more vile and contemptible, than that of anyanimal which inherits the earth.

AhT/-lotrcrI the eonfideration of interet_ isfounded on the experience of animal wants anddefires, its object is not to gratify any particularappetite, bu, to fecure the means of gratifying all;and it impofes frequently a refiraint on the veryderes from which it arofe, more powerful andmore revere than thole of religion or duty. Itarifes from the principles of felf-prefervation inthe human frame _ but is a corruption, or at leafta partial refult, of thole principles, and is upon,many accounts very improperly termed felf-lo"oe.Love is an affection which carries the attention

of the mind beyond itfelf, and is the fenfe of a re-lation to fome fellow-creature as to its obje&.Being a complacency and a continued fatisfa6tionin this object, it has, independent of _ny externalevent, and in the midft of difappointment and for-row, pleafures and triumphs unknown to tholewho are guided by mere confiderations ofintereft;in every change of condition, it continues entirelydiftin&


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Sect. 2. af Self prefirvat/_n. 2Idi.ttinc"t from the fentiments which we feel on thefubje& of perfonal fuccefs or adverfity. But asthe care a man entertains for his own interefl', andthe attention his affe&ion makes him pay to thatof another, may have fimitar effe&s, the one onhis own fortune, the other on that of his friend,we confound the principles from which he a&s rwe fuppofe that they are the fame in kind, onlyreferred to different objec"ts ; and we not onlymifapply the name of love, in conjun&ion witht_lf, but, in a manner tending to degrade our ha-,ture, we limk the aim of this liappofed felfifh affec-tion to the fecuring or accumulating the conftitu-euts of intereft_ or the means of mere animal life._lr is fomewhat remarkable, that notwithftand,,

ing men value themfelves fo much on qualities ofthe mind, on par:s, learning and wit, on co_,rage_generofit)', and honour, thofe men are frill fuppo-fed to be in the highef't degree felfilh or attentiveto themfelves, who are mo_ careful of animal life,and who are leaft mindful of rendering that life anobje& worthy of care. It will be difficult, how-ever, to tell why a good underfLanding, a refoluteand generous mind, fhould not, by every man inhis fenfes, be reckoned as much parts of himfelf,as either his ftomach or his palate, and much morethan his et_ate or his drefs. The epicure, who con-fults his phyfician, how he may re,ore his relifhfor food, and, by creating an appetite, renew his_njoymen_, might at leaft with an _qu_! regard toC 3 ltimfel (_


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_ Of the pri_eifes Part !.himfelf, confult how he might ftrengthen his affec-tion to a parent or a child, to his country or tomankind ; and it is probabie t.,_:Ltan appetite ofthis fort would prove a fource of enjoyment not!ets than the former.

BY our fuppofed fe!fifh maxims, notwithftand-ing, we gencraity exclude from among the obje&sof our perfonal cares, many of the happier andmore refpe&able qualities of human nature. Weconfider affection and courage as mere follies, thatlead us to negle& or expofe ourfelves ; we makewifdom confift in a regard to our interei0t; andwithout explaining what interet2 means, we wouldhave it undel:ftood as the only reaibnable motiveof ac"tion with mankind. There is even a fyftemofphilofophy founded upon tenets of this fort, andfuch is our opinion of what men are likely to doupon felfiflaprinciples, that we think it muff havea tendency very dangerous to virtue. But theerrors of this l_,ftem do not confift fo much in ge-neral principles, as in their particular applications;not fo much in teaching men to regard themfelves,as in leading them to forget, that their happieftaffe&ions, their candour, and their independenceof mind, are in reality parts of themfelves. Andthe adverfaries of this fuppofed felfiih philofophy_where it makes fell-love the ruling pafllon with,mankind, have had reafon to find fault, hoe fo,much. withjits general, reprefentafions of_umant . _ :,_!ature,


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Se&. 2. of 8elf-prefervation.nature, as with the obtrufion of a mere innovstionin language for a difcovery in fcience.

Wrtr_- the vulgar fpeak of their aifferent too-l:ires, they are fatisfied with ordinary names, whichrefer to known and obvious diftin&ions. Of thiskind are the terms benevolenceand fe_f6nefs, by the "firft of which they exprefs their friendly aYe&ions,and by the fecond their intere_. The fpeculativeare not always fatisfied with this proceeding; theywould analyze, as well as enumerate the princi-ples of nature ; and the chance is, that, merely togain the appearance of fomething new, withoutany prot"pe& of real advantagej they will attemptto change the application of words. In the carebefore us, they b.ave a&ually found, that benevo-lence is no more than a fpecies of ehr-love _ andwould oblige us, ifpoflible, to look out for a newlet of names, by which we may difl:inguifla thefelfifhnefs of the parent when he takes care of hischild, from his felfithnefs when he only takes careof himfelf. For, according to this philofophy, asin both cafes he only means to gratify a defire ofhis own, he is in both cafes equally felfith. Theterm benevolent, in the mean time, is not employedto chara&erife perfons who have no defires of their

: own, but perfons whole own defires prompt themto procure the welfare of others. The fa& is, thatwe fhould need only a freth fupply of language,ir*_ead of that which by this feeming difcovery wethou!d have loR, in order to make our reafoning_

C 4 , proceed


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_4 Of the priHdpteS Part L,proceed as they formerly did. But it is certainlyimpoffible to live and to a&with men, without em-ploying different names to diftingui/h the humanefrom the cruel, and the benevolent from the felfith,

TuEs_ terms have their equivalents in everytongue _ they were invented by men of no refne-ment, who only meant to exprefs what they dif-tin&ly perceived, or ffrongly felt. And ira man offpeculation thould prove, that we are felfilh in afenfe of his own, it does not follow that we are foin the fenfe of the vulgar ; or, as ordinary menwould underPcand his conclufion, that we are con-demned in every, inftance to a& on motives ofin-t,:ret'c, covetoufnefs, pufillanimity, and cowardice_for fuch is conceived to be the ordinary import offelfifhnefs in the chara&er of man.

Ate affe&ion or paftlon of any kind is fometimesfaid to give us an interefc in its obje& ; and huma-nity iffelf gives an interef'c in the welfare of man-kind. This term interefl, which commonly implieslittle more than our property, is fometimes put forutility in general, and this for happinefs; info-much, that, under there ambiguities, it is not fur-*wiring we are fl:illunable to determine, whether in-teref'c is the only motive of human action, andthe fiandard by which to diPdnguifh our goodfrom our ill.

So much is laid in this place, not fWm a defireto partake in any fuch controverfy, but merelytO


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Se&. _,. _f $df-pmfervation. _$to confine the meaning of the term interefl to itsmoff common acceptation, and to intimat_ a de-fign to employ it in expreffing thot_eobje&s of carewhich refer to our external condition, and theprefervation of our animal nature. When takenin this fenfe, it will not furely be thought to com-prehend at once all the motives ofhuman condu&.If men be not allowed to have difintereffed bene-volence, they will not be denied to have difinte-refted paftaons of another kind. Hatred, indignation, and rage, frequently urge them to a& in op-pofition to their known intereff, and even to ha-zard their lives, without any hopes of compenfa-tion in any future returns of preferment or ,profit.

SECT.


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S E C T. IlI.Of the principles of LTxionamong Mankind.

AsKIXD have always wandered or fettled,agreed or quarrelled, in troops and com--panies. The caufe of their aTembling, whateverit be, is the principle of their alliance or union.

IN collec"ting the materials of hiftory, we areeldom willing to put up with our fubje& merelyas we find it. We are loth to be embarraffed witha multiplicity of particulars, and apparent incon-fi_encies. In theory we profefs the inveffigationof general principles; and in order to bring thematter of our inquiries within the reach of ourcomprehenfion, are ditpofed to adopt any fyffem,Thus, in treating of human affairs, we would drawevery confequence from a principle of union, ora principle ofdiffenfion. The ffate of nature is aflate of war, or of amity, and men are made tounite from a principle of affe&ion, or from a prin-ciple of fear, as is moff fuitable to the fyi_em ofdifferent writers. The hiftory of our fpecies indeedabundantly flaews, that they are to one anothermutual obje&s both of fear and of love _ and theywho would prove them to have I_een originallyeither in a fl:ate of alliance, or of war, have ar-

guments in ffore to maintain their affertions.Our attachment to one divifion, or to one re&,feems often to derive much of it_ force from an

animofity


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Se&. 3. Of the principles of bSzlon,&c. _7animofity conceived to an oppofite one : And thinanimofity in its turn, as often arifes from a zealin behalf of the fide we efpoufe, and from a defireto vindicate the rights of oar party.

" MAN is born in fociety," lays Montefquieu,,' and there he remains." The charms that detainhim are known to be manifold. Together withthe parental afYc_ion, which, inftead of deferringthe adult, as among the brutes, embraces moreclofe, as it becomes mixed with effeem, and thememory of its early efle&s ; we may reckon a pro-penfity common to man and other animals, to mixwith the herd, and, without re_c&ion, to followthe croud of his fpecies.. What this propenfitywas in the firft moment of its operation, we knownot; but with men accuftomed to company, itsenjoyments and difappointments are reckonedamong the principal pleafures or pains of humanlife. Sadnel_ and n_elaneholy are connected withtblitude; gladnefs and pleafure with the concourfeof men, The track of a Laplander on the fnowy"_ore, gives joy to the lonely mariner; and themute figns of cordiality and kindnefs which aremade to him, awaken the memory of pleafureswhich he felt in fociety,. In fine, fays the writerof a v_e tb the North, after defcribing a mutekene oi_this fort, '" We were extremely pleafed to,' converfe with men, fince iri thirteen months we!' had feen no human creature %" But we need

* Colle_tibnfDutch voyages. 110


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IZ Of the principles of Part I.no remote obfervation to confirm this pofition :The wailings of the infant, and the languors ofthe adult, when alonel the lively joys of the one,and the chearfulnefs of the other, upon the returnof company, are a fufficient proof of its folidfoundations in the frame of our nature.

IN accounting for a&ions we often forget thatwe ourfelves have a&ed i and inltead of the fenti-ments which t_imulate the mind in the prefence ofits obje&, we at_gn as the motives of condu&with men, thole confiderations which occur in thehours of retirement and cold retie&ion. In thismood frequently we can find nothing important,betides the deliberate proti_e&sof interefl_; and agreat work, like that of forming fociety, muff inour apprehenfion arife from deep retie&ions, andbe carried on with a view to the advantages whichmankind derive from commerce and mutual fup-port. But neither a propenfity to mix with theherd, nor the fenfe of advantages enjoyed in thatcondition, comprehend all the principles by whichmen are united together, Thofe bands are evenof a feeble texture, when compared to the_foluteardour with which a man adheres to l_nl'friend,or to his tribe, after they have for fom!l time runthe career of fortune together. Mutual _eries. . . _:._ _ofgenerofity,omttrialsffo_Itude,c_Ou]_,_thardours of friend_ip, and klndlc a flame in thehuman brcaft,which thc confidcrations ofpcrfon_liAntcrcRor fafct_"cannot fupprcfs. The molt livcbl6 tranfport_


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_0 Of l_e- t_rincip.Tesef Part Lweaknefs, .his cares of fafety, and his fubfif_enceand to act from thole pamons which make him dif-c6ver his force. It is here he finds that his ar-rows fly fwifter than the eagle, and his weaponswound deeper than the paw of the lion jot the toothof the boar. tt is not alone his fenfe of a fupportwhich is near, nor the loveofdif{in&ion in the opi-nion o(his tribe, that infpire his courage, or fwelthis heart with a confidence that exceeds what hisnatural force Paou]d befiow. Vehement paffions of4mimofity or attachment are the firfl: exertions ofvigour in his breafl:; under their influence, everyconfideration, but _hatof his object, is forgottendang ea'sand difficulties only excite him the more,

Tnsa" condition i_ furely favourable to the na-ture ofany being, in which his force is increafed ;and if courage be the gift of fociet_ to man, wehave reafon to confider his union with his fpeciesas the nobleft part of his fortune. From this fourceare derived, not on!y t_heforce, but the very exif_-ence of his happ_ieft emotions; not only the betterparts but almoft the whole of his rational charac-ter. Send him to the defert alone, he is a planttorn from his roots : the form indeed may remain,but e_l T faculty droops and withers ; the humanperfonage and the human character ceafe to exifL

MEN are fo far from valuing fociety on accou__f its mere external cowceniencies, that they ar_commonly mo_ attached where thole convenien-_

_; ci_


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Se&. 3' U_Jionamong Ma71kind. 3xeies are lear frequent_ and are there tour faith-ful, where the tribute of their allegiance is paid inblood. Affe&ion operates with the greater force,where it meets with the greater difficulties : In thebreaR of the parent, it is touR foticitous amidR thedangers and diRreffes of the child : In the breafl:of a man, its flame redoubles where the w_'ongsor fufferings of his friend, or his country, requirehis aid. It is, in fhort, from this principle alonethat we can account for the obRinate attachmentof a favage to his unfettled and defeneele_ xribe,when temptations on the fide of eaf_ and of fafeiymight induce him to fly from famine and dangei-,to a Ration more affluent, and more feeure.Hence the fanguine affe&ion which every Greekbore to hi8 country, and hence the devoted p_ttri-otifm of an early Romab. Let thofe examples becompared with the fpirit which reigns in a com-mercial Rate, where men may be fuppofed to haveexperienced, in its full extent, the interefc whichindividuals have in the prefervation of their coun-try. It is here indeed, if ever_ that man is f0me;-times found_a detached and a folitary being: hehas found an obje& which lets him in competitionwith his fellow-creatures, and he deals with them ashe does with his cattle and his foil, for the fake of'the profits they bring. The mighty engine whichwe fuppofe to have formed fociety_ only tends tolet its members at variance_ or tOcontinue their in-

_ercourfe after the bands of affe&ion are broken.SECT.


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SECT. IV.Of the principlesof War and Diffen.flo_

" P'I_HFa_ are rome circumf_ances in the lot" .I. of mankind," fays Socrates, " that fhew*' them to be deffined to friend/hip and amity :" Thole are, their mutual need of each other;" their mutual compaffion; their fenfe of mutual"' benefits j and the pleafures arifing in company." There are other circumf'canceswhich prompt" them to war and diffenfion; the admiration and" the defire which they entertain for the fame- fubje&s; their oppofite pretenfions; and the" provocations which they mutually offer in the" couffe of their competitions."

Wazs we endeavour to apply the maxims ofnaturaljuffice to the folution ofdifticult queffions,we find that rome cafesmay be fuppofed, and ac-tuaUy happen, where oppofitions take place, andare lawful, prior to any provocation, or a& of in-juf'ciee; that where the fafety and prefervation ofnumbers are mufually inconfif'cent,one party mayemploy his right of defence, before the other hasbegun an attack. And when we join with fuchexamples, the inf_ancesof toil'cake,and mifunder-fl:anding, to which mankind are expofed, we maybe fatisfied that war does not alwaysproceed frongon intention to injure_ and that even the belt qua-litics


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So&. 4- Of tbe prindples, &c. 33lities of men, their candour, as well as their re-folution, may operate in the midlt of their quar-rels.

T_r.aE is frill more to be obferved on this fub-je&. Mankind not only find in their conditionthe fources of variance and diffenfion; they ap-pear to have in their minds the feeds of animofity,and to embrace the occafions of mutual oppofition,with alacrity and pleafure. In the mott pacificfituation, there are few who have not their ene-mies, as well as their friends ; and who are notpleafed with oppofing the proceedings of one, asmuch as with favouring the defigns of another.Small and fimple tribes, who in their domelticfociery have the firmelt union, are in their Rate ofoppofition as feparate nations, frequently anima-ted with the molt implacable hatred. Among thecitizens of Rome, in the early ages of that repub-lic, the name of a foreigner, and that of an ene-my, were the fame. Among the Greeks, the nameof Barbarian, under which that people compre-hended every nation that was of a race, and fpokea language, different from their _wn, became aterm of indifcriminate contempt and averfion.Even where no particular claim to fuperiority isformed, the repugnance to union, the frequentwars, or rather the perpetual holtilities which takeplace among rude nations and feparate clans, dif-cover how much our fpecies is difpofed to oppofi-tion, as well,Is to concert.D LATs


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34 Of t_e prlndples of Part _.LATE difcoveries have brought to our know-

ledge atmoft every fituation in whieh mankind areplaced. We have found them fpread over largeand extenfive continems,, where communicationsare open; and where national confederacy mightbe eafily formed. We have found them in nar-rower diftri6_s, circt_mfcribed by mountains, greatrivers, and arms of the lea. They have beenfound in fmall ifiands, where the inhabitants mightbe eafily _ffembled,, and derive an advantage fromtheir union. But in all thole fituatior_, alike, theywere broke into cantons, and affected a diftin&ionrof name and community. The t_tles of fellow-citizen and countryman, unoppofed to thole of alienand foreigner, to which they refer, would fall intodifufe, and lofe theh" meaning. We love indivi-duals on account ofperfonal qualities; but we loveour country, as it is a party in the divifions of _i"nankind ; and our zeal for its interel_, is a predi-}e&ion in behalf of the fide we maintain,

IN the promifcuous eoncourfe of'men, it is fuffi-eient that we have an opportunity of fele&ing ore"company. We turn away from thofe who do notengage us, and we fix our refort where the focietyis more to our mind:. We are fond of difiincdons ;we place ourfelves in oppofition, and quarrel underthe denominations of faction and party, withoutany material fubje& ofcontroverfy. Averfion, liketaffe&ion, is foftered by a continued dire&ion to itsparticular obje&. Separation and etta'angement, aswell


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S&. 4, War and _iffenfion. 35well as oppofition, widen a breach which did notowe its beginnings to any offence. And it wouldfeem_ that till we have reduced mankind to thet_ate of a family_ or found fume extern_;l confider-ation to mai_ain their canne_ion in greaternumbers, they will be for ever feparated intobands, and form a plurality of nations.

Tau ferare of a common danger, and the af-faults of an enemy, havebeen frequently ufefulto nations, by uniting their members more firmlytogether, and by preventing the feceffions andactual reparations in which their civil difcordmight otherwife terminate. And this motive tounion which is offered from abroad, may be ne-ceffary, riot only in the care of large and exten-five nations, where coalitions are weakened byditkance, and the diffinc'tion of provincial names ;but even in the narrow fociety of the finallefcRates. Rome itfelf was founded by a fmallparty, which took its flight from Alba; hercitizens were often in danger of feparating; aridif the villages and cantons of the Voll_i hadbeen further removed from the fcene of theirdiffenfions, the Mons Sacer might have receiveda new colony before the mother-country was ripefor fuch a difchacge. She continued tong to fee!the quarrels of her nobles and her peot_le _ andkept open the g_tes 9fJar_us, _o remind thgeparties of the duties they owed to their country.

D 2 SOCIETI_Sj


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36 Of the principles of Part 1[.Soci_a'I_s, as well as individuals, being chargedwith the care of their own prefervation, and having

eparate interefts, which give rife to jealoufiesand competitions, we cannot be furprized to findhoRilities arife from this fource. But were thereno angry paffions of a different fort, the animofi-ties which attend an oppolition of intereft, Paouldbear a proportion to the fuppofed value of thefubjecq:. "The Hottentot nations," lays Kolben,' trefpafs on each other by thefts of cattle and" of women ; but fuch injuries are feldom corn-,' mitred, except with a view to exafperate their,, neighbours, and bring them to a war." Suizhdepredations, then, are not the foundation of awar, but the effects of a holtile intention alreadyconceived. The nations of North America, whohave no herds to preferve, nor fettlements to de-fend, are yet engaged in almoR perpetual wars,for which they can affign no reafon, but the pointof honour, and a defire to continue the t_ruggletheir fathers maintained. They do not regard thefpoils of an enemy; and the warrior who has feizedany booty, eafily parts with it to the firtt perfonwho comes in his way %Bva" we need not crofs the Atlantic to find

proofs of animofity, and to obferve, in the coUi-fion of fepaxate focieties, the influence of angrypaflions, that do not arife from an oppofition of

$ccCharlcvoix',iftoryfCanada.intcrcft.


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See. 4. War a,d Diffo,flon. 37intereR. Human nature has no part of its charac-ter of which more flagrant examples are given onthis fide of the globe. What is it that Rirs in thebreai%s of ordinary men when the enemies of theircountry are named ? Whence are the prejudicesthat fubfift between different provinces, cantons,and villages, of the fame empire and territory ?What is it that excites one half of the nations ofEurope againR the other ? The Ratefman mayexplain his condu6t on motives of national jea-loufy and caution, but the people have diflikesand antipathies, for which they cannot account.Their mutual reproaches of perfidy and injuftice,like the Hottentot depredations, are but fymp-toms of an animofity, and the language of a hol_iledifpotition, aleady conceived. The charge ofcowardice and putillanimity, qualities which theintereRed and cautious enemy thould, of all others,like belt to find in his rival, is urged with aver-fi0n, and made the ground of diflike. Hear thepeafants on different tides of the 2kips, and thePyrenees, the Rhine, or the Britifh channel, givevent to their prejudices and national paflaons; itis among them that we find the materials of warand diffenfion laid without the dire&ion of govern-ment, and fparks ready to kindle into a flame,which the Ratefman is frequendy difpofed to ex-tinguilh. The fire will not always catch wherehis reafons of Rate would dire6t, nor flop wherethe conCurrence of intereft has produced an a!li-

D 2t ance.


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3 8 Of the principles of Part I,ance. " My father," laid a Spanith peafant,_' would rife from his grave, if he could forefee" war with France." What intereft had he, or thebones of his father, in the quarrels of princes ?

Tr_Es_ obfervations fcem to arraign Our fpecie,,and to give an unfavourable pic"ture of mankindand yet the particulars we have mentioned areconfiftent with the mott amiable qualities of ournature, and often furniih a fcene for the exercife

of our greatelt abilities. They are fentiments ofgenerofity and fell-denial that animate the war-rior in defence of his country_ and they are dif,_pofitions molt favourable to mankind, that be-come the principles of apparent hoftility m men.Every animal is made to delight in the exercife ofhis natural talents and forces: The lion andthetyger fp0rt with the paw ; the horfe delights tocommit his mzme to the wind; and foi'gets hi_ paf-ture to try his fpeed in the field; the 1_!1 evenbefore his b_aw is armed, and the lamb while yetan emblem _f innocence, have a difp_fiti_ mi_rike with the forehead, and afiticipate, in play_the confliFts they are doomed to fuftain. Man tonis difpofed to oppofition, and to employ the forcesof his nature againt_ an equal antagonift; he lovesto bring his reafon., his eloquence, his courage,even" his bodily ltren_h to the proof. His fportsare frequently an image of war; fweat and bloodare freely expended in play; and fra&ures ordeath are often made to terminate the paltime of

J_dlenef_i


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Se6"t_4. War and Diffenflon. 39/dlenefs and fePcivity. He was not made to livefor ever, and even his love of amufement hasopened a way zo the g_'a.ve.

+

WITHOVT the rivalthip of nations, and the_r_,c"t'uzeof war, civil fociety itfelfcould fcarcelyharee found an objec'-t_or a form. Mankind mighthave traded without any formal ,:onven6on, butthey cannot be fafe without a national concert.The nec_ffity of a public defence, has given rifeto many departments of fl:ate, and the in_lle&ua!talents of men have found their bufieft fcene inwielding their national forces. To overawe, orintimidate, or, when we cannot perfuade withredon, to _refift with fortitude, are the occupa-tions which give its molt animating exercife, anc_its greateft triumphs, to a vigorous mind ; andhe who has never flrugg!ed with his fellow-crea-ture, is a ftranger to half the fentiments ofmankind.

Tn_ quarrels of individuals, indeed, are fre-querttly the: ol_rations of unhappy and dcteftablep_ttiotas ; malice: hatred_ and rage. If fuch paf-fions _do_acpoffefs the breaff, ehe fcene of diffenofion becomes an obje& of horror ; bu_ a commonoppofition maiatahaed by numbers, is always al-layed by p_ff_mn_of another fort. Sentiments ofaffe&ion rand friendthip mix with animofity; thegeq:ive and _renuous become the guardians oftheir (oci_ i glad violence iffelf is, in theh" care,

D 4" an


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4o Of the principles of Part I.an exertion of generofity, as well as of courage.We applaud, as proceeding from a national orparty fpirit, what we could not endure as the effe&of a private diflike ; and, amidft the competitionsof rival Rates, think we have found, for the pa-triot and the warrior, in the pra&ice of violenceand Rratagem, the molt illultrious career of hu-man virtue. Even perfonal oppofition here doesnot divide our judgment on the merits of men.The rival names of Agefilaus and Epaminondas,of Scipio and Hannibal, are repeated with equalpraife ; and war itfelf, which in one view appearsfo fatal, in another is the exercife of a liberal fpi-rit; and in the very effe&s which we regret, is butone diltemper more, by which the Author of naturehas appointed our exit from human life.

TH_sr retie&ions may open our view into theRate of mankind; but they tend to reconcile us tothe condu& of Providence, rather than to makeus change our own : where, from a regard to thewelfare of our fellow-creatures, we endeavour topacify their animofities, and unite them by theties of affe&ion. In the purfuit of this amiableintention, we may hope, in fome inftanees, todifarm the angry paflions of jealoufy and envy;we may hope to inRil into the brealts of privatemen fentiments of candour towards their fellow-creatures, and a difpofition to humanity and juf-.tice. But it is vain to expe& that we can give torl_ multitude of a people a fenfe ofurtion amongthe_-


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Sect. 4. War and Diffe1on. 4zthemfelves, without admitting hot'cility to thcff,_who oppofe them. Could we at once, in the c_of any nation, extinguith the emulation whichexcited from abroad, we thould probably bre_or weaken the bands of fociety at home, and _clofe the bufiefc fcenes of national occupatio_and virtues.

SECT.


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[42 ]SECT. V.

Of I_telle_ual Powers.

Ast attempts have been made to _aa!yfehe difpofitions which we have now enume-rated; but one purpofe of fcience, perhaps themoil: important, is ferved, Then the exiftence ofa difpofition is eftablifhed. We are more concernedin its reality, and in its confequences, than we arein its origin, or manner of formation.

Tuz fame obfervation may be applied to theother powers and faculties of our nature. Theirexi_ence and ufe are the principal objeEts of our/tudy Thinking and reafoning, we fay_ are the_ptrations of rome faculty ; but in what mannerthe faculties of thought or reafon remain, whenthey are not exerted, or by what difference in theframe they are unequal in different perfons, arequeffions which we cannot refolve. Their opera-tions alone difcover them: When unapplied, theylie hid even from the perfon to whom they per-t'atn'I_anil their a&ion is fo much a part of theirnature_ that the faculty itfelf, in many cafes, isfcareely to be diftinguilhed from a habit acquiredin its frequent exertion.

PExsoss who are occupied with different fub-je_s, who a& in different fcenes, generally ulopeartO


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_&. 5" Of Intelleaual Pw.vers. 43to have different talenraj or at leaIt to have thefame faculties varioufly formed, and fuited to dif-ferent purpofes. The peculiar genius of nations,as well as of individuals, may in this manner arifefrom the ftat of their fortunes. And it is properthat we endeavour to find rome rule, by which tojudge of what is admirable in the capacities ofmen, or fortunate in the application of their fa-culties, before we venture to pals a judgment onthis branch of their merits, or pretend to meafurethe degree of refpe& they may claim by their dif-ferent attainments.

To receive the informations of fenfe, is perhapsthe earlieft fun&ion of an animal combined withgn intelle&ual nature ; and one great accomplith-Inent of the living agent confifts in the force andfenfibility of his animal organs. The pleafutes orpains to which he is expofed from this quarter,conflitute to him an important dilTerenee betweenthe obje&s which are thus brought to his know-ledge; and it concerns him to dif'cinguifh well, be-fore he commits himfelf to the direction of appe-.tite. He muff fcrutinize the objects of one fenf bythe perceptions of another ; examine with the eyesbefore he ventures to toUch_ and employ everymeans of ohl'e_'vation, before he gratifies the appe-tites of thincand of hunger. Adifcernment acquit.,ed by experience, becomes a faculty of his mimt;and the inferences of thought are fomerimes ra_

be diftinguilhed from the perceptions o(fenfe.3 Tat


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4S Of [nteIletTual Powers. Part I.TH_ obje&s around us, betide their feparateappearances, have their relations to each other.

They fuggef_, when compared, what would notoccur when they are confidered apart; they havetheir effe&s, and mutual influences ; they exhibit,in like circumftanees, fimilar operations, and uni-form confequences. When we have found and ex-preffed the points in which the uniformity of theiroperations confit_s, we have afcertained a phyficallaw. Many fuch laws, and even the mof[ import-ant, are known to the vulgar, and occur upon thefmatle_ degrees of reflection : But others are hidunder a feeming confufion, which ordinary talentsc_nnot remove; and are therefore the obje6"ts ofRudy, long obfervation, and fuperior capacity.The faculties of penetration and judgment, are,by men of bufinefs, aswell as of fcience, employedto unravel intricacies of this fort ; and the degreeof fagacity with which either is endowed, is to bemeafured by the fuccefs with which they are ableto find general rules, applicable to a variety ofcafes that feemed to have nothing in common, andto difcover important diftin&ions between fubje&swhich the vulgar are apt to confound.To colic& a multiplicity of particulars under

general heads, and to refer a variety of operationsto their common principle, is the obje& offcience.To do the fame thing, at leaft within the range ofhis active engagements, is requifite to the man ofl?leafure, or bufinef_: And it would feem, that theftudious


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Se&. _. Of Intelleaual Pvwers. 45t_udious and the a&ive are fo far employed in thefame talk, from obfervation and experience, tofind the general views under which their objeEfsmay be confidered, and the rules which may beufefully applied in the detail of their condu&.They do not always apply their talents to differentfubje&s; and they feem to be diPcinguiflaed chieflyby the unequal reach and variety of their remarks,or by the intentions which they feverally have incollecting them.

WHILST men continue to acq: from appetitesand paltions, leading to the attainment of externalends, they feldom quit the view of their obje&s indetail, to go far in the road of general inquiries.They meafure the extent of their own abilities,by the promptitude with which they apprehendwhat is important in every fubje&, and the facilitywith which they extricate themfelves on everytrying occafion. And there, it muff be confeffed,to a being who is deftined to a& in the midit ofdifficulties, are the proper teft of capacity andforce. The parade of words and general reafon-ings, which fometimes carry an appearance of fomuch learning and knowledge, are of little avail inthe condu& of life. The talents from which theyproceed, terminate in mere oftentation, and arefeldom conne&ed with that fuperior difcernmentwhich the a&ive apply in times of perplexity; muchlefs with that intre_pidity and force of mind whichare required in pafling through difficult fcenes.9 THr


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46 Of Infelleaud PowerS. Part J,Tn_ abilities of a&ive men, however, have a

variety correfponding to that of the fubje&s onwhich they are occupied. A fagacity applied toexternal and inanimate nature, forms one fpeciesof capacity ; that which is turned to fociety andhuman affairs, another. Reputation for parts in anyfcene is equivocal, till we know by what kind ofexertion that reputation is gained. No more can belaid, in commending men of the greater abilities,than that they underffand well the fubje&s to whichthey have applied: And every department, everyprofettlon, would have its great men, if there werenot a choice of obje&s for the underftanding, andof talents for the mind, as well as of fentiments forthe heart, an_ofhabits for the a&ive charaEter.

ThE meanel_ profeffions, indeed, fo far rome-times forget themfelves, or the ref_ of mankind,as to arrogate, in commending what is dif_inguith-ed in their own way, every epithet the molt re-fpe&able claim as the right of fuperior abilities.Every mechanic is a great man with the learner,and the humble admirer, in his particular calling;and we can, perhaps, with more affurance pro-nounce what it is that/hould make a man happyand amiable, than what fhould make his abilitiesrefpe&ed, and his genius admired. This, upona view of the talents themfetves, may perhaps be:impottible. The effe&, however, will point out

the rute and the _andarcl of our judgment. To beadmired and refp_ is to have -aa afceadaat

among


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Se(t. 5- Of intelle_ual Po_vers. 47among men. The talents whioh mo_ dire&ly pro-cure that afcendant, are thole which operate oramankind,penetrate theirviews,prevent theirwilhes,or fru_rate their defigns. The fiapefior capaci_leads with a fuperior energy, where every indivi-dual would go, and/hews the hefitating and irrefo-_ute a clear paffage to the attainment of their ends.

Tnls defcription does not pertain to any par-ticular craft or profeflion ; or perhaps it impliesa kind of ability, which the feparate applicationof men to particular callings, only tends to fup-prefs or to weaken. Where /hall we find thetalents which are fit to a& with men in a colleCtivebody, if we break that body into parts, and con-fine the obfervation of each to a feparate track ?

To a& in the view of his fellow-creatures, toproduce his mind in public, to give Jr'all the ex-ercife of fentiment and thought, which pertain toman as a member of fociety, as a friend, or an ene-my, feems to be the principal calling and occupa-tion of his nature, lfhe muff labour, that he mayfubliff, he can fubfiff for no betterpurpofe than the.good of mankind ; nor can he have better taletat_than thofe which qualify him to aCtwith men.Here, indeed, the underftanding appears to borrowyery much from the pMfions; and there is a fell-city of condu& ha human affairs, in which it is dif-ficult to diftingui/h the promptitude of the faeadfrom theardour and fenfibiliry of the heart. Whereboth


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45 Of Intelle_ual Powers. Part Lboth are united, they conftitute that fuperiority ofmind, the frequency of which among men, inparticular ages and nations, much more than theprogrefs they have made in fpeculation, or in thepraaiee of mechanic and liberal arts, /hould de-termine the rate of their genius, and affign thepalm of dif'dn&ion and honour.

W_z_ nations fueceed one another in the ca-reer of difcoveries and inquiries, the laf'cis alwaysthe molt knowing. Syftems of fcience are gra-dually formed. The globe itfelf is traverfed bydegrees, and the hiftory of every age, when part, isan acceffion of knowledge to thofe who fuceeed.The Romans were more knowing than the Greeks;and every fcholar of modern Europe is, in thisfenfe, more learned than the moft accomplithedpeffon that ever bore either of thole celebratednames. But is he on that account their fuperior ?

Mzr_ are to be ef_imated, not from what theyknow, but from what they are able to performfrom their/kill in adapting materials to the feveralpurpofes of life ; from their vigour and condu_ in. puffuing th, obje&sof policy, and in finding theexpedients of war and national defence. Even inliterature, they are to be ef[imated from the works

of their genius, not from the extent of their know-ledge. The fceneofmere obfervafion was extreme-]y limited in a Grecian republic; and the hurtle ofan a_ive life appeared inconfit_entwith ftudy: Butthere


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Se&. 5- "Of Intdle_ual Powers. ;t9there the human mind, notwitht_anding, colle&i:dits greareff abilities, and received its belt informaotions, in the midff of fweat and of duff.IT is peculiar to modern Europe, ro refr fo much

of the human chara&er on what may be learned inretirement, and from the information of books. 2tjuft admiration of ancient literature, an opinionthat human femimenr, and human reafon, withoutthis aid, were to have vanifhed from the focietiesof men, have led us into the /hade_ where weendeavour to derive from imagination and/hady,what is in reality matter of experience and fenti-ment: and we endeavour, tha'ough the grammar ofdead langnages, and the channel of commentators,to arrive at the beauties of thought and elocution,which fprang from the animated fpirit of fociety,and were taken from the living imprefllons of anactive life. Our attainments are frequently limitedto the elements of every fcience, and feldom reachto that enlargement of ability and power whichufeful knowledge fhould give. Like mathemati-cians, who fl'udy the Elements of Euclid, but neverthink of menfuration ; we read offocieties, but donotpropofe to a& with men : we repeat the lan-guage of politics, but feel not the fpirit of na-tions ; we attend to the formalities of a military_ifcipline, but know not how to employ numbers ofmen to obtain any purpofe by ffratagem orfmre.

Btvr for what end, it may be laid, point out an.'vii that cannot be remedied ? If national affairsE called


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56 Of/nt_//eaua/P_o's. PartI.ealledorexertion_hegeniusofmen wouldawakej butintherecefsf bettermploymentthetimewhichisbcRowedon itudy,fevenattendedwithno otheradvantage,ervesooc-c'_pyithinnocencehehoursofIdfure,ndfebounds to the purfuit of ruinous and frivolousamufements. From no better reafon than this, weemploy fo many of our early years, under the rod,to acquire, what it is not expe&edwe flaould retainbeyond the thrdhold of the fchool ; and whilFt_e carry the fame frivolous chara_er in our f_u-dies that we do in our amufements, the humanmind Couldnot fuff'er more from a contempt ofletters, than it does from the falfe importancewhich is given to literature, as a bufinefs for life,hot as a help to our condu&, and the means offorming a chara_er that may be happy in itfclf_and ufeful to mankind.

Ir that tkne which is paffed in relaxing thel_owersof the mind, and in vcit_h-hdding everyobje& but what tends to weaken and to corrupt,were employed in fortifying thofe powers, and inteaching the mind to recognife its obje&_, and itst_rength, we fhouldnot, at the years of maturi_-,be fo much at a lofs for occupation ; nor, in at-tending the chances of a gaming-table, mifemployour talents, or ware the fire which remains in thebteafL They, at leaf'c,who by their Pcationshavea lhare in the government of their country, mightbelieve themfclves capable of bufinel_; and, while8 the


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Se&. 5. Of Intetle_ual Powers. 5tthe _ate had its armies and councils, might findobje&s enough to amufe, wkh_wutthrowing aper-fonal fortune into hazard_ merely to cure theyawnings of a liffiefs and infignificant life. It isimpo_ble for ever to maintain the tone of fpecu-lation _ it is impofllble not fometimes to feel Hatwe live among men.


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ES,]SECT; VI.

Of Moral Sentiment.

e lgo_l a flight obfervation 9f what pa/_s inuman life, we thould be apt to concl_flr,that the care of fubfiftence is the principtl fpringof human a&iorls, This confideration leads to theinyention and pra&ice of mechanical arts_ it fervesto diffinguifh amufement from bufinefs_ and, withmany, fcarcely admits into competition any otherfubje& of purfuit or attention. The mighty ad-vantages of property and fortunes when ftript ofthe recommendations they derive from vanity, orthe more ferious regards to independence andpower, only mean a provifion that is made foranimal enjoyment; and if our folicitude on thisfubje& were removed, not only the toils of themechanics but the ffudies of the learned, wouldceafe _ every department of public bufinefs Wouldbecome unneceffary_ every fenate-houfe would ix:/hut up, and every palace deferred.

Is man therefore, in refpe& to his obje&, to beclaffed with the mere brutes, and only to be dif-tinguifhed by faculties that qualify him to multi-ply contrivances for the fupport and convenienceof animal life, and by the extent of a fancy thatrenders the care of animal prefervation to himmore burthenfome than it is to the herd with whichhe .mares in the bou)aty of nature ? If this werehis


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Se&. 6. Of Moral Sentiment. 52his cafe, the joy which attends on fuccel_, or thegriefs which arife from difappointment, wouldmake the rum of his paflions. The torrent tha_wailed, or the inundation that enriched, his poffef-,feffion's,would give him all the emotion with whic_he is feized, on the oceafion of a wrong by whichhis fortune_ are impaired, or of a benefit by whichthey are preferred and enlarged. His fellow-creatures would be confidered merely as they af-fe&ed his intereff. Profit or lofs would ferve_tomark the event of every tranfa&!on j and the epi-thets ufefulor detrimental vould fervet 9 diRingui _his m_tes in fociety, _ they do the xree vhichbe a_. plenty of firuit!, from that which only cmn,_ers the gro_and, or i_t_rcepts his vie.w.

THfs, however, is not the hiRory ofour fl_ecies_What comes from a fellow-creature is rege_y__with peculiar emotion; and every lan_aageahou_.dswith terms that exprefsfomewh.a t _tlt9 tranf_c-tions of men! d!fferer_ from _gefs a_-fflifappoi0t-menu The bofom kindles in company, whl3e_he point of intereft in view has nothing to in-flame; and a matter frivolous in iffelf_ becomesimportant, when it ferves to bring to l.ight _ in-tentions arid chara&ers qf mgn. The foreigj_er,who believed that Othello, on the ftage, was en-rage_ for _h lpf_ of lfi_ handk_chief, was _more miftaken, than the reafocer who imputes anyof the more vehement paffions of men to the im-pre_gns of mcra p_ofit'or !ofLE 3


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f4 Of Moral Sentiment. Part I.Mz_r affcmble to deliberate on bufinefs ; they

feparate from jeakmfies of intereft; but in theirf_mrat collifions, whether as friends or as enemies,a fire is Rruck but which the regards to intere_: orftff.ty eacmot confine. The v_lue 6( a favour is notmeafured when fentiments ofkindnefs are laerceiv-ed; and the term miffartune has but a feeble mean-ing, wken compared t6 that ofinfult and ,arong.2ks a&ors 6r _'pe&ators, we are perpetually madetb feel the di_erence of human condu6t, and from

a bare recital of tranfa&ions which have paffed in_es and countries remote from our own, aremoved with admiration and pity, or tranfportedwith indignatitm and rage. Our fenfibility on thisfubjec"tgives thdr charm in retirement, to the rela..tions of hiffory and to the fi&ions ofpoctryv fends_'orth the tear ofcompaflion_ gives to the blood itsbrifkeOc movement, and to the eye its livelieft

glances ofdifpleafure or joy. It turns human lifeinto an interef_ing fpe&acle, and perpetually foli-cits eveff the indolent to mix, as opponents orfriendsi ha the feenes whieh are a&ed before them._l_ined zo the powers of_ldiberation and real'on, itconftitutes thz bails of a moral nature; and, whit_it di-dtttL,,she terms of praife and of-blame,_fervesto dafs mar fellow-creatures, by the mope affmira--hie and engaging, or the molt odious anti con-temptible, dentaniaations." IT is pteafant to find men, who in their fpeca-

_latioas deny the reality"tff moral dit_.jn_tions, _for.,get


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lie&. 6. Of Moral Sentiment. __.get in detail the general pofitions theF runic,rain,;rod give loofe to ridicule, indignation, gnd forn,as if any of there fentiments could have place,were the ",_ions of men indifferent; or with acri-mony pretend to dete& the fraud by which moralreffraints have been impofed_ as if to cenfure,fraud _greno_ .already to t_.ke a part on the fideof morality *.

.CA,Jwe explain the principles upon which man*kind adjudge the pr_:ferenceof cho.rarters, q_dUl>-pn which they indulge fuch vehemengemotionsadmiration or contempt ? If it be admitted that wecannot, arc the fa&slefs true _ or muf_ we fufpendthe movements of the heart_until they who areem-ployed in _aming fyffemsqffcience hart difcovcr_-_! the principle from wki_h _ofe moeemen_s pro-ceed? If a finger burn_ we f:a_riot for informa-tion on the properties of fire : If the heart b e torn_or the mind overjoyed_ we have not leifiare forft_ecul_'_s or_the fubje_s of _or_l fenfibility,

IT is fOrtunate in this_ as in other articles towhich fpeculation and theory are applied, that na-ture proceeds in her couffe, whitt_ the curious areburied in the fearch of her principles. The pea-rant, or the child, can realon, _nd judge, andfpeak his |anguage, with a difcernment, a conlift-vncy, and a regard to analogy, which perplex the|og!c!an: the moralit'c, and the _raromafian,' when

#

E 4 they


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56 Of Moral Sentiment. Part I.they _ottld find the principle upon which the pro-ceeding is founded, or when they would bring togeneral rule, what is fo familiar, and fo well fur-rained in particular cafes. The felicity of our con-du& is more owing to the talent wepoffefs for de-tail, and to the fuggeffion of particular occafions,than it is to any dire&ion we can find ia theoryand general fpeculations.Wz mut_, in the refult of every inquiry, en-

counter with facts which we cannot explain ; andto bear with this mortification would fare us fre-quently a great deal offruitlefs trouble: Togetherwith the fenfeofourexiecence,we muff admit manycircumftances which come to ourknowledge at thefame time, and in the fame manner; and whichdo, in reality, conftitute the mode of our being.Every peafant wilt tell us, that a man hath hisrights; and that to trefpafs on thole rights is injuf-rice. If we alk him farther, what he mearJsby theterm right? we probably force him to fubffitute alefs fignificant, or lefsproper term, in the pl#ce ofthis ; or require him to account for what is an off-ginal mode of his mind, and a fentiment to g,hichhe ull:imatelyrefers, when hewould explain himfelftapon any particular application of his hnguage.

Taz rights of indb.;idualsmay relate to a va-r:retyof fubje&s, and i_ecomprehended under dif-f'erentheads. Pfmi'tO the eftablifhment of pro-pert)r, and the di_da_ion of rinks, men have a

right


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Be&. 6. Of Moral Benti_ent. _7right to defend their perfo_s, and to a& withfreedom _ they _ave a right to maintain tim ap-preh_fions If reafon, and the feelings of thehearts and t_ey cannot for a moment affociatetogether, without feel_g that the treatment theygive or receive may be juR or unjuR. It is not,however, our bufinefs here to_carry the notion ofa right into its feveral applications, but to reafonon the fentiment o_ favour with which that notionis entertained in the mind.IF it be true, that men are united by ini_in&,+that they a& in fociety from affections of kind-

nefs and fricndfhip ; if it be true, that even priorto acquaintance and habitude, men, as fuch, arecommonly to each other objet'ts of attention, androme degree of regard ; that while their profp-rity is beheld with indifference, their afflictionsare confidered with commiferation ; if calamitiesbe meafured by the numbers and the qualitiesof men they involve ; and if every fuffering of afellow-creature draws a croud of attentive fpecta-tots; if, even in the care of thofe to whom we donot habitually wilh any pofitive goad, we are Rillaverfe to be the inRruments of harm; it thouldrecto, that in there various appearances ofan ami-cable difpofition, the foundations of a moral ap-preh.enfion are fu_ciendy laid, and the ll;nfe of aright which we maimain for ouffelves, is by amovement of humanity and candour xtended toour fellow-creatures. WHAt


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5s Of Moral Sentim_t. Part I,W_mr is it that _m_mpts the tongue when we

cenfufe ap _& of cruelty or Opl_efiion ? What isit that confl:itutes our rel_raint fror_offences thattend to diflxefs our fellow-creatures ._ It is tproba-.bly, in both cafes, a pastielar application of that_.ndple, which, in prefence of the forrowfu],fends forth the tear'of compaJlion; and a combi-nation of all thole fendments, which conftitute abenevolent _fpMition ; and if.not a refolution todo good, at ]eaff an aveff_4m,_ M the in_Tumentof harm %* M_a_bkind we m_ tnld_m_, devoted to intqlet_; and this_

gq all commercial nations, is undoubtedly true : But it doesrot follow, _at they are, by the_ natara! d'ffpofidons, aveffeto foeiety.aad mutual affeOdon : Proofs of the contrary remain,even where interel_ triumphs moil What muE we think ofthe force of that difpofttion to compafllon, to can_.r, andgood.will, which, notwitMtmading the prevailing olx_aio_tthat the hat_pinefs of a man o4afttisin poffe_ng the g_. atetLlx_lible/hare of/_ehes, preferments, ,and hor_ourso flJl! keep_the parties Who are in competition for thole 6bjeO.s, on a to-lerable ft_tiag of amity, atad leads them to aMta_u even fromtheir own ftq_ffed good, wheta thetir feazing it aFpea_ in th_|ilia .of* dctrimemt to ott_r_ f Wha m_ht we not _..from the human heart in cixcumttances which px,evented thisapprehent/on on the fubje_t of fivttm_e, or Ender the influencef an opinion as ttmaly and geae,_ral as ,he former, thathuman fe|lcity does _ot o_fitL_ the indld_n_s of anima_appetite, bat in thofe of a boner,aleut heart i not ha fongneor intet_, but in the on_mpt of this very obje_, in thecourage an_dfreedom v_t_. afire from this eogt.fmpt, joined _f6tu_ehoice _x/adu_, dire_d to thegood of man-,find. _rto the_ _ _ .lm_c"uhr C_e_ to whi_ ca,.part'/belongs _

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IT maybe difficult, however, to enumerate themotives of .al!the cenfures and commendadonswhich are applied to the a&ionj of men. Evenwhile we morali;_e,every difpofition of the humanmind may haw its lhare i n forming the judgmenhand in prompting the tongue. Asjealoufy isoftenthe mot_ watchful guardian ofchaRity, fo malice isoften the quiekeOc_ofpythe failings ofour neigh-bour. Envy, affe&ation, and vanity, may di&atethe verdidiswegive, and thew6rft principles ofournature may be at the bottom ofourpretended zealfor morality; but if we only mean to inquire, whythey who arewell difpofed tomankind, apprehend,in every initance, certain rights pertaining t

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An Essay on the History of Civil Society (1767) - Adam Ferguson Facs Copy