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1
AN ASSESSMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND
REHABILITATION PRACTICES OF ARTISANAL AND SMALL-
SCALE MINERS IN OKPELLA, EDO STATE, NIGERIA.
BY
EDIAWE, JEREMIAH ROLAND
PG/MSC/09/54403
INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,
ENUGU CAMPUS.
DECEMBER, 2011.
2
AN ASSESSMENT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND
REHABILITATION PRACTIES OF ARTISANAL AND SMALL-SCALE
MINERS IN OKPELLA, EDO STATE, NIGERIA
A
PROJECT REPORT
BY
EDIAWE, JEREMIAH ROLAND
PG/MSC/09/54403
SUBMITTED
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
MASTER IN SCIENCE (M.SC) DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
TO
INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,
ENUGU CAMPUS.
SUPERVISOR: UMOH, B.D (MR)
DECEMBER, 2011.
3
CERTIFICATION
I hereby declare and certify that the work embodied in this project report is
my own and original. I further aver that to the best of my knowledge, it has
not be submitted before either in part or full for any degree or diploma of
this or other University/ Higher Institution of learning within or outside
Nigeria and that in all cases where other people’s ideas or works were used,
they have been duly acknowledged by complete references.
Signature ………………………………
Name ……………………………………
Date ………………………………………
4
APPROVAL PAGE
This research work has been read and certified as the original work of
Ediawe, Jeremiah Roland an M.Sc student with Reg. No.:
PG/M.SC/09/54403 of the Institute for Development Studies, University of
Nigeria, Enugu Campus.
The work has been approved as meeting the partial requirements of the
Institute for Development Studies, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus for
the award of Degree of Master of Science (M.Sc) in Development Studies.
_________________________ Date: __________________
Umoh, B.D.
Supervisor
_________________________ Date: __________________
Prof. Osita Ogbu
Director,
Institute for Dev. Studies,
University of Nigeria,
Enugu Campus.
5
DEDICATION
TO GOD BE THE GLORY
This project work is dedicated to my dear wife, children and my parents for
their love, support, understanding, encouragement and sacrifice and to all
who in one way or the other, the Lord Almighty have used to contribute to
my success in life.
6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to acknowledge with a deep sense of gratitude, the assistance of many
people who have in various ways contributed to the successful completion of
this study. Specifically, I wish to express heartfelt thanks to my supervision,
Mr. Umoh, B.D., for the patience, guidance and encouragement in shaping
and giving a direction to this research study. I am also grateful to staff
members at the Institute for Development Studies, University of Nigeria,
Enugu Campus for their listening ears, guidance and facilitation.
I am deeply indebted to my wife of inestimable value, and my lovely children
for their sacrifice, support, love, care and encouragement. Also I am greatly
indebted to my parents who in tears and pains laid the foundation of the
success story of my life today.
To all my class mates particularly James, Onah, Omenma, Francisca, Onoh,
Rev. Fr. Cyril, Ejike, Nkwuo and Igwielo thank you for the wonderful and
eventful time together, you will always be remembered. Above all, I give all
the honour and glory to God.
7
Table of Content
Certificate 3
Approval Page 4
Dedication 5
Acknowledgement 6
Table of Content 7
List of Abbreviations 9
Abstract 10
CHAPTER ONE
Introduction
1.1 Background to the study 11
1.2 Statement of the Problem 14
1.3 Objectives of the study 16
1.4 The research Question 17
1.5 Significance of the Study 18
1.6 Scope of the study 20
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review
2.1 Introduction 21
2.2 Brief History of Mining in Nigeria 22
2.3 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) Concept, 23
Definition and Characteristics
2.4 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining and Sustainable 30
People’s Livelihood
2.5 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining and Sustainable 37
Development
2.6 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining and the Environment 42
2.7 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining and Occupational
Health and Safely 54
2.8 Post Mining Activities and their environmental Implications 58
2.9 Imperative for a collection solution to Environmental
Problems of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining. 61
2.10 Imperative for a Collection Solution to Environmental
Problems of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining 67
8
CHAPTER THREE
Methodology
3.0 Introduction 70
3.1 Area of Study 70
3.2 Choosing a Methodological Approach 75
3.3 Why is Artisanal and Small – Scale Mining a Case Study? 77
3.4 Sampling Techniques 79
3.5 Sources of Data 80
3.6 Data Recording and Analysis 85
3.7 Trust Worthiness 87
CHAPTER FOUR
Data Presentation
4.0 Introduction 90
4.1 Who Engages in Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining 90
4.2 The Type of Mining Activities 94
4.3 Knowledge of and Attitude to Impact of Mining on the
Environment 97
4.4 The Mining Processes/Operations 97
4.5 Impact on the Environment/Mitigating Measures Adopted 100
4.6 Occupational Health and Safety 103
4.7 Regulatory and Operating Standards 106
CHAPTER FIVE
Discussion of Results 109
CHAPTER SIX
Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
6.1 Summary 118
6.2 Limitation of Study 120
6.3 Conclusion 121
6.4 Recommendation 123
References
Appendix I: Table of Findings
Appendix II: Questionnaires
9
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
ASM Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining
CASM Communities and Small-Scale Mining
CBOs Community Based Organizations
DFID Department for International Development
GDP Gross Domestic Products
HDI Human Development Index
IIED International Institute for Environment and Development
ILO International Labour Organization
MCO Mining Cadastre Office MDGs Millennium Development Goals
ML Mining Lease
MMSD Ministry of Mineral and Steel Development
MMSD Mining, Mineral and Sustainable Development
NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations
NEMA National Emergency Management Authority
NMMA Nigeria Minerals and Mining Act
SAP Structural Adjustment Programme
SIDA Swedish International Development Co-operation Agency
SMMRP Sustainable Management of Mineral Resources Project
SSML Small – Scale Mining Lease
UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
QL Quarry Lease
WHO World Health Organization
10
ABSTRACT
The presence of informal economy in our rural communities has been
recognized for broadening income, livelihood strategies and social equity in
face of growing poverty away from purely crop and livestock production
towards non-farm activities. Among the non-farm informal activities is
Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) which is a mineral extraction activity
that involves the mining and quarrying of industrial minerals and construction
materials with the use of rudimentary tools coupled with intensive labour
activities like digging, breaking and carrying by hands as found among the
people of Okpella and other rural mining communities across Nigeria.
The activities of these classes of miners are usually illegal and employ mining
processes that poses potential negative impact on the environment, both
during and after the mining operations. It is in this context therefore, that this
research study seeks to assess the environmental impact rehabilitation
practices of artisanal and small scale miners with the aim of addressing the
environmental degradation and health problems and concerns arising from
their operations in Okpella.
The study relied on information collected qualitatively through individual
interviews coupled with personal observations in addition to documented data
from published an unpublished articles and works. The research findings
revealed that the mining activities causes environment degradation and poses
health problems to the mining communities and the people. The findings
further showed that little or no efforts have been made to address these
problems and concerns both by the miners, community members and
government regulatory agencies.
In view of these findings, the study puts forward a number of
recommendations focusing on legislation, regulatory and operational policies
all aimed at formalizing and mainstreaming the miners operations into the
nation’s formal mining sector and to evolve not only a sustainable
development but a sound environmentally sustainable artisanal and small
scale mining activities in Nigeria.
11
Chapter One
Introduction.
1.1 Background to the Study
Most studies and intervention programmes carried out on rural areas
especially in developing nations have tended to focus more on
agriculture. There tend to be an erroneous general agreement that
everything rural has to do with agriculture. In contrast to this
position, Brycenson (2002) noted that rural communities are not
totally depended on agriculture but also on other non-agricultural
(farm) activities too. In an earlier work by Colman and Garbett (1976),
they aptly captured this stand when they stated that “Agriculture” and
“Rural” are often used interchangeably, with a similar tendency as
equating “Industrial” with “Urban”. They pointed out that the rural
areas contain much more economic activities even in poor countries
than just primary agriculture, which is farming. Wilmot (1977) in the
same vain posited that the old held belief is that rural development
mainly concerns farm families living in rural communities.
The Swedish International Development Co-operation Agency, SIDA
(2004) acknowledges the importance of non-agricultural activities in
providing employment to 80% of the Africans population, as well as
income to 30-50 percent of households in sub-Sahara Africa and Asia.
Smith (2001) asserts that the presence of “informal economy” in rural
areas has been recognized for broadening income and livelihood
strategies away from purely crop and livestock production towards
both farm and non-farm activities among which is artisanal and small
scale mining.
12
The International Labour Organization, ILO (1999) defines Artisanal
and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) as a mineral extraction activity that
involves the mining and quarrying of industrial minerals and
construction materials such as limestone, coal, zinc, gypsum, clay,
gold, feldspar and granite among others and involves the use of
rudimentary tools such as hoes, pick axes, chisels and shovels,
coupled with labour activities like digging, breaking, panning, sorting
and carrying by hand. Statistics by ILO (1999) revealed that close to
80-100 million households and an estimate of 13 million workers are
directly engaged in Artisanal and Small Scale Mining (ASM) worldwide
and out of this population, about one million are children aged
between 5 and 17 years. Hoadley and Limpithaw (2004), also
estimates that globally, about 13 million people earn their living
directly from artisan and small-scale mining and up to 100 million
people depend on the sector and that these activities often cause
extreme environmental and social impacts and seldom contribute to
government revenue.
Nigeria as a nation is rich in solid mineral resources with proven
reserve in 33 types of minerals in over 400 locations (Lawal, 2002).
Ironically, solid mineral exploitation constitute a more 1% of its GDP
as most of the mining activities are still mainly carried out at the
informal sector with over 95% of mining activities being artisanal and
small scale of which 95% of these are illegal (Uzoka, 2001).
Governments in most countries, Nigeria inclusive regard ASM as an
illegal activity. The consequent lack of adequate regulatory and policy
13
framework do prevent formalization of this sector. This, in turn,
makes improvement in the livelihood of miners and their dependent
communities difficult to achieve. Most importantly, this absence of
formalization also makes improvements in environmental performance
much more problematic. No doubt, artisanal and small scale mining
can be extremely environmentally damaging and often has serious
health and safety consequences for the workers and surrounding
communities. This is generally due to poor practices in mining and
processing target minerals (Hentschel et al, 2003).
The nature of mining processes especially as employed by the
artisanal and small scale miners creates a potential negative impact
on the environment, both during the mining operations and for years
after the mine is closed. The impact has led to most of the world’s
nations adopting regulations to moderate the negative effects of
mining operations on the environment. These environmental issues
and concerns include erosions, formation of sinkholes, and loss of
biodiversity and contamination of soil, groundwater and surface water
by chemicals from mining processes which in turn creates safety and
health challenges to the people living within and around the mining
communities (Adekoya, 2003).
Oota (2011) quoting the National Emergency Management Agency
(NEMA), disclosed that “more than 400 infants have died and over 500
persons were admitted in various hospital in Zamfara state as a result
of the outbreak of lead poisoning just as experts have blamed illegal
miners for the scourge.” Reacting to the allegation of government’s
14
negligence at the heat of the crisis in December 2010, Governor Aliyu
Shinkafi of Zamfara state was reported as saying in the Leadership
Newspaper of 18, December 2010 that his administration has taken
all necessary steps to curb illegal mining in the state, however, that
such measure were overwhelmed by the high number of illegal
artisanal and small scale miners.
According to him, there exists an estimated number of over 10,000
illegal miners between two local government of Anka and Burkkuyum
engaged in the mining of gold, which in the process, washes away lead
contents into and contaminates their wells, streams and rivers which
serves as their only sources of drinking water that eventually led to
the poisoning incident. It is against this backdrop of the lead
poisoning incidence and many other unreported cases of
environmental degradation, health and safety concerns arising from
mining activities in our rural mining communities that necessitated
this study which focuses on the environmental issues in relation to
artisanal and small scale mining activities in Okpella, Edo states.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Mining operations worldwide comes with their associated
environmental, health and safety problems and challenges. Nigeria
according to Lawal (2002) possesses proven reserves in 33 types of
minerals in over 400 locations. The Ministry of Minerals and Steel
Development, MMSD (2008), states that the Federal Government of
15
Nigeria has mapped out strategies for the entire mining sector to tap
its potentials as a source of major foreign earnings and wealth
creation to the government and people of Nigeria. Specifically, the
ministry has evolved strategies for the development of Artisanal and
Small Scale Mining (ASM) operations in the country through the
Sustainable Management of Mineral Resources Project (SMMRP), a
World Bank assisted project with the ministry as the implementing
agency which is part of the larger governments efforts at diversifying
the nation’s economy with a view to meeting the vision 20, 2020.
Ofikhena (2010) reported that the project (SMMRP) has started
yielding results as production in artisanal and small scale mining
sector has recorded 500 percent increase in production of some
project beneficiaries. Quoting Kunle Bolukojo, ASM Grant National
Co-ordinator of SMMRP, “the quarterly report we got from Sokoto, the
Gypsum Miners Association report for the last quarter of 2009 shows
an increase of 500 percent at least for a start. The Abaomoge Women,
who were producing one truck in a week, now produces one truck in a
day. It is well above 500 percent increase and this will now culminate
in increased earnings for them”.
No doubt, any success story of good performance from any non-oil
sector will be a welcome development to the government and people of
Nigeria especially when the focus of all is the diversification of the
nation’s economy thereby reducing its reliance on crude oil earnings.
However, studies have shown that the environmental costs of ASM are
in general higher than those of other types of mining. This means that
16
ASM is dirtier per unit of output than medium-sized or large and
modern mining operations. Another problem of ASM is the great
individual number of polluters, normally concentrated in a specific
area, which causes significant local impact. It is also very difficult to
control or monitor environmental violations or enforce regulations
because of the lack of resources and the inaccessible nature of most
operations (Hentschel et al 2003). Arising from these issues therefore,
the pertinent question is “how do we define, regulate and enforce the
desirable conditions for a sound environmentally sustainable artisanal
small-scale mining sector whose operations depend on the exploitation
of a non-renewable resource?”
The overriding purpose of this study therefore, is to assess the level of
understanding and attitude of local miners in Okpella to the
environmental issues arising from their operations, and the
remedial/rehabilitation practices being undertaken by the miners,
aimed at addressing the environmental, health, and safety concerns.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
This study will specifically focus on artisanal and small scale miners
of granite, feldspar and limestone which are some of the predominant
rural informal activities that have engaged Okpella residents for about
two decades now.
Specifically, the study is aimed at:
i. Determining those that are engaged in the mining activities in
Okpella, methods and processes employed and their level of
awareness, understanding and attitude to the environmental,
17
health and safety issues and concerns arising from their
operations.
ii. Assessing the rehabilitation and remedial practices being put in
place by the miners to address these issues and concerns, and
their effectiveness.
iii. Assessing the roles of the supervisory and regulatory agencies in
ensuring, a clean and sustainable environmentally friendly
artisanal and small scale mining operation by the miners
through education, regulation and enforcement of standards.
1.4 The Research Questions
Arising from the objectives of the study, the following research
questions are posed.
i. Who are engaged in artisanal and small scale mining of granite,
feldspar and limestone in Okpella.
ii. What are the environmental issues, concerns and their impacts
arising from the mining activities on the immediate and
surrounding environments?
iii. Does the knowledge, appreciation and positive attitude of
miners in Okpella of the effects, of their operations on the
environment influences their practices of remedial and
rehabilitation programmes?
iv. In all these, what are the roles and concerns of operating
community members and relevant government agencies to the
environmental concerns and issues arising from the mining
operations?.
18
1.6 Significance of the Study
The Federal Government of Nigeria has over the past decade embarked
on extensive review of the solid mineral sector, starting with the
creation of a Federal Ministry of Solid Mineral Development in 1995.
This was structured to offer a viable alternative to petroleum for
foreign exchange earnings, creating the much needed employment as
well as contributing to the country’s overall economic development.
This was followed with the signing into law of the Nigeria Mineral and
Mining Act (NMMA) of 2007 to regulate all mining activities in the
country.
In recognition of the Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM)
importance and potentials to raise internal revenue, create
employment, reduce poverty through wealth creation especially in
rural areas, an Artisanal an Small-Scale Mining (ASM) Department
was established in the Federal Ministry of Mineral and Steel
Development (MMSD) to develop and mainstream the activities of ASM
operators who are largely illegal miners into the national minerals
development framework. In recognition of the critical role this sub-
sector can play in the nations’ quest for rapid economic development
especially at the rural communities level, this study will therefore, be
of significance to the Government at all levels, Non-Governmental
Organizations (NGOs), the Mining Communities, International
Development Partners, the Mining Operators and the Financial
Institutions as its findings and recommendations will help them in
policy formulation and implementation especially as it relates to:
19
i. Design of policies and programmes aimed at mainstreaming
this often neglected but vital informal sector into a veritable
vehicle to transforming the socio-economic lives of the rural
people in mining communities across the country.
ii. Enhance the sustainable management of mineral resources
with focus on local (illegal) miners in light of the fact that
their operations are currently largely unguided,
unregulated, un-trained which cumulatively helps in their
high contribution to environmental degradation.
iii. Help to bring to the fore the knowledge gap (if any) on
environmental issues and concerns among artisanal and
small scale miners and their operating community members
and proffering appropriate solutions.
iv. Help in meeting the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
especially in relation to goal (7) seven aimed at ensuring
environmental sustainability.
v. Serve as a resources and reference document to future
researchers on environmental issues in relation to mining
industry in Nigeria.
vi. Serve as a resources and reference document to the
Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) Department of the
Federal Ministry of Mineral and Steel Development and
other government environmental safety, protection and
regulatory agencies in the design of policies and
programmes aimed at addressing environmental issues.
20
1.6 Scope of the Study
The extraction and exploitation of solid mineral resources in Edo State
are mainly carried out in Etsako East and Akoko Edo Local
Government Areas of the state. The study is limited to the extraction
and exploitation of solid mineral by local miners classified as artisanal
and small scale miners in Okpella Clan of Etsako East Local
Government.
Specifically, the study covers artisanal miners of granite, limestone
and feldspar who extracts these natural resources using rudimentary
tools coupled with labour intensive activities as well as small scale
miners engaged in the mining of these three natural resources that
employs the use of limited mechanized operations either through the
use of explosives in extraction or in processing of extracted materials
into semi industrial raw materials and engages a labour force of not
more than ten workers. In all, the miners are those that either mines
the natural resources for their personal/household use or as a means
of livelihood being for commercial purposes.
Also, the study will attempt to look at environmental and health
related problems and concerns arising from artisanal and small scale
mining operations especially in the areas of degradation of land and
vegetation, water pollution, air, noise and vibration pollution,
degradation of natural landscape, geological and radiation hazards
and occupational health and safety of the miners and community
members.
21
Chapter Two
Literature Review
2.0 Introduction
Several researches and studies have been conducted on mining and
its effects as well as contributions to economic development of
countries endowed with mineral resources. Whereas some studies
highlight the benefits of mining to economic development, others focus
on the negative impacts of mining on the overall development of such
economies. However, not much attention has been given to Artisanal
and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) an important sub-sector within the
mining sector in terms of research and studies.
This chapter reviews what has been documented regarded mining and
artisanal and small scale mining as a concept and its characteristics.
It also, attempts a brief history of the Nigeria mining industry and the
relationship between artisanal and small scale mining, sustainable
development and people’s livelihood and most importantly, its impact
on the environment and health of the people living in mining
communities with emphasizes on their concerns and challenges with
respect to degradation of land and vegetation, water pollution, air,
noise and vibration pollution, degradation of natural landscape,
geological and radiation hazards, occupational health and safety
issues through to proffering possible strategies and solutions aimed at
achieving an artisanal and small scale mining sector that does not
only contributes to human livelihoods and growth but also
sustainable and environmental friendly.
22
2.1 Brief History of Mining in Nigeria
Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological
materials from the earth, usually from an ore body, vein or coal seam.
The term also includes the removal of soil. Minerals recovered by
mining include based metals, precious metals, irons, uranium, coal,
diamond, limestone, oil shale, rock, salt and potash. Any material that
cannot be grown through agricultural processes, or created artificially
in a laboratory or factory, is usually mined. Mining in a wider sense
comprises extraction of any non-renewable resources (Ibrahim et al,
2010). Warhurst (1999) asserted that the term “mining” covers all
aspect of metal production, including mine development, extraction,
smelting, re-mining and waste management. Hence, mining is
regarded as the process through which man wins minerals from the
earth and turns them into valuable goods for his use. The process of
mining according to Dung-Gwon (2007) among others involves;
i. Exploration
ii. Exploitation (extraction)
iii. Processing
iv. Re-mining
v. Waste management
vi. Mine closure and
vii. Post-mining activities
Mining of stones and metal has been taking place since pre-historic
times. Modern and organized mining began in Nigeria in 1903 with the
Mineral Survey of the Northern Protectorate by the British colonial
23
government. A year later, the Mineral Survey of the Southern
Protectorate was made. The first legislation on mining was enacted in
1946 which was only reviewed in 1999 before the present operational
Nigeria Mineral and Mining Act (NMMA), 2007 (Chaada et al, 2010).
By the 1940s, Nigeria was a major producer of tin, columbite and coal.
The discovery of oil in 1956 hurt the mineral extraction industry as
government and industry operators both began to focus on this new
resource. Also, the Nigeria civil war in the late 1960s led to the exodus
from the country by many expatriate mining experts. The cumulative
effects of these developments greatly affected the mining industry to
the extent that the sector now only account for 0.3% of the nation’s
Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
Also, the Nigeria domestic mining industry is so under-developed to
the extent that the nation imports minerals that it could produced
domestically such as salt or iron ore. (MMSD, 2008). Ironically,
Nigeria is richly endowed in minerals resources, there are about thirty
four (34) different solid minerals in the country and these are located
in various parts of the federation. The former Minister of Solid
Minerals Development (Oby Ezekwesili) had noted that solid minerals
are found in more than 450 different locations in Nigeria. Some of
these include, tantalite, Kaolin, mica, barite, coal, gypsum, feldspar,
gold, clays, limestone, columbite, tin, bitumen, lead, zinc, iron ore,
marble, gemstone etc (ibid).
24
Mining regulation is handled by the Federal Ministry for Minerals and
Steel Development (MMSD), Abuja which oversees the management of
all mineral resources. Mining law is codified in the Nigeria Mineral and
Mining Act (NMMA) of 2007. Historically, Nigeria mining industry was
monopolized by state-owned public corporations such as the Nigeria
Coal Corporation, Enugu and the Nigeria Mining Company, Jos.
Characteristic of all public enterprises in Nigeria, they were
mismanaged which led to a decline in production and in some
instance complete close of operations. The process of selling-off these
corporations to private investors began with the coming of the civilian
dispensation in 1999.
The collapse of the big mining companies in the early 1970s led to
massive unemployment of mine workers without any means of
livelihood. Many of them went into illegal mining activities to survive.
Also, the increased global demand for solid mineral and the
introduction of Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP), created a
ready market for products of illegal mining activities, this led to the
emergence of middlemen and mineral smugglers. The official response
to these phenomena was wild and not sustained. Illegal mining
activities have continued to flourish uncensored due mainly to lack of
alternative gainful employment and lack of capacity by the relevant
government agencies to effectively regulate, supervise and monitor
their activities. Government cannot longer ignore these illegal
activities because of the huge revenue loss and the attendant
environmental degradation as well as other social problems (Chaanda
et al, 2010).
25
2.2 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM): Concept, Definition
and Characteristics.
Broadly speaking, artisanal and small-scale mining refers to mining
by individuals, groups, families or cooperatives with minimal or no
mechanization, often in the informal (illegal) sector of the economy.
Despite many attempts, a common definition of artisanal and small-
scale mining has yet to be established. In some countries a distinction
is made between “artisanal mining” that is purely manual and on a
very small scale, and “small-scale mining” that has some
mechanization and is on a bit large scale. In some West Africa
countries for example Mali, small scale mining is differentiated from
artisanal mining by the presence of permanent, fixed installations that
are established once an ore is confirmed. (Hentschel et al, 2003).
However, in Nigeria, there is no distinction between artisanal and
small scale mining, hence the creation of a department of Artisanal
and Small-scale Mining (ASM) in the Ministry of Mineral and Steel
Development, Abuja, charged with the responsibility to organize,
support and promote Artisanal and Small-scale Mining (ASM).
Using the legal rubric governing mining activities in different
countries, it is possible to group together the criteria normally used
and stratify the mining industry. In particular artisanal and small-
scale mining activities may be categorized. This does not exclude the
simultaneous use of more than one criterion. There are countries that
have programmes for small mining such as Nigeria despite the fact
26
that their activities are largely unrecognized by the mining laws of
these countries.
Chaparro (2000) postulated the following criteria in the determination
of artisanal and small-scale mining:
i. Production volume
ii. Number of people per production unit
iii. Intensity (volume) of capital employed
iv. Labour productivity
v. Size of mine claimed
vi. Quantity of reserve
vii. Sale volume
viii. Operational continuity
ix. Operational reliability and
x. Duration of the mining cycle
Each of these criteria has its advantages and difficulties depending on
the country, type of mining, mineral produced, political conditions
and the number of miners in each country.
While many attempts have been made to define artisanal and small-
scale mining, a common definition of the term has still not been
found. Previous definitions made use of the limited investment volume
of the operation, the small work force or the limited mineral
production. The local definition varies from country to country
according to the macro economic situation, the geological framework,
the mining history and the legal conditions. Artisanal and small scale
mining has been in existence in Africa for a long time. Its definition
often times is limited into two types: the artisanal miner who has
27
made mining a permanent profession and the seasonal artisanal and
small-scale miner who operates occasionally and migrates frequently
in search of fortune. Nevertheless, artisanal and small-scale mining
according to Hentschel et al (2003) is characterized by a number of
conditions principal among which are:
i. Lack of or limited use of mechanization and lot of physically
demanding work
ii. Low level of occupational safety and health care
iii. Poor qualification of personnel at all level of the operation
iv. Inefficiency in exploitation and processing of mineral
production (low recovery value)
v. Exploitation of marginal and/or very small deposits, which are
not economically exploitable by mechanized mining
vi. Low level of productivity
vii. Low level of salaries and income
viii. Lack of social security
ix. Insufficient consideration of environmental issues and
x. Chronic lack of working and investment capital
Looking at Artisanal and Small- Scale Mining within the Nigeria
context, Coppin (2005) in the Final Report by Wardell Armstrong in a
commissioned project: Sectoral Environmental and Social Assessment
under the Nigeria Sustainable Management of Mineral Resources
Project (SMMRP) a World Bank/FGN Sponsored Project, asserted that
Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) operations dominate mining
in Nigeria, particularly from around 1903 up till 1940s when there
was an amalgamation into more commercial large ventures and that
28
however, there was a re-emergence of ASM outfits especially for metals
and gemstones after independence in 1970s resulting from the
declining tin prices, civil war (1967-1970) and other factors. The
report further posited that today, the situation in the ASM sector in
Nigeria has been described by some as utterly chaotic with virtual
breakdown in law and order in the mining areas (especially since the
dissolution of the mines field police force). It however noted that this
disorganized sector probably provides a rural livelihood to many
thousands of informal artisanal miners in Nigeria in all the six
regional mining zones. That since there is currently no clear definition
of ASM in Nigeria, and because the vast majority of these miners work
casually, seasonally or informally, it is impossible to determine the
actual number of workers in the ASM sector, which some claim may
be as many as 400,000 people.
According to the report, as with many other Africa countries, the
Nigeria ASM sector is characterized by:
i. Abject poverty – with many rural Nigerians living in an
increasingly vulnerable environment and faced with dwindling
livelihood choices (70% of Nigerians live on < 140 N1day and
90% on < 300 N 1day)
ii. Seasonality – subsistence farmers mine in the dry season when
there is less agriculture work in order to supplement their
meager incomes.
iii. Economic Stagnation – many Nigerians have been forced into the
ASM sector during continued periods of national economic
decline.
29
iv. Rush/Migratory Miners – some Nigerians have been suddenly
drawn into mining following the discovery of new minerals
reserves especially gemstone.
v. Illegality – the vast majority of miners and sponsors are
operating without valid license and many artisanal miners have
illegally invaded concessions covered by Exclusive Prospecting
Licenses (EPLs) and dormant Mining Leases (MLs).
vi. Large Scale Mining (LSM) Retrenchment – Nigerians have been
forced to seek informal work due to insolvency of the Nigerian
Mining Corporation, subsidiary mining parastatals and
companies.
vii. Commodity Prices – the number of miners has also fluctuated
with the international demand – and thus price – for a
particular mineral e.g. Coltan.
viii. FGN Apathy – in the past, the FGN has neglected the sector and
been unsure as to what their long-term goals were for the
sector. The FGN may have been caught between the shorter-
term national economic benefits that could be gained from
encouraging foreign Large Scale Mining (LSM) versus the
idealized vision of having a formalized, mainly local, ASM sector.
ix. ASM Policy – there is a lack of appropriate policy and
institutional capacity in Nigeria to help formalize and assist the
ASM sector.
x. Rural Education – there are declining levels of education in
mining regions - poor educational facilities and low quality of
education.
30
xi. Rural Health – there are deteriorating health conditions in
mining areas (including malaria and the growing threat of
HIV/AIDS that has already ravaged other parts of the
continent).
In all, artisanal and small-scale mining is a significant sector with
potentials to providing livelihood for millions of people around the
world Nigeria being no exception and can also produce a sizeable
proportion of the world’s extractive commodities. Thus, it is an
important sector that the international community can ill afford to
discount or overlook. Not only are the social consequences for
disregarding this sub-sector high, but the sector has the potential to
provide substantial benefits to efforts focused on reducing poverty and
stimulating economic growth which, in turn, could contribute
significantly to political and economic stability especially to solid
mineral endowed developing nations such as Nigeria.
2.3 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining and Sustainable People’s
Livelihood
“Sustainable livelihoods” is a development concept that has been
around since the 1990s. It is widely thought to have originated from
the United Nations systems, particularly the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED). Sustainable
livelihood can be seen as a goal that communities wish to attain and
covers such socio-economic factors as employment, education, access
to infrastructural services, health care and investments. However, it is
also a development approach whereby communities are at the centre
31
of all the processes, and are making decisions that affects how they
sustain themselves. Sustainable livelihood approaches supports
interventions that lead to development (DFID, 1999).
A livelihood according to Chambers and Conway (1991) comprises of
capabilities, assets both material and social resources, and activities
required for a means of living. A livelihood is considered sustainable
when it can cope with and recover from stress and shocks, maintain
or enhance its capabilities and assets, and provide sustainable
opportunities for the next generation; and contribute net benefit to
other livelihoods at the local and global levels and in long and short
term.
Ellis (2000) also defined livelihood in relation to assets and activities,
influenced by social relations, gender, class, kin and institutions.
Helmore and Singh (2001), identify a sustainable livelihood as one
that maintains ecological integrity of the environment. Thus, a
livelihood is considered environmentally and socially sustainable if it
maintains or improves the local and global assets and is able to
recover from stress and shocks and the assets are able to provide for
future generations.
From a livelihoods perspective, artisanal and small scale mining is
often poverty driven and located in rural areas. Miners are generally
unskilled and earn little. According to Hentschel et al (2003)
individuals may be involved in a number of different types of artisanal
and small scale activities such as:
32
i. Gold or diamond-rush, which is characterized by unstable
communities which are prone to conflict.
ii. Temporary artisanal and small-scale mining activities fuelled
by economic recession. Examples are available from
Zimbabwe, Peru, Venezuela and Bolivia (all gold mining).
Initially unstable communities with high population
fluctuations may disappear after some years or evolve into
long-term settlements.
iii. Isolated and remote artisanal and small-scale mining
activities with little or no involvement with nearby
communities.
iv. Seasonal artisanal and small-scale mining activities within
an agricultural cycle. This is possibly the most common
activity and normally stable communities are involved and
v. Traditional year-round artisanal and small-scale mining
activities, which are generally associated with stable
communities.
A principal development issue is how to ensure that ASM does not
harm the community, but creates the basis for poverty reduction and
sustainable development. How this can be achieved depends partly on
the nature of the mining for example, if exploitation is sudden such as
in rush activities and short lived, particular efforts should be made to
stabilize the local community. In the case of remote, seasonal
operations the main issue will be how to integrate the ASM sector into
the local community and encourage the business to invest their profits
33
in other forms of economic activity and services such as farming,
animal husbandry, petty trading, schools and health services.
According to Hoadley and Limpitlaw (2004) ASM can be used to
promote the sustainability of poor people’s livelihood in four inter-
related ways:
i. Improving the community’s ability to cope with, and recover
from, shocks and stresses;
ii. Promoting ecological integrity by ensuring that livelihood
activities do not irreversibly degrade natural resources
within a given ecosystem;
iii. Improving economic effectiveness, or the use of minimal
inputs to generate a given amount of output; and
iv. Enhancing social-equity, which suggests that promotion of
livelihood opportunities for one group, should not reduce
options for other groups, either now or in the future.
In the same vain, the United Nations Department for Economic and
Social Affairs has developed an interesting sustainable livelihood
approach for artisanal mining community which is currently under
pilot implementation in Mali, Ethiopia, Ghana and Guinea. The main
recommendations for this approach, according to Labonne and
Gilman (1999) are:
i. Mainstreaming poverty eradication into national
policymaking in all sectors including mineral.
ii. Promoting artisanal and small-scale mining as a catalyst and
anchor for other productive activities to stimulate the
34
development of complementary and alternative productive
ventures necessary for sustainable poverty alleviation.
iii. Placing people first through both pro-poor strategies and
participatory strategies aimed at strengthening the
organizational capabilities of grassroots’ communities,
thereby favoring of bottom-up approach.
iv. Reversing the focus from “hand-on state intervention” (which
has rarely been successful) to the creation of private
enterprises, particularly micro enterprise or cooperatives.
In all these, the organizational aspects play a key role in this context.
In the view of Hentsche et al (2003), the common tools for supporting
the ASM sector with a view to meeting people’s livelihood can be
implemented by improving:
i. Organizational and legal support
ii. Access to prospective land
iii. Training
iv. Dissemination of best practices
v. Business management
vi. Availability of micro-credits and other instruments; and
vii. Use of revenue.
Hoadley and Limpitlaw (2004) are strongly of the assertion that ASM
holds a huge potential for the transformation and building of different
capitals for sustainable livelihoods and proffered some measures to be
taken by all stakeholders with active state support as follow:
35
1. Formations of ASMs into co-operatives and associations which
will increase:
(i) Social capital, by involving ASM in formal and informal
networks.
(ii) Human capital, by making it possible to access training to
skills and information relevant to the sector
(iii) Physical capital, by improving access to appropriate
technology and
(iv) Natural capital, by the exploitation of viable ore bodies.
Co-operatives and associations have internal self-regulation,
and hold greater potentials for ASM to contribute to economic
efficiency and environmental integrity. Also, co-operatives and
associations reduce marginalization, open access to funding,
training, technology, extension services (building social, human,
and physical capital).
2. Legalized buying and selling channels to ensure fair prices to
the miners. This will put the state in a good stead to insist on
licensing and payment of taxes by ASMs, thus, making it a
viable and veritable source of revenue to the government coffers.
3. Legalizing the sector will put a stop to present practice of
operating outside the law which breeds and increases social
instability and decrease access to social security nets, health
and educational services.
4. More involvement of NGOs and development agencies. To this
end, extension services to ASM operators should be encouraged
and adequately resourced. Their involvement can also
36
compensate for lack of enforcement and monitoring which will
increase natural, economic and social capital.
5. The formed associations and co-operatives by ASM operators
can augment government capacity to enforce rules and monitor
their operations as such associations are better placed to
ensure members recognize their responsibility towards the
surrounding community and accept responsibility for a large
degree of self-regulation.
Finally, the potentials for ASM to enhance peoples’ livelihood and
poverty reduction is not in doubt as the correlation between low
Human Development Index (HDI) and high employment in the ASM
sector in mineral endowed developing nations, clearly emphasizes the
poverty alleviation potentials that the poor people see and to some
extent, find in Artisanal and Small-scale Mining (ASM). Thus,
government especially in mineral endowed developing countries
wishing to address poverty need to focus much more on this sub-
sector, where a large percentage of their citizens are daily trying to
earn a livelihood in adverse conditions with significant negative effect
on local communities and the environment.
37
2.4 Artisanal and Small - Scale Mining, and Sustainable
Development
The inevitable co-existence of development and resource utilization led
to the development of the concept of sustainable development. The
term was first used in early 1980s in the World Commission on
Environment and Development through the report; “Our Common
Future” (Hettne, 1995).
With emphasis on sustainability, development is define as “one that
meets the present needs without compromising the ability of the
future generations to meet their own needs” (Potter et al, 1999). The
issue of meeting people’s need and preserving natural resources
became a global concern with consequential international conferences
such as the Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, followed by
the Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg a decade
later. During these meetings, it became widely accepted that
development and the biophysical environment were inseparable and
that one was interdependently connected to the other. At its core,
sustainable development seek to open a path by which economic
development can progress, whilst simultaneously enhancing human
development and ensuring the long term viability of those natural
system on which development depends.
Dreschler (2001) supplement that the concept of sustainable
development was as a result of increased awareness of how finite
resources such as mineral would be preserved and at the same time
support livelihood. The utilization of non-renewable resources
therefore engaged looking beyond ecological sustainability. With
38
respect to artisanal and small scale mining, emphasis should be
placed on other activities which would sustain a community long after
the minerals were depleted. Hence sustainable development in mining
in general should be such that ensures efficient mining to minimize
environmental impact and rehabilitation of abandon mines to make
land useful for other users.
For example, Aguigwo (1997) estimates that the extent of landscape
originally disturbed by the tin mining operations on the Jos Plateau is
put at 325KM2 which represents more than 17% of the agricultural
land within the 8,600KM2 of the entire Jos Plateau region, the bulk of
which is virtually covered by rock outcrops. Also, in an article by
Ibrahim et al in the Leadership Newspaper of December 18, 2010, it
was reported that a check conducted by the writers revealed that
there are more than (1000) one thousand abandon mining ponds, the
relics of the colonial mining activities of tin and columbite in Jos
Plateau which now poses all sorts of environmental hazards to the
people of the state.
While it is difficult to define sustainability for an operation that
exploits a non-renewable resource, Hentscel et al (2003) drew up
desirable conditions which could guide us in defining and determine
the contribution of artisanal and small-scale mining to sustainable
development. The desirable conditions are:
i) Artisanal and small scale mining should make a positive
contribution to the rural and regional development.
39
ii) Activities should operate legally in harmony with national
mining sector development policies and existing legal
framework.
iii) Operations should comply with international social
standards, such as social security, occupational health
and safety, labour regulations (including ILO convention
about child labour), access to social infrastructure
(schooling, medical etc) and an acceptable level of income.
iv) Operations should be environmentally sound.
v) There should be no conflict between small miners and
local communities and no degradation of traditional
values.
vi) There should be harmony between small and large mining
operations
vii) Exploitation should concentrate on products with high
recovery value and systematically develop these deposits.
viii) There should be continuous operation over a longer
period of time.
Given the great importance of the employment opportunities, wealth
creation and poverty reduction in the rural mining communities
context; the potential for a beneficial contribution is very high.
However, environmental and social concerns must be integrated into
any mining operation so as to make it sustainable as the challenge
faced by most mining developing nations today especially with respect
to artisanal and small-scale mining lies being able to balancing the
economic benefits of mining with the environmental and social cost of
40
the activity. To the extent to which a positive balance is achieved
makes the difference between nations.
In the opinion and view of Hentschel et al (2003), there is the urgent
need to create a straightforward, steady sustainable development in
the artisanal and small-scale mining sub-sector that will best place it
to contribute to rural development and its integration into the formal
economy by governments of mining nations through sound policies
which will be based on four strategic pillars of poverty alleviation, a
good business climate for the artisanal and small-scale mining sub-
sector, sustainability, and stabilization of government revenue from
the sector.
41
Figure I
The Four Main Strategic Pillars of Good Governmental Policy for
Effective Contribution of ASM to Sustainable Development.
Source: Hentschel et al (2003).
Alleviate Poverty
Through ASM:
* Regional /Local economic development: coordinate efforts with government institutions, miners and community-based organizations towards sustainable contribution from ASM.
Ensure Sustainability:
* Environmental and occupation health management to mitigate risks to the poor.
Good governance of mineral (respect and implement mining code )
Improved Business climate for legal ASM:
Enabling environment: legal/regulatory adaptations, incentives for legal operation and legalization, organization and institutional building
Establish extension services delivery towards ASM community and mineral-based Industries.
Stabilize Macroeconomic Fiscal Regimes:
Sustainable management of mining taxation revenue
Promote opportunities for adding value to mineral production in the country
Avoid black market
Integrated
Management
Of
ASM
42
They went further to develop some tools which will help governments
to meet these objectives among which are:
i. Demand – oriented extension services (legal,
organizational, economic and technical) for the sub-sector
ii. An incentive scheme for legal ASM operations (including
tax aids for young business, exemptions from import
duties, access to finance, free markets and improved
export facilities).
iii. The integration of all relevant government institutions into
the sector policy implementation (finance ministry, mining
ministry, social issue authorities, provincial and local
administration).
iv. A transparent and appropriate legal framework.
v. Strict control of compliance with the legal framework and
sanction against infractions.
vi. Support for the private sector.
2.5 Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining and the Environment
The adverse environmental impacts of mining activities on the
environment are well documented (Heath et al, 1993; Warhurst, 1994;
and 1999). However, in all of these studies and many more, particular
attention has been directed towards the impact of large scale mining
activities on environmental contamination and degradation. Much
emphasis has not be given to artisanal and small scale mining
activities (often termed illegal mining) impact on the environment in-
spite the high number of operators in this sub-sector globally. The
43
environmental implications of their operations are quite diverse. The
first is that it destroys farmlands and distorts the livelihood of the
agrarian rural communities. The trenches dug for these mining
activities are often abandoned after the mining is over. They therefore
become death traps and easy entry points for devastating gully
erosion.
According to Hentschel et al (2003), the environmental cost of
artisanal and small scale mining activities are in general higher than
those of other types of mining. This means that artisanal and small
scale mining is dirtier per unit of output than medium-sized or large
and modern mining operations. They further asserted that another
major problem of artisanal and small scale mining is the great
individual number of polluters, normally concentrated in a specific
area, which causes significant local impact and by nature of their un-
regulated and non-formalized operations, it becomes very difficult to
control or monitor environmental violations or enforcement of
regulations and standards by the relevant regulatory agencies due
largely to inadequate resources and inaccessible nature of most of
their operations.
The physical and social harms done to the environment by their
activities cuts across the different stages of mining: exploration,
exploitation, processing and closure. The most common and important
environmental problem arising from their operation in the view of
Hentschel et al (2003) are:
44
i. Landscape destruction
ii. Garbage and solid waste
iii. Erosion damage and deforestation
iv. Tropical diseases such as malaria
v. Mercury pollution
vi. Cyanide pollution
vii. Direct dumping of affluent into rivers
viii. Improper closures
ix. River siltation
x. Acid rock drainage
xi. River damage in alluvial areas
xii. Cultural damage due to invasion of sensitive tribal lands
and
xiii. Uncontrolled ASM activities in protected areas.
They went further to outline the many causes for the severe
environmental impact that result from their activities as:
i. Lack of knowledge, education and training (technical and
environmental)
ii. Inefficient technology and limited techniques
iii. Inefficient administrative management
iv. Errors in human control
v. Economic limitations
vi. Lack of access to better techniques
vii. Lack of information about good and modern practices
viii. Lack of control and enforcement; and
ix. Inadequate environmental legislation.
45
Coppin (2005) asserted that since most of the mining operations in
Nigeria are artisanal and subsistence activities that struggles to
survive from day-to-day, miners are forced to focus more on
immediate concerns than the long-term consequence of their
activities. This according to the report is compounded by the fact that
the FGN lacked the capacity to effectively monitor or control these
informal activities that occur in remote and sometimes inaccessible
locations. It went further, to highlight the particular environmental
problems associated with the ASM in Nigeria as summarized sector in
the table below:
Table I: Environmental Problems of ASM in Nigeria
Nigeria ASM Environmental Impact
Destruction of natural habitat of ASM site and
at waste disposal site
Destruction of adjacent habitats through
emissions and discharges
Destruction of adjacent habitats from influx of
migrant workers and encroachments
Adverse changes in river regime and ecology due
to pollution, salination, sedimentation and flow
modification
Alternatives of water table
Soil contamination from treatment residues and
chemical spillage
Deforestation, destruction of land forms and soil
erosion.
Nigeria ASM Pollution Sources
Drainage from mining sites, including
acid mine drainage and discharge mine
water
Direct dumping of mine wastes
Sediment runoff from ASM sites
Pollution resulting from ASM operations
in river beds
Effluents from mineral processing
operations
Sewage effluents from ASM sites
Oil and fuel spills
Leaching of pollutants from tailings
residues, disposal areas and
contaminated soils
Air emissions from minerals processing
diesel equipment and blasting activities
Dust emissions from sites close to
villages and habitats
Source: Coppin (2005)
46
In Nigeria and some other developing countries, the few studies that
focused on artisanal and small-scale mining especially in rural
communities have revealed that environmental concerns, issues and
problems such as land and vegetation degradation, pollution and
others are associated or caused by the operations of artisanal and
small-scale local miners. Some of these are discussed below:
2.5.1 Degradation of Land and Vegetation.
Land and vegetation in form of crop plantation or natural forest is
usually the first casualty to suffer total or partial destruction or
degradation during the exploration and exploitation of minerals in a
locality. The land and vegetation damage is more extensive during the
mine development and operations and it becomes more expensive
when crop plantation is affected. This even becomes worse when
additional forest logging is done in the mining vicinity to increase the
available room for the storage of the created debris and soil.
In a study carried out on the environmental impact of mining
activities in Tarkwa, Ghana by Akabzaa and Darimain (2001), it was
revealed that in most part of Tarkwa, the environment has undergone
a rapid dreadful conditions and its immense economic value has
dwindled from year to year, due mainly to the high concentration of
mining activities in the area. Agricultural lands were not only
generally degraded, but the loss of land for agricultural production
has also led to a shortening of the fallow period from 10-15 years to 2-
3 years. The traditional bush fallow system which sufficiently recycled
47
substantial amounts of nutrients and made the next cycle productive
was no longer been practiced due to insufficiency of land. The mining
activities have also diminished the vegetation of the land to levels that
are vicious to biological diversities.
They also contended that the deforestation that has emanated from
surface mining activities has long-term effects even when the top soil
is replaced and trees are planted after mines decommissioning. The
new species that might be introduced have the potential to influence
the composition of the topsoil and then determine soil fertility and
fallow period for certain crops. In addition to erosion when surface
vegetation is depleted, there is deterioration in the viability of the land
for agricultural activities and loss of habitat for birds and other
animals. This has degenerated into destruction of the luxuriant plant
life, biodiversity, cultural sites and water bodies (ibid).
In the same vain, Chaanda et al (2010) asserted that the mining of
barytes by artisanal miners in Azara area of the middle belt trough of
Nigeria has devastated over 1,000 ha of arable land. It is also
estimated that the extent of landscape originally disturbed by tin
mining operation on the Jos Plateau is about 325KM2 which
represents more than 17% of the agricultural land, within the
8,600KM2 of the entire Jos Plateau region, the bulk of which is
virtually covered by rock outcrops (Aguigwo, 1997). Also, an
environmental impact study of limestone mining and cement industry
operations in Sagamu area in Ogun state of Nigeria revealed a
declining Kola nut output from the plantations within a few radius of
the cement factory. This phenomenon is most probably associated
48
with dust pollution as plenty of dust is discharged into the air mainly
from the cement factory. The particulate matter eventually gets
deposited on the kola nut leaves and flowers as well as the soil
supporting the plants. The overall effect of this is that the
photosynthetic and fruiting ability of the kola nut trees are impaired
with a consequent decrease in kola nut production (Aigbedion and
Iyayi, 2007).
2.5.2 Water Pollution
Water pollution occurs when a body of water is adversely affected due
to the addition of large amount of materials to the water or water
source. Waste (contamination) or pollutants enter into the water
source such as ocean, river, lakes, and wells leaking into ground
water, liquid spills, and waste water discharges and littering. Water
pollution has been suggested to be the leading worldwide cause of
deaths and diseases accounting for the death of more than 14,000
people daily (Pink and Daniel, 2006).
Mining operations causes both surface and ground water pollution.
Four main problems of water pollution are common with mining
operations. These are chemical pollution of ground water and streams,
siltation through increased sediments lead, increased faecal matter
and dewatering effects (Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001). In a study on
the tin mining operations in Jos Plateau, Lindslay (1975) observed
that leachates from mine wastes can pollute the water in the mine
ponds, which in turn can infiltrate the ground and pollute the ground
water if it gets at it, while the rain could also wash off heavy metals
49
and radioactive materials in mine tailings, which as surface run off
could pollute the water. Still on the tin mining activities in Jos, Gyang
and Ashano (2009) wrote that the mine ponds left by these mining
activities are today used for irrigation, domestic and industrial
purposes and that the quality of these waters and indeed that of the
underground water with which they may have possibly interact are
not known.
Baryte as a mineral contains galena (Pb-Zn), hence areas where it is
mined faces the potential danger of the release of Pb associated toxic
elements (As, Cd, Sb, etc) into the water system. A trace elements
study on the effects of the mineralizations within the Middle Benue
trough by Lar and Sallau (2001) revealed that Pb, As, Cd and Sb etc
are released from Pb-Zn mineralization into water bodies rendering
such water unsafe for human consumption. The negative impact of
artisanal and small-scale mining on water by way of pollution was
brought to the fore and received global attention with the lead
poisoning incident that happened in Zamfara state of Nigeria in the
middle of 2010. The Zamfara tragedy as it is commonly referred was
as a result of lead contamination of drinking waters arising from the
mining of gold by the local artisan miners.
Writing on the tragic incident, Uche Igwe (2010) in his seminal paper
titled “Resource Curse and Wakeup Call” he stated and I quote “the
discovery of natural resources worldwide ought to be a blessing. This
is because when such natural resources are exploited, it is expected to
bring in revenue to contribute to the development of local
communities. However, in these communities in developing countries,
50
the reverse is usually the case. No single event illustrates this more
than the recent tragic events in Zamfara State in northwestern
Nigeria. It was supposed to be the World Environmental Day
celebration on 5th, June 2010 but the inhabitants of gold-bearing
communities of Anka and Bukkuyum local governments in Zamfara
State had a different fate in stock for them. About 335 suspected
cases of strange ailments were reported in several hospitals in the
locality. It turned out that 163 lives were lost out of which 111 of them
were children between the ages of five to ten years old”.
Ironically, viewed against the country’s poor health facilities and
outcomes, the activities of the local miners’ gives room for more
concerns. An eyewitness account stated that “reports of vomiting and
stomach pain among children in Zamfara State began to come in a
year ago. As is usual in most communities, deaths are attributed to
one spirit or another. The death toll continued to rise until the blood
samples of patients were taken abroad for adequate tests”:. Experts
reported that lead poisoning as in the case of Zamfara can persist in
the environment for up to 15 years. There are also other long-term
health problems such as permanent learning and behavioral problems
and brain damage. Lead for instance is known to bio-accumulate and
propagate within the ecosystem, giving rise to cancer causing cells
popularly called oncogens (ibid).
51
2.5.3 Air, Noise and Vibration Pollutions
Mining operations generally no matter the scale of operations
discharge particulate matter into the ambient air. The common
complains of most mining communities are usually centered on its
effects on air quality, emission of black smoke, noise and pollution.
Airborne particulates of major concern to most mining communities
includes dust, sulphur dioxide (So2), nitrogen dioxide (No2), carbon
monoxide (Co) and black smoke. The discharge of these airborne
particulate matters into the environment principally as minute dusts
and gas poses health threats to the people in mining communities and
its surroundings (Akabzaa and Darimani, 2001). Also, the impact of
high-pitched vibrations and other noises from equipments, air blasts
and vibrations from blasting is known to cause damages to the
auditory system, cracks in buildings, stress and discomfort (ibid).
Unfortunately, the mining operators have no laid down adequate
measures to prevent harmful emissions of dust into the ambient air.
The artisanal small scale miners are not only guilty of this practice as
it pervades all classes of mining activities despite modern technology
to prevent these harmful practices as employed in the advanced
nations. It is a common sight of seeing black smoke from fuel burning,
fumes from ore roasting from mining operations across the country
which beside the health risk and hazards to plants, animals and
humans, contributes greatly to global warming and climate change. In
all these, the failure of the various environmental, health and safety
52
regulatory agencies to enforce controls at least among the large and
medium scale operators cannot be rationalized under any excuse.
2.5.4 Degradation of Natural Landscape
One of the most common negative effects of mining minerals from the
earth’s surface is the destruction of its natural landscape, creating
open space in the ground and generating heaps of rock wastes that
cannot be easily disposed off especially by artisanal miners. These
phenomena are amply demonstrated in several parts of Nigeria, where
commercial or subsistence mining or quarrying had occurred in the
past or is currently taking place.
In the Younger Granite Province, especially the Jos Plateau, tin and
columbite mining has resulted in the destruction of the once beautiful
and scenic landscape which is now replaced by unsightly large
irregular holes and heaps of debris produced by the open cast method
of mining (Brooks, 1974). Writing in the Weekend Leadership
Newspaper of December 8, 2010, Ibrahim at el states that “another
major hazard of mining on the general well-being of Nigerians is the
existence of mining ponds that are often the relics of tin and
columbite mining. In our checks in plateau state for instance, revealed
that there are more than 1,000 such mining ponds; the relics of the
colonial mining activities of tin and columbite that has greatly defaced
the once beautiful and scenic landscape as well as posing all sorts of
environmental hazards to the people of the state”. The alteration of the
landscape by mining operations almost invariably creates a problem of
erosion in the mining localities with the result that most of the open
53
cast pits are filled with water. A similar situation exists in all the
limestone and marble quarries in different proportions at Ewekoro,
Sagamu, Nkalagu, Okpella, Gboko, Ashaka, Jakura etc. (Aigbedion
and Iyayi, 2007).
In recent times, the search for gemstone in Oyo, Kwara, Edo and Ondo
States by illegal miners (artisanal and small scale miners) have
resulted in haphazard pitting and trenching of the Older Granites
pegmatites that host the minerals, without regard to the mining
regulations. At present, irregular holes and heaps of rock materials
characterize the areas that have fallen victim of illegal miners. Notable
examples can be found at Ijero, Ekiti state, Igbojanye, Olode, Falansa
and New Target in Shaki area of Oyo state; Iwo, Osun state, and Oro
in Kwara state. The natural landscapes in these areas are now
replaced by a kind of bad land or hummock topography punctuated
by irregular holes. (ibid).
2.5.5 Geological and Radiation Hazards
Mining operations normally upset the equilibrium in the geological
environment, which may trigger off certain geological hazards such as
landslide, subsidence, flooding, erosion and tremors together with
their secondary effects. For instance, minor earth tremors are
generated due to blasting of rocks in various quarries. Villages and
settlements in the neighborhood of the quarries have experience
unpleasant earth movements when rocks are blasted. Some buildings
are often times damaged by developing cracks due to minor tremors
occasioned by the incessant blasting of the rocks (Ajakaiye, 1985).
54
Also, exposure to natural radiations emitted by some radioactive
minerals is a major source of health hazards. The radiation intensity
increases when the minerals are concentrated. It has been established
that some minerals such as monazite, pyrochlore and xenotime which
are obtained as by-product of tin mining in the Jos Plateau, are
radioactive. Because of lack of market, most of these minerals which
were in form of concentrate are abandoned in many previous mining
sites on the plateau some of these sites had mining communities,
which developed into villages where a high level of radiation has been
recorded. According to Aigbedion (2005), a few of such villages has
been abandon or nearly deserted because of the death of many people
under mysterious circumstances. The mysterious deaths are now
attributed to a high level of radiations released by monazite rich sand
used for building the houses the deceased lived.
2.6 Artisanal and Small Scale-Mining (ASM), and Occupational
Health and Safety.
Health can be defined as a state of complete physical, mental and
social well being of an individual, and not merely the absence of
diseases and infirmity (WHO, 2005). An alteration in the living cells of
the body which jeopardizes survival in the environment results in
diseases. Health problems arise from a variety of man’s activities
including industrialization, farming, mining, migration and others.
There are past research works and literatures that has examined the
impact of mining on the health of both the mine workers and the
people within the surrounding communities of the mines among them
55
being Stephen and Alern (2001), who asserted that “mining remains
one of the most perilous occupations in the world, both in terms of
short term injuries and fatalities, but also due to long term impacts
such as cancers, and respiratory conditions such as silicosis,
asbestosis and pneumoconiosis”.
Occupational health and personal safety issues are frequently on the
agenda when artisanal and small-scale mining is discussed. However,
reliable data or official statistics about accidents or occupational
diseases are generally unavailable. According to International Labour
Organization (ILO), there are five major health risks in artisanal and
small-scale mining and processing (Jenning, 1999). These are:
i) Exposure to dust (silicosis)
ii) Exposure to mercury and other chemicals
iii) Effects of noise and vibration
iv) Effects of poor ventilation (heat humidity, lack of oxygen)
v) Effect of over-exertion, inadequate work space and
inappropriate equipment.
The most frequently cited causes of accidents in artisanal and small-
scale mines were; rock fall, subsidence, misuse of explosives; lack of
knowledge; lack of training; violation of regulations; and obsolete and
poorly maintained equipments (Jenning, 1999). Ordinarily,
inappropriate working conditions such as lack of safety equipments or
unsafe working practices would suggest high accidents rates in
artisanal and small-scale mining compared to formal medium or large
scale mining operations. In reality, this is not always the case
especially in non-coal small-scale mining. This is because by the
56
nature of their operation, self employment, low mechanization, and
low productivity means that some accident related risk are likely to
occur than in formal medium – or large-scale mining. However,
methane and coal-dust exposures are high in occurrence in small-
scale mining operations.
For self-employed artisanal miners, the use of safety equipment
depends almost exclusively on their wish and conscience. Also,
artisanal mine workers employed by small-scale mining operators
usually use their own safety equipment if ever they use. Basic safety
equipments like helmet, safety boots, gloves and dust masks are
considered as significant investment for most miners. To the extent
that these basic safety equipments do not contribute directly to their
daily income, they are treated as low priority and thus not provided by
most operators for their workers. According to Hentschel et al (2003),
the causes of occupational health and safety deficiencies in artisanal
and small-scale mining can be summarized as:
1. Most small-scale mines are working under marginal
economic conditions, providing no more than a daily living
for their owners or workers. As even basic safety
measures have some cost in cash or kind implications. An
artisanal and small-scale miner is unlikely to spend
money in thing any that does not generate immediate
income.
2. Safety regulations for medium-or large scale mining
operations are not generally appropriate for artisanal and
small-scale mines without adaptation. Exaggerated safety
57
requirements tend to discourage the miners, leading them
to simply ignore all safety advices as “utopian”.
3. Enforcement of mine safety requirements is frequently
used by authorities as a device to identify guilty parties of
accidents and to apply corresponding sanctions. Fear of
sanctions is one of the main causes of the under-reporting
of accidents or diseases, and is an obstacle to
improvements.
4. There is a lack of awareness of risks, especially risks of
chronic occupational diseases such as dust, vibration,
nitrous gases, mercury, cyanide etc. This often stem from
inadequately implemented education and training.
Education and training programmes need to be designed
according to social, cultural and ethnic characteristics of
the miners’ communities.
5. Introducing fast-track mechanization without
implementing complementary safety measures. While
purely manual operations have relatively low safety and
health risks, mechanized working requires the correct
application of technology. Risk increase dramatically with
activities such as blasting, pneumatic drilling,
electrification in coal mines, or mechanical transport to
access deeper stopes.
Education, training, demonstration and surveillance are the key and
vital elements of any programme to improve occupational safety and
health in artisanal and small-scale mining. The authorities and other
58
stakeholder have the singular responsibility to help both the mine
owners and workers to realize the fact that accident prevention and
improved occupational health are valuable goals in their operations. In
the short term, safety and health has a cost, in the mid to long term it
generates income.
2.7 Socio Economic Impacts from Artisanal and Small-Scale
Mining Operations.
Coppin (2005) highlighted a number of potential social and local
economic impacts that may apply exclusively to ASM in Nigeria. Some
of these impacts are more likely to be associated with particular
minerals and whether the mining or quarrying activity takes place
close to or distant from established communities. According to the
report, most of these impacts outlined in the table below are negative,
indicating the range of challenges faced but some of the largest
potential impacts are positive and these are identified (by a “+”):
Table 2: Potential Socio-Economic Impacts from ASM operations
Miners Close To Settlement:
Community – Miner Interaction /Influx Of Migrants Resulting In:
Damage to community (farm) land
Loss/damage to graves/scared places
Conflict Over:
- compensation for damages
- access to natural resources (water/fuel wood) and facilities
- mining benefits being limited to a section of the community (i.e.
Chief Council and Local Miners).
Access to the mineral deposits
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Role of women in the mining activity
Increase in cultural and ethnic clashes
Increase in crime (theft by miners)
Increase in prostitution and STDs/HIV
Increase in alcohol abuse
Excess burden on existing infrastructure such as health/educational
services and sanitation
Changes in livelihood and standard of living of the community
Increased influx of cash (from miners) in the community:
- procurement of local goods thus creating local income although
may disadvantage some due to price rises (+)
- increased employment opportunities (mining, processing, service
provision (+).
Health:
Of the Miners:
Increased risk of diseases due to inadequate logistic and sanitary conditions
in miners camp
Exposure to noxious chemicals
Effect of noise and vibration
Effects of poor ventilation
Over exertion
Of the Community:
Effect of water/soil pollution on community
Increased risk of malaria – dams and filled pits during raining season
Safety
Of the Miners:
Risk of occupational accidents due to:
- rock falls
- collapse of pits
- obsolete and poorly maintained equipment
- misuse of explosive
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- lack of protective clothing
Of the Community:
Risk of safety of the community as:
- community members (children) may fall into the open pits (need for
securing mining areas)
- transport of minerals through the community may increase road
accidents
Illegal practices through:
- child labour
- unlicensed mining and selling
Source: Coppin (2005)
2.8 Post-Mining Activities and their Environmental
Implications
Mining is a temporary use of land. Mines are born; they mature, age
and also die. So mining is of a transitory activity, which will pass over
some day. Post mining activities or operations are the uses/activities
take place after mines have be officially closed or abandoned. The
types of activities/operations that emerge depend on the legal regime
and policy requirements that are in place on the management of
mined lands. In some countries there are strong requirements on
mined lands remediation; restoration and specific end-uses which are
stipulated. In countries where there are no legal requirements on
enforcement procedures, post mining would develop out of
expediency, local situations and need (Dung-Gwon, 2007). Post
mining activities/operations (ibid) among others include:
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i. Agriculture
ii. Tourism (based on mining heritage and landscape)
iii. Recreation
iv. Fish farming
v. Winning of alluvial leaps/rock wastes, for construction
purposes.
vi. The winning of sand and other aggregates for construction
purposes
vii. Lakes, water ponds being used as sources for domestic and
industrial water supply
viii. Diversification of the economy of mining settlements
Limpitlaw et al (2005) drawing examples from experience in South
Africa advocated for a holistic approach to closure planning for mines
arising from mining activities. He posited that such approach should
include the following:
i. An assessment of the economic viability of the plan
including the funding of post closure care and maintenance
ii. Inclusion of the closure plan as part of broader regional and
economic development plans, relevant to the skills profile of
the area which would allow the local community to built in
to the plan.
iii. Post closure land capacity targets and related land use
option(s) Identified from the onset (pre-mining) with review
during the operational phase of the mines, and
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iv. An avoidance of creating a culture of dependency in the
local community.
The implication of this is that there should be closure plan from the
very beginning in the life of a mine as well as clearly laid down
procedures for mine closure. According to Dung-Gwon, (2007), before
any post mining operations, mine closure must ensure that mine sites
are safe, physically and chemically stable, no future pollution risks
are likely and that public health and safety are guaranteed. Post
closure activities would examine issues and concerns such as the
management of soil resources after mining, how to endure and
promote biodiversity, and how to deal with likely future risks arising
from mine closure.
In the same vain, Dung-Gwon (2007) further postulated three broad
uses for post mine land namely; agricultural and forestry uses; native
conservation/ecosystem enhancement uses and other beneficial uses.
In all these, when a land is to be returned to its pre-mining suitability
status, rehabilitation should be carried out to achieve the key criteria
levels as agreed from the land suitability assessment.
The agricultural and forestry uses is adopted in a situation where an
area has a pre-mining suitability for arable farming, then the land
should be returned to that status after the mining
activities/operations. In such circumstances, the rehabilitation should
provide for slopes which are within a suitable range to allow such
farming and the soils with physical and chemical properties consistent
with undisturbed arable soils in that region.
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The nature conservation/ecosystem enhancement uses include
wetlands; fauna and flora conservation areas; and native ecosystem.
The criteria for conservation or enhancement as a post-mining land
use are based on its technical feasibility to be able to establish a self-
sustaining habitat; the compatibility of the habitat with or an integral
part of the broader ecosystem within the locality and that the use will
deliver environmental and community benefits equal to or exceeding
those that existed prior to mining. Finally, other beneficial uses
include any use which is neither for agriculture, forestry or nature
conservation.
2.9 Evolving a framework for Environmental Management Plans
for Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) in Nigeria
The key task for all stakeholders in the ASM sector in Nigeria is the
need to ensure that the operators comply with the requirements for
minimizing the numerous negative environmental impacts attributable
to their unregulated activities. Research and studies into the activities
of ASM has shown and demonstrated that in jurisdiction where
environmental, health and safety regulations do not differentiate
between ASM and LSM needs, problems with compliance by the ASM
quickly develop and deteriorate of which Nigeria is a classical
example.
Coppin (2005), arising from their research studies into ASM’s
operations in Nigeria, asserted that by their very nature, ASM
workings are illegal and increased legislation will be ineffective in their
regulation and that better enforcement of existing legislation is one
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approach that could limit or curtail their operations. Therefore the
task before the FGN is the need to develop appropriate, easily
understood and enforceable legislation that will draw the ASM sector
into national programmes for environmental management and
protection. In an attempt to achieve this objective, there is the need
for simple environmental management guidelines which will be
developed to encourage the miners to adopt methods that are
appropriate to the Nigerian mining sector in terms of efficiency, health
and safety standards, and minimization of negative environmental
impact.
Towards achieving this objective, the report went further to develop a
Framework for Environmental Management Plan for ASM to be used
for the six Pilot ASM Projects across the six goo-political zones of
Nigeria under the Sustainable Management of Mineral Resources
Project (SMMRP), covering a range of mineral commodities. The
framework could be adopted as a National Working Guide for ASM
operations in Nigeria with modifications based on mineral and site
specific. The framework is as outlined in table below:
Table 3: Environmental Management Plan Framework for ASM
Projects
Threat or Impact
Mitigation Responsibility Performance
Indicators
Degradation of
land, water, culture
and biodiversity
resources due to
activities
Assessment of impacts and
threats specific to that site and
operation, as a basis for
defining environmental
protection procedures,
monitoring and reclamation
MSMD Have studies been
carried out and
plans prepared?
Environmental
monitoring records
and statistics
A programme of training MSMD in Training man-days
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miners to raise awareness of
environmental, health and
safety risks and proper
procedures
association with
EPAs
delivered against
curriculum
Enforcement of environmental
protection procedures;
monitoring of compliance
MSMD in
association with
EPAs
Number of incidents
and frequency of
non-compliance;
action taken.
Social
disadvantage,
exploitation and
child labour
A programme of training
of miners and the community
to raise awareness and promote
effective participation
MSMD in
association with
LGAs
Employment
statistics in the mine
area
Building capacity at local
government level
MSMD and LGA Number of LGAs
with designated ASM
responsible
Occupational
health and safety
violations
continuing poor
safety records
A programme of training of
miners and the community to
raise awareness of
environmental, health and
safety risks and proper
procedures.
MSMD Health and safety
records, accidents
statistics and health
conditions
Health screening and
evaluation in community
MSMD in
association with
state Health
Authorities
Health records and
frequency of disease
and medical
conditions
associated with
mining.
Source: Coppin (2005)
The report went further to propose the process that could be adopted
in the task of preparing an environmental management plan for each
of the six ASM pilot project areas, which by extension, can be adopted
for ASM projects in the country as fellow:
i) Audit and survey of the current conditions and baseline
environment, to include consideration of physical,
66
chemical, ecological, land use, social and demographic
factors.
ii) Definition of the boundary or envelop of the pilot project
area, based on both the extent of geological resource and
environmental sensitivity (as identified in the
audit).
iii) Definition of the project and the environmentally
significant environment and social releases and effects;
consumption or use of local resources, services and
labour; revenues and economic implications.
iv) Assessment of the significant environmental and social
impacts, threats and risks – ESIA.
v) On the basis of this, devise a site-specific mitigation and
environmental management plan.
2.10 Imperative for a Collective Solution to Environmental
Problems of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining.
In the last decade, concerns over environmental problems have
steadily increased. As a result, environmental laws have been
formulated and governmental environment agencies have been set up.
The implementation of these new laws has been fairly straight forward
for large-and medium-scale mining enterprises. However, many
countries such as Nigeria have not yet been able to effectively include
artisanal and small scale mining sector in her formal legal-
environmental system. Instead, the environmental agencies, being
unable to handle multiple issues, push artisanal and small scale
67
mining further into illegal situations because of non-compliance with
legislation. Sometimes the miners intentionally evade the legislation
by doing so, making it even more difficult for the government to fulfill
their control duties.
In the opinion of Hentschel et al (2003), new concepts must be
developed in the area of environmental management of artisanal and
small-scale mining to combat the administrative over load of
regulators in managing individual enterprises. Only collective
solutions for the sub-sector are likely to succeed. While organization
of the sector is a prerequisite for substantial changes, incentives for
environmental compliance are better based on collective solutions.
Also, the need for effective networking and communication among all
stakeholder locally, nationally and globally through informal
decentralized networks and formal centralized networks cannot be
over emphasized in the task of achieving an environmentally
sustainable artisanal and small-scale mining operations. Through
these networks, information, ideas and new techniques of production
and processing can be easily shared. In this context, formal
centralized networks related to artisanal and small-scale mining with
international participation are relatively scarce, compared to other
disciplines. However, the works of the International Institute for
Environmental Development (IIED) through its Mining, Minerals and
Sustainable Development (MMSD) project and those of the
Communities and Small-Scale Mining (CASM) a World Bank and
International Agencies sponsored global organization, need a special
68
mention and commendations in their efforts at developing a global
comprehensive strategies to mitigate the environmental impact of
Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) through the development of
training materials to preserve the health, safety and environment of
artisanal miners (CASM, 2010).
In all these as emphasized by Stephen and Alern (2001), is the need
for openness and transparency in the entire mining sector in addition
to undertaking an in-depth long-term evaluation of the impacts of
mining on the environment and health of workers and communities
particularly in mining countries of Latin America, Asia and Africa as
evidence abound that the sector’s activities as currently carried out,
undermines the human and environmental objectives of sustainable
development.
No doubt, there is a long way to go before mining becomes a healthy
work or a healthy development activity to take place in a community.
There is also a long way to go before the industry particularly the
artisanal and small scale miners, the workers and the communities
agree on the real environmental, health and safety issues of the sector
and the real and actual responsibility (ies) of each of the actors in the
sector. It is only when these issues, concerns and challenges are
collectively put in proper perspective by all stakeholders that a truly
collective solutions to environmental and human impact of artisanal
and small-scale mining in our communities can then be said to have
commenced.
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Chapter Three
Methodology
3.0 Introduction
Research design as defined by Padgell (1998) is the procedures and
plans that a researcher follows to attain the objectives of a study. Yin
(1994) supplements that; research design is the logic that links data
to be collected and the conclusions to be drawn to the initial questions
of a study. In view of this, presented in this chapter are the
methodology and a justified account for its applicability in this study.
Discussed also, are the different data collection techniques, their
strengths and weaknesses, the preparatory measures taken prior to
data collection as well as how the collected data will be analyzed, in
order to attain the desired findings, conclusions and
recommendations of this study.
3.1 Area of Study
Okpella clan is located in Etsako East Local Government Area of Edo
State, Nigeria. The area is defined by latitude 70 20’ and 70 15’ North
of the equator and longitude 60 10’ and 60 25’ East of the Greenwich
meridian. The clan which is made up over thirty (30) villages is
situated along Benin-Abuja Highway in-between Auchi and Okene
Towns. It borders Uzuaria clan in Etsako West LGA to the South,
Okene in Kogi State to the North, Atteh and Unemeh clans both of
Akoko-Edo LGA to the west and North Ibie clan of the same Etsako
East LGA to the East.
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History has it that the Okpella clan was founded by a man called
Ikponwusa meaning “I give thanks to God” in the 14th century. He was
said to have migrated from a place called “Ekae” in the ancient Benin
Kingdom during the tyrannical reign of Oba Ozolua. In culture,
language and other traditional institutions, they have close semblance
with the Bini people which are still being maintained to the present
times.
The study area’s climate falls within the warm-humid tropical climate
region which is characterized by wet and dry season. Taking
advantage of the fertile land, the people are traditionally
predominately farmers and are known to grow in large numbers food
and cash crops such as cassava, yam tomatoes and cocoa. The area
lies within the basement complex and the cretaceous to recent
sediment of South Western Nigeria. According to Oyawoye (1970), and
drawing from the geological basin evolution of the Southern Nigeria
basin, three major tectonic sedimentation cycles are attributed to
geological history of Southern Nigeria. These tectonic phases took
place in Albian, Santonia and late Eocene to early Oligocene times
which resulted in the displacement of the main basin axis. The three
main basins are:
(i) Benue – Abakaliki basin
(ii) Anambra and Afikpo basin
(iii) Niger Delta basin
The study area falls within the Anambra and Afikpo basin which
formed the second sedimentary cycle (ibid). No doubt, these geological
71
formations may have accounted for the presence of various natural
mineral resources in Okpella. The mineral resources which are found
in the area among others are limestone, granite, kaolin, feldspar, gold
and quart in proven commercial reserve quantities. Arising from the
preponderance of these natural mineral resource deposits, a number
of minerals processing industries were attracted to the area in the mid
1960s through the 1980s prominent among them is the moribund Edo
Cement Company Limited which was established by the then Mid-
West Regional Government in 1964. Other companies cutting across
granite crushing, chemical and fertilizer companies industries were
Crush Rock Industries, Edok-Eter Mandilas Limited, Solarog
Chemical Industries, Freedom Chemical Industries and West Africa
Fertilizer Company Limited. Ironically, most of these companies are
either moribund or epileptic in operations. The demand and supply
vacuum created by the non-operation of these companies especially to
meet the demand for granite aggregates for the construction
industries, milled limestone and feldspar for chemical and glass
manufacturing companies created the Artisanal and Small-Scale
mining operators primarily to an extent fill the created demand gap as
the erstwhile customers who hitherto use to patronized the formal
companies still scout the area to meet their demands.
This mining operation has over the years continued to grow in scope
and operations cutting across sexes and ages. Their activities can be
broadly classified into three, namely:
72
i) Extraction of granite and its subsequent quarrying into stone
chippings (aggregates) for use in constructions industry.
ii) Extraction of limestone and its subsequent milling to raw
materials for use by paints cosmetic and allied chemical
industries.
iii) Extraction of feldspar and its subsequent milling to raw
materials for glass and allied chemical industries.
Okpella clan like every other semi urban community in Nigeria lacks
the needed basic infrastructures for economic and social growth and
development. The various villages are inter-linked with feeder un-
tarred roads connected to the main tarmac road transport of the
Benin-Abuja Highway. The area boasts of a number of both public and
private primary and secondary schools, health care centers and
hospitals with only one commercial bank outlet. There is the presence
of the four major GSM service provider’s networks in the area which
makes mobile telephone communication common among the people
which have opened the area to the outside world.
It is being hoped with high expectations that the buying over of Edo
Cement Company Limited by BUA International Group from the
formal core investor arising from the privatization exercise ScanCem of
Norway and their planned construction of a modern green field cement
plant, economic and social development and activities will soon be on
the up- swing. This no doubt, will have a multiplier effect on other
economic activities especially the Artisanal and Small Scale mining
industry in Okpella.
73
Map I
Map of Edo State Showing Natural Minerals Locations.
Source: Map of Edo State. Available at www.nigeriagalleria.com/nigeria
74
3.2 Choosing a Methodological Approach
Methodology as described by Starss and Corbin (1980) is a way of
thinking about and studying a social reality; stressing that the
methodology gives a vision to what the research should involved.
Methods, on the other hand are a set of procedures and techniques
used for gathering and analyzing data. It is through these techniques
that the analysts see the ordinary and are able to arrive at a new
understanding of a social life (ibid).
Qualitative and quantitative methodologies have been used by social
scientists to generate knowledge. In quantitative methodology,
questionnaires are suitable when a researcher seeks short and precise
answers from respondents. The responses obtained can easily be
compared, aggregated, statistically analyzed, tabulated and displayed
diagrammatically. The close –ended question exposes the researcher
to a variety of opinions from different respondents within a short
period. To note however, is the fact that responses from close – ended
questionnaires lack depth.
Observation, individual and group interviews as identified by Limb
and Dwyer (2001) are techniques that are useful in collecting
qualitative data. Qualitative methodology is based on direct quotation,
careful description and interpretation of the respondents’ views,
seeking to capture what the people say about their lives, experiences
and their interactions, in their own words (Patton, 1980), in response
to open-ended questions, in addition, to bringing content-specific,
qualitative methodology is most suitable when exploring individuals’
perceptions, attitudes and priorities. Limb and Dwyer (2001) assert
75
that social reality can be understood better through qualitative
methodology through their statistical description or generalized
prediction. Quantitative methodology is distinguishable from
quantitative because it perceives the world as dynamic which is
constantly being shaped by socio-economic and political processes.
However, one common criticism levied at qualitative methodology is
that the results of the study may not be used to generalize large
population because the interviewed population is small and the
respondents were purposively chosen (Hancock, 1998). In spite of the
weakness and strengths of the qualitative and quantitative
methodologies, research questions will always determine the data
collection techniques to be used in a study as limb and Dwyer (2001)
emphasized.
In the quest to determine and assess the attitude to and
environmental impact rehabilitation practices of local miners in
Okpella, the study found it appropriate to use close-ended questions
to generate quantifiable information; in relation to the socio –
demographic characteristics of the mine owners and workers; reasons
they engage in mining, their knowledge and attitude to the
environmental, health and safety issues and concerns; impacts of the
mining operations on the people and community; the rehabilitation
and remedial practices being employed; level of their effectiveness, and
the roles of regulatory authorities and agencies in enforcing
operational standards in relation to environmental, health and safety
issues.
76
Also, in the drive, to explore in details these information, smaller
groups drawn from mine owners, operators, workers and government
officials referred to as “key informants were interviewed using open-
ended questions. These key informants were purposively selected. The
information accrued from close-ended questions was used to
supplement and confirm some of the responses acquired from open-
ended questions. This study was therefore based on qualitative
methodology since it aimed at describing phenomena through rich
contextual data by unearthing information that could not be easily
qualified. The close-ended questions were aimed at obtaining the mine
owners and workers socio-demographic and environmental practices
information and any other quantifiable information related to their
mining activities which were found useful during interpretation of the
research findings. Similarly, the open-ended questions provided
systematic contextual knowledge about the respondents and their
mining activities and were used to supplement and confirm the
information generated through close-ended questions.
3.3 Why is Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) in Okpella a
Case Study?
Case studies have often been used to elicit information about
individuals in medical and psychological research. Social scientists on
the other hand, use case studies to obtain information from
individuals, groups, organizations and communities, or about social,
economic or political phenomena (Yin, 2001). In the same vain, Yin
(1994) adds that, case studies tend to be selective focusing on one or
77
two issues that are fundamental to understanding the system being
examined, and they are usually suitable in incidences where a
researcher needs to make an in-depth holistic investigation.
The importance of selecting case studies is also to maximize what can
be learned in the period of time available for the study. This particular
study therefore focused on Artisanal and Small-scale Mining (ASM) in
Okpella, Edo State of Nigeria with the aim to ascertaining and
assessing the miner’s knowledge and attitude to environmental issues
arising from their operations, their present remedial and rehabilitation
practices and their effectiveness.
Multiple sources of evidence that converge to the same set of findings
are important in case studies because of the content-rich information
collected. This actually concurs with Huberman and Miles (2002) who
acknowledge the importance of interviews, questionnaires, direct
observation and documented information as source of data in case
studies. The focus on a particular case under investigation provides
in-depth information and helps to understand complex social
phenomena.
Further assertion by Yin (1994) suggests that case studies are a
preferred strategy when “how” or “why” questions are being posed and
when focus is on a contemporary phenomenon within some real life
context. This particular case study, therefore, relied on both primary
and secondary data sources which provided complementary as well as
supplementary information; which were used to find out “why” people
are engaged in artisanal and small-scale mining in Okpella and “how”
their operations and activities impact on the environment and health
78
of mining community members and the remedial and rehabilitations
practices being adopted by the miners to mitigate and ameliorate
them. Based on these features, a case study as a strategy was found
relevant to this study.
3.4 Sampling Techniques
Before collection of primary date, a reconnaissance survey of the study
area was carried out, to establish and confirm the most viable
sampling technique to be used. Based on the research questions the
study had to address and given the different respondents planned to
cover, probability and non-probability sampling method was adopted.
Through random sampling the probability of selection is the same for
every case in the population. The sampling frame was the register of
the local Association of Miners in Okpella for mine owners from which
twenty (20) respondents cutting across miners in limestone, feldspar
and granite mine owners/operations were selected for face to face
interviews. Thirty (30) mine workers were randomly selected out of an
estimated over five hundred (500) workforce both of which a semi-
structured interviews were administered. Based on Patton (1980),
random sampling is an appropriate strategy, when one wants to
generalize from the sample studies to some large population. Through
random sampling there is increased likelihood that the data collected
are a representative of the whole population of interest (ibid).
Similarly, Peil (1982) asserts that sampling is the selection of a part to
represent the whole. Another reason why random sampling was
adopted for this study is to avoid bias by giving all units in the target
79
population equal chances of being selected as suggested by Nichols
(1991).
In order to have more insight and understanding of the environmental
impact rehabilitation practices of the miners, the miner’s Association
Chairman; the leader of the mine workers; two community leaders
made up of the youth leader and a member of the traditional cabinet
were purposively selected for unstructured interviews. Similarly, to
assess information related to the roles of supervisory and regulatory
government bodies and agencies, an official of Artisanal and Small-
scale Mining (ASM) Department of the Federal Ministry of Minerals
and Steel Development (MMSD), Abuja was purposively selected for
unstructured interview. The purposive selection of key informants was
based on Lewis-Beck et al (2004) who identify them as individuals that
provide in-depth and proficient information about a particular
phenomenon.
3.5 Sources of Data
3.5.1 Primary sources
The physical proximity with the respondent especially at the mining
sites during the primary data collection afforded the study to access
both verbal and non-verbal information which had not been
documented elsewhere. However, primary data collection required
much more patience and the development of positive rapport
especially when dealing with respondents from different socio-
economic background.
80
3.5.1.1 Semi-Structured Interviews
A total of fifty (50) respondents made up of twenty (20) mine
owners/operators, and thirty (30) mine workers were covered during
the semi-structured interviews through the same set of open-ended
and close-ended questions for comparative purposes and also to
reduce variation of the information. The responses yielded were
convenient to transcribe, analyze, interpret and represent in form of
tables, graphs and charts and were also useful in discussing the
findings as shown in chapters four and five of this thesis.
The nature of questions and mode of administration made it
convenient for the study to cover the fifty respondents which would
not have been possible with in-depth interviews given the minimal
time available for the field work in consideration of many constraining
factors. The use of semi-structured interview is viewed important in
this study because it provided different views from a wide section of
respondents in relation to the study objectives. This was based on
Mikkelsem (1995) who also gives examples of semi-structured
interviews and group interviews; as techniques developed to optimize
the knowledge; attitudes and practice of different individuals and
groups.
3.5.1.2 Unstructured Interviews
Based on open ended questions, these interviews were explorative and
were aimed at obtaining detailed information from key informants. The
key informant approach was incorporate to the data gathering strategy
based on Nichols (1991) who described them as members who are
particularly knowledgeable and reliable about factual matters in a
81
community. The informants for that matter in this study included the
local chairman of the Miners Association, selected community leaders,
the leader of the mine workers and a government official with the
responsibility for Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (ASM) activities in
the Ministry. These informants not only provided the practical and
factual details in relation to the study but also secondary information
related to medium and large-scale mining which are useful for
comparative purposes.
The unstructured interviews were also found to be appropriate for the
study as the open-ended questions allowed the participants to express
themselves as much as possible in relation to the questions
addressed. It also allows for a-two way traffic to know about the
respondents and allowing them to ask questions which they thought
would be important and useful to the study. Also, since the
respondents were free to express themselves, they felt proud to be part
of the study which was different in the case of semi-structured
interviews that were more of a question and answer session.
In relation to the weakness of unstructured interviews, the informant
at times provided information that is irrelevant to the study. This was
time consuming during the interaction as well as when the data are
being analyzed. However, in comparison to semi structured interviews,
unstructured interviews required time and patience right from
booking appointments and through to the actual interviews as the
respondents narrated their stories.
82
3.5.1.3. Personal Observation
Observation was important to this study as it provided the much
needed background information about the environment of the study
area. In addition to the interviews, non-verbal information were
gathered through observations. Observation becomes more suitable in
this study as the physical environmental impact of mining activities
could easily be ascertained through physical site inspections.
Although observation is often related to seeing, Hays (2000) points out
that, observation goes beyond the visual aspects; by touching,
smelling and hearing. Peil et al (1982) also asserts that observation in
social studies is more than just observing. It involves listening, asking
questions and at times participating in activities so as to get firsthand
experience of what daily life involves. In an effort to assess the
physical environment impact of the mining activities on the study
area, observation became very relevant as it afforded a first-hand
inspection of such impacts in form of gully erosions, ponds, wasted
farm lands cracked buildings, sustained injury body marks etc.
Different from other methods of data collection, observation was a
continuous process that was used to obtained information before,
during and after other structured descriptive forms of data collection
such as interviews. Beside, because of its validity, it was convenient to
use it. By observation, it was easy to compare the environmental
rehabilitation practices the mine owners, operators and workers
claimed are being implemented during the interviews and what is
physically obtained to affirm validity and consistency.
83
Photographs are a good way of collecting observable data of
phenomena that can be captured in a single or series of shots.
Photographs in this study supplemented interviews and observation
data collection techniques. And they were significant in showing the
real existence of these informal mining activities and the related
environmental impacts that could not be verbally explained as showed
in this study.
3.5.2 Secondary Data collection
Secondary data collection is a process that began upon
commencement of the study and continued until the end of the study.
Secondary data among others involved reading, analyzing and
recording information relevant to the study from published and
unpublished books, Government and International Reports, Journals,
News papers and Magazines. These materials in the course of this
study were sourced from different resource centres in Nigeria. Also,
the internet was a very rich, important and vital source of information
in accessing information especially those that were unavailable in the
print sources.
Secondary data collection was based on Mikkelsen (1995) who points
out, that secondary data source provide a wealth of information from
different studies which can be utilized to shape and mould a research
study. Information from the secondary sources not only supplemented
the primary data that were collected, but also gave more insight about
different aspects linked to the study topic.
84
Although most of the secondary data were accessible, it was not easy
to acquire information that was directly linked to the study topic with
particular emphasis on Nigeria. Information about non-agricultural
activities and sustainable use of non-renewable natural resources
especially among rural dwellers/communities in Nigeria are lacking in
most resource centres. The research work relied mainly on studies
carried out in other Africa countries such as Ghana, Mali, Uganda,
and South Africa among others. Also, studies carried out in Latin
America, India and other developed Western and North America
nations were used as these countries has an active Artisanal and
Small-Scale Mineral extractive industry with published studies on the
impact of their activities on the environment.
3.6 Data Recording and Analysis
In Most Publications such as Limb and Dwyer (2001) Patton (1980)
they did recommended the use of tape recorder in research data
collation. In this study, the respondents at the initial stage were very
conscious that they are being recorded; hence tend to give Skewed
information. They either exaggerated some aspects or sparingly
contributed to some topics. In the case of the workers who were
willing to contribute to the study, they requested not to be tape
recorded either for fear of the mine owners (employer) or for personal
privacy. Ethically, their decision has to be respected. In the case of the
mine owners, after reviewing the initial outcomes of the first two tape
recorded interviews, it was discontinued. Thus note taking method
85
was used in recording the interview proceedings in subsequent
interviews.
Data collection in research is incomplete without analysis,
interpretation and presentation of findings. The process of
interpretation and analysis involve making sense out of what people
has said, looking for patterns, putting together what is said in one
place with what is said in another place, and then integrating what
different people have said (Patton, 1980). According to Huberman and
Miles (1994), data analysis involves the different procedures
encountered in converting information recorded during fieldwork for
example field notes, into partially processed data such as write-ups
which are later coded and analyzed with an aim of answering the
research questions and consequently drawing conclusions in relation
to the study. Patton (1980), supplements by asserting that, the basic
purpose of qualitative analysis is to retrieved and filter the information
gotten from the different interviews. Analysis is only meaningful when
it yields and advises on response to question under investigation
(ibid). This involves analyzing the detailed conversation and extracting
what was pertinent to the study. It also involves coding variables such
as age, sex, marital status and level of education of respondents.
These were in this study, quantitatively analyzed using Statistical
Programme for Social Scientists (SPSS) and the simple statistics
generated were presented in charts, graphs and tables.
86
3.7 Trust Worthiness
A trust worthy study is one that is carried out fairly and ethically and
whose findings represent as close as possible the experiences of the
respondents. The trust worthiness of a research is shown by how valid
and reliable the methods and the results collected from a research
are. Reliability according to Peil et al (1982) is based on consistency. If
a measurement system is reliable, then it should provide the same
result consistently over time across a range of observations.
Through individual interviews for both structured and semi structured
questions, the study discovered that the responses to the research
questions had an aspect of similarly. Peil et al (1982) further observed
that measures are reliable if the same people are asked the same
questions again and they give the same answer. During the field work,
there were instances when respondents who had earlier been
interviewed were casually asked the same question on running into
them presenting such interaction as avenue to seek more
clarifications, and it usually turns out that there was not much
variation with what they had earlier said. Also, the reliability of the
information given were also assessed through observations. This helps
to prove or disapprove what they said during the interviews from what
obtains on ground.
Validity in social research is determined when the researcher reports
correctly what happened; and measures exactly what the research is
supposed to measure. External validity is based on whether the
researcher reported what the respondents said while internal validity
87
is determined by whether the researcher reports in accordance to the
research questions. Drawing from Kvale (1996), validity refers to the
truth and correctness of a statement. A study that is valid will
produce a well grounded, justifiable, strong and convincing report. On
the same note, validity determines whether the research truly
measured what it was intended to measure and how truthful the
results of the study are. In this study, to ensure validity of the data, a
combination of observation and individual interviews were found
useful for comparative and supplementary purposes for the different
responses.
Also, in the course of data collection, it was discovered that none of
the data collection methods was perfect as each presented its own
strengths and weaknesses. The utilization of a variety of methods in
data collection is recommended by Tasshakori et al (1998) who refer to
it as “triangulation”. This entails combining different data collection
techniques to study the same phenomena. One of the methods of
triangulation by Patton (1980) includes methodological triangulation
which uses multiple methods to study of a research problem. By using
different methods of data collection, triangulation reflects an attempt
to secure an in-dept understanding of a phenomenon in question. The
combination of multiple methods is a strategy that adds richness and
breadth to an inquiry. The importance of triangulation in social
research is evidently important in overcoming problems of bias
common when one method is used.
88
In the quest to have an in-dept understanding of the attitude to and
the environmental impact rehabilitation practices of the local Okpella
miners, the use of semi-structured, structured interviews as well as
observation were employed. Thus triangulation in data collection is
worth consideration because the weaknesses of one method of data
collection are offset by the strengths of another. Ultimately, this goes a
long way in improving the quality and quantity of data collected
during a given study as employed in this study.
89
Chapter Four
Data Presentation
4.0 Introduction
The generated data from the fifty (50) questionnaires administered
through semi-structured interviews cutting across various players in
the artisanal and small scale mining industry in Okpella, unstructured
interviews held with key informants and official of the Federal Ministry
of Solid Minerals Development, Abuja, were quantitatively analyzed
using statistical programmes. The simple statistics generated were
presented in charts, graphs and tables.
Specifically, the data were filtered and analyzed to maximally proffer
answers to the research questions and consequent upon which
conclusions were drawn in relation to the study.
4.1 Who are Engaged in Artisanal and Small - Scale Mining?
4.1.1 Age of Respondents
Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) just like most informal activities
especially in rural communities engages all groups of people without
much regard to age. From the interviewed respondents, findings show
that (5) 10% were less than 18years, (18) 36% were between 18-
30years, (21) 42% were aged between 31-49years and (6) 12% were
above 50years. (Appendix I, Table I). Interestingly, a greater
number/percentage of (39) 78% were from the active and productive
age bracket of between 18-49years. There tend to be an increasing
decline of those that engaged in mining activities with increase in age
90
especially among above (50) fifty years. This trend was observed to be
attributed to the strenuous nature of the mining operations which
involves the use of simple tools and limited mechanization in extracting
and processing of the minerals.
050
100150
Less than 18
18 – 30 31 – 49 Above 50
Total
No of Respondents out of 50
% of Respondents
Fig. 2 Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011
Also, it was observed that the under aged of less than 18years that are
engaged in the mining activities are mainly children of the men or
women that works in the mines. To a large extent, they assist their
parents. No doubt, the energy sapping nature of the mining activities
accounted for the high number of the productive and active aged group.
4.1.2 Gender
Table 2 in Appendix I, shows the gender composition of the
respondents. The findings revealed that artisanal and small-scale
mining activities engage more of male compared to the females. Out of
the total number of fifty (50) randomly selected respondents, the males
were (34) 68% while the females were (16) 32%. It was observed that
ownership of milling equipment and marble quarrying sites were mainly
91
dominated by the men. However, few women own mineral exploitation
(extraction) sites which were farmed out to them by either their
husbands or fathers as land ownership is mainly patria linear in nature
in Okpella.
34
16
50
Frequency
Male
Female
Total
Fig. 3 Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011
However, it was observed that the crushing of boulders be it marble,
limestone or feldspar into granite aggregates, or smaller sizes of
limestone and feldspar for eventual milling into raw materials is
dominated by the females using hand hammers.
Generally, the involvement of any of the sexes in each of the mining
stages is relative to the energy demands and hazardous nature of the
activity for instance, it was observed that mineral extraction using
either manual or explosives is done only by the male folks. The women
tends not to be too permanent at the mine and milling sites as they
often take time off to attend to domestic chores which involve their
reproductive roles such as child bearing, rearing and taking care of
household responsibilities.
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4.1.3. Educational Level
The level of an individual’s education is a determining factor in securing
employment opportunity in the formal sector hence Aboagye (1986)
associated informal sector activities with low level of education
especially in rural communities. This assertion was to an extent
reflected from findings obtained from the interviews.
As shown in Table 3, Appendix I, (2) 4% of the respondents never had
any formal education; (24) 48% ended their schooling at the elementary
level, (20) 40% attended secondary school and (4) 8% went through a
tertiary institution. It was observed that those that had higher
education own either a mine extraction site or milling equipments;
thus, they own their businesses and are employers of labour.
0 50 100 150
None
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
Total
% frequency
Frequency
Fig. 4 Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011
The limited educational qualification of a majority of the respondents
may have accounted for their taking into mining operations which
according to Aboagye (1986) involves activities that are usually labour
intensive, relying on adapted technology, with skills acquired outside
the formal school system.
93
4.2. The Type of Mining Activity (ies)
4.2.1 The Type of Mineral Exploited and Duration, Engaged in
Mining Activities
The finding from respondents shows that a great number of those that
engaged in artisanal and small scale mining are found in the
exploitation of marble and subsequent quarrying into granite aggregates
for the construction industry compared to those engaged in extraction
of lime-stone, and feldspar and subsequent milling into industrial raw
materials.
As showed in Table 4, Appendix I, (33) 66% of the respondents are
engaged in the exploitation of marble and subsequent quarrying into
granite aggregates, (6) 12% are engaged in exclusive extraction of
limestone and milling into industrial raw materials, (2) 4% are
exclusively engaged in extraction of feldspar and milling into industrial
raw material while (9) 18% combines the extraction of limestone and
feldspar and subsequently milling of the raw materials into industrial
raw materials.
050
100150
No of Respondents
% of Respondents
Fig. 5
Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011
94
Also the findings revealed that most of the respondents has been
engaged in mining activities for between five and ten years as showed in
Table 5, Appendix I, were (2) 4% has been engaged in mining activity for
less than a year who can be classified as new entrants, (7) 14% has
spent between a year and five, (29) 58% between six and ten years and
(12) 24% above ten years.
050
100150
Number of years engaged in many activities
Frequency
Fig. 6
Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011
In all, (41) 82% of the respondents has been engaged in mining
activities for above five years. This trends tends to show the consistency
of the people in the activity, thus can be concluded that mining has
been taken and forms one of the permanent occupation of the people of
Okpella as against the general held believe that people take into
artisanal and small scale mining as a seasonal or occasional
engagements.
95
Responses from unstructured interviews with key informants revealed
that people tend to engage more in granite quarrying using simple land
fools as against the mechanized quarrying equipments due to the
abundance of the mineral (marble stones), easy of accessibility and low
capital requirement to set-up a site as against the extraction and
milling of limestone and feldspar whose mineral deposits are not
common and claimed to be owned by a powerful few in the community
who farm-out to the miners for a fee and the capital requirement
needed to set up a milling operations. It was observed that as against
the traditional heating of the exposed rock using firewood or old car
tires to enhance cracking the stone deposit into boulders using 10kg
and 20kg hammers, some mine owners now uses dynamites to blast the
rock formations.
4.2.2 Why they engage in Mining Activities
In response as to why the respondents engage in mining activities, six
key factors were adduced by them in order of frequency as poverty, level
of education, to provide for household basic needs, loss of formal
employment, the desire to meet school requirements and financial
savings to invest in other business ventures (responses to Question No.
7, Appendix 11).
96
4.3. Knowledge of and Attitude to Impact of Mining on the
Environment.
The field study revealed that almost all the operators are aware and
conscious of the fact that their mining activities impacts negatively on
the environment they operates as 46 respondents representing 92%
agreed while 4 (8%) did not agree that their operations has negative
impact on the environment (responses to Question No. 8, Appendix 11).
In the same vain, 40 (80%) of the respondents acquired their knowledge
of the adverse effect of their operations on the environment through
physical observation, why 6 (12%) acquired such knowledge and belief
through formal learning process (responses to Question No. 9, Appendix
11).
Ironically, field study revealed that none of the respondents 50 (100%)
has ever benefited from any formal or informal environmental health
and safety impact sensitization campaign or training either by
government agency or non-government organization (NGO) since they
have been in the mining business (responses to Question No. 10,
Appendix 11).
4.4 The Mining Processes/Operations
Artisanal and small-scale mining operations traditionally usually adopt
simple hand-made-tools and manual operations in the extraction and
processing of the raw materials. However, with passage of time, the
application of medium size mechanized equipments and the application
and use of explosives to extract and process the raw materials are now
being adapted. Also the extraction processes to a large extent determine
the degree and level of environmental degradation and effect.
97
The field study revealed that 28 (56%) of the respondents are engaged
in surface mining operations, 7 (14%) in underground mining while 15
(30%) adopts both surface and underground mining processes in the
extraction of their raw materials be in granite, limestone or feldspar.
The implication of these findings is that all of their operations have the
potential of affecting the environment.
In response to the type of tools and equipments used in the extraction
process, the findings as shown in Table 6 in Appendix I revealed that 32
(64%) of the respondents uses simple hand-made rudimentary tools
such as hoes, pick axes, hammers, chisels and shovels 6 (12%) adopt
the use of explosives (dynamites) to blast the rock/stone formations, 4
(8%) uses wood fuel or horn out tires to heat the rocks to enhance
expansion and cracking. While 8 (16%), of the respondent’s, uses a
combination of any of the aforementioned processes, thus not relying
on a single process of mineral extraction.
32
648
50
Simple hand-made
Explosives
Wood fuel
Combination
Total
Fig. 7 Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011
It was observed that in any of the tool/equipment method adopted, they
all pose occupational health hazard and environmental pollution and
98
degradation impacts. The mine workers using simple hand – made tools
are prone to high injuries. The use of wood fuel and worn-out old car
tires not only generate a thick dark smoke, but the workers also inhale
the toxic substances which are released from the burnt wood and
rubber, hence making them susceptible to respiratory tract infections
and complications as well as contributing to global warming and ozone
depletion. Also, the novel adoption of the use of explosives (dynamites)
besides its observed high propensity to generating vibration which has
created cracks on buildings, also poses high security issues and
concerns as it was observed and also findings from un-structured
interviews with key informants confirmed that the handlers of the
dynamites are not legally licensed and the sources of securing the
explosives are also in suspect.
In response to the processing method being used to process the raw
materials marble, limestone and feldspar to granite and milled
industrial raw materials respectively, 36 respondents representing 72%
uses hand-made/operated tools for the processing of their raw-
materials to finished or semi-finished goods while 14 (28%) uses
mechanized equipments as showed in Table 7 of Appendix I. It was
observed that majority of those that are engaged in the processing of
marble rock to granite uses hand-operated tools such as hammers and
chisels to break the extracted boulders into smaller aggregates of
various sizes. Those engaged in mining of limestone and feldspar used
locally fabricated or imported milling machines to mill the extracted
boulders into coarse or smooth powdered form.
99
050
100
Hand operated
tools
Mechanized Equipments
Total
Frequency
% frequency
Fig. 8
Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011
In any of the processing method adopted it was observed that they both
have their environmental and occupational health challenges and
concerns for instance, evidence of injury scars and marks are common
among the mine workers using hammers to break boulders into granite
aggregates beside the inhaling of the dusts being generated. On the
other hand, the milling processes of limestone and feldspar comes with
their attendant noise, air and vibration pollutions.
4.5 Impacts on the Environment/Mitigating Measures Adopted
There was a near consensus by the respondents that the extractive and
processing methods and equipments be employed by them negatively
impacts on the environment, health of the operatives and community
members as 45 (90%) of the respondents holds this belief and view,
while 5 (10%) still hold a contrary view. However, the observed physical
environmental impacts by way of land degradation, erosions, gullies,
cracked buildings among others are evident enough.
100
To buttress the above view and belief of majority of the respondents on
the environmental impact of their operations, the degree and type of the
environmental impact were ranked thus (Table 8, Appendix I) land and
vegetation degradation 46 (92%). Air pollution 39 (78%); Noise pollution
33 (66%); creation of erosions and gullies 32 (64%); water pollution 21
(42%); creation of artificial ponds 18 (36%) and resulting to crack
buildings 6 (12%). Field observations and pictures taken greatly
collaborated the responses of the respondents on the impacts of their
operations by way of wasted and degraded farm lands, dusts and noise
pollutions, craters, gullies, erosions and crack building walls that all
abound at the various quarries, processing sites and the community
evidencing the environmental impact of their operations.
Fig. 9
Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011.
Despite the acknowledgement by the respondents that their operations
impacts negatively on the environment as well as identifying and
0102030405060708090
100
No of Frequency out of 50 respondents
% frequency out of 50 respondents
101
ranking areas of such impact, field study shows not much has been
done to mitigate these impacts and effects by the operators as shown in
their responses outlined in Table 9, Appendix I from the responses, 3
(6%) have employed re-a forestation measures on the wasted and
degraded land, 7 (14%) has embarked on erosion control measures, 2
(4%) has carried out sand filling of created pits and quarries, 1 (2%)
undertaken measures to control the dust created by their operations, 4
(8%) taken measures to reduce the noise being generated from their
operations, 5 (10%) actually paid compensation/repair of damages
arising from their operations and finally, 2 (40%) have reviewed their
operational methods by way of adoption of her technologies to mitigate
the adverse effect of their operations. However, none has made attempt
at providing alternative source of drinking water despite the pollution of
waterways by their operations nor pay any monetary compensation to
community members for damages arising from their operations.
The simple deduction from the above findings is that despite the glaring
adverse environmental and social impacts arising from the local
artisanal and small scale mines in Okpella, their attitude to and
implementation of remedial measures aimed at mitigating these impacts
are still very low and poor as revealed by their responses. This
deduction was further established by the respondent’s responses to
question 21 in Appendix II were 38 (76%) attested to the fact that their
efforts at reducing the environmental impacts has not be satisfactory
nor effective. The two common reasons given by the respondents forthis
state of affairs were that their operations cannot generate the needed
finances to adequately address such impacts and that the elements of
102
nature especially the rains usually erodes their remedial efforts
especially in erosion and gully controls during the raining seasons.
4.6 Occupational, Health and Safety.
The findings from the field study revealed a poor attitude and concern
to health and safety issues arising from the mining operation to both
the miners and community members despite the consciousness and
appreciation of the adverse health challenges mining activities poses to
their health as shown in their responses to question 23 outlined in
Table 10 of Appendix I. The finding, show that 43 (86%) agreed that
mining operations exposes them to dust; 40 (80%) to body injuries; 39
(78) to noise pollution; 33 (66%) to effects of over - exertion; 18 (36%) to
vibration effect; 16 (32%) to rock fall exposure; 12 (24%) to chemical
exposure; 5 (10%) to effects of poor ventilation and finally 3 (6%) to
misuse of explosives.
0102030405060708090
No of Frequency out of 50 respondents
% frequency out of 50 respondents
Fig. 10 Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011.
103
Ironically despite the high awareness of the adverse health and safety
challenges pose by the mining activities, basic provisions to mitigate
these challenges are not being contemplated as out of the twenty (20)
mining and milling sites covered by the study, none had a first Aid Box
and its basic requirements. In the same vain, the study revealed that
basic and mandatory safety equipments for mining activities are not
adequately provided or used as shown in Table 11 of Appendix I. 22
(44%) uses hand gloves, 7 (14%) uses dust masks despite the high
exposure, and 5 (10%) uses helmet and safety boots respectively.
5
22
75
No of Frequency out of 50 respondents
Helmet
Hand gloves
Dust masks
Safety books
Fig. 11
Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011
This low provision and usage rate of safety equipment cannot be trance
to low or absence of occupational accidents as 43 (86%) agreed that
there has been incidence of occupational accident either minor or major
as their sites as against 7 (14%) that claimed non occurrence of any
occupational accident at their sites.
104
In response to the common ailment and diseases usually suffered by
the miners, cold and catarrh 36 (72%) ranked highest, followed by
malaria 32 (64%), skin diseases 21 (42%) and diarrhea 13 (26%) as
shown in Table 12 of Appendix I. Also, 41 (82%) of the respondents
believe that these ailment and diseases can be attributed to the nature
of their work (mining) while 9 (18%) disagreed.
32
1321
36
No of Frequency out of 50 respondents
Malaria
Diarrhea
Skin diseases
Cold and catarrh
Fig. 12 Source: Author’s Field Work, 2011
Interpretation of above two findings indicates that the mining
operations poses health challenges and problems to the operators, as
the agreed common ailments of cold, catarrh, malaria and skin
diseases can be attributed to the dusty nature and strenuous
demands of the mining operations. This was collaborated by their
responses and information gathered through unstructured interviews
with key informants.
105
4.7 Regulatory and Operating Standards
One of the key issues which have been acknowledged globally as vital
to achieving a sustainable mining operation being it large, medium or
artisanal and small scale is the level and degree of effective and
efficient regulatory and operational frameworks and standards put in
place by the various governments. Given the fact that the federal
government of Nigeria has the singular authority and control over all
natural mineral resources as found in the sub-national territories, the
soundness of it’s regulatory frameworks and the extent to which they
are effectively and efficiently implemented will greatly determined to a
great extent how sustainable the mining operations are.
The field findings as shown in Table 13, Appendix 1, highlighted the
gross failings of the relevant authorities to undertaken steps and
actions that have created the needed awareness on the part of
artisanal and small scale mining operations on the likely environment
challenges and impacts arising from their operations. This was trance
and collaborated from responses gathered through unstructured
interviews with key informants as a fall-out of the long neglected
efforts at main streaming the activities and operations of the artisanal
and small-scale miners into the National mining policy, rather, they
were all along be regarded and treated as illegal operators.
Analysis of the responses shows that 49 (98%) of the respondents
operations were not covered by any operating permit/license/lease
from the regulatory agency the Mining Cadastre Office (MCO), of the
Federal Ministry of Solid Mineral Development, Abuja. The only
106
operator the claimed to have the legal permits on further inquiry
revealed that he mines limestone deposits on a sub-lease agreement
from the original title owners to the deposit.
Also, In response to Question 33 in Appendix 11, 34 (68%) of the
responded claimed not to have been visited or interacted with any
government official by way of inspection of their mining activities. 16
(32%) claimed to have had such visit/infraction. However further
inquiry revealed that officials that have made visits to the mining and
processing sites were official from Edo State small and Medium
Enterprise Agency, an Agency recently established by the state
government aimed at developing the capacities of small and medium
Enterprises in the state. Also, it was also revealed that Etsako East
Local Government Revenue Officials do come yearly to collect annual
operational levy. The fall-out of this state of affairs as revealed by the
study that none of the respondents has attended any formal training
or sensitization program organized either by government agency or
non-state actors to educate than effect/impact of their mining
operations on the environment and the appropriate remedial actions
to mitigate such impact.
Ironically in spite the classification of their operations as illegal, all the
respondents 50 (100%) claimed that they pay levies to the local
government council revenue officials and representatives of the
operating communities (response to Questions 35 and 36. Appendix
11). They claim to pay three types of levies comprising of an annual
operating levy to the local council, agreed amount on every truck lead
of milled limestone, or feldspar and granite to both the local council
107
revenue official and operating community representatives. All these
levies are receipted which were sighted during the field study.
108
Chapter Five
5.0 Discussion of Results
This study is aimed at assessing the rehabilitation practices of artisanal and
small-scale miners that will ultimately mitigate the adverse environmental,
occupational and health effects had impacts arising from their mining
activities in Okpella. A great attention was paid to the methods and
processes adopted by the miners in extracting and milling of the raw
materials into various finished and semi- processed products for sales.
In doing this, research questions were designed and administered to the
mine operators and workers. Opinions of community leaders, trade
association executives and government agency officials were obtained
through semi structured and un-structured interviews. The responses
obtained from these interviews were supplemented with non-verbal
information from personal observations made during the field study.
Consequently, in this chapter, the main findings of the study would be
identified.
Based on the analyzed and interpreted data in Chapter Four, the following
findings / results were made in relation to the study objectives:
Who are Engaged in Mining Activities and Level of Awareness of
Environmental, Health and Safety Impacts of their Operations.
The study revealed that artisanal and small-scale mining activity despite its
illegal nature and outlook as carried out in Okpella, has been generally
accepted as a way of life by the people who sees the natural resources
endowed in their communities as their God’s give gift which can be exploited
without recourse to any approving authority. With this mindset and
disposition therefore it is seen by the people as any rural community
members will see the act of farming food and cash crops as a source of
livelihood. In effect, it is taken as a way of life accommodating all ages of
people with no gender barriers or inhibitions. Also, there is no barrier to
entry or exit beside the traditional land ownership rights. This is more so, as
the study revealed that no formal training or specialized skills are required
to be so engaged in any of the activities. In a nutshell, their activities are not
perceived by the miners as illegal in spite their not having any official
permits to so mined the mineral resources.
109
Also, the study revealed that the people resorted to mining mainly as a
livelihood strategy in the absence of better alternatives. The respondents
adduced various reasons for their taking into mining amongst which are to
provide for the basic needs of life and their families, meeting children’s
school fee, being the easily available option after loss of formal employment
especially after the closure of Edo Cement Company, Okpella and as a
veritable means of accumulating savings for lesser strenuous future
undertakings such as trading.
The use of non-renewable natural resources with a growing in-satiable
market demand acknowledged sustainability beyond preserving the
ecological integrity of the resource. Interestingly, the study revealed that
artisanal and small scale mining activities although negatively impacts on
the environment, but has largely serve as a veritable source of livelihood
strategy and growth of other forms of livelihoods to the rural mining
communities members. This aspect of source of livelihood and social equity
was evident in modest infrastructural, social and economic enhancement of
Okpella People and the communities in comparison to neighboring
communities who are not so natural mineral resource endowed. These
modest differences were attributed by the study to the livelihood
opportunities being offered by the ASM activities to the Okpella people.
The above findings goes to buttress the assertion of Coppin, 2005 (ibid) in
the Final Report by Wardell Armstrong in a commissioned project: Sectoral
Environmental and Social Assessment under the Nigeria Sustainable
Management of Mineral Resources Project (SMMRP) a World Bank/FGN
Sponsored Project, where it was stated that “Artisanal and Small-Scale
Mining (ASM) operations dominate mining in Nigeria, particularly from
around 1903 up till 1940s when there was an amalgamation into more
commercial large ventures and that however, there was a re-emergence of
ASM outfits especially for metals and gemstones after independence in
1970s resulting from the declining tin prices, civil war (1967-1970) and
other factors”.
The report further posited that today, the situation in the ASM sector in
Nigeria has been described by some as utterly chaotic with virtual
110
breakdown in law and order in the mining areas (especially since the
dissolution of the mines field police force). It however noted that this
disorganized sector probably provides a rural livelihood to many thousands
of informal artisanal miners in Nigeria in all the six regional mining zones.
That since there is currently no clear definition of ASM in Nigeria, and
because the vast majority of these miners work casually, seasonally or
informally, it is impossible to determine the actual number of workers in the
ASM sector, which some claim may be as many as 400,000 people.
Ironically, the study showed that there is a general consciousness and
awareness amongst the mine owners, workers and community members of
the glaring and inherent effects and impacts arising from the mining
activities to the environment and health of the operators and community
members. The environmental degradations and health hazards are evident
through the numerous gully erosions; abandon mine pits creating artificial
ponds, waste farm lands and vegetations, cracked building walls, dust and
noise emissions/pollutions which form daily part of their operations.
The negative impact of their operations was aptly captured by Hentschel et
al (2003) who asserted that “the environmental costs of artisanal and
small scale mining activities are in general higher than those of other
types of mining. This means that artisanal and small scale mining is
dirtier per unit of output than medium-sized or large and modern
mining operations”. They went further to highlight the most common
and important environmental probems arising from their operations
as:
i. Landscape destruction
ii. Garbage and solid waste
iii. Erosion damage and deforestation
iv. Tropical diseases such as malaria
v. Mercury pollution
111
vi. Cyanide pollution
vii. Direct dumping of affluent into rivers
viii. Improper closures
ix. River siltation
x. Acid rock drainage
xi. River damage in alluvial areas
xii. Cultural damage due to invasion of sensitive tribal lands
and
xiii. Uncontrolled ASM activities in protected areas.
In the same vain, Chaanda et al asserted that the mining of barytes by
artisanal miners in Azara area of the middle belt trough of Nigeria has
devastated over 1,000 ha of arable land.
Environmental, Health and Safety Remediation and Rehabilitation
Practices by the Miners and their Effectiveness.
The study revealed that the miners has no rehabilitation programs rather,
any environmental remedial measures undertaken were done mainly to have
access to the mineral resources not as a compulsive need to remedy the
damage done to the environment. The belief among the miners is that their
operations do not generate the needed financial resources required to
remedy the ecological damages arising from their operations.
It was also discovered that the issue of wearing of protective gears against
health and occupational hazards by the workers which should have served
as protection against shocks such as ill health, accidents occasioning body
injuries and at times death were treated with utmost levity. The mine
owners regards the provision of simple protective gears such as hand gloves,
dust masks, helmet or safety boots as too financial involving and demanding
on there merger operating capital. This is against the back drop that almost
all the mines has recorded incidence of occupational mishaps of varying
112
degree ranging from falling rocks injuries, misuse of explosives and deaths
which are not formally reported to appropriate authorities. The commonest
of occupational health preventive measures through the provision of First
Aid Boxes were not found or provided by the mine owners.
Closely related to above finding is the consensus by the mine owners,
workers and community members that the mining activities contributes
largely to the cause of most of the common ailments the workers and
community members often suffer from. In order of ranking the identified
common ailments were cold and catarrh, malaria, skin diseases and
diarrhea which they tend to attribute to the dust and air pollutions, mine
pits turned to ponds that breads mosquitoes especially during the raining
seasons, contaminated drinking water and over-exertion from the energy
sapping nature of the mining activities. These could better be appreciated
against the background of poor health outcomes and facilities in the
communities.
Also, the study revealed a new growing phenomenon which is the increasing
use of explosives (dynamites) by the local miners in the extraction of the rock
materials as against the traditional using of fire to reduce the strength of the
rock material before using hammer to break it into boulders. Hitherto,
dynamites were only used by the medium and large scale miners under a
controlled and regulated regime. In light of the security issues and concerns
associated with the free use of dynamites in an informal, illegal and un-
regulated activity, no doubt added security and social concerns and
demission to the already identified environmental problems more so in light
of recent security challenges and bomb planting in the country.
Stephen and Alern (2001), asserted that “mining remains one of the
most perilous occupations in the world, both in terms of short term
injuries and fatalities, but also due to long term impacts such as
cancers, and respiratory conditions such as silicosis, asbestosis and
pneumoconiosis”. No doubt occupational health and personal safety
issues are frequently and will always be on the agenda when artisanal
and small-scale mining is discussed. However, reliable data or official
statistics about accidents or occupational diseases are generally
113
unavailable in Nigeria. According to International Labour Organization
(ILO), there are five major health risks in artisanal and small-scale
mining and processing (Jenning, 1999). These are:
i) Exposure to dust (silicosis)
ii) Exposure to mercury and other chemicals
iii) Effects of noise and vibration
iv) Effects of poor ventilation (heat humidity, lack of oxygen)
v) Effect of over-exertion, inadequate work space and
inappropriate equipment.
According to (Jenning, 1999), the most frequently cited causes of
accidents in artisanal and small-scale mines are; rock fall,
subsidence, misuse of explosives; lack of knowledge; lack of training;
violation of regulations; and obsolete and poorly maintained
equipments which the study findings corroborated.
Effectiveness of the Roles of Supervisory and Regulatory
Agencies.
In respect to the issues of regulation and enforcement of operating
standards, the study revealed that almost all the miners has no legal permits
authorizing them to mine the natural resources. Hence, they are illegal
miners. The illegal nature of their activities does not give room for the
standardization of their operations and processes in consonance with the
operating guild lines as outlined in the Mineral and Mining Regulations,
2010 made under and pursuant to the Nigeria Mineral and Mining Act,
2007.
Drawing from the semi-structured interview with official of the Sustainable
Management of Mineral Resources Project (SMMRP) Abuja, it was revealed
that much is being done to main-stream the activities of Artisanal and
Small-Scale Miners whose activities are mainly officially regarded as being
illegal into the National Mining Policy and Framework through capacity
114
building, exposures to modern mining technologies, formation of co-
operative societies, financial grants and technical support.. To date, a total
number of eighty-six (86) ASM’S and Mining Communities have benefited
from the Micro Grant (Credit) Scheme of the project out of the targeted Two
hundred and fifty (250) ASM Co-operatives and Communities of the project..
Ironically, a critical aspect of ASM operations which has to do with
environmental degradation and pollution which can best be checked through
an effective and efficient field operations policing and monitoring is not been
given a serious thought and consideration by the various regulatory agencies
as revealed by the study. Hence, the increasing case of environmental
degradation and pollution from the activities of ASM’s across the country.
In recognition of this perennial problem, by Hentschel et al (2003) asserted
that one major problem of artisanal and small scale mining is the great
individual number of polluters, normally concentrated in a specific area,
which causes significant local impact and by nature of their un-regulated
and non-formalized operations, it becomes very difficult to control or monitor
environmental violations or enforcement of regulations and standards by the
relevant regulatory agencies due largely to inadequate resources and
inaccessible nature of most of their operations. They went further to state
that “there is the urgent need to create a straightforward, steady
sustainable development in the artisanal and small-scale mining sub-
sector that will best place it to contribute to rural development and its
integration into the formal economy by governments of mining nations
through sound policies which will be based on four strategic pillars of
poverty alleviation, a good business climate for the artisanal and
small-scale mining sub-sector, sustainability, and stabilization of
government revenue from the sector.
115
Chapter Six
Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
6.1 Conclusion
In assessing the environment rehabilitation practices of the artisanal and
small scale mining activities in Okpella, it can be deduced that:
(i) The problems and concerns of environmental degradation, pollution
and devastation arising from the operations of artisanal and small
scale miners in Okpella and by extension other Nigeria rural mining
communities are real, grievous, environmental and human
threatening.
(ii) Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining activities in spite of serving as a
veritable source of livelihood and provision of social equity to the rural
community households, it’s environmental sustainability issues and
concerns poses a great challenge to mining communities and the
nation at large. For instance, it has been established that there over
thousand (1,000) mining ponds being relics of mining of tine and
columbine in Plateau State in the 1960’s through 1980’s. Ironically, it
is estimated that it will cost the government of Plateau States today
over N20 billion to re-claim and restore the mining ponds for any
meaning use which for outstripped the economic value that was
derived from the mining operations years back.
The glaring deduction we can make from above is the fact that
environmental concerns are not sufficiently and adequately integrated
into the nation’s mining policies formulation and implementations to
make mining activities development and environmentally sustainable
be it at artisanal or large scale levels. To this end, the challenge to
government and operators especially at the ASM Level should be to
evolve operational policies and regulations aimed at balancing the
“economic benefits of (ASM) Mining with the environmental cost of the
activity” If future generations in the mining communities could indeed
grow up to meet an environment they can truly call a habitat.
116
(iii) The illegal nature and scope of the artisanal and small scale mining
begets illegal operational outcomes by way of environmental
degradation, since they do not operate under any operational
guidelines and standards. In order to ensure environmental
sustainability of their operations, there is the need to recognize and
mainstream their operations into the National Mining Policy and
Framework by policy makers. This is against the back drop of the that
about 95% of the mining sector’s contribution to the nation’s Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) comes from the artisanal and small scale
miners of which over 90% of them operates illegally, there is the
urgent need therefore to remove the tag of “illegal operators” from
these miners and formalize their operations as part of efforts aimed at
preserving these finite natural resources for the future generations.
(iv) The artisanal and small scale miners are further driven to embrace
illegal operations and resist formalization and mainstreaming into the
formal mining framework due largely to the stringent, cumbersome
and high demanding technical and financial requirements for the
formalization of their operations by way of obtaining a Small-Scale
Mining Lease (SSML) from the Mining Cadastre Office (MCO), Abuja.
The requirements as outlined in sections 43-50 of the Minerals and
Mining Regulations, 2010 made under and pursuant to the Nigeria
Minerals and Mining Act, 2007and the Mining Cadastre Office (MCO),
Guide for Mining Rights Applicants are almost the some as the
requirements for the acquisition of Mining Leases (MLs) and Quarry
Leases (QLs) without taking into consideration the peculiar technical
and financial constrains and limitations of the artisanal and Small-
Scale Miners.
117
6.2 Recommendations
In an attempt to postulate and put forward workable recommendations
aimed at addressing the environmental concerns and challenges arising from
the activities of artisanal and Small Scale miners in Okpella and by
extension other rural mining communities in Nigeria, a holistic approach
was adopted, as it has been established by the study, that the environmental
issues and concerns arising from the mining activities are a by product of
the generic and institutional created problems, limitations and constrains.
Hence, limiting our focus to the environmental issues alone, will amount to
treating a symptom instead of the ailment. Therefore, the recommendations
put forward by this study are aimed at addressing the legal, regulatory and
operational constrains and problems especially as they relates to the
environmental issues and concerns of the artisanal and small scale mining
sub sector of the Nigeria mining industry.
(i) Review of Legislations
There is the need to review the legislations regulating the access to
natural mineral resources and the environmental concerns arising
from the operations of the ASMs. The present legislations to a large
degree restrict their ability of meeting the stringent technical and
financial requirements for the acquisition of a Small Scale Mining
Leases (SSML). A downward review is imperative.
Also, the present legal provisions for penalties and punishments
dealing with illegal mining and environmental degradation through
mining activities are at best very derisory and as such, the fines and
prison terms should be reviewed upward taking into consideration,
the level of damage, mineral type and location as this step will
substantially discourage illegal mining and its attendant
environmental degradation.
(i) Integration / Mainstreaming Policies and Programmes.
Policies should as a matter of priority be developed to effectively
integrate and mainstream the artistanal and small- scale miners into
the national mining policy framework by way of evolving policies plans
and programmes that will aid them to easily formalize their miming
118
titles and rights, access to geological information and data, enhance
their technical and managerial skills and capabilities. The relevant
government agencies can enlist the support and assistance of our
various Universities, Polytechnics, Research Institutions and other
nations such as Canada and South Africa that has successful
integrate their ASM in this regard.
(iii) Establish an Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Agency.
As presently obtain, artisanal and small-scale mining activities are
subsumed under a department in the Federal Ministry of solid
Mineral Development without the desired attention and focus.
Ironically not much is done at the state and local government levels
were much of these activities are carried out. To this end therefore,
there is the need to a full fledge agency under the Ministry with the
sole task of developing the artisanal and small scale mining sub
sector. The existing structures and operational machineries of the on-
going World Bank Assisted sustainable Management of Mineral
Resource Project (AMMRP) due to its present national reach can be
transformed into the proposed agency with the necessary legislative
back-up at the end of the project.
(iv) Formation of Miners Association and Co-operative Societies
In a developing field such as ASM where experience, finance, skill and
technical know-how are lacking, the need for co-operation and
synergy cannot be over emphasized. Government should help and
encourage the formation of ASM Associations and Co-Operative
Societies especially at communities and mineral(s) type levels. The
present initiatives of SMMRP in this regard should be encouraged,
adopted and replicated by every solid mineral endowed state and local
government across the country.
Through such trade associations and co-operative societies, it will be
easier for them to mobilize funds, organize trainings, awareness and
sensitization programmes for the miners. Also, from the rules that
govern the associations and co-operative societies, it will be easier to
implement environmental and safety measures so as to reduce on
environmental and health hazards that affects the environment and
constrain the activities of the miners.
119
(v) Provision of Financial, Vocational Training Assistance and
Improved Mechanization
Lack of financial capital has been identified by the operators and
workers as a main hindrance to their activities especially the
acquisition of appropriate extractive and processing equipments.
Given the different socio-economic background of people involved in
the sub-sector, it becomes difficult to extend financial assistance to
individual operator hence, the recommendation for the formation of
trade associations and co-operative societies where this financial
assistance can be channeled through.
Apart from financial assistance, the sub-sector also needs assistance
in kind through the provision of extractive and processing equipment
through a Hiring Scheme to be put in place by the concerned local,
state and federal government agencies and ministries. The Miners can
further be assisted by government through importation of simple and
easy to operate extractive and processing tools and equipment at
subsidized cost. Also, through concern ministries, the government can
support research, at tertiary and research institutions to design and
provide simple, cost effective and sustainable mining technology.
In all there, the roles of adequate skills and competences cannot be
over emphasized. To this and, there is the need for formal and semi
formal training for the miners using the extension workers from the
relevant government agencies and Non Government Organizations
(NGOs) as currently obtains in the agricultural sector.
(vi) Occupational Safety and Sensitization Programmes
Due to the illegal and informal nature of their operations, accidents
and deaths that do occur at the mine sites are often under reported or
not reported at all. The lack of awareness about safety measures
against these accidents and preventable diseases coupled with poor
tools do jeopardize their lives. Through the various government
agencies, NGOs and local communities groups, awareness campaigns
and sensitization meetings can be organized periodically for the
miners.
120
The miners need to be alert at all times about the effect of their
activities and encouraged to take pre-emptive measures to mitigate or
reduce the negative impacts. Also, with the miners buy –in, local
newspapers advertisements and radio programmes can be used to
increase health and safety awareness. During these programmes,
specialists in occupational health, safety and mining operations can
be invited to contribute to the programme especially in relation to
hygiene practices, purchase and use of safety gears and work place
safety measures to reduce on the common preventable diseases and
accidents.
(vii) Environmental Awareness
Finally, the study has established the fact that the activities of ASMs
in Okpella just like in every other Nigeria rural mining communities
are undoubtedly environmentally degrading. However, being a source
of livelihood and social equity to a number of rural mining
communities dwellers and its great potentials for the economic
transformation and employment generation in Nigeria, adequate and
effective measures need to be adopted to reclaim the destroyed lands
and mitigate future degradation. One of the measures suggested for
adoption involves the re – claming through sand filling of the
unproductive or abandon pits with soil so as to make them useful for
other future uses.
Also, the miners should be trained and encouraged to plant fast
maturing trees in order to preserve the species that take a long time
to reach maturity. In al these, there is need for intensive
environmental awareness and sensitization campaigns and
development of environmental preserving programmes targeting the
ASM sub-sector as part of the national mining policy which should be
implemented from the federal down to the states and local
government levels. More importantly, the whole process will require
prior consultation and participation by all the stakeholders especially
the local miners and mining community members so as to
accommodate their views, pleas and aspirations. In other words, there
is the need for a bottom-up approach if the desired results are to be
achieved.
121
It is the researchers’ believe that if these modest policy statements as
outlined in the conclusion and the recommendations of this study are given
due consideration in mining policies formulation and implementation by
policy makers at all levels of government, mining operators and stakeholders
especially as it affects the artisanal and small- scale mining, the nation’s
drive towards achieving the much desired economy diversification,
employment and wealth creation, arrest of urban and rural migration, rapid
development of our rural communities and the attainment of Vision 20, 2020
will not only have be given the desired boost, but also help in the drive for
the attainment of not only a socially and environmentally sustainable
artisanal and small scale mining activities but that which will meet the key
indicators of sustainable development in our rural mining communities
across Nigeria.
122
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130
APPENDIX I:
TABLES OF FINDINGS
Table I: Age groups of Respondents
Age Grouping in years No of Respondents out
of 50
% of Respondents
Less than 18 5 10
18 – 30 18 36
31 – 49 21 42
Above 50 6 12
Total 50 100
Source: Fieldwork findings
Table II: Gender of Respondents
Sex of Respondents Frequency % frequency
Male 34 68
Female 16 32
Total 50 100
Source: Fieldwork findings
Table III: Level of Education
Education Level Frequency % frequency
None 2 4
Primary 24 48
Secondary 20 40
Tertiary 4 8
Total 50 100
Source: Fieldwork findings
131
Table IV: Type of Mineral Exploited
Type of Mineral No of Respondents % of Respondents
Marble (Granite) 33 66
Limestone 6 12
Feldspar 2 4
Limestone and feldspar 9 18
Total 50 100
Source: Fieldwork findings
Table V: Number of Years Engaged in Mining Activities
No of Years Frequency % frequency
Less than one year 2 4
1 – 5 years 7 14
6 – 10 years 29 58
Above 10years 12 24
Total 50 100
Source: Fieldwork findings
Table VI: Tools/Equipments Used in Extraction of Raw Materials – Question
No 13
Tool/Equipment Frequency % frequency
Simple hand-made 32 64
Explosives 6 12
Wood fuel 4 8
Combination 8 16
Total 50 100
Source: Fieldwork findings
Table VII: Processing of Raw-material Methods Adopted – Question No 15
Processing Method Frequency % frequency
Hand operated tools 36 72
Mechanized Equipments 14 28
Total 50 100
Source: Fieldwork findings
132
Table VIII: Environmental Impact of Mining/processing activities –Question No
17
Type of Impact No of Frequency out of 50
respondents
% frequency out of
50 respondents
Land/vegetation degradation 46 92
Creation of artificial ponds 18 36
Creation of erosions/gullies 32 64
Water pollution 21 42
Air pollution 39 78
Noise pollution 33 66
Crack buildings 6 12
Source: Fieldwork findings
Table IX: Environmental Impact and Mitigating Measures Adopted by the Miners
- Question No 20
Mitigating measure employed No of Frequency out of 50
respondents
% frequency out of
50 respondents
Re-aforestation 3 6
Erosion control 7 14
Sand filling of pits 2 4
Provision of alternative sources of
drinking water
- -
Dust control 1 2
Noise reduction 4 8
Payment of compensation/ repair of
damages
5 10
Reviewing methods of operations 2 4
Monetary compensation to
persons/community
- -
Source: Fieldwork findings
133
Table X: Health and Safety Effects – Question No 23
Health Effects/Exposure No of Frequency out of 50
respondents
% frequency out of
50 respondents
Exposure to dust 43 86
Exposure to chemical 12 24
Effects of noise 39 78
Effects of vibration 18 36
Body injuries 40 80
Effects of poor ventilation 5 10
Effects of over – exertion 33 66
Exposure to rock falls 16 32
Misuse of explosives 3 6
Source: Fieldwork findings
Table XI: Provision/Use of Safety Equipment – Question No 27
Safety Equipment No of Frequency out of 50
respondents
% frequency out of
50 respondents
Helmet 5 10
Hand gloves 22 44
Dust masks 7 14
Safety books 5 10
Source: Fieldwork findings
Table XII: Common diseases suffer by miners
Common diseases No of Frequency out of 50
respondents
% frequency out of
50 respondents
Malaria 32 64
Diarrhea 13 26
Skin diseases 21 42
Cold and catarrh 36 72
Source: Fieldwork findings
134
Table: XIII: Regulatory and Operational Standards
Issue/Question Yes Response
out of 50
Respondents
No Response Out
Of 50
Respondents
Number % Number %
i) Ave the Mining operation covered by regulatory
permits
1
2
49
98
ii) Has any government official visit the mining or
milling site(s) to inspect your operations
16
32
34
64
iii) Have you ever attended any
training/sanitization program on effect of
mining in the environment.
Nil
Nil
50
100
i) Do you pay any form of tax or levy 50 100 - -
Source: Fieldwork findings
135
APPENDIX I1:
QUESTIONNAIRES
Institute for Development Studies,
University of Nigeria (UNN),
Enugu Campus,
Enugu.
2nd May, 2011.
Dear Respondent (Mr./Mrs.………………………)
This questionnaire is part of an academic exercise required by the Institute
for Development Studies, University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus, for the
award of an M.Sc Degree in Development Studies. The questionnaire is
designed to obtain necessary information required for a study titled "An
Assessment of the Environmental Impact Rehabilitation Practices of
Artisanal and Small- Scale Miners (ASM) in Okpella.
All information obtained in the course of this study would be treated with
utmost confidentiality. Therefore, as a mine owner/worker/stakeholder, your
positive response would be of primary importance. Consequently, your co-
operation in this regard will be highly appreciated.
Thank you.
Ediawe, Roland J.
Researcher
136
GUIDELINES FOR COMPLETING THE QUESTIONNAIRE
Tick in the relevant box or write out the relevant information as may
be appropriate. Use additional paper where space provided on the
questionnaire is not adequate.
i) Date of Administration/Interview …………………………………
ii) Location of Respondent …………………………………………….
iii) Respondents Number ……………………………………………….
A) Demographic Information
1) Age:
(a) Less than 18years (b) 18 - 30years
(c) 31 – 49years (d) 50 + years
2) Sex: a) Male (b) Female
3) Level of Education: a) None (b) Primary
c) Secondary (d) Tertiary
4) Marital Status: a) Single (b) Married
c) Divorced (d) Widow
137
B) The type of Mining Activity(ies).
5) Type of mining activity engaged: (tick all that apply)
(a) Marble extraction only
(b) Marble extraction and quarrying into granite
(c) Quarrying of marble into granite only
(d) Lime stone extraction only
(e) Extraction of lime stone and milling into industrial material
(f) Milling of limestone only
(g) Feldspar extraction only
(h) Extraction of feldspar and milling into industrial raw
material
(i) Milling of feldspar only
(j) Combination of any of the above, specify ……………………
…………………………………………………………………………
6) For how long have you been engaged in mining activity (ies)?
a) Less than a year
b) 1 – 5years
c) 5 – 10years
d) Above 10 years
138
7) Why are you engaged in mining instead of other occupation
such as agriculture?
…………………………………………………………………………
C) Knowledge of and Attitude to Impact of Mining on the
Environment.
8) Are you aware/believe that mining activities impacts negatively
on the environment?
Yes No
9) If answer to above is Yes, How did you acquired the knowledge
a) Physical observation
b) Acquired through formal learning process
10) Have you ever benefited from any environmental, health and
safety impact sensitization campaign or training formal or
informal since being involved in mining activity.
Yes No
11) If yes, which organization carried out the programme
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
139
D) The mining processes/operations
12) What method(s) of extraction is/are used to get the mineral?
(a) Surface mining
(b) Underground mining
(c) Others, specify …………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………..
13) What tools/equipments do you use in the extraction process?
a) Simple hand-made tools
b) Use of explosives
c) Combination of the two above
d) Others, specify ………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………
14) What mineral(s) do you engaged in processing?
a) Marble to granite
b) Limestone to industrial raw material
c) Feldspar to industrial raw material
d) Combination of any of the above, specify
…………………………………………………………………………..
140
15) What processing methods do you adopt?
a) Use of hand-made/operated tools
b) Use of mechanized equipments
c) Other method, specify ……………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………….
E) Impacts on the environment
16) Do you think the method(s) of extraction and processing as
employment by you have some effect on the natural
environment? Yes No
17) If yes, what are some of the effects? (Tick all that apply)
a) Degradation of land and vegetation
b) Creation of artificial ponds
c) Creation of erosion and gullies
d) Water pollution
e) Air pollution
f) Noise pollution
g) Cracked buildings
h) Others, specify ………………………………………………………
18) Has there be any complain of adverse impact of your mining
activities by members of the community?
Yes No
141
19) With or without complains from outsides, have you ever made
attempt(s) to reduce or curtail the adverse environmental
effects arising from your mining activities?
Yes No
20) If yes, what are some of the measures being undertaken?
(Tick as apply).
a) Re-aforestation
b) Erosion control measures
c) Sand filling of pits
d) Providing alternative source of drinking water
e) Dust control measures
f) Noise reduction measures
g) Payment of compensation or repair of damages done
h) Reviewing or varying method of operations
i) Monentary compensation to affected person/community
j) Others, specify ……………………………………………………….
21) Are the efforts at reducing the environmental impacts
satisfactory and effective? Yes No
22) Give reason(s)/comment(s) on answer given above.
…………………………………………………………………………………
142
F) Occupational Health and Safety
23) Do the mining activity expose you/your workers to any of the
following? (Tick as apply)
a) Exposure to dust
b) Exposure to chemical
c) Effects of noise
d) Effects of vibration
e) Body injuries
f) Effects of poor ventilation
g) Effects of over-exertion
h) Rock falls
i) Misuse of explosives
24) Are health and safety regulations maintained?
Yes No
25) Is there any first Aid Box and its basic requirements on site?
Yes No
26) Are the workers provided with basic safety equipments?
Yes No
143
27) If yes, please tick as apply
Equipments in use:
a) Helmet
b) Hand gloves
c) Dust masks
d) Safety boots
e) Others, specify ………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………….
28) Has there been any incidence(ies) of occupational accident at
this site? Yes No
29) If yes, how was or were it/they handled?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
30) What are the common diseases that the workers do suffer
from? (Tick as apply)
a) Malaria
b) Diarrhea
c) Skin diseases
d) Cold and catarrh
e) Others, specify ………………………………………………………
31) Would you say the disease(s) as ticked above is/are related to
the mining activities? Yes No
144
G) Regulatory and operational standards
32) Are your mining operations covered by any regulatory
permit(s)? Yes No
33) Has there been any formal/official visit by government officials
to assess your operations Yes No
34) Have you ever attended any sensitization or training program
focusing on the impact of mining activities on the environment
organized either by government agency or a Non-Government
organization (NGO). Yes No
35) Do you pay any form of taxe(s) or levy(ies) to any government
agency(ies). Yes No
36) If answer to above is yes, kindly elaborate ………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
145
INTERVIEW GUIDE
Community Leaders and Officials’ of the Department of Artisanal and Small-
Scale Mining, Federal Ministry of Minerals and Steel Dev., Abuja.
(A) Community Leaders
1) For how long has mining especially Artisanal and Small-Scale
Mining been carried out in your community?
2) Has mining activities brought any economic and social
development to the community?
3) Do the community members appreciate the environmental and
human effects/ impacts of mining operations on the
environment?
4) Has there been any conflict between the community/members
and the miners due to the degradation of the environment
arising from their operations?
5) Has there been any organized efforts by the community to
enforce better environmental practices from miners.
6) Are there any remedial measures/practices to ameliorate the
impact of their operations by the miners and if so, how effective
are such measure?
146
(B) Government Officials
1) The artisanal and small scale miners operate mainly in the
informal sector of the economy, hence operates largely outside
the regulatory orbits. What efforts are being made by
government to integrate and mainstream them into the formal
regulatory and operational framework?
2) The environmental and human impact of artisanal and Small
scale mining in recent times has been of concern to Nigerians,
especially in light of the recent lead poisoning incident in
Zamfara State, what is the government doing to address this
phenomenon?
3) One of the reasons adduced for the adverse environmental and
human effects of the artisanal and Small-scale mining activities
is the issue of the use of rudimentary tools and equipments.
What is government doing in this regard with a view to
developing low-cost modern tools and equipments?
4) There is the view of some stakeholders that the requirements
for the granting of small-scale mining lease as provided for in
the Nigerian Minerals and Mining Act, 2007, and Mineral Title
and Application and Administrative Guidelines as issued by the
Mining Cadastre Office (MCO), Abuja, are such that may be
difficult for most of these miners to meet and hence,
discourages them from seeking permits and formalization of
their operations. What is government doing to address this
issue?