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(Crystal, 1985)

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Main branches of linguistics Phonetics

Phonology

Morphology

Syntax

Semantics

Pragmatics

Macrolinguistics

Psycholinguistics

Sociolinguistics

Anthropological

Computational

Linguistics

Language

Sounds words sentences meaning

Phonetics/phonology morphology syntax semantics/pragmatics

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One hot day, a thirsty crow flew all over

the fields looking for water. For a long

time, he could not find any. He felt very

weak, almost lost all hope. Suddenly, he

saw a water jug below the tree. He flew

straight down to see if there was any

water inside. Yes, he could see some

water inside the jug!

wʌn hɒt deɪ, ə ˈθɜːsti krəʊ fluː ɔːl ˈəʊvə ðə

fiːldz ˈlʊkɪŋ fɔː ˈwɔːtə. fɔːr ə lɒŋ taɪm, hiː

kʊd nɒt faɪnd ˈɛni. hiː fɛlt ˈvɛri

wiːk, ˈɔːlməʊst lɒst ɔːl həʊp. ˈsʌdnli, hiː sɔː ə

ˈwɔːtə ʤʌg bɪˈləʊ ðə triː. hiː fluː streɪt daʊn

tuː siː ɪf ðeə wɒz ˈɛni ˈwɔːtər ɪnˈsaɪd. jɛs, hiː

kʊd siː sʌm ˈwɔːtər ɪnˈsaɪd ðə ʤʌg!

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The crow tried to push his head into the

jug. Sadly, he found that the neck of the

jug was too narrow. Then he tried to push

the jug to tilt for the water to flow out but

the jug was too heavy.

ðə krəʊ traɪd tuː pʊʃ hɪz hɛd ˈɪntuː ðə

ʤʌg. ˈsædli, hiː faʊnd ðæt ðə nɛk ɒv ðə

ʤʌg wɒz tuː ˈnærəʊ. ðɛn hiː traɪd tuː pʊʃ

ðə ʤʌg tuː tɪlt fɔː ðə ˈwɔːtə tuː fləʊ aʊt bʌt

ðə ʤʌg wɒz tuː ˈhɛvi.

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The crow thought hard for a while. Then

looking around it, he saw some pebbles.

he suddenly had a good idea. he

started picking up the pebbles one by

one, dropping each into the jug. As

more and more pebbles filled the jug,

the water level kept rising. Soon it was

high enough for the crow to drink. His

plan had worked!

ðə krəʊ θɔːt hɑːd fɔːr ə waɪl. ðɛn ˈlʊkɪŋ

əˈraʊnd ɪt, hiː sɔː sʌm ˈpɛblz. hiː ˈsʌdnli

hæd ə gʊd aɪˈdɪə. hiː ˈstɑːtɪd ˈpɪkɪŋ ʌp

ðə ˈpɛblz wʌn baɪ wʌn, ˈdrɒpɪŋ iːʧ ˈɪntuː

ðə ʤʌg. æz mɔːr ænd mɔː ˈpɛblz fɪld ðə

ʤʌg, ðə ˈwɔːtə ˈlɛvl kɛpt ˈraɪzɪŋ. suːn ɪt

wɒz haɪ ɪˈnʌf fɔː ðə krəʊ tuː drɪŋk. hɪz

plæn hæd wɜːkt!

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Tamam insan azad aur ḥaquq o izzat ke

etibar se barabar paida hue haiṉ. Unheṉ

ẓamir aur aqal wadiat hui hai. Is liye

unheṉ ek dusre ke sath bhai chare ka

saluk karna chahiye.

t̪əmɑm ɪnsɑn ɑzɑd̪ ɔr həquq o ɪzzət̪ ke et̪ɪbɑr se bərɑbər pɛd ̪ɑ ɦue ɦɛ̃. ʊnɦẽ zəmir ɔr əqəl ʋəd ̪iət̪ hui hɛ. ɪs lie ʊnɦẽ ek d ̪usre ke sɑt̪ʰ bʱai t͡ʃɑre kɑ səluk kərnɑ t͡ʃɑɦie

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Humans are lazy so compromize

articulation to reduce effort

Compromize in articulation changes

the sound

Rules are sometimes ordererd in a

language

(Hussain, nd)

Assimilation

Dissimilation

Insertion/ Epenthesis

Deletion

Metathesis

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(Hussain, nd)

(Hussain, nd)

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“the order of two segments is changed”

Example (various English dialects):› „ask‟ [æks]

From kids‟ speech:› „spaghetti‟

From adults‟ speech:› „comfortable‟

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A central peak of sonority (usually a vowel); and

Consonants that cluster around this central peak

Technically, a syllable:

must have a centre (called peak or nucleus) which is usually a vowel

could have an onset

could have a coda

the nucleus and the coda form the rhyme/ rime.

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(Hussain, nd)

Syllables

Consisted of a Nucleus, Onset and Coda

Nucleus + Coda = Rhyme

(symbol called “sigma”)

Onset (O) Rhyme (R)

Nucleus (N) Coda (C)

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are those which have onset and coda.

are those which don’t have onset, coda.

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Light syllable μ

Heavy syllable μμ

Super-heavy syllable μμμ

V μ

V: μμ

Coda μ

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Clark, J. & Yallop, C. (1994). An Introduction to

Phonetics and Phonology. Oxford: Blackwell.

Crystal, D. (2008). A Dictionary of Linguistics and

Phonetics, 6th ed. USA: Blackwell publishing.

Gussenhoven, C. & Jacobs, H. (1994).

Understanding Phonology. London: Arnold.

Hussain, S. (nd). Phonetics and Phonology: an

introduction

Ladefoged, P. & Johnson, K. (2011). A course in

Phonetics. USA: Wadsworth.