Ammonia - the obvious choice

as a fuel for ships ..?

Bergen Energy Lab, 23.03.2021

Peter Koch Energy and environmental technologiesDepartment of Mechanical and Marine Engineering (IMM)Western Norway University of Applied Sciences (HVL)

1

Housekeeping – some words upfront

❖ The presentation is incomplete and flawed.

❖ A subjective approach to a wide topic

based on publicly available data

❖ Conclusions based on the presented data /

information are made at your own risk.

(NB: Read the prescribed literature and references)

❖ Sorry, no fuel cells.

❖ I’m not getting paid for this.

❖ Hopefully land at our targeted arrival time

❖ Questions, feedback and criticism can be send

to pek@hvl.no

Or in the words of Donald Rumsfeld:

“Reports that say that something hasn't happened are always interesting to me, because as we know, there are known knowns; there are things we know we know. We also know there are known unknowns; that is to say we know there are some things we do not know. But there are also unknown unknowns - the ones we don't know we don't know. And if one looks throughout the history of our country and other free countries, it is the latter category that tends to be the difficult ones.”

C.C. Jensen / www.otlart.com/blog 2

Housekeeping – terms and conditions

❖ ‘’Future ocean giants will run on

ammonia’’ (Der Spiegel – online 09.03.2021)

‘’…Transition to new / alternative fuels is too slow –

even though they are already available”

❖ ‘’Monsters of filth’’ (Der Spiegel – print 10/2021)

‘’Global shipping is one of biggest climate killers …’’

❖ Published vs. public opinion

~25% CO2 emissions ➔ transport

~12% of 25% ~ 3% ➔ shipping

‘’the internet’’ ~4% (of global GHG)

❖ A small gas goes a long way

climate (GHG) vs. environment (pollutant)

Sources: Der Spiegel; Spiegel-Verlag; www.spiegel.de / IEA, Global energy-related CO2 emissions, 1990-2020, IEA, Paris https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/global-energy-related-co2-emissions-

1990-2020 / Oke, T., Mills, G., Christen, A., & Voogt, J. (2017). Air Pollution, Urban Climates, 294-331 / https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200305-why-your-internet-habits-are-not-as-clean-as-you-think3

A light in the black or just a …

© EMI / Iron Maiden 4

❖ Introduction and housekeeping

❖ Some words about shipping

❖ The fuel portfolio

❖ Logistics

❖ Storage and bunkring

❖ (IMO) regulations and safety

❖ Conversion / use

❖ Summary and conclusion

… and now to something completely different.

"I don't understand the airport run anymore. With the advent of Uber I don't understand why you've got to pick people up from the airport, but you do"

"Because some people pay tax and have to get trains"

Jimmy Carr

Rob Beckett

Jamali Maddix

“Some proper rich dude s#%& to sayWhy doesn’t everyone just get a private car?Can you just not pay a man to jump on his back and run there? “

5© Channel 4; https://www.channel4.com/programmes/8-out-of-10-cats

Shipping, who? What? Whom’s?

https://www.shipmap.org/ 6

Owner

Flag state

Ship builder

Fuel (energy) supply

Cargo route

Charterer

Engine OEM

Financing

Shipping has to pay for its (CO2) emissions!

Shipping in numbers

Equasis, The 2019 World Fleet Report Statistics from Equasis, (2020)

UNCTAD, Review of Maritime Transport 2019, UNCTAD/RMT/2019/Corr.1, (2020)7

95402 ships in total (2019)

Average age of ships when scrapped 21 years

Half of the world fleet isowned by Asian companies

62% of all goods un-loaded and

over 40% of all goods loaded

in Asian seaports

Top 3 ownership by dwt (2019)

1) Greece (17,8%)

2) Japan (11,5%)

3) China (10,5%)

93% of shipbuilding occurred in China, the Republic of Korea and Japan in 2019

Top 6 share flag state registration by dwt (2019)

1) Panama (17%)

2) Marshall Islands (12%)

3)Liberia (12%)

4) Hong Kong, China (10%)

^ 51% of the world total by dwt ^

5) Singapore (7%)

6) Malta (6%)

Top 5 ownership by value in million dollars (2019)

1) Greece (93.288)

2) Japan (92.102)

3) USA (88.260)

4) China (81.270)

5) Norway (52.800)

Ships in numbers

Equasis, The 2019 World Fleet Report Statistics from Equasis, (2020)

UNCTAD, Review of Maritime Transport 2019, UNCTAD/RMT/2019/Corr.1, (2020) / https://afi.dnvgl.com/8

The norm in the main engine sector is production under license. As a result, the top 7 ‘actual’ engine constructors

(list 2002) are located in Asia.

Ocean going vesselAverage load (t) e.g. 35.000

Average range (km per year) e.g. 145.000

Useful life (years) e.g. 20 – 30 years

Shipping and ships

Ship system and flows (chemical tanker)

F. Baldi, Modelling, analysis and optimisation of ship energy systems, PhD thesis, (2016). / Concawe Review Volume 29 Number 2, A review of the options for

decarbonising maritime transport by 2050, February 2021 / Lloyd’s Register, UMAS, Zero-Emission Vessel 2030. How do we get there? (2018)9

47.000 dwt

7,7 MW (main)

1,4 MW (aux)

3,2 MW (SG)

Lessons learned from the EU MRV (2019)

› Fuel mix comparison

› Numerb of ships and propulsion type

› Cf for different fuelsMerchant shipping

› Ship types

› Number of ships

› Comparison to battery and LNG – total numbers

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CO2 reduction potential

(incl. pilot fuel diesel for 2-stroke

HPDF engines):

➢ LNG (1,5%) ➔ 26,7%

➢ LPG (3%) ➔ 14,8%

➢ Methanol (5%) ➔ 8,6%

➢ NH3 (8%) ➔ 92%

Costs comparison

CO2 reduction must not come at an

expense, but it usually does

EMSA THETIS-MRV, https://mrv.emsa.europa.eu/

The fuel portfolio

› DNV GL Maritime forecast to 2050 (2020)

30 scenarios ➔ HFO, VLSFO/MGO, bio-MGO, e-MGO, LNG,

bio-LNG, e-LNG, LPG, e-LPG, bio-methanol, e-methanol, blue

ammonia, e-ammonia, electricity

› OECD - Decarbonising Maritime Transport (2018)

H2/NH3, Biofuels, MFO/MGO, LNG

› ICS - Catalysing the fourth propulsion revolution (2020)

Oil, biofuels, NH3, Gas, Hydrogen

› UMAS - CO2 emissions from international shipping (2016)

10 scenarios ➔ HFO/LSHFO, MDO/MGO, LNG, Hydrogen, biofuels

› UK Clean maritime plan 2050 (2019)

HFO, MDO, LSHFO, LNG, H2, NH3, Methanol

11See reference list for details

Some numbers of the fuel mix

Parameter Unit NH3 H2 LNG LPG MeOH Diesel

Lower heating

value

MJ/kg 18,8 120 ~47 ~46 20 39 - 43

MJ/l 13,7 9,8 ~36 ~24,5 15,9 38,6 - 36

Latent heat of

evaporationMJ/kg 1,37 0,46 0,51 0,45 1,1 0,23

Flashpoint oC 132 -253 -188 -104 11-12 >55

Autoignition

temperatureoC 650 500 580

405 /

455464 >210

Min. ignition

energymJ

>>1

(8 or 680)0,01 – 0,02 0,28 0,25 0,14 NA

Laminar flame

speedm/s 0,07 3,5 0,3 – 0,4 0,4 0,5 0,3 – 0,4

Flammability

limit in air% 15 - 28 4 - 75 5 - 15 2,2 – 9,5 6,7 - 36 0,6 – 7,5

12DNV GL Alternative Fuels Insights (AFI) / https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com / MAN ES – Two-stroke ammonia engine

A. Valera-Medina et al., Ammonia for power, Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 69 (2018), s. 63–102

≥2,8x ≥3,5x ≥1,6x ≥1,35x ≥2,3x

The fuel pathways

❖ WTT = well-to-tank used to evaluate expended energy and associated CO2 / GHG emissions related to the whole supply chain for fuel production

❖ For e-fuels highly depending on the electricity mix / location

❖ EROI (or ERoEI) Energy Return on Energy Invested

❖ EROI <(=) 1 energy source becomes a net "energy sink"

13

C.A.S. Hall, et al., What is the Minimum EROI that a Sustainable Society Must Have?, Energies, 2(1):25-47 (2009)

Concawe review Volume 29 Number 2, JEC Well-to-Wheels study version 5: a look into the carbon intensity of different 26 fuel/powertrain combinations in 2030, February 2021

Logistics

Status 2019

➢ >500 LNG carriers

➢ ~170 NH3 transport vessels

➢ >>1000 chemical carriers (MeOH)

14https://afi.dnvgl.com/

LNG – the transition fuel

› Currently regulatory framework and

maritime industry experience related

mainly to LNG

› NH3 lower explosion risk, different lower

and higher flammability limits, but much

more toxic compared to LNG

› No cryogenic storage required for NH3

› Risk assessment (HAZID/ HAZOP)

› Minimizing the risk of ammonia leakage

› Guidance related to atmospheric

release of ammonia in case of an

emergency required

› Procedures for ammonia release /

purging for start and stop operation

› Material compatibility (a.o. exhaust gas

composition and equipment operation)

› Design and redundancy of the fuel

system

› Protective equipment and sensors

DNV GL, Green Shipping Programme,, Ammonia as marine a fuel safety handbook; (2021) 15

A GHG / IMO timeline

16imo.org

IMO regulations

❖ The International Code of the Construction and Equipment of Ships Carrying Liquefied Gases in Bulk (IGC Code) does not apply ➔’’…, the use of cargoes identified as toxic products are not permitted.’’

❖ The International Code of Safety for Ships using Gases or other Low-flashpoint Fuels (IGC code) does not include NH3 (yet)➔ “…the alternative design shall be demonstrated as specified in SOLAS regulation II-1/55 and approved by the Administration.”➔ “…the overall safety level is as high as for conventional oil-powered machinery. “

❖ MARPOL Annex VI and NTC2008➔ ‘’Fuel Oil Quality 3 Fuel oil for combustion purposes delivered to and used on board ships to which this Annex applies shall meet the following requirements: .2 fuel oil for combustion purposes derived by methods other than petroleum refining shall not: .2.2 cause an engine to exceed the applicable NOx emission limit set forth in paragraphs 3, 4, 5.1.1 and 7.4 of regulation 13;.2.3 contain inorganic acid; or .2.4.1 jeopardize the safety of ships or adversely affect the performance of the machinery, or .2.4.2 be harmful to personnel, or …’’

MSC.5(48) / MSC.1/Circ.1394 / ARPOL Annex VI and NTC 2008 with Guidelines for Implementation 17

Fuel specification(s) and standards

D. Jacobsen (MAN ES), A marine fuel standard for ammonia – an engine designers perspective, 17.11.2020 18

Fuel Diesel LNG LPG Methanol Ammonia

IMO Done Done In progress Interim guidelines /

ISO Done Done / Approved by WG /

Ammonia combustion – a look back

19

‘’There are many good reasons

why ammonia is an excellent

motor fuel, and although the

scope of this article does not

permit the discussion of details,

a short description of the

various favourable features are

given:

• Less air required for

combustion

• Expansion though

combustion (Vprod.>Veducts)

• Anti-knock value of

ammonia’’

E Kroch, “Ammonia – a fuel for motor buses”. Journal of the Institute of Petroleum. Vol.31. 1945, pp 213-223.

Ammonia combustion – learn from the past

20See reference list for details

Ammonia combustion – learn from the past

21

Key take-awaysIt should be a spark-ignition engine utilizing a high energy ignition source, such as a magneto.

If engine size is such that the rated speed will exceed 3000 rpm, a dissociator to provide up to 1,5 percent hydrogen should be used.

A compression-ignition engine must first be converted to a spark-ignition engine in order to operate with ammonia as an automotive fuel.

AMMONIA was found to be the least suitable alternative fuel, mainly because of a strong emission of unburnt Ammonia (Odour). Ammonia also gave the strongest increase in the ignition delay of the pilot injected diesel fuel and the smallest increase in maximum power output and efficiency. The latter effects

are thought to be due mainly to a very slow combustion of the Ammonia.

The physical properties of ammonia are similar to those of propane so that it can be stored as a liquid in an inexpensive, low-pressure tank and burned directly in IC automobiles. … With years of experience on the part of the chemical industry, ammonia’s chemical and safety properties are well understood.

Liquid ammonia may be burned satisfactorily as a fuel in diesel engines at nominal compression ratios by using spark ignition to ignite the injected fuel. 2. At a comparable fuel -air ratio the engine develops approximately 10% less power when operated on liquid ammonia fuel as on diesel fuel.

See reference list for details

Ammonia combustion – and now?

› Ammonia not (likely) to be used in a mono-fuel engine ➔low (LPDF, Otto type) or high pressure dual fuel (HPDF, diesel type) engines

› SI engine will need hydrogen assist

› Heat of vaporization has to be taken into account for liquid injection

› Combustion products ➔ H2O

› Fuel NOx has to be considered➔ SCR required to reduce NOx

› Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions canbecome an issue

22

TDC

BDC

T. Suzuki, et al., Development of Diesel Combustion for Commercial Vehicles, SAE Technical Paper 972685, (1997).

Sticking the landing

Christiana Figueres: And having committed to ditching diesel and becoming carbon neutral by 2050, how does Søren see his containerships being fueled in the future?

Søren Skou: We have identified a couple of pathways on fuel. One is ammonia and another one is alcohols. And those two fuels are both fuels that can be produced with a starting source of of of green energy. Both of those fuel types have, you know, special issues. One is one is, you know, alcohol. The flame point is very low. So there’s a safety issue there. The other is ammonia is toxic. So, of course, there’s also a safety issue there. But we believe we can solve those problems in two to three years. It will still be a combustion engine as we know it today, which is good because it means there’s a chance we can even retrofit existing ships with new pistons and so on. And then three years from now, we expect to buy the first order, if you will, the first series of maybe small container ships that we can operate in in a defined geographical area. Then we can go out and make supply contracts with people that can provide, whether it’s ammonia or alcohol or methanol and ethanol. And we can fuel the ships that way, get the experience, you know what how it works operationally or help make sure the safety works. And then we can be ready to start ordering, you know, large ships towards the end of this decade. That that’s the pathway that we see. We have to get this done by 2030 because we have a ship has a life expectancy of somewhere between 20 and 25 years. So we need to start replacing ships by 2030 in order to be ready at 2050.

CIMAC Congress 2010 ( Bergen) @ final panel discussion:

“Fuels of the future – What will come next after HFO?”

2010-2030 The most obvious answer ➔ HFO

With NOx reduction (EGR, SCR, …) & SOx scrubber …

And an emerging patchwork of the other alternatives (LNG, biofuels, …)

https://globaloptimism.com/podcast/85-the-future-of-shipping/ 23

… and now to something completely different.

"I don't understand the airport run anymore. With the advent of Uber I don't understand why you've got to pick people up from the airport, but you do"

"Because some people pay tax and have to get trains"

Jimmy Carr

Rob Beckett

Jamali Maddix

“Some proper rich dude s#%& to sayWhy doesn’t everyone just get a private car?Can you just not pay a man to jump on his back and run there? “

24© Channel 4; https://www.channel4.com/programmes/8-out-of-10-cats

… still something different.

"I don't understand the use of engines anymore. With the advent of hydrogen and fuel cells. I don't understand why you've got to burn fuels, but you do"

"Because some people pay freight rates, fuel bills and have to get to places”

Jimmy Carr

Rob Beckett

Jamali Maddix

“Some proper rich dude s#%& to sayWhy doesn’t everyone just get a hydrogen fuel cell?Can you just not pay companies to build new vessels and exchange their machinery? “

25© Channel 4; https://www.channel4.com/programmes/8-out-of-10-cats

Back to the start

26

Ammonia - the obvious choice as a fuel for ships ..?

No Yes, depending on ‘’individuals’’(regulation, incentives, economics, logistics)

https://www.nho.no/samarbeid/nox-fondet/ / * Status and of 2018

Monty Python / Warner Bros./ Orion Pictures Corporation (USA) / Handmade Films (UK)

9 billion NOK Granted funding, over 50% already disbursed

Housekeeping – reference list (1)

# Reference Slide

1 T. Oke et al., Air Pollution, Urban Climates, p, 294-331, (2017). 3

2 Equasis, The 2019 World Fleet Report Statistics from Equasis, (2020). 7, 8

3 UNCTAD, Review of Maritime Transport 2019, UNCTAD/RMT/2019/Corr.1, (2020). 7, 8

4ECORYS, Study on Competitiveness of the European Shipbuilding Industry Within the Framework Contract of Sectoral

Competitiveness Studies – ENTR/06/054, (2009).8

5 Lloyd’s Register, UMAS, Zero-Emission Vessel 2030. How do we get there? (2018). 9

6 Concawe, A review of the options for decarbonizing maritime transport by 2050, Concawe review Vol. 29 Nr. 2, (2021). 9

7 Lloyd’s Register, UMAS, Zero-Emission Vessel 2030. How do we get there?, (2018). 9

8 DNV GL, Energy transition outlook 2020 – maritime forecast to 2050, (2020). 11

9 ITF, Decarbonising Maritime Transport Pathways to zero-carbon shipping by 2035, OECD, (2018). 11

10 ICS, Catalysing the fourth propulsion revolution, (2020). 11

11

Frontier Economics, E3tech, UMAS, REDUCING THE MARITIME SECTOR’S CONTRIBUTION TO CLIMATE CHANGE

AND AIR POLLUTION, Economic Opportunities from Low and Zero Emission Shipping. A Report for the Department for

Transport, (2019).

11

27

Housekeeping – reference list (2)

# Reference Slide

12 UK Department for Transport, Clean maritime plan (2019). 11

13JSTRA and MLIT, Roadmap to Zero Emission from International Shipping - March 2020 Shipping Zero Emission Project,

(2020).15, 22

14 W. Cornelius et al., Ammonia as an Engine Fuel, SAE Transactions, SAE 650052, (1966). 20, 21

15 J. T. Gray et al., Ammonia Fuel — Engine Compatibility and Combustion, SAE Transactions, SAE 660156, (1967). 20, 21

16E. S. Starkman et al., Ammonia as a Spark Ignition Engine Fuel: Theory and Application, SAE Transactions, SAE

660155, (1967).20, 21

17E. S. Starkman et al., Ammonia as a Diesel Engine Fuel: Theory and Application, SAE Transactions, SAE 670946,

(1968).20, 21

18 T. J. Pearsall et al., Combustion of Anhydrous Ammonia in Diesel Engines, SAE Transactions, SAE 670947, (1968). 20, 21

19K. Bro et al., Alternative Diesel Engine Fuels: An Experimental Investigation of Methanol, Ethanol, Methane and

Ammonia in a D.I. Diesel, Engine with Pilot Injection, SAE Transactions, SAE 770794, (1977)20, 21

20 C. G. Garabedian et al., The theory of operation of an ammonia burning internal combustion engine, (1966). 20, 21

21 T. J. Pearsall, Ammonia application to reciprocating engines, CAE report No. 1054 Volume I, (1967). 20, 21

22 J. J. MacKenzie et al., Ammonia fuel: the key to hydrogen-based transportation, IEEE 96556, (1996). 20, 21

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