वा�षर क पव�तव

ANNUAL REPORT 2011-12

भजलकउपयोगक � कअ�खलकभारीयकसमिनवकअवनससावक

प�रयोजवाक

All India Coordinated Research Project

on

Groundwater Utilization

भजलकउपयोगक � कअ�खलकभारीयकसमिनवकअवनससावकप�रयोजवाकAll India Coordinated Research Project

on

Groundwater Utilization

जल परबन �नदशालय (भारीयक�षकअवनससावकप�रषत)क

भनवव�शवरकउडीशा,कभार

Directorate of Water Management(Indian Council of Agricultural Research) Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India

Citation

AICRP on GWU, 2012. Annual Report 2011-12, AICRP on Groundwater Utilization, Directorate of Water Management, Bhubaneswar, Odisha- 751023, India, pp 126.

Compiled and Edited by

Dr. M.J. Kaledhonkar Dr. M. Raychaudhuri

Published by

Dr. Ashwani Kumar Director Directorate of Water Management, Bhubaneswar, Odisha-751023, India Phone: 91-674-2300060, 2300010, 2300016 Fax: 91-674-2301651 Email: director.dwm@icar.org.in Website: www.wtcer.ernet.in

वा�षर क पव�तव

ANNUAL REPORT

2011-12

भजलकउपयोगक � क

अ�खलकभारीयकसमिनवकअवनससावकप�रयोजवाक

All India Coordinated Research Project on

Groundwater Utilization

जलक नवकपवत�शालय,क (भारीयक�षकअवनससावकप�रषत)क

भनवव�शवर,कउडीशा,कभार

Directorate of Water Management (Indian Council of Agricultural Research)

Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India

PREFACE

Groundwater is vital to many nations. Worldwide some 2 billion people, innumerable farmers and many industrial premises depend on it for their water supply. It is important for the livelihood and health of the societies as it is often the main source for irrigation and domestic water, particularly in semi-arid and arid regions. There is widespread recognition that water resources, including groundwater, are coming under pressure from increasing demands from different sectors and declining availabilities. On other side, irrigation networks are performing at lower efficiencies, threatening vital social and economic developments. Further, climate change is likely increase dependence on groundwater as a cushion against drought and increasing uncertainty in surface water availability. In India, ggroundwater contributes to around 60% of total irrigated area of the country. As per the latest assessment by GGWB, the annual replenishable ground water resource of country has been estimated as 43.3 M ha m, out of which 39.9 M ha m is considered to be available for development for various uses. The irrigation sector remains the major consumer of ground water, accounting for 92% of its annual withdrawal. Ultimate irrigation potential of India has been estimated at 140 M ha, out of which 76 M ha would be irrigated using surface water and 64 M ha using groundwater by 2050. This shows importance of groundwater in case of irrigated agriculture besides it is important drinking water source. However, development of ground water in the country is highly uneven and shows considerable variations from place to place. Though the overall stage of ground water development is about 58%, the average stage of ground water development in North Western Plain States is much higher (98%) followed by Western Arid Region (96%) and Southern Peninsular States (61%) when compared to the Eastern Plain States (43%) and Central Plain States (42%). Out of 5723 groundwater assessment blocks in the country, the safe, semi-critical, over-exploited and saline blocks are 4078, 550, 226, 839 an d 30, respectively. Decline of water levels and deterioration in groundwater quality due to geogenic and man made factors and climatic changes are major challenges for groundwater management at country level. Development of suitable location specific groundwater recharge techniques for hard rock and alluvial areas of the country, efficient conjunctive use of surface and groundwater, adoption of proper crop rotation, selection of optimal irrigation intensity and improving on-farm water management techniques in groundwater irrigated areas of the country are required for sustainability of groundwater resource itself as well as of agriculture.

I am privileged to present the annual report of AICRP on “Groundwater Utilization” for the year 2011-12. This report is the compilation of research activities, results obtained and recommendations made in the field of groundwater planning and management including its utilization techniques by different cooperating centres of AICRP on groundwater utilization.

During the period under report, nine cooperating centres at Ludhiana, Pantnagar, Rahuri, Jabalpur, Coimbatore, Junagadh, Udaipur, Raipur, and Pusa accomplished research work through various experiments under five themes of model technical programmes of the project. The different research programs are being conducted in the different fields of groundwater management namely, assessment, planning and optimal utilization of groundwater resources on regional levels, optimal plans for conjunctive water use, artificial groundwater recharge studies, groundwater pollution assessment and finding its remedial measures, and demonstration of the developed technologies on a limited scale for the actual users.

The undersigned is grateful to Dr. S. Ayyappan, Director General (ICAR) and Secretary (DARE), Government of India for his constant support and encouragement to this important AICRP project. The undersigned also expresses his sincere gratitude to Dr. A.K. Singh, Deputy Director General (NRM) for his keen interest in the research findings of the project, and regular guidance and monitoring for further improvements. The undersigned sincerely acknowledge the timely cooperation received from Dr. P.S. Minhas, former ADG (Soil & Water Management) and Dr. J.C. Dagar, ADG (Agronomy and Agro-forestry). Chief scientists and other scientists/ professors working at the cooperating centres deserve whole hearted appreciation for their constant hard work and cooperation. The undersigned sincerely places on record the hard work done by Dr. M.J. Kaledhonkar, Principal Scientist and Dr. M. Raychaudhuri, Senior Scientist, working at Coordinating Unit, in compiling and editing of the Annual Report and efficiently managing the activities of the Coordinating Unit at DWM, Bhubaneswar.

Bhubaneswar (Ashwani Kumar) July, 2012 Director

Table of Contents

CONTENTS Centre Page No.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 1

1. ORGANISATION 8

1.1 Background of the Scheme 8

1.2 Location of network centres 8

1.3 Mandate 8

1.4 Objectives 8

1.5 Staff Positiions 9

1.6 Finance 9

1.7 Technical Programme and Results 9

2. REGIONAL GROUNDWATER ASSESSMENT AND MODELLING 10

2.1 Assessment of Long-term Water-table Behaviour for the State of Punjab Using GIS

2.2 Estimation of Pump Capacity and Power Requirement in the State of Punjab for Optimal Utilization of Groundwater

2.3 Impact of Climate Change on Ground Water Resources in Central Punjab

2.4 Estimation of Recharge due to Irrigation in Shallow Water Table of Tarai Region of Uttrakhand

Ludhiana 10 Ludhiana 13 Ludhiana 15 Pantnagar 18

2.5 Ground Water studies in Upper Narmada Basin Jabalpur 19

2.6 Estimation of Groundwater Potential of Rajsamand District Udaipur 20

2.7 Delineation of Groundwater Potential Zones in Wakal River Basin of Udaipur District

2.8 Assessment of Groundwater Resources for Irrigation in Southern Districts of Bihar on Pilot Basis

Udaipur 23 Pusa 26

2.9 Determination of Groundwater Potential of the South West Saurashtra Region

Junagadh 28

3. CONJUCTIVE USE IN CANAL COMMAND AREAS 38

3.1 Study of Surface and Ground Waters Management in the Selected Area of Ganga -Yamuna Inter-basin

3.2 Conjunctive Use Planning of Surface and Groundwater in Mula Irrigation Project

3.3 Management of Canal Command: A Conjunctive Use Approach

3.4 Conjunctive Use of Surface and Groundwater Sources in the Parambikulam Aliyar Project (PAP) Command

Pantnagar 38 Rahuri 40 Jabalpur 41 Coimbatore 46

3.5 Conjunctive Use of Canal Water and Marginally Saline Groundwater for Wheat Cultivation under Calcareous Soil of Bundi District

3.6 Evaluation of Water Productivity of Common Crops in Pusa Block of Samastipur District

3.7 Conjunctive Use of Water Resources of a Distributory Command of Mandhar Branch Canal

3.8 Conjunctive Use of Surface Water with Groundwater for Irrigating Wheat Crop

Udaipur 48 Pusa 50 Raipur 51 Junagadh 54

4. ARTIFICIAL GROUNDWATER RECHARGE 56

4.1 Feasibility Study of Rainwater Harvesting through Agricultural Fields

4.2 Modeling of Water Table Depth Fluctuations in Command Area of Percolation Tank Using Artificial Neural Network Method

Ludhiana 56 Rahuri 57

4.3 Utilization of Haveli Storage for Ground Water Recharge Jabalpur 58

4.4 Preparation of Guidelines for Implementing Artificial Recharge Structures in Recharging Groundwater in the Hard Rock Regions of Tamil Nadu

4.5 Study on Impact of Artificial Recharge Structures In Recharging Groundwater in Parambikulam-Aliyar Project Area

4.6 Assessment of Groundwater Recharge from Low Cost Rainwater Harvesting Structure

4.7 Groundwater Recharge Planning for Durg District Using Remote Sensing and GIS

4.8 Water Balance and Assessment of Groundwater Recharge in Meghal River Basin of Saurashtra Region

Coimbatore 60 Coimbatore 62 Udaipur 64 Raipur 66 Junagadh 70

5. GROUNDWATER POLLUTION STUDIES 76

5.1 Extent of Groundwater Pollution by Budha Nala in Ludhiana District

5.2 Spatial Studies on Groundwater Quality in South West Punjab

5.3 Study of Ground Water Vulnerability in Baur – Behgul Interbasin Using Drastic Model

5.4 Study of the Quality of Soils and Surface and Groundwaters for their Suitability for Irrigation and Different Land Uses in the Command Area of Mahadev Distributary

5.5 Feasibility Study of Industrial Effluent of MIDC, Kurkumbh (Dist.Pune) and Groundwater in the Vicinity of Industrial Area for Crop Production

5.6 Feasibility Study of Urban Wastewater Discharged in Sina River (Ahmednagar District) for Crop Production

Ludhiana 76 Ludhiana 78 Pantnagar 82 Pantnagar 85 Rahuri 87 Rahuri 88

5.7 Extent of Sewage Irrigation In Jabalpur City Jabalpur 89

5.8 Assessment and Management of Groundwater Quality in PAP Basin

Coimbatore 90

5.9 Assessment of Groundwater Quality of Rajsamand District of Rajasthan

5.10 Studies on Groundwater Pollution arising from different Sources

Udaipur 91 Pusa 93

5.11 Study on Groundwater Pollution arising from Sugar Mills Pusa 96

5.12 Ground Water Quality Assessment around Somni Nala of Gajra Watershed

5.13 Evaluation of the Skimming Technology and Pumping Schedule in Coastal Area of South Saurashtra

5.14 Estimation of Pesticides Residues in Groundwater of Saurashtra Region

Raipur 97 Junagadh 100 Junagadh 102

6. TRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGIES 104

6.1 Transfer of Technology to Farmers Ludhiana 104

6.2 Transfer of Technology to Farmers Pantnagar 106

6.3 Transfer of Technology to Farmers Rahuri 107

6.4 Transfer of Technology to Farmers Jabalpur 108

6.5 Transfer of Technology to Farmers Coimbatore 109

6.6 Transfer of Technology to Farmers Udaipur 112

6.7 Transfer of Technology to Farmers Pusa 112

6.8 Transfer of Technology to Farmers Raipur 114

6.9 Transfer of Technology to Farmers Junagadh 116

7. LIST OF PUBLICATIONS DURING THE YEAR 2011-12 117

7.1 Publications of Ludhiana centre Ludhiana 117

7.2 Publications of Pantnagar centre Pantnagar 118

7.3 Publications of Rahuri centre Rahuri 119

7.4 Publications of Jabalpur centre Jabalpur 120

7.5 Publications of Coimbatore centre Coimbatore 121

7.6 Publications of Udaipur centre Udaipur 121

7.7 Publications of Pusa centre Pusa 122

7.8 Publications of Raipur centre Raipur 122

7.9 Publications of Junagadh centre Junagadh 123

ANNEXURE – I : STAFF POSITION DURING 2011-12 125

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Nine centres were operating under the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Groundwater Utilization for conducting research and extension activities in the field of regional groundwater assessment and modeling; conjunctive use of surface and groundwater in canal command areas; artificial groundwater recharge and groundwater pollution. Salient theme wise research achievements of the AICRP centres during 2011-12 are given below.

Regional groundwater assessment and modeling

Spatial Groundwater table maps for state of Punjab, prepared by ludhiana centre, revealed that depth to water table in the state varied from 1.4 to 30.8 m during 1998-2009. In long term, water table has declined in all the three agroclimatic zones of the state. The central zone witnessing maximum decline at a rate of 62.3 cm/year and minimum fall was observed in north east zone i.e. 5.5 cm/year. The southwest Punjab, known for rising water problem, also witnessed a fall of 34 cm/year. The groundwater levels varied from 3.77 – 28.96 m in the central zone, 1.53 – 30.84 m in the northwest zone and 0.81- 26.73 m in the south west zone. In state of Punjab, area under 3-10 m water table depth category has decreased from 75.25 percent in 1998 to 39.13 percent in 2009 and area under 10- 20 m increased from 19.17 percent in 1998 to 41.25 percent in 2009. The central zone has highest water table decline and areas under 3-10, 10-20 and >20 m categories were 19, 53, 28 percent respectively during 2009. Spatial rainfall maps were also prepared in GIS using krigging interpolation technique. There is high variability in the annual rainfall in the state. Analysis related to crop area showed there was significant difference in the percent area under Paddy- wheat system in these three zones. In kharif season, the central zone had the maximum area under paddy (60 percent) followed by southwest zone (about 37 percent) area under paddy increased initially, reached to maximum during 2004 (South west zone) and 2005 (Central and north east zone); and then started declining. In rabi season, area under wheat was maximum in south west (73 percent) followed by central (67 percent) and minimum in north east (51

percent). Maximum area under wheat was onserved during 2005 in all the three zones and then decline was observed. Ludhiana centre conducted a study to estimate the size and power requirement of the agricultural pump sets for different farm sizes in different agro-climatic zones of Punjab. Keeping groundwater development at 70 percent and treating it as optimal, areas under paddy and other crops were estimated and corresponding optimal tube well density and energy requirement for different blocks were found out. Saving in energy requirement (MWH) per day for different blocks varied from 3.92 to 69.89 percent of existing energy requirements. The groundwater resources of north-west Indian states, western and southern peninsular Indian states are overexploited. Data from RCMs/ GCMs can be used to study behavior of the climate system and its local impacts. However these data often suffer from systematic errors. The Ludhiana centre showed different approaches such as fitting of probability density function and statistical bias corrections using limited observed data can be effectively employed for improving quality of modeled data. The approaches were illustrated with help of observed and modeled data of maximum and minimum temperature and precipitation for Ludhiana. Pantnagar centre conducted study to estimate ground water potential of Tarai region of Uttarakhand. Out of seven blocks of Udham Singh Nagar district, five blocks namely Bazpur, Gadarpur, Kashipur, Rudrapur and Sitarganj were under safe category with groundwater development less than 70 percent. Blocks such as Jaspur and Khatima were under semi-critical stage with groundwater development between 70 to 90 percent. Overall decline of water table was observed during from 1995 to 2005 in Tarai region. On basis of observations at experimental field, recharge as result of deep percolation losses during irrigation was found as 18.14 percent. The Jabalpur centre studied water table fluctuations in Upper Narmada Basin to

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assess groundwater potential and stage of groundwater development of different blocks. Spatial storage coefficient/ specific yield required for estimation of groundwater potential were determined by conducting pumping tests at different locations in the region. The pumping recovery tests at 10 locations showed that the transmissibility varied from 245 m2/day to 757 m2/day and storage coefficient varied from 0.0009 to 0.019. These values were used for purpose of ground truthing with values of CGWB. Thus groundwater potential estimation and assessment of stage of groundwater development were more accurate. The 32 blocks in the basin were safe, 1 block as semi-critical and 1 as critical.

The Coimbatore centre conducted groundwater assessment study on basis of long term average hydrographs (1988- 2010) of the 15 observation wells in Parambikulam-Aliyar (PAP) basin. The basin was divided in two zones, namely Zone I: area of 506.16 sq.km having dominance of south west (SW) monsoon and Zone II: area of 855.0 sq.km having dominance of north east (NE) monsoon. Influence of major rainfall season was less on recharge in SW monsoon dominated area (Zone I); the average recharge amounted to 5.22 percent of SW rainfall as compared to 12.51 percent in NE monsoon season. In Zone-II where NE is predominant, the recharge percentage worked out to be 14.94 percent for NE monsoon while it was 24.10 per cent in SW monsoon period. It was observed that recharge was not linearly proportional to rainfall, but depended on many factors such as soil type, slope, vegetation and climate. The recharge percentage was more during years of deficit rainfall when compared to high rainfall years and applicable to both the zones.

The Udaipur centre used eight thematic layers namely soil, geomorphology, slope, topographic elevation, land use/ land cover, post monsoon groundwater depth, recharge and transmissivity to delineate groundwater potential zones in Wakal river basin of Udaipur district. Spatial values of transmissivity, used in analysis, were estimated on basis of 10 pumping tests and varied from 132.8 to 343.9 m2/day. The specific yield ranged from 0.00176 to 0.0245. Spatial maps for groundwater

quality parameters for monsoon and post monsoon season were prepared for basin. Ground water resources for irrigation in Southern districts of Bihar were assessed on pilot basis by Pusa Centre. Total annual ground water recharge for Bhojpur, Buxar and Aurangabad district was found as 65905, 50707 and 89882.13 ha-m, respectively. The existing ground water draft for irrigation for respective district was found as 19395, 13533 and 15191 ha- m. Stage of groundwater development for Bhojpur, Buxar and Aurangabad district was found as 35.23, 31.43, 23.12 percent, respectively, indicating all districts under safe category.

Raipur centre developed groundwater recharge plan for Durg district using remote sensing and GIS. Thematic maps such as drainage, soil texture, water body and lineament maps were overplayed and appropriate site were identified for artificial groundwater recharge structures at different places of upper, middle and lower reaches of the drainage lines. The site selection was generally done close to cultivated area so as to get maximum benefits to farmers. In addition to existing artificial groundwater recharge structures about 33 percolation tanks and 67 check dams were proposed. Junagadh centre on basis of groundwater potential estimation and groundwater quality mapping for South West Saurashtra region recommended policy guidelines for groundwater management and crop planning. The 81.68 percent area with good quality groundwater could be put under high value crops. In remaining 18.32 percent area under degraded ground water could be put under salt tolerant and low water requiring crops. Check dams could be constructed to store excess surface runoff. It can improve surface water availability for conjunctive water use and improve groundwater quality in poor quality coastal areas and enhance groundwater recharge in high elevated areas of the region. Conjunctive use of surface and groundwater Pantnagar centre studied availability of surface and ground water resources to improve improving crop planning in

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Saharanpur district located in Ganga – Yamuna inter basin. Groundwater development in all blocks of Saharanpur district except Deoband was under safe category. The Deoband was under semi- critical category. Average development of district was 35.36 percent. The surface water availability was calculated from the roster of canal network. The existing cropping intensity in district was observed as 1.16. It could be increased to 1.88 under the proposed scheme I (without use of ground water recharge) and to 1.32 under scheme II (fifty percent of ground water recharge to be used with surface water). The scheme II was recommended to farmers as it could increase profit by 27.6 percent.

The Rahuri centre undertook case study of conjunctive use planning of surface and groundwater for F block of the university farm of 207.38 ha under Mula Irrigation Project. The total crop water requirement varied from 11.19 ha-m to 66.37 ha-m for different seasons during 2006-07 to 2009- 10. The total canal water supply also varied from 2.76 ha-m to 34.85 ha-m for the same period. It varied according the season and the release pattern. There was gap between and requirement and it could be fulfilled by groundwater.

Jabalpur centre assessed impact of conjunctive use in canal command area of Bargi LBC. It w as observed that ratio of surface to ground water use varied from 0.12 to 8.83 in various reaches of commands of Jamuniya, Jhansi and Khulri minor. Groundwater use was 20 to 34 percent higher in tail end compared to head reach of the command. Water use efficiency was 1.72 kg/ m3 for tail end places. On contrary, head reach places with high surface water use, it was 1.46 kg/m3. With promotion of conjunctive use wheat area in the command had increased. It had made positive impact on production and productivity of the command.

Conjunctive use of surface and groundwater for 4(L) distributory under Pollachi canal, under Parambikulam Aliyar Project (PAP) Command was conducted by Coimbatore centre. The groundwater balance analysis and irrigation water assessment were carried out for distributory command. Crop water requirements were estimated by AquaCrop

3.1. Spatial and temporal availabilities of effective rainfall, surface and groundwater in the command were estimated. Groundwater draft was more than groundwater recharge during 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003 and 2004. Canal supplies were also limited due to low rainfall and farmers had to depend on groundwater. The net groundwater storage varied from -42.8 (2002) to 35.54 (2007) ha-m during 2000– 2010. It was 17.62 ha m during normal rainfall year of 2008. The water available at the field level varied from 3.19 to 35.43 ha m. Even during normal rainfall year, the amount of water available in canal system is just 1/10th of the total crop water requirements. Conjunctive use of canal water and marginally saline groundwater for wheat cultivation under calcareous soil of Bundi district by Udaipur centre revealed that growth, yield attributes and yield of wheat could be achieved without significant reduction in economic produce under conjunctive water of use canal and groundwater i.e. two irrigations with canal water followed by one irrigation with marginally saline groundwater in cyclic mode. Thus, one-third (33%) good quality (canal water) could be saved without any economic yield a nd soil health deterioration. By a dopting this particular technology in Bundi district for wheat cultivation, it is possible to double the area of mustard or chickpea or coriander with existing water resources for irrigation.

The Raipur centre prepared optimal crop planning for Kharif season under conjunctive water use for command of distributory no.5 under Mandhar branch canal. Cultivable area under command was 3833.28 ha. The quantity of surface water and groundwater for irrigation were 224800 and 57400 ha-cm, respectively, for the kharif season. For getting maximum net profit from the available land and water resources, area under paddy cultivation by broadcasting method should decrease from about 32 to 19 percent and area under paddy cultivation by transplanting method should increase from 61 to 74 percent. Similarly soybean sown area should decrease from 7 to 3.5 percent. About 3 percent of net sown area should be covered by arhar during kharif season. Approximately 0.7 percent of net sown area should be used for urd.

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Junagadh centre planned conjunctive water use of harvested water in check dam and groundwater for growing wheat crop. Conjunctive use practice reduced groundwater draft by 5582 m3 and saved power consumption of 1666 KVAh per ha. It also helped in reduction of evaporation losses from water body in check dam as stored water was utilized quickly. The benefit cost ratio in case of conjunctive water use was 2.18 compared to 1.79 of fields irrigated solely by groundwater.

Artificial groundwater recharge

In the state of Punjab, over exploitation of groundwater and decline of water table are major problems threatening sustainability of agriculture. Due to decline of groundwater table, centrifugal pumps have become defunct and farmers are installing submersible pumps to draw water from deeper aquifers. Old groundwater structures related to centrifugal pumps, which are not in use today, can be effectively used for groundwater recharge by provision of silt settlement tank and filter chamber. The Ludhiana centre has modified few old structures on farmers’ fields for groundwater recharge purpose. This approach can give major boost groundwater recharge activity in the state.

The Rahuri centre developed an Artificial Neural Network (ANN) model for predicting groundwater levels in observation well in command of Nandgaon Shingave percolation tank. The performance of model was satisfactory and could be employed for other locations.

Field study on traditional recharge system “Haveli” was undertaken by Jabalpur centre. Excess water, which was supposed to be released from Haveli system in month of October, was used for enhancing groundwater recharge through recharge shaft. A recharge rate of 0.5 to 7.7 ha m/day was achieved using 0.15 m to 3 m diameter recharge shaft. Number and capacity of recharge shaft could be decided on basis of recharge rate available and potential area of the Haveli storage. Also survey of 72 existing Haveli fields was conducted by centre.

The Coimbatore centre formulated guidelines for artificial ground recharge structures in the hard rock regions of Tamil

Nadu. It was observed that impact of artificial recharge on ground water was mainly seen on downstream side of structures, of course, immediately after the monsoon. Rise of water level by 2 –5m, results in the saving of pumping energy due to reduction in suction lift. If groundwater recharge schemes are implemented on large scale, impact would be felt over 17000 sq.km and approximately 3040.37 MCM additional water would be recharged. By assuming 50 percent loss of recharged water through base flow or use for existing cropping pattern, additional 304037 ha land could be brought under irrigation with average delta of 0.5 m per year. Groundwater recharge from low cost rain water harvesting structure in micro watershed was assessed by Udaipur centre. During 2011, annual rainfall was of 909.40 mm, average recharge rate of pond was 76.3 mm/day and net volume of recharge was 6131.1 m3. Thus low cost structure improved availability of groundwater in the watershed. Junagadh centre estimated total groundwater recharge through rainfall and water harvesting structures as 12592 ha m in Meghal river basin. The possible options for efficient utilization of groundwater using different irrigation methods were suggested. Under option-I, 9084 ha of wheat under surface irrigation and 5270 ha horticultural crops under drip irrigation were recommended. Under option-II, 7993 ha of horticultural crops under drip and 11950 ha of wheat under sprinkler were proposed. Initially farmers can start with option-I and slowly shift towards option-II, bringing a dditional 2866 h a under irrigation. Groundwater pollution Groundwater samples collected from villages such as W allipur, Kumkalan, Malewal, Lubangarh, Jainpur and Malikpur along Budha Nala, waste water drain coming from Ludhiana city, were analyzed for heavy metals Cd, Fe, Cr, Pb, As, Zn, Mn, Mg, B, Ca and Ni during pre-monsoon and post monsoon season. It was observed that pre-monsoon concentrations of different ions were higher than post

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monsoon season. Concentrations of different ions reduced, as distant from drain increased. The concentration of arsenic, manganese and lead were higher than permissible limits at few places. In general, concentrations of other heavy metals like cadmium, chromium, iron, copper, magnesium, nickel and zinc were within permissible limits. The highest concentration of arsenic, magnesium, manganese and lead for pre-monsoon season was observed as 0.033, 42.76, 0.386 and 0.0156 mg l-1 in village Wallipur, Lubangarh, Lubangarh and Malewal, respectively and the highest concentration of arsenic, magnesium and manganese for post-monsoon season was observed as 0.016, 37.2 and 0.468 mg l-1 in village Lubangarh, Malikpur and Malewal, respectively, which was higher than the maximum permissible limit.

The south west Punjab (which includes districts of Ferozpur, Faridkot, Muktsar and Bhatinda) is experiencing extreme instances of waterlogging and soil salinity problems. Groundwater quality in the region is also poor. The groundwater samples were collected from 11 blocks of south west Punjab and analyzed for Electrical Conductivity (EC) and Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) and checked for their suitability for irrigation either directly or mixing with fresh water. According to irrigation suitability criteria, majority of the samples (60 percent) in the Bathinda district were under marginal saline to highly saline (category 2). It meant that groundwater could be used after mixing with canal water. The 26 percent of the samples were suitable for irrigation (category 1) and 16 percent samples were unsuitable for irrigation (category 4). In district Faridkot and Muktsar all the samples were under category 2. Effect of season on groundwater quality was not significant indicating that annual rainfall of the region was very low and recharge contribution was also low. Thus groundwater quality in region was influenced by regional groundwater flow and seepage from canal water rather than recharge from rainfall.

The Pantnagar centre employed a GIS based DRASTIC model to determine the vulnerability of groundwater to contamination in Jamrani dam Command and its surrounding areas. The model

considered seven parameters such as Depth to water; net Recharge, Aquifer media, Soil media, Topography, Impact of vadose zone, and hydraulic Conductivity to evaluate intrinsic vulnerability of aquifer systems to pollution. The vulnerable zones were classified into five classes i.e. very low, low, moderate, high and very high zones. Initially vulnerable zones were delineated for pre-monsoon and post monsoon water table positions of the command and then for average depth of water table. The 32.97 percent area of the command had low vulnerability, 41.57 and 25.46 percent area had moderate and very high vulnerability. In command area of Mahadev distributary in state of Uttarakhand, values of pH, Ca, Mg, Ca hardness, Mg hardness, Total hardness, Chloride content and Electrical Conductivity in ground water samples were within the permissible limits for drinking purpose. The values of TDS at few locations and alkalinity at all the locations were above permissible limits. As far as suitability of ground water for irrigation based on salinity and alkalinity hazard was concerned the ground water samples of Shyampur and Larpur Barahi were under C2-S4 class and samples of Dhimarkhera and Lohiyapur were under Class C3-S3. For most of the places of command area, the ground water was under Class C2-S1. On the basis of SAR, ground water at Shyampur and L arpur Barahi was unsuitable for irrigation. At Dhimarkhera, Lohiyapur, Burhanpur and Kishanpur, it was found “Slight to moderate” class of salinity hazard based on electrical conductivity. A study to assess quality of industrial effluent and ground water of Kurkumbh Industrial Estate in Daund Tehsil of Pune district and urban wastewater released in Sina River in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra was undertaken by Rahuri Centre. In general, industrial water and groundwater samples in Daund area were of C3S1 and C2S1 class, respectively, which could be used for irrigation on almost all soils. The urban wastewater in Ahmednagar was of C3S1 class indicating low sodium and high salinity water which could be used for irrigation. Jabalpur centre conducted a survey to assess extent of sewage water irrigation in

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vicinity of Motinala (waste water drain) in Jabalpur city. Irrigation was practiced on both sides Moti Nala up to 300-350 m in a length of about 1600 m. Mainly flood irrigation was practiced. Bacterial test showed that the sewage water contaminated the soil, water and plants and need to be treated or filtered through soil or biological filters before its direct use for vegetables.

Groundwater quality assessment in Parambikulam Aliyar basin basin was done on basis of 35 groundwater samples collected from open wells, bore wells and dug cum bore wells. Sodium dominated among cations followed by magnesium, calcium and potassium. Among the anions chloride dominated followed by bicarbonate, carbonate and sulphate. Magnesium dominated water type was observed in majority of the places. Total hardness values indicated that most of the samples were deficient in Ca and Mg. Salinity persisted in the basin and sodicity was observed among the samples. Possibility of salt accumulation in irrigation pipes was observed from LSI values. Soil samples were also collected from fields irrigated by respective groundwater sources. The results indicated that majority of the soil samples were low in available nitrogen and organic carbon, high in available phosphorus and potassium. Most of the soil samples exhibited micro nutrient deficiency.

Groundwater quality assessment for Rajsamand district of Rajasthan was done by Udaipur centre. Groundwater quality improved considerably in post monsoon season as as result of recharge. Out of seven blocks of the Rajsamand district, groundwater of three blocks namely Rajsamand, Railmagra and Na thdwara come under high (C3) to very high salinity (C4) class. The dominated salts in groundwater were chlorides, bicarbonates and sulphates of sodium, calcium and magnesium.

Impact of use of sewage –sludge for irrigation on soil, crop and groundwater characteristics along Patna bye-pass area was studied by Pusa centre. Various vegetable crops were considered. The groundwater of sites nearer to discharge point contained higher concentrations of

heavy metals and decreased with distance. In general leafy vegetables as well as root crops accumulated most of heavy metals to the greater extent, in case of irrigation by sewage –sludge. Pusa centre assessed the effect of disposal of sugar mill effluent on groundwater quality at Gopalganj and Hassanpur. EC, Na and K of groundwater samples were within the safe limit for all purposes. Concentration of Ca+Mg was beyond permissible limits and declined radially with distance upto 8-10 km. Concentration of CO3

--+HCO3- were within the safe limit,

SAR was within acceptable range and TDS safe. Almost all the sources were of medium saline (C2S1) except few hand pump and deep tube wells located nearer to the sugar mills and were of C3S1 classes (high saline category). The growing of salt tolerant crops and proper irrigation water management practices are required. In Mangrol and Porbandar areas of coastal South Saurashtra, sea water intrusion has been observed and groundwater quality has deteriorated. The Junagadh centre initiated experiment to know optimal pumping schedule and pumping depth and rate so that fresh water floating on saline groundwater can be tapped without distributing saline water. Also Junagadh centre conducted study to analyze the presence of residues of pesticides, herbicides and synthetic pyrethroids in ground water samples as well as in crop produce of cotton and groundnut, grown regions of Junagadh district. It was found that no residues of any group of pesticides and herbicides were present in the samples of ground water as well as cotton and groundnut Kernel. However, nitrate-nitrogen (> 50 ppm) was present in groundwater, making it unsuitable for drinking. Transfer of technology Ludhiana centre demonstrated five rooftop water harvesting cum groundwater recharge structures at Krishi Vigyan Kendras and government buildings in Punjab. Scientists delivered TV and Radio

talks, participated in Kisan Melas and organized farmers’ trainings. The centre also published extension articles and technical bulletins. Scientists also participated in seminars, conferences, symposia and workshops. The Indian International Friendship Society (IIFS) of New Delhi bestowed the Bhart Jyoti Award and certificate of excellence upon Dr Sunil Garg of the centre in recognition of his meritorious services and outstanding performance in the field of Soil and Water Engineering. Pantnagar centre conducted 14 farmers’ trainings of one-week duration and one trainers’ training of two-week duration to provide details of selection of pumps and on-farm land and water management for optimal utilization of available land and water resources. The centre also organised National Seminar on “Strategic Resource Management for Sustainable Food and Water security” held at G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar- 263145 (Uttarakhand), India from June 13-15, 2011. Dr. H. C. Sharma acted as Organizing Secretary of national seminar. The Rahuri centre conducted two farmers’ trainings on Agricultural Pumps and Artificial Groundwater Recharge of 4 and 2 days duration, respectively. Coimbatore centre organized nine training programmes of seven days duration for farmers and two 14 days training programme for trainers. Also centre organized one six days training programme to middle level officers of DOA, Govt. of Rajasthan on ‘Development of participatory irrigated cropping systems’. Udaipur centre organized three water management training programmes of seven days duration for farmers; two WDT trainings of six days duration under IWMP for state officials, and one month Para Engineer Training under Indo-German

Watershed Management Project for state officials. Pusa centre also conducted 7 days farmers training programme on water management for benefit of farmers. Scientists of J unagadh c entre were involved in Krishi-Mahotsav organized by Gujarat government, Krushi Mela organized by University and in preparation of Contingency plan. The centre organized two trainings of 3-days duration on efficient utilization of groundwater for benefit of government officials.

7

8

5. Water Technology Centre, TNAU, Coimbatore; 6. Indira Gandhi Agricultural

1. Organization

1.1 Background of the Scheme

The scheme was sanctioned by ICAR/ planning commission in 1970 and became operational as AICRP on Optimization of Groundwater Utilization through Wells and Pumps at Water Technology Centre (W.T.C.), Indian Agricultural Research Institute (I.A.R.I.), New Delhi in 1971 with four cooperating centers. Since then, some adhoc centers were opened, some centers were discontinued and some adhoc centers were elevated to AICRP level depending upon the scientific and regional requirements of the Project. In the VIIth plan, Hyderabad center at Osmania University was discontinued and MPKV, Rahuri center was started. At the end of VIIth Plan, six cooperating centers were functioning, all being regular AICRP centers. In the IXth plan, it was proposed to discontinue the center located at Gujarat Engineering Research Institute, Vadodara. The Coordinating Unit of the AICRP was shifted from W.T.C. (I.A.R.I.), New Delhi to erstwhile Directorate of Water Management Research (DWMR), Patna in April 1998. Since then the coordinating unit was working under DWMR, Patna till its merger in newly established ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region, Patna on 1st April 2001. It was later shifted to Water Technology Centre for Eastern Region, WTCER (Presently, Directorate of Water Management), Bhubaneswar in October 2003. Since then it is functional from Directorate of Water Management, Bhubaneswar. In the X plan the AICRP centre at IIH, Poondi got shifted to Water Technology Centre, TNAU, Coimbatore and four new centres at Udaipur, Raipur, Junagdh, Samastipur got approved.

1.2 Location of Network Centres

At present nine cooperating centres are in operation as listed below. Out of the nine centres, five centres (Coimbatore, Udaipur, Raipur, Junagadh, Pusa) are new and their research activities started from 1st April 2004.

1. Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana;

2. G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar;

3. Jawahar Lal Nehru Krishi Vishva Vidhyalaya, Jabalpur;

4. Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri;

University, Raipur; 7. Maharana Pratap University of

Agriculture and Technology, Udaipur;

8. Rajendra agricultural University, Pusa, samastipur;

9. Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh.

The Coordinating Unit of AICRP on Ground Water Utilization is presently stationed at Directorate of Water Management, Bhubaneswar.

1.3 Mandate

The scheme has been mandated to ensure optimum utilization of groundwater for sustainable agriculture through its proper assessment; modeling different use patterns; work out strategies for its efficient utilization and augmentation; develop efficient hardware and study groundwater pollution problems.

1.4 Objectives

The major objectives or themes of the scheme are:

(i) To develop strategies for assessment of basin-wise groundwater potential and its quality through regional water balance studies and mathematical modelling techniques.

(ii) To evolve management strategies for safe development and utilization of groundwater either as a single resource or in combination with rain and other sources of water in different soil and hydro-geological formations for sustainable crop production.

(iii) To develop technologies for augmenting groundwater supplies through enhanced recharge in hydrologically critical areas.

9

(iv) To study groundwater pollution arising from different sources (viz. agrochemicals, agro based industries, municipal and other waste waters, seawater intrusion etc.) and develop its control and ameliorative techniques for

the safe use of polluted water in agricultural production system.

1.5 Staff Positions

The existing staff strength of the project is as shown in Table 1.1. The details of the positions are given in Annexure I.

Table 1.1 Existing staff strength of the project

Centre Scientific Technical (including driver,

tracer)

Administrative Supportive

San. Fill. Vac. San. Fill. Vac. San. Fill. Vac. San. Fill. Vac. Ludhiana 4 4 0 5 5 0 2 2 0 1 1 0 Pantnagar 4 3 1 5 2 3 2 1 1 1 1 0 Rahuri 2 2 0 4 2 2 2 2 0 1 0 1 Jabalpur 3 3 0 6 2 4 1 1 0 1 1 0 Coimbatore 3 3 0 3 3 0 2 2 0 1 1 0 Udaipur 3 2 1 3 3 0 2 2 0 1 1 0 Pusa 3 3 0 3 2 1 2 0 2 1 0 1 Raipur 3 3 0 3 0 3 2 1 1 1 1 0 Junagadh 3 3 0 3 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 0 Total 28 26 2 35 21 14 17 12 5 9 7 2

San. = Sanctioned; Fill.= Filled; Vac.= Vacant 1.6 Finance

Initially an overall outlay of Rs 1206.69 lakh with ICAR share as Rs 905.02 lakh was approved for the XI plan period (2007-12) for this project. It was revised to Rs. 1100.00 Lakh with allocation of Rs. 172.00 and Rs. 50.00 Lakh for 6th pay commission arrears and Tribal Sub Plan (TSP) fund, respectively, for continuation of ongoing of research activities under this scheme.

1.7 Technical Programme and Results

The findings of various studies conducted by different centres have been presented under the following six topics:

i) Regional Groundwater Assessment and Modelling

ii) Conjunctive Use in Canal Command Areas

iii) Artificial Groundwater Recharge Studies

iv) Groundwater Pollution v) Transfer of Technology vi) List of publications during the year

2011-12

10

2. REGIONAL GROUNDWATER ASSESSMENT AND MODELLING 2.1 Assessment of Long-term Water-

table Behaviour for the State of Punjab Using GIS (Ludhiana Centre)

The Punjab State Farmers’ Commission has reported cumulative fall of more than 9 m in water table of Central Punjab during 1973- 2006. However, major portion of this fall has occurred in the period from 1998 to 2005. The decline in water table has resulted in reduced well yield and pump discharge and increase in cost of lifting water. The centre has studied the water table fluctuations in different districts of Punjab and developed GIS based maps related to depth to water table and spatial variations in rainfall for different years. Also information about areas under rice and wheat crops was compiled.

Basically, state can be hydrologically divided into three distinct zones (Fig. 2.1). The central zone comprises 40 percent of geographical area with annual rainfall of 650 mm and good groundwater quality. The North East-zone comprises 19 percent of geographical area with a verage annual rainfall of 950 mm and good groundwater quality. It is severely affected by soil and water erosion due to steep slope and high rainfall. The South-western zone comprises 41 percent of geographical area with average annual rainfall of 400 mm and saline groundwater. During this year, spatial information on depth to water table, rainfall and areas under rice and wheat crops was complied by the centre on the basis three different zones of the state.

Fig. 2.1 Agro-climatic zones of Punjab

Depth to water table maps based on the spatial data for June 1998 and June 2008 are given in Fig. 2.2. Analysis indicated that groundwater table ranges between 1.4 to 30.8 m from the ground surface for the 1998 – 2009. The long-term behaviour of water table for 1998-2009 revealed that water table has fallen in all three zones with the central zone witnessing maximum decline at a rate of 62.3 cm/year (for last 11 years) and minimum fall was observed in north east zone i.e. 5.5 cm/year . The south west although known for rising water table problem also witnessed a fall of 34 cm/year. The groundwater levels varied from 3.77 – 28.96 m in the central zone, 1.53 – 30.84 m in the North West zone and 0.81 – 26.73 m in the south west zone. In central zone, in 1998, about 64 per cent area was under the water table depth of 3-10 m and rest 34

percent had water table depth between 10 – 20 m. However, by 2009 only 19 per cent area had groundwater table between 3 – 10 m, 53 percent between 10 – 20 m and rest 28 percent having water table depth > 20 m. In North East zone, in 1998, about 81 percent area was under the water table depth of 3-10 m, 14 percent in 10 – 20 m and rest under water table depth > 20 m. By 2009, 69 percent area had groundwater table between 3 – 10 m, 29 percent between 10 – 20 m. In South West zone, 12 percent was waterlogged i.e. water table depth between 0 – 3 m, 84 percent having water table depth in safe limits. In 2009, 13 percent was water logged, 46 per cent within safe limits, 35 percent having water table depth between 10–20 m and rest area having groundwater table>20m.

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Fig. 2.2 Zone wise water table behaviour in state of Punjab

Compared to pre monsoon groundwater level, post monsoon groundwater levels revealed a maximum rise of 254 cm/year in North East 24 cm/year in central and about 7.7 cm/year in so uth w est z ones, respectively during 1998 to 2009 (Fig. 2.3). In general, water table showed rise during

post monsoon with exception in 2002, 2004 and 2007 in central zone as rainfall amount was less than 300 mm. In south west zone, post monsoon water level dropped during almost all years when the region received monsoon rainfall less than 200 mm.

Fig 2.3 Rise/fall in watertable (m) in three agroclimatic zones of Punjab (1998 - 2009) Monsoon rainfall maps were prepared in GIS using krigging interpolation technique and reclassified to obtain area under different rainfall zones viz 0-100, 100–200, 200–300, 300–400, 400–600, 600-700, 700-800 mm and greater than 800 mm in GIS as shown in Fig. 2.4. Considering the rainfall trends, North East zone receives an average

monsoon rainfall of 539 mm with standard deviation of ± 153 mm, central zone with an average of 364 mm and standard deviation of ± 92.16 mm and south west zone with average of 241 mm and standard deviation of ± 74.72 mm. Thus there was high variability in annual rainfall amount.

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Fig 2.4 Spatial variability in rainfall amount during 1998 and 2008 Temporal changes in areas under paddy and wheat crops in different agro climatic zones were studied and given in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Percent areas under paddy and wheat crops in different Agro-climatic zones

Year Paddy Wheat

Central North East South West Central North East South West

1998 58.4 34.3 37.7 67.0 48.2 72.7 1999 60.7 35.5 46.7 68.0 50.7 69.4 2000 61.5 37.1 49.3 69.3 51.6 73.1 2001 62.3 37.0 49.0 69.5 51.6 73.8 2002 61.5 36.8 43.9 69.8 51.7 74.2 2003 60.5 34.8 47.8 69.1 50.4 73.2 2004 62.7 36.5 48.9 70.0 52.6 74.7 2005 64.2 37.5 48.6 71.0 53.3 75.2 2006 58.3 35.1 45.7 62.8 49.3 73.0 2007 55.9 35.6 41.7 59.8 48.9 70.5 2008 55.7 34.2 42.1 60.0 49.8 71.2

The area under paddy cultivation has increased from 58.4 and 34.3 percent in 1998 to 64.2 and 37.5 percent, respectively, in Central and North East regions in 2005. However it increased from 37.7 in 1998 to 48.9 percent in 2004 for South West region. Further, it decreased to 55.7, 34.2 and 42.1 percent, respectively, in 2008. In case of wheat, it increased from 67.0, 48.2 and 72.8 percent in 1998 to 71.0, 53.3 and 75.2

percent in 2005, respectively, in Central, North East and South West region and then decreased to 60.0, 49.8 and 71.2 percent in 2008. It meant decline of water table and increased energy requirement for pumping have indirectly started controlling the areas under cultivation for paddy and wheat crops. Spatial data created by centre can be useful input for preparing management plans for water resources of Punjab state.

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2.2 Estimation of Pump Capacity and Power Requirement in the State of Punjab for Optimal Utilization of Groundwater (Ludhiana Centre)

The water table is declining in the state of Punjab over the last ten years at the rate of more than 50 cm per year as result of increase in tubewell density in Central Punjab. The centrifugal pumps are being replaced by submersible pumps to pump the groundwater from lower stratas of aquifers due to declining trend in water table in the state. This has led to increased energy requirement for pumping of groundwater. These things are adverse affecting sustainability of agriculture. There is urgent need to judiciously use water and energy in agriculture sector. Also there is need to control groundwater exploitation in Punjab. It is possible by avoiding excess groundwater withdrawal.

It was assumed that groundwater development could be kept at 70 percent level. It would avoid further decline of water table and slowly water table would also rise to reasonable level. As groundwater development was to be reduced, area under paddy crop was likely to be reduced proportionately. The areas under other crops would also adjust accordingly. There could be crop diversification. There would a new scenario, as far as crops, their areas; well density and energy consumption are concerned. There was need to visualize impact of new scenario on above mentioned factors. In this study, it was planned to estimate the size and power requirement of the agricultural pump sets for different farm sizes, optimal groundwater development to control decline of water table, optimal tube well density and energy requirement under optimal tube well density for different blocks of different districts of three agro-climatic zones of Punjab. For purpose of illustration of

approach, Patiala district from Central zone of Punjab was selected and new scenario for this district was discussed here. The groundwater development in different blocks of the district varied from 101 to 265 percent with average of 168.63 percent. The paddy areas of different blocks were known and out of 168.63 percent of groundwater development, 126.28 percent groundwater development was used for paddy. Average paddy area for 70 percent groundwater development was 17277.25 ha per block considering paddy as mono crop during kharif. However, considering crop diversification possibilities, average block wise paddy area reduced to 11211.50 ha. Under this scenario, out of total 70 percent groundwater development, only 41.76 percent was for paddy and remaining for other crops with average area of 18196.38 ha per block (Table 2.2). The optimal groundwater development for paddy crop after diversification of crops for districts Faridkot, Kapurthala, Moga, Patiala, Fatehgarh Sahib, Sangrur, Tarantaran, Amritsar, Mansa, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Mukstar, Rupnagar, SAS Nagar, Bathinda, Hoshiarpur, Ferozpur and Gurdaspur was 65.25, 31.98, 42.35, 51.41, 49.0, 36.11, 46.79, 52.02, 44.16, 39.9, 54.25, 83.09, 80.52, 72.73, 71.60, 78.65, 64.0 and 75.08 percent, respectively. The maximum optimal groundwater development for paddy crop after diversification of crops was 83.09 percent for Mukstar district due to prevalent level of groundwater development was 59.86 percent and the minimum optimal groundwater development for paddy crop after diversification of crops was 31.98 percent for Kapurthala district due to present level of groundwater development was as 207.20 percent. In Mukstar district optimal groundwater development exceeded 70 percent; hence crop diversification options were not needed.

Table 2.2 Optimal groundwater development for paddy crop after crop diversification for different blocks of Patiala district

Blocks % GW dev.

Area under paddy

(ha)

% GW Dev. for paddy crop

Area for paddy at 70% GW dev. (ha)

Actual area for paddy after diversi. (ha)

% GW dev. for paddy crop after diversi.

Area under other crops after diversi. (ha)

Patiala 188 29429 141 14610 7200 34.5 22228 Bhunerheri 150 27825 112.5 17313 12057 48.75 15767 Nabha 174 44688 130.5 23970 13611 39.75 31076 Samana 142 31480 106.5 20691 15296 51.75 16183 Ghanaur 101 24660 75.75 22788 21852 67.12 2807 Rajpura 122 22054 91.5 16871 14280 59.25 7773 Patran 265 29216 198.75 10289 826 5.62 28389 Sanaur 207 25919 155.25 11686 4570 27.37 21348 Average 168.63 29409 126.47 17277.25 11211.50 41.76 18196.38

Under optimal plan of blocks of Patiala district, groundwater development was restricted to 70 percent. Total amount of groundwater, to be pumped, also got reduced. Accordingly average optimal tube well density for blocks of Patiala district was estimated as 54.42 tube wells per 1000 ha compared to present density of 127 tube wells per 1000 ha (Table 2.3). The optimal tubewell density per 1000 ha at 70 percent groundwater development for districts of Faridkot, Kapurthala, Moga, Patiala, Fatehgarh Sahib, Sangrur, Tarantaran, Amritsar, Mansa, Jalandhar, Ludhiana,

Mukstar, Rupnagar, SAS Nagar, Bathinda, Hoshiarpur, Ferozpur and Gurdaspur was 94.7, 61.37, 58.55, 54.42, 80.49, 87.76, 44.10, 46.73, 39.61, 178.84, 102.10, 75.36, 127.85, 96.37, 109.83, 92.92, 62.31 and 78.36, respectively. The maximum optimal tube well density per 1000 ha at 70 percent groundwater development was 127.85 for district Rupnagar due to present groundwater development of 92.39 percent and minimum optimal tube well density per 1000 ha at 70 percent groundwater development was 42.35 for district Moga due to present groundwater development of 180.17 percent.

Table 2.3 Optimal tube well density for blocks of Patiala district

Block Category % GW

dev Irrigated Area (ha)

No. of Tube wells

Tube well density per 1000 ha

Optimum tube well density per 1000 ha at 70 % GW dev.

Patiala O.E. 188 59916 8198 136 50.64 Bhunerheri O.E. 150 62049 7325 118 55.07 Nabha O.E. 174 101070 15020 148 59.54 Samana O.E. 142 70119 10257 146 58.73 Ghanaur O.E. 101 55669 6668 119 82.47 Rajpura O.E. 122 58361 5159 88 50.49 Patran O.E. 265 65112 8399 128 33.81 Sanaur O.E. 207 55665 7394 132 44.64 Average O.E. 168.63 65995 8553 127 54.42

Considering prevalent depth to water table, total head for irrigation pump was calculated. On the basis of per day 8 hrs working, total number of existing tube wells and optimal tube wells, per day energy requirement was estimated under existing and optimal plan. Average energy saving of 56.29 percent was observed under optimal plan (Table 2.4). Saving in energy requirement (MWH) per day for districts of Faridkot, Kapurthala, Moga, Patiala, Fatehgarh Sahib, Sangrur,

Tarantaran, Amritsar, Mansa, Jalandhar, Ludhiana, Rupnagar, SAS Nagar, Bathinda, Hoshiarpur, Ferozpur and Gurdaspur was 33.97, 65.75, 61.05, 56.29, 56.15, 62.11, 55.87, 51.77, 57.16, 69.89, 50.97, 3.92, 24.53, 35.05, 15.91, 38.75 and 41.52 percent, respectively. The maximum optimum energy requirement per day was 643.51 MWH for district Faridkot due to present groundwater development of 106 percent and the minimum optimal energy

14

requirement was 121.15 MWH for district Gurdaspur due to present groundwater

development of 111.54 percent.

Table 2.4 Energy requirement per day (MWH) for blocks of Patiala district

District Block Water table depth (m)

Total Head

(m)

Irrigated Area

(ha)

Optimum no. of tube wells at 70% GW dev.

Energy requirement per day (MWH)

% savings

Optimum Existing

Patiala 20.92 28.10 59916 3034 272.82 737.14 62.99 Bhunerheri 27.68 36.21 62049 3417 395.93 848.75 53.35 Nabha 19.79 26.74 101070 6017 514.92 1285.22 59.94 Samana 29.70 38.64 70119 4118 509.19 1268.25 59.85 Ghanaur 30.62 39.74 55669 4591 583.83 847.96 31.15 Rajpura 34.47 44.36 58361 2946 418.28 732.33 42.88 Patran 30.42 39.50 65112 2201 278.26 1061.63 73.79 Sanaur 25.25 33.30 55665 2484 264.78 787.88 66.39 Average 27.36 35.82 65995 3601 404.75 946.15 56.29

As groundwater development under optimal plan was 70 percent. There were chances that water table might rise in future and suction and total head for pumping unit might reduce, which might increase the energy saving to some extent. The optimal plans for different districts of Punjab, developed under this study, are aiming to control of decline of water table. However, socio-economic aspects, marketing and processing facility for agricultural produce under crop diversification are other important issues, which require urgent attention to make such plans successful.

2.3 Impact of Climate Change on Ground

Water Resources in Central Punjab (Ludhiana Centre)

India is the largest groundwater user in the world, with an estimated usage of around 230 km3 per year, more than a quarter of the global total. From the climate change viewpoint, India’s groundwater hotspots are concentrated in arid and semi-arid areas of western and peninsular India, especially in the seven states of Punjab, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. The study was carried out for climate data of Ludhiana (75o

52’ E longitude and 30o 56’N latitude) in the Punjab state. Regional climate model data on weather conditions were obtained from the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology (IITM), Pune, as the output of a regional climate model (RCM-PRECIS) at daily interval at a resolution of about 50 km for the study

area. However, the raw outputs of RCMs/ GCMs often suffer from systematic errors which may prevent them from being directly applicable for the analysis of the behavior of the climate system, its eventual changes and their local impacts. Monthly averages of 20 years (1971-1990) of the observed and RCM modelled Tmax and Tmin for the location showed that the modelled temperatures reasonably represented the observed seasonal cycle. However, the modelled values of Tmax (Tmaxmod) were higher than that of observed Tmax (TmaxObs) in the months from February to May and less from July to December. Tminmod also followed the trend similar to of Tmaxmod but the values higher up to October and less in November and December months. In case of precipitation, the modeled precipitation was less during the months from January to June and trend reversed thereafter up to December. The analysis of the statistical parameters i.e. annual µ, σ and σ2 of Tmax showed that the µs of modelled and observed were comparable but σ was 31% more in the modelled data (Table 2.5). In Tmin, µ and σ modelled values were higher by 1°C (6%) and 2.3°C (25%) than that of the observed. In precipitation, µ of modelled RF was 15% more than that of the observed and σ for the same was 40% less. The annual mean wet days were 270 in the modelled and 325 in the observed.

15

Tm

in, C

Table 2.5 Statistical parameters of the modelled and observed temperatures and precipitation

Statistical parameter

Tmax, °C Tmin, °C Precipitation, mm day-1

Modeled Observed Modeled Observed Modeled Observed

Mean

29.7

29.8

17.0

16.0

2.3

2.0

SD

9.7

7.4

10.1

8.1

6.1

10.2

Variance

93.8

54.6

101.8

65.0

37.6

104.7 Statistical Bias Correction (SBC) method is a mathematical procedure (a functional) that maps the probability density function (pdf) of model data onto that of the observations. In climate generation studies, this is used to correct the cumulative distribution function (CDF) of the future modelled data in relation to the observed. Such corrections have already been applied in literature separately for precipitation and temperature data. In SBC method, let x denotes the considered variable (temperature or precipitation) x(F)) denotes the CDF of x. Then transformation that changes the particular daily value of RCM model run for control period (xmod) to corrected (bias-corrected) value of it (x mod

cor) at a specified probability is x mod cor = F-1

obs(Fmod(x)) (1)

Here, Fmod is CDF of x for RCM model, and F- 1

This process was also broken down into its different timescales, known as casca de bias correction. This was done to take into account the little fluctuations of temperature/ precipitation in some months of a year as a result of the systematic seasonal dependence of statistical expectation value within the month but rather due to the natural fluctuations from one day to the next. The probability distribution function (PDF) such as Dagum, Error, Beta, Kumarswamy, JohnsonSB, Burr, etc. were best fitted with cumulative distribution function (CDF) of multi-year (1971-1985) data of observed and modelled Tmax and Tmin at monthly time scale a nd parameters of PDFs were estimated. Developed PDFs were tested with on temperature data for years from 1986- 1990. These functions have transformed the

obs is the inverse of observed CDF of x. In Modified Statistical Bias Correction (MSBC) approach, bias of x was constructed in the same way as in SBC approach, however, rather than x (F) and equation as in 1, Δx(F) = xmod -x obs. of the control period was considered as equation below.

x mod cor = F-1

obs(Fmod(∆x)) (2)

modelled temperature data, which was matched the observed data in terms of time trends and magnitude. However, there was some deviation especially in Tmax. This deviation was narrowed when SBC approach was coupled with the difference approach (Fig. 2.5). The correction of modelled data reduced µ, σ and σ2 values, which approached the observed ones as given in Table 2.6.

35.0

30.0

25.0

20.0

15.0

5.0

0.0

Observed Modeled model Corrected

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Months

16

Tmax

, °C

60

50

40

30

20 Observed

Modeled 10 Modeled_Cor.

0

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Months

Fig. 2.5 Observed, model and model corrected temperatures by modified Statistical Bias Correction method at monthly time scale

Table 2.6 Statistical parameters of model, model corrected and observed temperatures (as a result of modified SBC at monthly time scale

Month Parameter Tmin Tmax

Model

Model corrected

Observed

Model

Model corrected

Observed

Monthly Mean 17.2 16.6 16.7 30.3 30.3 29.8

S.D 10.1 8.0 7.6 9.3 6.7 6.8 Variance 101.4 63.9 58.0 87.4 44.6 45.6

Further Monthly transfer functions for correcting daily modelled temperature data by Statistical Bias Correction method

involving daily temperature difference (model -observed) were developed are given in Table 2.7.

Table 2.7 Monthly transfer functions for correcting daily modelled temperature data

Month Maximum Temperature Minimum Temp January △x = -0.365*mod+7.157 △x = -0.155*mod+3.479 February △x = -0.281*mod+3.749 △x = -0.253*mod+1.807 March △x = -0.214*mod △x = 0.002*mod*mod-

0.267*mod+0.266 April △x = 0.014*mod*mod-

1.053*mod+11.589 △x = -0.209*mod

May △x = 0.006*mod*mod-0.608*mod+8.664 △x = 0.008*mod*mod- 0.531*mod+3.094

June △x = -0.031*mod*mod+2.087*mod- 33.565

△x = -0.099*mod*mod+ 5.831*mod-88.016

July △x = 0.23*mod-5.1 △x = 0.851*mod-22.860 August △x = -0.157*mod*mod+10.293*mod-

166.110 △x = 0.040*mod*mod- 1.048*mod

September △x = -0.040*mod*mod+2.468*mod- 34.734

△x = 0.534*mod-14.626

October △x = -0.325*mod+14.463 △x = -0.149*mod+0.807

17

November △x = -0.028* mod * mod +0.888*mod+0.254

△x = -0.172*mod+8.778

December △x = -0.051*mod*mod+1.582*mod- 7.576

△x = -0.143*mod+3.581

Similar to temperature, probability distribution functions (PDF) such as Log normal, Log pearson 3, Weibull, Gen Ext Value, etc. were fitted to cumulative distribution function (CDF) of multi-year (1971-1985) data of observed and modelled precipitation at monthly time scale and parameters were estimated for PDF. Monthly transfer functions were developed for correcting daily modelled precipitation by Statistical Bias Correction method. Statistical parameters of model, model corrected and

observed precipitation data after SBC at monthly time scale were determined. It was observed that correction function was applied to the individual Julian days of the year (averaged over multi years) then the resultant model corrected values were underestimated. Model corrected values matched closely to the observed, if correction factor was applied to the individual day in multi- years and then averaged monthly. Such correction has narrowed the differences of µ, σ and σ2 in the modelled and observed precipitation(table2.8).

Table 2.8 Statistical parameters of model, model corrected and observed precipitation a result SBC at monthly time scale

Model corrected Observed modelled SBC SBC involving

difference approach Mean 2.2 2.0 2.1 (1.5) 2.3 (1.7) Standard Deviation 13.2 (6.0) 4.7 (3.6) 8.2 (4.0) 8.7 (4.0) Variance 173.2 (36.0) 22.4 (12.9) 67.4 (15.7) 76.3 (16.2)

These results suggested that while correcting and projecting the multi-years modelled data using SBC correction factor, application of correction factor first and then averaging the modelled corrected data should be followed in case of precipitation data. However, cumulative precipitation from the annual developed correction function was under- estimated.

2.4 Estimation of Recharge due to

Irrigation in Shallow Water Table of Tarai Region of Uttrakhand (Pantnagar Centre)

The ground water potential of 6 blocks (Kashipur, Bazpur, Gadarpur, Rudrapur, Sitarganj and Khatima) of Udham Singh Nagar district in Tarai region of Uttarakhand was estimated for year 2009 using depth to water table data and was reported in previous report. Average groundwater development of blocks was 65.89 percent, which was less than 70 percent. Thus all blocks were under safe category. Groundwater assessment of Jaspur block was assessed in addition to earlier six blocks. The groundwater development of Jaspur block was 89.11 percent indicating that groundwater development was under semi-

critical category. The history of groundwater development of all seven blocks was studied from 2000 to 2009. Average groundwater development of district varied from 47.52 to 65.60 percent and always remained under safe category. However, Bazpur was under semi-critical category in 2001. Similarly, Jaspur in 2009, Kashipur in 2001 and 2002, Khatima in 200, 2006 and 2009 and Sitarganj in 2000 and 2001 were under semi- critical category. The pre-monsoon trend of water table from 1995 to 2005 showed that water table at Gadarpur, Rudrapur and Sitar Ganj blocks were having increasing trend and at Bajpur, Jaspur and Khatima blocks the trend was decreasing. At Kashipur block the water table was found to be constant. The post Monsoon water table showed that water table was having relatively increasing trend at Kashipur and Khatima and rest of the blocks were having relatively decreasing trend. Block wise percentage area under different depth to water table showed that over all there was decline of water table in the period 1995 to 2005 in Tarai region of Uttarakhand (Table 2.9). If this trend continues, areas with shallow water table depth are likely to reduce in Udham Singh Nagar district.

18

Table 2.9 Percentage area under different depth to water table in the year 1995-2005

Year

Percentage area under depth to water table

< 1.00m 1-2m 2-3m >3.00m

Pre- monsoon

Post- monsoon

Pre- monsoon

Post- monsoon

Pre- monsoon

Post- monsoon

Pre- monsoon

Post- monsoon

Ave. 1995

0.5 13 29 56 35.5 24 35 7

Ave. 2005

1 10 6 48 48 25 45 16

Field experiment for estimation of recharge due irrigation losses

A field experiment was also conducted at crop research centre of Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture and Technology to estimate irrigation losses reaching to shallow water table under Tarai region. Piezometers were installed in A-3 plot at C rop Research Centre. Wheat crop was grown in the field in Rabi season and Paddy cultivation in Kharif season. This plot was having flat topography with gentle slope from north to south. The source of irrigation was tube well which was situated about 100 m in northwest side of this field. Water table depth was recorded during crop seasons of 2009-10 and 2010-11 before and after irrigation event. Rise in water table varied from 5.55 to 29 cm. The soil texture was silty clay loam up to 150 cm depth and weighted effective porosity was 13 percent or 0.13. Using effective porosity and change in water table, deep percolation losses or average contribution to recharge was estimated as 18.14 percent.

2.5 Ground Water Studies in Upper Narmada Basin (Jabalpur Centre)

The groundwater assessment study was carried out in the upper Narmada basin consisting of Mandla, Jabalpur, Narsingpur

and Hosangabad districts with defined objectives of ground truthing of water table data collected from different locations in the basin as well as of aquifer properties. In order to verify the ground water fluctuation data obtained from fluctuation zones maps, water table observations were taken at 20 locations in Jabalpur and Narsinghpur district during pre-monsoon a nd post-monsoon period 2011. Fluctuations thus obtained were compared with the average fluctuations at those locations over the period 2002-2008. If water table was not declining or rising at alarming rate, then water table fluctuation observed in 2011 should match reasonably with average fluctuation during 2002-2008. Average fluctuation between pre–monsoon and post-monsoon water table data for period of 2002 to 2008 ranged between 1.50 to 6.15 m while it ranged between 0.80 to 6.50 m during 2011. It clearly indicated fluctuations ranges were reasonably matching. However, there was rise of water table in some pockets of the basin and also there was decline of water table at few places. Depths to water table observations collected from different districts are summarized in Table 2.10 and were used to prepare contour maps for those districts. The contour map based on pre-monsoon depth to water table data of 2008 is shown in Fig. 2.6 as an example.

Table 2.10 Depth to water table (m) in different districts of Upper Narmada Basin

Sr. No.

District Pre-monsoon (m) Post monsoon (m)

Min Max Min Max

1 Mandla 3.35 22.15 1.55 16.95 2 Jabalpur 2.50 16.94 0.80 12.94 3 Narsingpur 4.60 28.20 2.20 25.95

4 Hosangabad 4.70 22.65 3.10 21.80

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Fig. 2.6 Pre monsoon depth to water table contours of Jabalpur district in year 2008 In general decline of water table was observed in Mandla district, In Jabalpur district, post-monsoon water-table moved up and down but the ultimately water table was on decline. In Narsighpur district water table decline was at an alarming rate. Average post-monsoon water table had beyond the range of motor pumps (6.00m). Similarly water table decline was observed in Hoshangabad district.

Upper Narmada basin has different geological formations as part of basin is alluvial in nature and remaining part has hard rock formations. Therefore, aquifer properties and groundwater availability vary as per geological formations. Pumping r ecovery tests were conducted at 10 locations in basin for ground truthing of aquifer properties data provided by Central Ground Water Board. The transmissivity (T) of the aquifer in alluvium area of Jabalpur and Narsingpur district varied from 57.60 to 757.06 m2/day, whereas the storavity (S) varied from 0.025 to 0.211. The T a nd S values for hard rock formations in Jabalpur, Dindori and mandla districts were in the range of 49.87 to 245.60 m2/day and 0.011 to 0.036, respectively. The S values determined for the basin were in the general range (0.001 to 0.200 for alluvium and for hard rocks) as reported by CGWB for ground water resource estimation (CGWB, 1994). Similarly the T values were also in the range given (24.48 m2/day to 946.00 m2/day). The S and T values were very site specific and varied spatially. In general, S

and T values determined by pumping tests at different locations were in agreement with values estimated by CGWB. Iso- transmissivity map for t he basin was prepared using spatial data of transmissivity. Groundwater development in Dindori district varied 5-16 percent; in Hoshangabad 12-63 percent; in Jabalpur 13- 99 percent; Mandla 2-35 percent and Narsinghpur 57-91 percent. Out of 36 blocks, 32 blocks were safe, 1 semi-critical and 3 critical. Two critical and one semi-critical blocks were located in Narsinghpur district while one critical block was located in Jabalpur district. Further centre classified blocks into two zones namely, stress zone and comfortable zone. Stress zone blocks meant that blocks with more than 70 percent groundwater development and this zone required attention as far as groundwater management was concerned. Comfortable zone blocks had groundwater development less than 70 percent and there was scope of groundwater development to increase irrigation intensity for economic development of the regions. Appropriate measures were suggested for both the zones so groundwater would be used judiciously. 2.6 Study on Groundwater Balance to

Assess the Quantity of Water Available for Development in the Parambikulam-Aliyar Basin (Coimbatore centre)

20

Parambikulam Aliyar Palar (PAP) basin in Coimbatore district of Tamil Nadu, India (Fig. 2.7) lies between 10°10’00” to 10°57’20” N latitude and 76°43’00” to 77 °12’30” E longitude spreading over an area of 2388.72 km2. It has an undulating topography with hills and dense forest cover and msl varies from 300 m to 385 m. Data from five rain gauge stations viz. Anamalai, Pollachi, Thirumurthy N agar, Natakalpalyam and Aliyar Nagar were collected. Anamalai recorded the highest average annual rainfall of 1372.1mm followed by Aliyarnagar (871.3mm), Pollachi (830.3mm), Thirumurthynagar (722.3mm) and Natakalpalyam (534.5mm). It was noted that the stations viz. Anamalai, and Pollachi

received major portion of their annual rainfall in South West monsoon while Aliyarnagar, Thirumurthynagar and Natakalpalyam received in North East monsoon season. The annual rainfall for study area for 1988-2010 at 50, 60, 70, 80 and 90 percent probability levels by Weibull’s method was found as 1164.5, 1125.3, 1012.1, 973.6 and 870.3 mm, respectively. The probability of rainfall during winter (Jan-Feb) was almost nil and the highest in SW monsoon followed by NE monsoon. The rainfall at 75 per cent probability levels for different seasons in PAP basin was worked out as 3.2 mm, 151.5 mm, 643.8 mm and 332.8 mm during winter, summer, SW and NE monsoon periods, respectively.

21

100 15

0 0'

N

110 0'

15'

'N

110 0'

15'

'N

100 15

0 0'

N

760 45' 0 ''E 770 0' 15 ''E

760 45' 0 ''E 770 15' 15 ''E

Fig. 2.7 Map showing the location of observation wells in PAP Basin

Relation between water table behaviour and rainfall in the basin was studied using data of 15 observation wells and 5 rain gauge stations and cross correlation. Monthly water level and rainfall data for years 1988 to 2010

were analyzed. The long-term average hydrographs (Fig. 2.8) showed a wide variation of 3.7-18.92 m in groundwater levels. The average annual water levels fluctuated between 0.03-3.62 m.

Fig. 2.8 Average monthly water table levels and average annual rainfall from 1988-2010

22

The basin was divided in two zones, namely Zone I: ar ea of 506.16 sq.km having dominance of south west (SW) monsoon and Zone II: area of 855.0 sq.km having dominance of north east (NE) monsoon. In Zone-I, the average groundwater recharge due to SW monsoon during the years 1988 to 2010 varied from 2.29 to 11.06 percent with an average recharge of 5.22 percent and average groundwater recharge due to NE monsoon for same period varied from 4.34 to 28.62 percent with an average recharge of 12.5 percent. It indicated that influence of major rainfall season on recharge was lesser in SW monsoon dominated area (Zone I). The groundwater level fluctuations in Zone-II varied from 0.68 to 3.15 m due to SW monsoon, while it was from 0.76 to 5.25 m in NE monsoon period. The a verage groundwater recharge due to SW monsoon during 1988 to 2010 varied from 10.62 to 55.26 per cent with an average recharge of 24.1 percent and it varied from 5.34 to 39.10 percent with an average recharge of 14.94 per cent during NE monsoon. Similar to Zone I, in Zone-II also influence of major rainfall season (i.e. NE season) was lesser compared to SW monsoon. Results of analysis of both zones proved that recharge was not linearly proportional to rainfall, but depended on many factors such as soil type, slope, vegetation and climate. It is to be noted that major season received rainfall through rain events of higher intensity exceeding infiltration resulting higher runoff. On contrary, minor season had rain events of lower rainfall intensity than infiltration rate resulting in higher recharge. Analysis also suggested that the recharge percentage was more during years of deficit rainfall when compared to h igh ra infall years an d applicable to both the zones. However, quantum of recharge was higher during normal/excess rainfall years.

2.7 Delineation of Groundwater

Potential Zones in Wakal River Basin of Udaipur District (Udaipur Centre)

The Udaipur centre used eight thematic layers namely soil, geomorphology, slope, topographic elevation, land use/ land cover, post monsoon groundwater depth, recharge and transmissivity to delineate groundwater potential zones in Wakal river basin of Udaipur district. To demarcate the potential zones, all the thematic layers were assigned suitable relative weights and then integrated using ILWIS GIS software. The weights of the different themes were assigned on a scale of 1 to 5 based on their influence on the occurrence of groundwater potential. Furthermore, different features of each theme were assigned weights on a scale of 1 to 9 according to their relative influence on groundwater potential. Based on this scale, the qualitative evaluation of different features of a given theme was performed as: poor (weight = 1-1.5); moderate (weight = 2-3.5); good (weight = 4-5.5); very good (weight = 6-7.5); and excellent (weight = 8- 9). The relative influence of different features on groundwater potential was decided based on the experts’ opinion, information and local knowledge. The net recharge for the basin was estimated using water table fluctuation method with point recharge value.

To develop the thematic map of net recharge and also to find out specific yield as well as transmissivity, constant discharge transient pumping test was performed in the basin at different locations based on systematic square grid pattern during 2010- 11. Entire Wakal basin was divided into 66 systematic square grids, each of 6 * 6 km. In the stu dy area, pumping t ests were conducted at 10 locations in three different rock formations (Table 2.11.) The pre and post monsoon groundwater samples along with water tables were also collected in each grid. Spatial values of transmissivity, used in analysis, were estimated on basis of 10 pumping tests and varied from 132.8 to 343.9 m2/day. The specific yield ranged from 0.00176 to 0.0245.

23

Table 2.11 Pumping Test conducted in different rock formations

Geological Formation

Site/ Grid No.

Well dia/Area Depth of well (m)

Test duration (min)

Transmissivity (m2/day)

Specific Yield

Quartizite

9 3.70 m x 2.30 m 8.15 242 174.69 0.00176 14 4.25 m 14.60 418 159.52 0.00214 47 4.20 m 9.40 410 155.35 0.00958 54 5.20 m 14.00 280 343.94 0.00452

Phyllite &

Schist

2 5.80 m 5.00 232 334.39 0.00636 11 5.50 m x 3.50 m 7.50 284 300.82 0.0163 24 5.00 m x 3.50 m 11.00 335 343.94 0.00247 50 5.75 m x 2.70 m 14.35 395 236.72 0.02113

Cal Schist & Gneiss

26 5.00 m 14.05 404 132.82 0.0245 43 6.20 m 12.00 333 343.94 0.00981

Groundwater recharge values, for 60 sites, were estimated by using Water Table Fluctuation Method. The average value of specific yield estimated at various locations was taken for different geological formations in computation of groundwater recharge. The minimum computed recharge was 0.15 cm/year and the maximum value was 12.02 cm/year. Average value of groundwater recharge for the study area was found to be 3.05 cm. Spatial recharge rate was used to

raster thematic map for recharge. The eight thematic layers i.e. geomorphology, soil, slope, topographic elevation, land use/land cover, post monsoon groundwater depth, recharge and transmissivity were generated for the Wakal river basin showing areal extent of different features of the those thematic layers. The spatial maps of topographic elevation, transmissivity recharge and are shown here for purpose of illustration (Fig.2.9).

(a) (b)

24

25

(c) (d)

Fig.2.9 Thematic layer a) Topographic elevation; b)Transmissivity; c) Post-monsoon groundwater depth; d) Spatial recharge for Wakal river basin.

The annual net groundwater recharge in the study area varied from 0.15 to 12.02 cm. Based on these recharge estimates, the area was divided into 5 recharge zones: (i) 0-1 cm/year, (ii) 1-2 cm/year, (iii) 2-3 cm/year, (iv) 3-4 cm/year, and (v) >4 cm/year (Table 2.12). The net recharge of 1-4 cm/year was dominant in the study area, which was about

82 percent of the total study area. Some patches in the north and middle portions of the study area had very low recharge rate (<1 cm/year). A high recharge rate (>4 cm/year) was confined to five patches in the east, southeast and southwest portions of the study area.

Table 2.12 Percent of areas under different recharge classes in Wakal river basin

Recharge classes Area (km2) % Area (i) <1 cm/year 40.78 2.13 (ii) 1-2 cm/year 440.15 22.99 (iii) 2-3 cm/year 480.58 25.11 (iv) 3-4 cm/year 641.15 33.49 (v) >4 cm/year 311.66 16.28

Groundwater quality of the study area

The different physicochemical parameters such as pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS), calcium (Ca+), magnesium (Mg+), sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), bicarbonate (HCO3), carbonate (CO3),

chloride (Cl-), and sulphate (SO4) present in pre and post monsoon samples of the study area were determined and are given in Table 2.13. Also maps showing spatial variations of these parameters were prepared for pre monsoon and post monsoon season.

Table 2.13 Range and Mean of water quality parameters

Parameters Pre-monsoon samples (meq/l) Post-monsoon samples (meq/l)

Min. Max. Mean Min. Max. Mean pH 6.0 8.0 6.98 6.5 7.6 7.11 EC 0.40 3.20 0.96 0.30 2.90 0.81 TDS 223 2600 641.38 200 2020 575.17 Ca 1.6 7.0 3.10 1.1 15.0 3.40 Mg 0.8 14.0 3.25 0.0 7.4 1.94 Na 0.2 12.1 2.98 0.2 6.4 2.47 K 0.0 1.2 0.13 0.0 0.6 0.06

26

HCO3 0.0 5.2 1.58 0.4 5.5 1.65 CO3 0.0 4.2 0.24 0.0 2.0 0.05 Cl 2.8 19.5 4.92 1.5 13.5 3.69 SO4 0.0 17.2 2.75 0.0 14.2 2.52

For 91.36 percent area of Wakal river basin, pH ranged from 6.75 to 7.25 during post- monsoon period and for 97.2 percent area, pH ranged from 6.5 to 7.5 during pre- monsoon period. Groundwater quality in 94.4 percent of the study area during pre monsoon and in 47 percent area during post-monsoon period was not even good to be used for drinking purposes because its EC was more than 0.75 dS/m. The mean concentration of major ion in groundwater was in the following order: cation: - magnesium>calcium>sodium>potassium during pre-monsoon period and calcium> sodium>magnesium>potassium during post-monsoon period and Anions:-chloride> sulphate> bicarbonate >carbonate during both pre and post monsoon period. In the Wakal river basin Mg++ and Ca++ are the most predominant cationic constituents followed by Na during pre monsoon period whereas calcium and sodium are dominated in post monsoon period. The chloride and sulphate were found to be the most predominant anions followed by bicarbonate and carbonate during both pre and post monsoon period. About 99 per cent of the study area, the HCO3 has less than 3.5 meq/l for both pre and post monsoon period.

The correlation coefficients (r) among eleven water quality parameters namely pH, EC, TDS, Ca, Mg, Na, K, HCO3, CO3, Cl and SO4 were calculated. Interpretation of correlation gave an idea of quick water quality monitoring method. The EC and TDS showed highly significant and good positive correlation with Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl and SO4 during both pre and post monsoon period. It suggested that presence of calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, chloride and sulphate in the study area had influence of TDS and EC. The EC also showed highly significant and good positive correlation with TDS during both pre and post monsoon period. The chloride and sulphate also showed highly significant and positive correlation with calcium, magnesium and sodium. Potassium also exhibited highly significant and positive correlation with carbonate and chloride during pre monsoon period and with sulphate during post monsoon period. Chloride was also significant and had positive correlation with sulphate during both the period. The pH, CO3 and HCO3 exhibited negative or poor

correlation with most of the variables during both pre and post monsoon period. 2.8 Assessment of Groundwater

Resources for Irrigation in Southern Districts of Bihar on Pilot Basis (Pusa Centre)

Assessment of groundwater resources for irrigation in southern districts of Bihar was carried out during this year 2011-12. Necessary information like rainfall, pre and post monsoon water table, ground water structure, cropping pattern, hydrogeological conditions etc. of Bhojpur, Buxar and Aurangabad districts were collected for estimation of groundwater recharge and assessment of groundwater resources of the districts. Bhojpur District: Bhojpur district is located at a longitude of 83º-45' to 84º-45' east and the latitude is 25º-10' to 25º-40' north at an altitude of 192.99 m above msl. It is surrounded by Chapra and Ballia district of U.P in the north, Rohtas district in the south, Patna, Jehanabad and Arwal district in the east and Buxar district in the west. It has three sub-divisions, viz., Ara Sadar; Jagdishpur and Piro comprising 14 development blocks. The district has rivers running almost three sides-North, East, and some part of Southern boundary. River Ganga forms the northern boundary of the district. The rivers Chher and Banas fall into the Ganges. The Sone is another important river in the district. It runs along the southern and eastern boundaries of the district of Bhojpur until it merges in the river Ganges near Maner in Patna district. Bhojpur district is mainly covered with alluvium and hard rocks of Vindhyan Super group which are situated at the south-western side beyond the district boundary. The general elevation with respect to mean sea level is 50-90 m. The gradient is 0.6 m/km approximately from south to north. The climate of the district is of moderately extreme type with average rainfall of 1048.57 mm. The district in general possesses alluvium soil. The river Sone and Ganges are the perennial sources of surface water and can provide irrigation to major portion of agricultural lands. Ordinary wells are also a good source of irrigation. The District Statistical Report published by the District Administration in the 2001,

27

stated that 15,493 ha land was irrigated by big Sone canals, 14,940 ha land was irrigated by middle Sone canals and 18,379 ha land was irrigated by small canals. 2,582 ha land was irrigated by Govt. electric Tube wells and 2,099 ha of land was irrigated by Govt. Tub wells operated by diesel. The area of land irrigated by private Electric Tube wells was 8,263 ha, 16999 ha of land was irrigated by diesel operated private Tube wells; 58,586 ha of land irrigated by other sources or irrigation like Ahars, wells and ponds, etc. Thus this statistics showed that 1,77,341 ha of land out of 2, 47,400 ha of land of total area was irrigated. It meant 74.66 % land of the district was irrigated; Paddy- 1,05,155 ha, Wheat- 67,259 ha, Maize- 2,779 ha, Barley- 1,154 ha, Gram-5,017 ha, Peas- 2,016 ha, Arhar- 919 ha, Masur- 8,115 ha, Khesari- 8,989 ha, Oil seeds (Sarson) 2,866 ha, Spices 31 ha, Vegetables 5,119 ha, Fruits 2,651 ha and Sugar cane 209 ha.

The pre-monsoon water table depth varied between 4.55 m to 5.46 m with an average of 5.03 m Bhojpur district. The average rate of water table decline was 0.02 m per year. The post-monsoon water table depth varied between 3.22 m to 4.37 m with an average of 3.87 m. The water table fluctuations varied between 0.70 m to 1.86 m with an average of 1.36 m.

Buxar district: The present district of Buxar consists of areas under Buxar Sadar and Dumraon Sub-Division of the old Bhojpur district and came in existence in the year 1992. Buxar district consists of 2 Sub- division and 11 Blocks. Buxar district consist of 2 Sub-division and 11 Blocks. It is surrounded by Ballia district in U.P in north, Rohtas district in south, Bhojpur district in east and Gazipur and Ballia district of U.P in west and it is a part of the southern Ganga Plain. Alluvial plains have gentle slope towards north. The plain land is marked by presence of several minor depressions. The elevation varies between 55 m amsl and 85 m amsl. There are mainly three types of soils such as Recent Alluvium Soil (Levee Soil), Tal Soil (Kewal soil) and Old Alluvium Soil. The normal annual rainfall of the district is 1049 mm. The river Sone and Ganges are the perennial source of surface water and can provide irrigation to major portion of agricultural land. The three great sources of irrigation are artificial reservoirs, wells and Sone Canal. In this district both the irrigated and non-irrigated areas are being exploited for cultivation purpose. Rice, wheat, grams and pluses are the main crops of the district: in some areas near, old Bhojpur vegetables are abundantly grown.

The pre-monsoon water table depth varied between 6.73m to 8.40m with an average value of 7.56 m in Buxar district. The average rate of water table decline was 0.27 m per year. The post monsoon water table depth varied between 4.55m to 8.12m with an average value of 5.89m.The water table fluctuation varied between 0.69 m to 2.50 m with an average value of 1.77 m. Aurangabad District: This district is the extreme south west part of ancient Magadh division. The command area of the system is located between 240.45’ North and 840.22’ East with a height of 84m from mean sea level. This district encompasses an geographical area of 3305 square kilometres. Aurangabad district has been carved from Gaya district. The soil of Aurangabad district is highly suitable for the agriculture of paddy, wheat and sugar-cane. Betel leaves are grown at large scale in Aurangabad. The climate of this district is generally a tropical monsoon type. Average annual rainfall in the region is around 950.17 mm. Sone, Punpun, Auranga, Batane, Morhar, Adari, are the main rivers of Aurangabad district. Almost part of Aurangabad district are irrigated by number of canals Eastern Sone High level canal (1403.00 m long), Eastern Link canal (4400.00 m long), Patna Main canal (3000 m long) and distributory canals are Mali distributory (325 m long), Kochasa distributory (300 m long), Amra distributory (180 m long) and Imamganj distributory (200 m long). Rice, Wheat, Gram, Vegetables are important crops. In upland, potato has been very important crop of this region. Two crops of potato in Ravi seasons are taken after kharif maize or early rice. In low lying paddy fields, Lathyrus, Gram, and Lentil are taken as paira crops. The average depth of water table in the pre- monsoon season was 5.79 m. The average rate of water decline was 0.10 m per year for the year (1998-2009). Post-monsoon water table fluctuation of Aurangabad district varied from 4.09 m in the year 1998 to 5.88 m in the year 2005. The average depth of water table in the post-monsoon season was 4.80 m. The average rate of water decline was 0.15 m per year for the year (1998- 2009). Long term water table fluctuation in Aurangabad district varied from 0.02 m to 1.89 m with an average value of 1.06 m. Computation of total annual recharge Total annual ground water recharge which was the sum of recharge during monsoon season and non monsoon season. It w as worked out as 69374.58 ha-m for Bhojpur

28

district, 53376.17 ha-m for Buxar district and 89882.13 ha-m for Aurangabad district. The details of various components of ground

water recharge in Bhojpur, Buxar and Aurangabad district are given in Table 2.14.

Table 2.14 Ground water resource and development potential of Bhojpur, Buxar and Aurangabad

districts of Bihar

Sr. No.

Component District Bhojpur Buxar Aurangabad

1. Recharge from rainfall during monsoon season, ha-m

2. Recharge from other sources during monsoon season, ha-m

3. Recharge from rainfall during non monsoon season, ha-m

4. Recharge from other sources during non monsoon season, ha-m

5. Total annual ground water recharge, ha- m

6. Natural discharge during non monsoon season, ha-m

44049 40034 51602

10342 8362 11046

5688 - 8516

9260 7506 18717

69374 53376 89882

3468 2668 8988

7. Net ground water availability, ha-m 65905 50707 80894

8. Existing ground water draft for irrigation, ha-m

9. Existing ground water draft for domestic and industrial water supply, ha-m

10. Existing gross ground water draft for all uses, ha-m

11. Projected ground water draft for domestic and industrial water supply for next 25 years, ha-m

12. Net ground water availability for future irrigation development, ha-m

19395 13533 15191

3866 2408 3512 23261 15941 18703

5870 3803 5629 36773 30962 56562

13. Stage of ground water development (%) 35.23% 31.43% 23.12%

14. Category Safe Safe Safe Data in Table 2.14 showed that total annual ground water recharge for Bhojpur, Buxar and Aurangabad district was 65905 ha-m, 50707 ha-m and 89882.13 ha-m, respectively. The existing ground water draft for irrigation was 19395 ha-m, 13533 ha-m and 15191 ha-m for Bhojpur, Buxar and Aurangabad districts, respectively. The ground water draft for all uses was 23261 ha-m for Bhojpur district, 15941 ha-m for Buxar district and 18703 ha-m for Aurangabad district. The net annual replenishable ground water resource was worked out as 65905 ha-m, 50707ha-m and 80894 ha-m for Bhojpur, Buxar and Aurangabad district, respectively. The net annual ground water available for future irrigation development was 36773 ha-m for Bhojpur, 30962 ha-m for Buxar and 56562 ha-m for Aurangabad district. The stage of ground water development was 35.23

percent, for Bhojpur district, 31.43 percent for Buxar district and 23.12 percent for Aurangabad district. According to definitions used by CGWB all the three selected districts fall in safe category and there is lot scope of further groundwater development for increasing irrigation intensity of improving economic conditions of the farmers. 2.9 Determination of Groundwater

Potential of the South West Saurashtra Region (Junagadh Centre)

Saurashtra, Kutchh and North Gujarat are important parts of Gujarat state, which are dependent on groundwater for winter and summer crops. The annual rainfall of South- West Saurashtra varies from 700 mm to 1000 mm. The groundwater management of Saurashtra region, selected study area under

29

this research, required the information on groundwater behavior and total groundwater potential of the region. The groundwater potential was estimated using aquifer properties and ground water fluctuations from 23 open wells located in 14 Talukas (blocks) and applying Thiessen Polygon network for the region. Observations of water table, longitude and latitudes and reduced levels of well locations were recorded from all 23 open wells plus one tube well during pre monsoon during June -2011 and post monsoon during October -2011. Water samples also collected from each well during pre and post monsoon season to determine chemical characteristics groundwater.

Thiessen polygon network was constructed considering GPS data (Lat., Long.) of well

points in the region and remote sensing tools Bhuvan, Google earth and AutoCAD software. Whole region was divided in 22 major polygons namely A, B…. U. Each well represented one major polygon. Further, 70 sub polygons were formed using boundaries of Talukas and major polygons as shown in Fig. 2.10. Areas of major and sub polygons were estimated by AutoCAD. Groundwater potential was estimated on basis on three years average pre and post monsoon water table and its difference (average annual water table fluctuation) in all Polygons and specific yield/ storage coefficient. For estimation of groundwater potential of deep aquifer, average storage coefficient for region was considered as 0.000387. The same was estimated during previous experimental work of the centre.

Fig. 2.10 Thiessen polygon network of observation wells of South West Saurastra region Ground water potential was estimated based on following relationship:

Gwp = Ap x S x Δh

Where, Gwp = Utilizable ground water potential, MCM, Ap = Area of sub polygon, sq.km, S= Storage coefficient/ specific yield, Δh = Average change in water table between pre and post monsoon, m

The average absolute water table positions for selected observation wells were determined on the basis of three years pre- monsoon and post monsoon depth to water table data and used to prepare contour maps of average absolute head (i.e. water table) as shown in Fig. 2.11 and Fig. 2.12. These maps were used to determine the average change in water table. Spatial data of storage coefficient/ specific yield (Fig. 2.13) and

30

average change in water table were utilized for estimation of groundwater potential.

Fig. 2.11 Average of three years post monsoon absolute head

31

Fig. 2.12 Average of three years Pre monsoon absolute head

Fig. 2.13 Variation of Storage Coefficient in the region

32

The polygon wise shallow groundwater potential was estimated u sing a bove equation. The sum of groundwater potential of all polygons gave total shallow groundwater potential of South West Saurashtra region as 3803.24 MCM. Similarly groundwater potential f or deep aquifer system was estimated as 257.42 MCM. Thus, total groundwater potential of region was estimated as 4060.66 MCM.

Validation of estimated groundwater potential

Estimated groundwater potential was cross verified by preparing water balance sheet of

the study area. It was prepared by equating total water potential and total water consumption/ demand in the region. Total water consumption was estimated totalling water consumptions of different components namely, agriculture, population, animals, miscellaneous uses and losses. Total water potential of region included groundwater potential as well as already created surface water potential till today. Required data of crops, population, animals and irrigation projects were collected from Taluka and District Pachayats, Agriculture and Irrigation department of Gujarat and their websites. Water balance sheet is given in Table 2.15.

Table 2.15 Validation of estimated potential through Water balance sheet of South west

Saurashtra region

Sr. Total Water Potential in region Total Water consumption in region No. Component Potential

(MCM ) Component Consumption

(MCM) 1 Ground water Potential 4060.70 Major crops 4147.60 2 Surface storage water

potential created 359.80 Population

143.64

3 Animals 23.30 Sub Total 4248.80

4 Miscellaneous use (including Industries etc.) and losses

171.70

Total 4420.50 4420.50 Water Potential of groundwater and surface water in the region was estimated as 4420.45 MCM. Demands for major crops, population, animals and miscellaneous purposes were also assessed. The supply and demand sides matched well. In supply side, contribution of groundwater remained major and there is need to maintain some surplus un-utilized groundwater in aquifers as cushion to meet priority demands during drought/ deficit years.

It was also observed that rainfall of the region was continuously increased during last ten years and average rainfall for period of last ten years was considered for estimation of direct recharge from the rainfall. Approximate Recharge volume from direct rainfall was calculated as 1747.21 MCM. Total groundwater potential of the region was estimated as 4060.66 MCM. Hence, recharge from water harvesting structures, rivers,

ponds and reservoirs was estimated as 2313.45 (4060.66– 1747.21) MCM. It is important to note that the study area is dependent on groundwater for irrigation and groundwater quality is spatially varying. The southern and western boundaries of region are connected to sea. Overexploitation of groundwater resulted in lowering of groundwater table and seawater intrusion in coastal areas. Hence, it was necessary to map groundwater quality. The classification proposed by the United States Soil Salinity Laboratory Staff was not suitable for Indian monsoon type climatic conditions. Hence classification of groundwater quality parameters was done as proposed by Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI), Karnal based on its extensive research in different argo-ecological regions of India (Table2.16).

33

Table 2.16 Classification of ground water for irrigation into different groups and sub-groups

Water quality class EC, dS/m SAR RSC, meq/l Main Sub.Class Good <2 <10 <2.5

Saline Marginal saline 2-4 <10 <2.5 Saline >4 <10 <2.5 High SAR Saline >4 >10 <2.5

Alkali Marginal Alkali <4 <10 2.5 – 4.0 Alkali <4 <10 >4 High SAR Alkali Variable >10 >4

Three years’ data were used to finalize the groundwater quality map for pre monsoon and post monsoon seasons for the South West Saurashtra region as shown in Fig. 2.14 and Fig. 2.15, respectively. Areas under

different classes in the region for post- monsoon and pre-monsoon season are provided in Table 2.17 and Table 2.18, respectively.

34

Groundwater Quality Classes for Irrigation

Good Marginal Saline Marginal Alkaline Fig. 2.14 Post monsoon groundwater quality classes for irrigation in the South West Saurashtra

region (Av. of three years’ data)

35

Groundwater qaulity Classes for Irrigation

Good Marginal Saline Saline

Fig. 2.15 Pre monsoon groundwater quality classes for irrigation in the South West Saurashtra region (Av. of three years’ data)

Table 2.17 Areas under different groundwater quality classes for irrigation in South West

Saurashtra region under post monsoon condition

Groundwater quality class for irrigation

Area under Class, km2

% area Remarks

Main Sub.Class Good 7598.09 81.68 large area

Saline Marginal saline 1564.05 16.81 Saline 139.95 1.50 High SAR Saline - - Alkali Marginal Alkali - -

Alkali - - High SAR Alkali - - Total 9302.09 100.00

In post monsoon, 7598.09 km2 area was found under Good class, 1564.05 km2 area was found under Marginal saline class and 139.95 km2 area was found under saline

class. It meant that out of total 81.68 percent area was under good class, remaining 18.32 percent area was under degraded classes of ground water.

36

Table 2.18 Areas under different groundwater quality classes for irrigation in South West Saurashtra region under pre monsoon condition

Groundwater quality class for irrigation Area under class

km2

Out of total % area

Remarks

Main Sub.Class Good 7168.48 77.06 large

area Saline Marginal saline 1628.38 17.51

Saline 505.23 5.43 High SAR Saline

Alkali Marginal Alkali Alkali High SAR Alkali

Total 9302.09 100.00 Referring pre monsoon observations, 7168.48 km2 area was found under Good class, 1628.38 km2 area was found under Marginal saline class, 505.23 km2 area was found under saline, It meant that out of total 77.06 percent area was under good class, remaining 22.94 percent area was under degraded classes of ground water.

Groundwater modelling for the region was done using MODFLOW solution. The basic inputs such as Thiessen Polygon network, River network, Topographic map, network of Observation wells, location of pumping wells were used. These inputs are shown in Fig. 2.16. Water input and water output components were used to conduct zone wise water balance.

37

(a) Thiessen Polygon network a base input map for MODFLOW, 140,000 m x 110500 m.

(b) River network in the region

(c) Topographic map of South West Saurashtra region.

(d) Observation wells

(e) Pumping wells (f) General Zone budget

Fig. 2.16 Basic inputs used in groundwater modelling

The results of modelling indicated that there was no considerable change in water balance (in-out) zone wise. Mass balance results showed that after 930 days IN - OUT was 20480.00 m3. Even though, net balance (i.e. In- Out) was positive, balance amount/ gain was very negligible after simulation period of 930 days over such large area. The modelling results were in agreement with field observations based on contour map of

change in water table indicating rise in water level in the region. Map of velocity direction indicated that groundwater flow was towards the sea.

38

3. CONJUNCTIVE USE IN CANAL COMMAND AREAS 3.1 Study of Surface and Ground Waters Management in the Selected Area of Ganga

-Yamuna Inter-basin (Pantnagar Centre) The ground water and surface water investigation of Saharanpur district, located in Ganga –Yamuna inter basin, was done to obtain the stage of ground water development in the area, to evaluate availability of ground water and surface water for irrigation in the study area and to suggest a cropping pattern with maximum profit, under the constraints of area and water availability in the area. The study area falls between Ganga and Yamuna inter basin and lies between 200, 34’, 45”N to 300,21’, 30” N latitude and 770, 9’E to 780,14’, 45” E longitude. Its total area is 3860 sq. km. It comes under Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh. Geography of Saharanpur District also includes low lying valley full of swamps and back waters with wide open grass plains. But in the north there are the steep hills of Shivalik chain. The main characteristics of geography of Saharanpur can be divided into four parts - Shivalik Hill Tract, Bhabar Land, Bangar Land and Khadar Land. Area has a tropical climate because of the proximity of the Himalayan region across this northern part of the district. It has sub humid region especially the upper Ganga plain areas. The soil type in area is alluvial, the typical riverine basin characteristic and is mixed with sand making it more useful

for agriculture purposes. The soil is excellent for the growth of crops like rice, sugarcane and wheat. The ground water recharge and groundwater discharge components were prepared. The net recharge gave groundwater potential while groundwater withdrawal as percentage of groundwater potential gave stage groundwater development as shown in Table 3.1. All blocks of the district were under safe category except Deoband, which was under semi-critical category. The surface water availability in the district was estimated from the roster of canal network in district Saharanpur. The monthly values of surface water availability in each block of district Saharanpur was summed up to get the total surface water availability in each block. The maximum surface water availability was found as 96708 ha-m in Rampur Maniharan block in the month of August while it was the minimum as 466 ha-m in block Deoband in the months of June, October and November. The yearly surface water availability was estimated to be the maximum in block Rampur Maniharan while it was the minimum in block Deoband.

Table 3.1 Ground water inventory in various blocks of district Saharanpur

Sr. No.

Block Net ground- water recharge (ha-m)

Net Ground- water discharge (ha-m)

Ground- water availability

(ha-m)

Stage of ground- water develop- ment (%)

Category Surface water availability (ha-m)

1

Sadauli Quadeem

13393.75

5418.86

7974.89

40.50 Safe 2243

2 Muzaffarabad 14288.68 8097.15 6191.53 56.70 Safe 2102

3 Puwarkra 45054.68 9717.96 35336.72 21.60 Safe 13167

4 Ballia Kheri

60563.41 8322.80

52240.60

13.70 Safe 19038

5 Sarsawan

54952.79

12339.63 42613.16

22.50 Safe 16424

6 Nakur 18406.02 12107.38 6298.64 65.80 safe 3700

7

Gangoh 39949.57

11781.36 28168.20

30.00

Safe 13320

8

Rampur maniharan

180506.5 9

7330.55 173176.03

4.10 Safe 74783

9 Nagal

44884.42

10974.59 33909.83

24.50 Safe 14491

39

10 Nanauta

39550.93 8227.05

31323.88

21.00 Safe 15339

11 Deoband

7887.41 6988.01

899.40

88.60 Semi- critical

599

Average groundwater development of district Saharanpur 35.36 Safe Crop water requirements for major eight crops (Paddy, Wheat, Sugarcane, Oilseeds, Barley, Maize, Masoor and Urd) in the region were estimated using the data of crop coefficients, potential evapotranspiration and crop areas. Total water requirement of paddy in the district was found as 33043.62 ha-m and 24537.14 ha-m for wheat. It was also observed that the water requirement of sugarcane crop in district Saharanpur was 186382.25 ha-m. It was 827.62 ha-m for oilseeds, 60.06 ha-m for barley, 2813.46 ha-m for maize, 388.28 ha-m masoor and 199.23 ha-m for urad.

New cropping pattern, with existing crops grown in the area, was suggested on the basis of net profit, along with the constraints such as total area constraints, crop area constraints and surface and ground water availability. Two options were considered during new crop planning. In Option-I, crops were planned with available surface water only. In Option-II,

available surface water along with fifty percent of ground water potential was considered as available water for irrigation. In case of Option-I, existing area under Paddy decreased from 44585 to 0 ha; wheat area increased from 108904 to 252322 ha, sugarcane area decreased from 139591 to 1465 ha; barley area decreased from 149 to 0 ha; maize area increased from 8246 to 106717 ha; masoor area decreased from 2521 ha to 0 ha; urd area increased from 3360 to 145605 ha and area under oilseeds decreased from 5143 to 0 ha. In Option – II, area under Paddy increased from 44585 to 94626 ha; wheat area decreased from 108904 to 100187 ha; sugarcane area increased from 139591 to 153600 ha; barley area decreased from 149 to 0 ha; maize area decreased from 8246 to 2260 ha; masoor area decreased from 2521 to 0 ha; urd area decreased from 3360 to 3300 ha and area under oilseeds decreased from 5143 to 0 ha (Table 3.2).

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Table 3.2 Crop areas under existing and new crop plans

Sr. No.

Crop Existing crop area (ha)

Crop area under option-I (ha)

Crop area under option-II (ha)

1 Wheat 108904 252322 100187

2 Rice 44585 - 94626

3 Maize 8246 106717 2260

4 Sugarcane 139591 1465 153600

5 Barley 149 - -

6 Masoor 2521 - -

7 Urd 3360 145605 3300

8 Oilseeds 5143 - -

Total 312499 506109 353973

The total profit from district Saharanpur for cropping pattern under Option-I was found to be Rs. 410.33 Crore. It was Rs. 634.44 Crore under existing cropping pattern. For crop plan under Option-II, it was found as Rs. 809.52 Crore. The proposed cropping pattern under Option-II was recommended for adoption by the farmers of Saharanpur as it gave 27.6 percent higher profit.

3.2 Conjunctive Use Planning of

Surface and Groundwater in Mula Irrigation Project (Rahuri Centre)

A Mula Irrigation Project in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra was chosen for conjunctive water use study so as to develop an inventory of total water resources in outlet command area, to understand existing conjunctive utilization strategy and to evolve alternative strategies. The simulation-optimization modelling after validation would be used to develop different utilization strategies. The study was focused for F-block (Field Experimental Block) of Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth (MPKV), Rahuri, which had five open wells. The Minor I of Mula Right Bank Canal, runs through study area ensuring canal water availability. Soil textural class in study area varied from

clay to loamy sand with bulk density of the soil ranging from 1.06 to 1.69 gm/cm3. The field capacity of the soil ranged from 22.67 to 41.84 percent with average value of 31.65 percent and permanent wilting point was in the range of 12.11 to 27.03 percent with average value of 20.01 percent. The contour map of the area was prepared by Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) and Surfer 9 software. Data related to existing cropping pattern, crops and crop areas were complied for F- block. Crop evapotranspiration was estimated by Penman Monteith method. The Kc values, estimated through research at university, were used for some crops. For remaining crops, Kc values were taken from FAO-32. The crop water requirements of study area were estimated for Kharif, Rabi and summer seasons for different years such as 2006-2007, 2007-08, 2008- 09 and 2009-10. Also canal water availability during Kharif, Rabi and summer season of respective years was determined by using rotation wise canal water release data of Minor-I for the year 2006-07, 2007-08, 2008-09 and 2009-10. Table 3.3 gives year wise crop water requirements and canal water availability for different years.

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Table 3.3 Conjunctive use strategy based on crop water requirement and canal supply

Sr. No.

Year Season Crop water Requirement (ha-m)

Canal water Supply (ha-m)

Supply- Demand (ha-m)

Deficit/ Excess % (+ /-)

1 2006-07 Kharif 24.69 7.74 -16.95 -68.65 Rabi 50.11 34.85 -15.26 -30.45

2 2007-08 Kharif 45.40 14.16 -31.24 -68.81 Rabi 24.64 30.68 6.04 24.51 Summer 17.62 2.99 -14.63 -83.03

3 2008-09 Rabi 21.68 28.31 6.63 30.58 Summer 20.92 4.17 -16.75 -80.07

4 2009-10 Kharif 26.77 6.43 -20.34 -75.98 Rabi 66.37 22.72 -43.65 -65.77 Summer 11.19 2.76 -8.43 -75.33

The groundwater availability from five wells during crop growing period was calculated as 135.29 m3/hr (389.64ha-m) considering specific yields of the wells. In general, there was limited canal water supply and crop water requirements could not be met from canal water supply alone. Hence, groundwater could be easily used to meet crop water requirements, when could be used as and when required. Similarly, multiple use of water could be thought to enhance water productivity. Optimal crop planning considering available sources could help in optimizing the areas under different crops and reducing gap between supply and demand. Improving irrigation efficiency of experimental farm could be another option to reduce the gap.

3.3 Management of Canal Command: A Conjunctive Use Approach (Jabalpur Centre)

The Jabalpur centre organized meetings of Water Users Associations (WUA) at Bauchar and J amunia v illages in association of Water Resources

there would be deficit canal supply. During Rabi of 2007-08 and 2008-09, there was excess canal water supply compared to crop requirements. Release of canal water as per demand was necessary to reduce gap between supply and demand. As canal irrigation system was supply driven, a storage facility could be created to store excess water supply, wh ich Department (WRD) of state for a part of Left Bank Command (LBC) of RABSP for improving irrigation efficiency in command area. The farmers were convinced about maintenance of minors and water courses and rotational use of irrigation water as schedule. The interactive meetings with farmers had positive impact in some parts of command and farmers were able to get full advantage of valuable irrigation water. The centre also collected data from Jamuniya, Jhansi and Khulri minor command areas (Table 3.4) and analyzed to know the impact of introduction of canal irrigation on areas of different crops, thier yields and utilization of surface and groundwater in the command.

Table 3.4 Characteristics of command area of different minor

Minor

Command Area (ha)

Total CCA (ha)

Length of

minor in km

Design Discharge

Cumec Head Middle Tail

Jamuniya 59 86 63 208 3.19 0.120

Jhansi 67 111 41 219 2.15 0.196 Khulri 73 95 47 215 2.5 0.125

There were two sources of irrigation water in command, namely canal water and groundwater. The c anal water was generally used by gravity. If field was not

irrigated by gravity, farmers pumped the canal water and irrigated the field. In absence of above mentioned possibilities, farmers irrigated the fields by

42

groundwater. Thus, irrigated area in command was classified into three groups, i) area irrigated by gravity through canal water ii) area irrigated through lifts using canal water and iii) area irrigated by groundwater. Irrigated areas of these three sources in 2001-02 and 2010-11 are given in Table 3.5 to understand temporal changes. It was observed that areas irrigated by three sources had increased in Jamuniya command and total irrigated

area increased from 24.36 to 208.00 ha. In Jhansi command, area irrigated by canal decreased, area irrigated by lift increased slightly and area irrigated by groundwater increased to great extent. Total irrigated area was almost doubled. In Khulri command, area irrigated by canal remained same, area irrigated by lift decreased slightly and area irrigated by groundwater increased slightly. Total irrigated area was increased slightly.

Table 3.5 Irrigated area by different sources in minor commands

Year

Irrigated area, ha, through different sources

Canal water

Lift using canal water

Groundwater

Total Jamuniya command

2001-02

8.26

16.10

0.00

24.36

2010-11

33.74

78.26

96.00

208.00 Jhansi command 2001-02 105.98 8.90 14.40 129.28

2010-11 22.55 28.00 168.45 219.00

Khulri command

2001-02 16.00 63.20 115.70 194.90

2010-11 16.00 55.00 144.00 215.00 The wheat and gram were major crops during rabi season. Piegon-pea, lentil, green pea and vegetables were other crops grown in the study area before the introduction of canal. Area under gram was higher compared to other crops like wheat, pea and lentil. With in water availability to area after canal irrigation, areas under un- irrigated gram, pea and lentil were gradually replaced by irrigated gram, pea and lentil. In the year 2004-05, minor was closed for construction work. Area under un-irrigated wheat increased during the same year.

Irrigation water availability through canal and groundwater was assessed in head; middle and tail reach of commands of all minors. Operation of canal was considered

for 90 day continuously. On the basis of discharge of minor at different locations, canal water availability was worked out. Groundwater availability was worked out considering number of tubewells and 8 hrs per day working. Variations in canal and groundwater availability in different minors are shown in Fig. 3.1. The groundwater use for irrigation was inversely related to canal water availability in all three commands. Volume of groundwater use was h ighest in middle r eaches o f commands mainly because areas of commands under middle reaches were higher compared to head and tail reaches. Generally, numbers of tube wells were higher in middle reaches compared to other reaches.

(a) Jamuniya minor command

(b) Jhansi minor command

43

44

( c) Khulri minor command

Fig. 3.1 Variation in water availability in different reaches in commands

In Jamuniya minor, out of total canal command area of 208 ha, the use of ground water increased with time. The area of surface water irrigation reached to maximum level, but later on part of canal irrigated area was shifted to ground water in last two years. In Jhansi minor area irrigated by canal water gradually decreased from 114.88 to 50.55 ha and area irrigated by groundwater gradually increased from 14.40 to 168.45 ha in command of 219 ha. In khulri minor, canal irrigated area decreased 79.20 to 71.00 ha and groundwater irrigated area increased from 115.70 to 144.00 ha in command of 215 ha. The canal water irrigated area also included lift irrigated area. In general canal irrigated and lift irrigated areas increased with time in head reaches of the commands. However, middle and tail

reaches lift irrigated area increased at cost of canal irrigated area. Large scale use of lift irrigation for using canal water indicated that network of water courses was not either properly developed or maintained. By maintaining network of water courses in good condition, cost of pumping canal water could be reduced. Few fields, w hich were at higher elevations, might be irrigated by lifting canal water. This was an important issue, which could be addressed through Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM). The ratio of canal and groundwater in different reaches of canal was studied (Table 3.6). It was highest in head reach and lowest in tail reach area of all commands.

45

Table 3.6 Ratio of surface water and ground water in different reaches

Year

Ratio of surface and ground water use in minors

Jamuniya Jhansi Khulri

Head Middle Tail Head Middle Tail Head Middle Tail

2001-02

*

*

*

9.89

5.70

*

3.52

0.48

0.18

2002-03

*

*

*

9.68

5.95

*

3.61

0.44

0.18

2003-04

*

*

1.79

5.57

3.82

*

2.71

0.44

0.15

2004-05

0.87

0.22

1.79

0.98

0.38

0.00

2.00

0.40

0.15

2005-06

2.26

0.22

2.23

4.10

1.21

0.00

2.58

0.40

0.15

2006-07

4.25

0.65

1.34

1.85

0.97

0.54

2.14

0.36

0.12

2007-08

5.10

0.98

0.57

2.22

0.88

0.46

1.76

0.36

0.12

2008-09

8.83

1.77

0.70

1.39

0.47

0.32

1.52

0.34

0.12

2009-10

8.83

0.76

0.66

0.68

0.21

0.32

1.43

0.32

0.12

2010-11

8.83

0.65

0.66

0.71

0.18

0.17

1.43

0.32

0.12 * Ground water use was nil.

Use of ground water in tail reach was 34.18 and 20.78 percent more than head reach of the command in Jamuniya and Khulri minors, respectively. Tail end users were more dependent on ground water due to non availability of canal water as compared to head reach. Conjunctive water use had definitely impacted on cropping pattern of the area, yield, production, water table and other parameters. Wheat area intensity (WAI) in all the minors increased from 4.87 to 64.8 during 2003-04 to 2009-10. It was a significant change statistically. On an average the WAI increased from 28 to 56 percent during this time period, whereas intensity of gram has reduced from 45 to 33 percent. This change could be attributed to a rise in ground water use which reduced surface and ground water ratio from 3.5 to 0.70. Highest yield of wheat (38.00 q/ha) was obtained at

Jamuniya with higher ratio of SW: GW use of 8.83 whereas it was 36.45 q/ha in Jhansi minor with a SW: GW a s 0.71. Water use efficiency was 1.72 kg/m3 in ground water irrigated part of the command and it was higher compared to canal irrigated command (i.e. 1.46 kg/m3). Wheat yield was indication of overall crop management but water productivity was indication of overall water management. Overall water management was better in groundwater irrigated areas. Also improvement in crop yield was observed in canal irrigated areas with increasing distance from canal. It clearly indicated that scarcity of water compelled farmers to use their resources more efficiently. Effect of conjunctive use on depth to water table was also studied. Observed depth to water table data in different reaches of minors are given in Table 3.7.

Table 3.7 Depth to water table in different reaches of minors in rabi season of 2010-11

Minor Jamuniya (m)

Jhansi (m)

Khulri (m)

Head 11.43 7.64 9.14 Middle 24.38 11.15 4.97 Tail 19.4 9.63 3.05 Mean 18.40 9.47 5.72

46

It was observed that depth to water table in Jamuniya and Jhansi minor commands ranged between 11.43 to 24.38 m and 7.64 to 11.15 m, respectively. However, in case of Khulri, it ranged from 3.05 to 9.14 m with 3.05 m tail reach and 4.97 m in middle reach. It clearly indicated that middle and tail reaches of Khulri minor were in topographical depression and groundwater flow was accumulating in these reaches. Depth to water table of 3.00 m was treated as sub-critical for water logging was concerned and there was need to have appropriate measures to control further rise of water logging. If groundwater quality of middle and tail reaches happened to be good, then groundwater use could be promoted and canal water supply might be reduced. In absence of preventive measures, there could be severe water logging and soil salinity problems in middle and tail reaches of Khulri minor.

3.4 Conjunctive Use of Surface and

Groundwater Sources in the Parambikulam Aliyar Project (PAP) Command (Coimbatore Centre)

Spatial and temporal irrigation water availability from rainwater, surface water and groundwater in command of 4(L) distributory of Pollachi canal, located at 5.22 km from head works, under Parambikulam Aliyar Project (PAP) was assessed by groundwater balance model and irrigation water assessment.

Estimation of Groundwater recharge, draft and net groundwater storage

The rainfall recharge factor was taken as 0.14 for the command based on earlier studies of the centre. Canal wetted perimeter and surface at different sections, losses from canal irrigated fields and return seepage were calculated. Seepage in the distributory was calculated considering its days of operation and seepage factor was estimated as 3.6 ha m/day/106 sq. m of wetted area for lined canals. The recharge from canal seepage was non significant in deficit rainfall years (2000, 2001, 2002, 2003 and 2004) while seepage losses were more during the year 2006, 2007 indicating that the seepage depended on days of canal operation and wetted surface area of canal. The recharge from canal

irrigated fields varied from 1.4 to 20.29 ha m during 2000-2010 depending on number of canal running days. The recharge from well irrigated fields was estimated considering return seepage factor of 30 percent of annual groundwater draft as recommended by GEC, 2007 and it varied from 7.26 to 25.5 ha m during 2000-2010 with maximum recharge values during 2002 and 2003. The components involved in groundwater discharge were mainly groundwater draft, evaporation from fallow land, evaporation from groundwater an d soil moisture balance from unsaturated soil layer. Groundwater draft was the maximum in the months of March, April, May and June while it was the minimum in the months of November, December and January (during canal running months). Assuming average discharge of 7.2 lps, groundwater draft for study area for 2000 to 2010 was determined 110.74, 138.83, 164.70, 150.20, 107.65, 73.50, 64.26, 55.26, 50.65, 78.96 and 113.40 ha-m, respectively. The annual groundwater draft was higher during 2000-2004 (deficit rainfall years) and lower during 2005 to 2010. Evaporation from fallow land also was insignificant as average water table level fluctuation varied from 5.55 to 7.21 m below ground surface. The soil moisture balance data obtained from AquaCrop 3.1 model for each crop was considered and cumulative soil moisture change in unsaturated zone on annual basis was considered for groundwater balance calculations. The net groundwater storage was negative during the years 2000 to 2004, which indicated excess draft during these years and positive values in other years indicated that groundwater draft was less than groundwater recharge. The net groundwater storage during 2008 (normal year) was 17.62 ha m. Assigning 30 percent of the recharge for maintaining flows in streams, utilizable groundwater resource for irrigation was at rate of 70 percent of groundwater recharge. Subtracting annual groundwater draft from the gross groundwater recharge, the net groundwater storage varied from 14.52 to 35.54 ha m. This implied that there was little scope for groundwater development. The results were in conformity with the

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report of groundwater department, which categorized the study area as semi-critical.

Assessment of irrigation water requirement

The crop water requirement for various crops was an important factor and basic requisite for crop planning in a command. The major area (199.3 ha) in the distributory was under coconut which was nearly 80 percent of the total cropped area, whereas crops like cotton, maize, groundnut, vegetables like tomato, brinjal were grown in 54.3 ha (20 percent) area. The crop water requirement for years from 2000-2010 were calculated using AquaCrop 3.1 model developed by Raes et al. (2010). Monthly Reference Evapotranspiration (ETo) values were determined as per FAO calculator. It was highest during the month of May (7.36 mm/day) and lowest in the month of December (2.32 mm/day). The average annual effective rainfall (2000-

2010) was calculated by the USDA Soil Conservation Service (SCS) method as 673.3 mm against annual mean rainfall of 876.3 mm. The daily irrigation water requirement of different crops from the daily reference evapo-transpiration were calculated by the AquaCrop model and the daily and monthly crop water requirements for each crop were computed. The monthly irrigation water requirements for crops grown in 4(L) distributory command area for normal rainfall year (2008) were used to estimate total water requirements of different crops like Coconut, cotton, Groundnut kharif, Groundnut winter, Maize Kharif, Maize winter, Vegetable (Jun.- Sept.) and vegetable (Feb. –Jun.) as 722.2, 613.5, 122.6, 533.6, 479.0, 185.6, 375.2 and 313.8 mm, respectively. The irrigation water requirements during the year 2002 (a deficit rainfall year) were higher compared to the years 2005 and 2008. Details are presented in Fig. 3.2.

Fig. 3.2 Variations in irrigation water requirements in deficit, excess and normal years for

crops grown in 4(L) distributory The average irrigation water requirement for crops grown in monsoon period were less when compared to the crops grown during the non monsoon period. The average irrigation water requirement of coconut crop was nearly 788.8 mm with highest water requirement during 2001 and 2002 (1140.6 and 1150.2 mm, respectively) due to deficit rainfall during those years. The net irrigation requiremnt of cotton varied from 288.2 to 586.0 mm with lowest water requirement during 2008 due to dry soil moiture regime during crop growth

period. The varaition in crop water requirement for Groundnut kharif and Groundnut winter (221.3 mm and 502.0 mm) between the seasons was significant. The net irrigation requirement was almost doubled during non monsoon period due to retrival of rainfall during Jan-Mar. In Maize crop, being drought resistant did not show much significant variation in water requirement over the years in both seasons. Similarly, variation in water requirement was observed within seasons and also over years in vegetable

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crops.The vegetable crops grown under irrigated condition during Feb.-Jun. required more water than monsoon period crop (Jun- Sep).

Assessment of canal water availability

The total number of canal running days ranged from lowest of 10 days (2003) to the highest of 149 (2007) days. During the years 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003 and 2004, the canal running days were very less (10- 23 days only). The reason for less days of canal flow was attributed to low inflows into the reservoir due to deficit rainfall during these years/repair works in the canal system. However, there was an increasing trend from 2005 onwards with maximum of 149 canal running days in the

year 2007. Considering number of days of canal operation, amount of canal released was determined as 9.30, 10.1, 11.0, 4.0, 10.3, 43.58, 57.96, 43.55, 39.23, 54.99 and 33.16 ha-m during 2000 to 2010, respectively. For calculating canal water available at field level, the seepage losses were calculated. For estimating the water available at the water courses, a further 10 per cent reduction in the available water (as calculated above) was made and the balance was considered available at the field level. The evaporation losses from the free water surface in the water conveyance network were ignored. The details of canal water available at field level are furnished in Table 3.8, taking into consideration of all losses.

Table 3.8 Canal water available at field level (in ha m)

Year

Canal water

Seepage losses

Water availability at distributory

level

Water course losses 10 per

cent

Water available at field level

2000 9.30 1.05 8.25 0.83 7.42 2001 10.1 1.15 8.95 0.90 8.05 2002 11.0 1.33 9.67 0.97 8.7 2003 4.0 0.46 3.54 0.35 3.19 2004 10.3 1.47 8.83 0.88 7.95 2005 43.58 4.21 39.37 3.94 35.43 2006 57.96 10.63 47.33 4.73 42.6 2007 43.55 6.83 36.72 3.70 33.02 2008 39.23 3.76 35.47 3.55 31.92 2009 54.99 6.00 48.99 4.90 44.09 2010 33.16 4.21 28.95 2.90 26.05

Thus total water released during the years 2000 to 2010 varied from 4.0 to 57.96 h a m for t he distributory. Subtracting the seepage losses, the water available at distributory level varied from 3.54 to 48.99 ha m considering the average conveyance losses of 10 percent in the water courses, the water available at the field level varied from 3.19 to 35.43 ha m. The data revealed that the amount of water available by surface water supply was very low, not sufficient to meet the crop water requirements. The only means of meeting the crop water requirements was rainfall and groundwater. The water course losses estimated varied from 0.35 ha m to 4.9 ha m over the years from

2000 to 2010. The variation was mainly due to the varying canal running days in a year. As per crop water requirements for an average year, the amount of water available in canal system is just 1/10th of the total water requirements. 3.5 Conjunctive Use of Canal Water

and Marginally Saline Groundwater for Wheat Cultivation under Calcareous Soil of Bundi District (Udaipur Centre)

The experiment was conducted at Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Bundi during rabi seasons of the year 2008-09 and 2009-10 and 2010-11 with five combinations of

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irrigation sources and four levels of Zn as ZnSO4. The yield attributes viz., plant height, total tillers, effective tillers per metre row length, test weight, grain and straw yield of wheat as influenced by conjunctive use of marginally saline groundwater and canal water as well as of zinc sulphate application were observed. It was observed that plant height of wheat decreased significantly with increasing number of groundwater irrigations in both the years. The highest plant height was recorded under canal water irrigation followed by two irrigations with canal water followed by one irrigation with groundwater in cyclic mode and lowest was recorded under all irrigations with groundwater during both the years. Other yield attributes viz., total tillers, effective tillers per meter row length, test weight, showed similar trend.

The effects of different conjunctions of irrigation water sources and zinc sulphate application on grain (Fig. 3.3) and straw yield of wheat were recorded. The grain and straw yield of wheat decreased significantly with increasing number of groundwater irrigations. The reduction in grain yield due to GW, 1CW+1GW, 2CW +

1GW and 1CW + 2GW was recorded as 25.60, 8.49, 1.00 and 12.53 percent, respectively, as compared to canal water irrigation in the year 2008-09 and 25.56, 9.25, 1.00 and 12.50 percent, respectively, over control in the year 2009-10. However, in the year 2010-11 more grain yield was obtained under irrigation with 2CW+1GW, but it was statistically at par with canal water irrigation (CW). Hence the reduction in grain yield of wheat crop under irrigation with GW, 1CW+1GW and 1CW+2GW was recorded as 24.74, 9.11 and 15.36 percent as compared to the canal water irrigation (CW). The reduction in straw yield due to GW, 1CW+1GW, 2CW + 1GW and 1CW + 2GW was recorded as 24.68, 8.18, 0.94 and 12.11 percent, respectively, as compared to canal water irrigation in the year 2008-09 and 24.72, 8.93, 0.96 and 12.09 percent, respectively, over control in the year 2009-10 and 24.74, 9.11, 0.00 and 15.36 percent, respectively, in the year 2010-11. Hence, considering the canal irrigation as th e general situation (control), the order of reduction in grain and straw yield due to different irrigation water conjunctions was GW>1CW + 2GW > 1CW+1GW > 2CW + 1GW in both the years.

Fig. 3.3 Effect of conjunctive use of water and zinc sulphate application on grain yield of wheat (mean values of three years)

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There was a significant increase in plant height (20.30, 16.84, 18.14 percent in first, second, third year respectively), total tillers, effective tillers per metre row length, test weight, with increase in levels of Zn application. Maximum significant yield of grain and straw was obtained with 25 kg ZnSO4 ha-1 which was at par with the yield by 35 kg ZnSO4 ha-1 during both the years. The application of zinc @ 25 kg ZnSO4 ha-1 increased grain and straw yield by 19.50 and 18.58 percent and19.19 and 18.53 percent over control in the year 2008-09 and 2009-10, respectively.

3.6 Evaluation of Water Productivity of

Common Crops in Pusa Block of Samastipur District (Pusa Centre)

Estimation of water productivity values and process depletion of common crops like rice during kharif and wheat, maize during rabi season were done on farmers’ fields at Harpur village of Pusa Block in Bihar. Harpur village is located very close to Rajendra Agricultural University and is situated in Samastipur district of Bihar on the Western and Southern bank of river Burhi Gandak The land and water productivity values were worked out and the cost of irrigation for different crops were compared. The climate of the region is sub-tropical characterized mainly by hot- dry summer and cool winter. The average annual rainfall is 1260 mm out of which approximately 90 per cent is received from

middle of June to middle of October. The period from last week of November to February receives occasional showers. The rainfall data depicted that maximum rainfall (2430.9 mm) was received in the year 2007 and minimum rainfall (636.7 mm) in the year 2003. The rainfall for the year 2010 was about 26% lower than the average rainfall. The maximum relative humidity ranged 85-95% during rainy months of July-September and the minimum in the range of 40-60% during summer month of March- April. The highest record of solar radiation was 650 ly/day in the month of May and the lowest 380 ly/day in the month of December. The crop grown was wheat and variety was HD-2733.The number of irrigations for ten selected farmers varied from 2 to 4 with average of 2.70. The highest yield of 4.2 t/ha for HD-2733 variety was obtained with 4 irrigations. The crop yield of HD-2733 variety of wheat varied from 3.3 t/ha to 4.2 t/ha with an average of 3.70 t/ha. The water accounting methodology developed by IWMI (Molden 1997; Molden and Sakthivadivel, 1999 and Molden et al. 2001) was used for this study. The productivity of irrigation water depended on the amount of irrigation water and crop yield. Table 3.9 gives water productivity for HD-2733 variety of wheat crop for rabi- 2010-11.

Table 3.9 Water Productivity of Wheat (Variety-HD-2733) during rabi of 2010-11

S.N. Name of Farmer Irrigation WP

(kg/m3) Total WP (kg/m3)

Yield/ET Process Depletion (kg/m3)

1 Satyanarayan Rai 1.05 0.90 1.21

2 Lalltun Rai 0.81 0.71 1.20

3 Ajay Prasad 1.07 0.89 0.98

4. Jagdish Rai 0.85 0.75 1.08

5. Devnarain Rai 0.85 0.76 1.32

6. Ramlagan Rai 0.91 0.79 1.23

7. Deepak Kumar 0.81 0.72 1.25

8. Sukhdev Thakur 0.75 0.67 1.23

9. Sambhu Kumar Thakur 0.96 0.82 1.09

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10. Pankaj Kumar 1.09 0.91 1.02

Average 0.91 0.79 1.16 The water productivity values for gross inflow ranged from 0.67 kg/m3 to 0.90 kg/m3 for HD-2733 variety of wheat with an average value of 0.79 kg/m3 This indicated that 1266 litre water was used to produce one kg of HD-2733 variety of wheat. The water productivity determined, based on irrigation inflow was higher than that of gross inflow. The value of irrigation water productivity ranged from 0.75 kg/m3

to 1.09 kg/m3 for HD- 2733 variety of wheat crop with an average value of 0.91 kg/m3. Process depletion, defined as yield divided by crop evapo-transpiration, varied from 0.98 kg/m3 to 1.32 kg/m3 with an average value of 1.16 kg/m3. The higher value of process depletion compared to irrigation water productivity was indicating the losses incurred in the system. The water productivity values were very low compared with the other countries in the world. These values were also low in comparison to the developed states of India. The analysis suggested that there was significant scope for increasing water productivity by increasing yield through both better water and other input management.

The water balance components indicated average gross inflow of 47.64 cm for HD- 2733 variety of wheat crop against the crop demand of 32.09 cm. The irrigation inflow constituted about 87 percent of gross inflow for HD-2733 variety of wheat. The total depth of irrigation water application varied between 30.72 to 51.57 cm with an average value of 41.54 cm. The rainfall was 6.1 cm during the entire rabi season. The change in root zone storage was assumed as zero. The average seepage and deep percolation losses were high for all selected fields for wheat. The

deep percolation loss ranged from 11 to 46 percent, which showed low efficiency of water use. The large amount of irrigation water and rainfall was not used beneficially by the wheat crop and wasted. The average value for deep percolation losses was 30.83 percent. This stressed the need for better and efficient use of irrigation and rainwater to improve water use efficiency. 3.7 Conjunctive Use of Water

Resources of a Distributory Command of Mandhar Branch Canal (Raipur Centre)

The command of distributory No.5 of Madhar branch canal was considered for the study. It is situated in the south of Raipur city at a distance of 20 km (Fig. 3.4). It flows through 6 villages of Abhanpur block (Raipur, Chhattisgarh). Total length of the canal was 12.5 km. Average discharge rate of the canal was 2.35 cumec. Gross command area covered 4610 ha. The existing geographical area and net sown area of these villages were found as 4610 ha and 3451.34 ha, respectively. Total cultivable area was found as 3833.28 ha. Paddy was dominated in command area. About 84 percent of cultivable area was under paddy and only 6 percent of land was used for soybean during kharif season. The existing water resources of the study area were worked out for kharif season based on the data collected from State Water Resource Department, Raipur and AICRP on GWU, IGKV Raipur and CGWB (NCCR) Raipur. The total surface water and groundwater availability in the study area was found to be 22.48 Mm3 (77.76 percent) and 6.43 Mm3 (22.24 percent) during kharif season, respectively.

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Fig. 3.4 Command area of distributory No. 5 canal of Mandhar branch canal Paddy and soybean were the main crops during kharif season. Arhar and urad were also considered as the livelihood crops for the farmers as used pulses in daily food routine. Conjunctive use of water resources was optimized by using LP problem. The decision regarding the selection of the crop in kharif season indicated that to achieve maximum profit

under the constraints. Paddy should be grown on 3208.36 ha of land out of which 17 percent for broadcasting and 83 percent for transplanting method. About 97, 24 and 121.5 ha area would be used for arhar, urad and soybean production, respectively, to get maximum net profit (Table 3.10 and Table 3.11).

Table 3.10 Land allocation (in ha) and maximum benefit from different crops

Case s

Broadcasting System of

Paddy Cultivation

Transplanting System of

Paddy Cultivation

Soybean

Arhar

Urad

Maximum Benefit (Rs. in crores)

Area (ha)

Area (ha)

Area (ha)

Area (ha)

Area (ha)

1. 1089.15 2119.19 243.00 0.00 0.00 10.88

2 641.67 2566.67 243.00 0.00 0.00 11.83 3 641.66 2566.68 0.00 230.00 12.15 12.35

4 641.66 2566.68 121.50 97.20 24.30 12.07

5 641.66 2566.68 121.50 60.75 60.75 12.03

6 0.00 3208.13 121.50 60.75 60.75 13.37

7 0.00 3208.13 0.00 182.25 60.75 13.65

8 0.00 3208.13 0.00 243.00 0.00 13.72

9 641.70 2566.70 121.50 24.30 97.20 11.99

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Table 3.11 Land allocation for different crops (in %) and maximum benefit

Cases

Broadcasting System of Paddy Cultivation

Transplanting System of Paddy Cultivation

Soybean

Arhar

Urad

Maximum Benefit (crores)

% of Net Sown Area

% of Net Sown Area

% of Net Sown Area

% of Net Sown Area

% of Net Sown Area

1. 31.56 61.41 7.04 0 0 10.88 2 18.59 74.37 7.04 0 0 11.83 3 18.59 74.37 0.00 6.66 0.35 12.35 4 18.59 74.37 3.52 2.82 0.70 12.07 5 18.59 74.37 3.52 1.76 1.76 12.03 6 0.00 92.96 3.52 1.76 1.76 13.37 7 0.00 92.96 0.00 5.28 1.76 13.65 8 0.00 92.96 0.00 7.04 0.00 13.72 9 18.59 74.37 3.52 0.70 2.82 11.99

Mathematical model for optimal X12 = Quantity of water during kharif conjunctive us

e

season from surface (ha-cm) X32 = Quantity of

water for agriculture water during kharif

Unit price of groundwater and surface water for irrigation purpose was Rs.208.33 per ha-cm and Rs.3.99 per ha-cm. Price of conjunctive use of water resources was found to be Rs.49.36 per ha-cm. These prices were as prevalent prices. Optimal conjunctive use planning of both resources (224800 ha-cm of surface water and 57400 ha-cm of groundwater) for kharif season was planned to reduce the cost paid by farmers towards irrigation water. The final mathematical model, considering only kharif season and introducing price and constraints was found to be:

Min Z = C12X12 + C32X32

Where,

C12 = Unit price of water for agriculture purpose from canal

C32 = Unit price of water for agriculture purpose from groundwater

Subjected to Constraints,

X12 + X32 ≥ Da X12 ≤ X1 X32 ≤ X3

Where,

season from groundwater for agriculture (ha-cm) Da = Agriculture water demand (requirement) (ha-cm) X1 = Available surface water for irrigation (ha-cm) X3 = Available groundwater for irrigation (ha-cm) After putting the calculated data, we got the objective function and constraints as given below that would give the feasible solution. Min Z = 3.99 X12 + 208.33 X32

Subjected to constraints X12 + X32 ≥ 282200 X12 ≤ 224800 X32 ≤ 64300 X12, X32 ≥ 0 Thus for minimizing the total price of water resources, groundwater for irrigation purpose should be used in the quantity of 57400 ha-cm during kharif season. The use of groundwater for irrigation purpose should be minim because of very high price of groundwater (Rs. 208.33/ha-cm). Thus

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the ratio of use of surface water and groundwater was found to be 75:25 for conjunctive use of water resource for irrigating the field during kharif season so that price of irrigation water would be minimized. It was again beneficial to the farmers as huge amount of surface water (77.76 percent) was available for irrigation through canal system in the command area. Thus for m inimizing the to tal irrigation price of water, farmers of the command area should use surface water (canal water) 3.9 times more than the ground water. As canal water is highly subsidized in India, this remains an academic exercise. However, under realistic pricing, this approach can be used for reducing the cost of irrigation.

3.8 Conjunctive Use of Surface Water

with Groundwater for Irrigating Wheat Crop (Junagadh Centre)

Conjunctive management of surface and groundwater is a planned effort at irrigation command level or at basin level to ensure availability of irrigation water, to optimize productivity, equity and environmental sustainability. The efficient implementation of conjunctive water use leads to balanced use of both resources while assuring irrigation water availability with certain reliability. It also maintains groundwater at optimum level, optimizes the energy cost and finally ensures sustainability of resources as well as irrigated agriculture.

Wheat is a major winter crop in Gujarat. The state of Gujarat is mainly divided into four major regions; Saurashtra, kutchh, North Gujarat and south Gujarat. Out of these four regions, Saurashtra, kutchh and North Gujarat are dependent on ground water for winter crops. Due to limited groundwater availability, there is need of conjunctive use of surface (harvested water) and ground water for wheat crop. In view of this background, conjunctive water use experiment was continued at instructional farm of College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology-JAU-Junagadh with objectives of better utilization of both water resources by reducing evaporation losses.

Due to heavy rains at end of November 2010 in prolonged monsoon, rabi season of 2010-11 started late. Conjunctive water use experiment for wheat crop (variety: GW 366) was initiated with sowing of wheat on 2nd December 2010 (Fig. 3.5). Water loss due to evaporation from open water surface of harvested water for period from withdrawal of monsoon (i.e. 15th Oct.) to expected drying date of harvested water was estimated. Also cumulative pan evaporation (CPE) from end of monsoon to sowing date was estimated and it was treated as unavoidable loss (pure loss) from open water body like check dam. If available water in water harvesting structure at time of sowing was used for irrigation of wheat before it was lost though evaporation, then it was treated as irrigation water saving. The analysis related to water saving was done using daily average of potential evaporation based on 10 years’ data of Junagadh station. Wheat crop was harvested in the month of March. Results revealed that basal irrigation plus ten irrigations were supplied to wheat crop from check dam storage. Water drawn from check dam was 1116.40 m3 in case of wheat crop grown under conjunctive water use out of total requirement of 1394.7 m3. Reduction in power requirement was 333 KVAh as compared to wheat crop under without conjunctive water use. Evaporation loss from surface of water body was also reduced due to early utilization o f harvested water. Per hectare basis analysis showed that under conjunctive water use for wheat at Junagadh, groundwater draft of 5582 m3 and power consumption of 1666 KVAh could be reduced. Per hectare basis economic an alysis showed that the net income from wheat grain and fodder in case of conjunctive water use was higher as compared to without conjunctive water use. The benefit cost ratio was also higher under conjunctive water use. Yield of wheat crop was 4517 kg per ha and 4554 kg per ha under with and without water conjunctive use, respectively. Under both the cases wheat production was at par. The Benefit Cost ratio in case of conjunctive water use was 2.18 and it was 1.79 in case of without conjunctive use.

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Fig. 3.5 Conjunctive water use experiment for wheat in year-2010-11 at Junagadh

Under conjunctive water use case, there were other expenditures leading to higher costs as compared to without conjunctive use case. Therefore, to achieve economy in operation, instead of 5 H.P., three phase mono block pump set only 2 H.P. single phase submersible pump was installed in the check dam to lift water. The pump worked satisfactorily as suction lift was much smaller (shallower) as compared to suction lift to pump groundwater. The pump set was kept inside plastic perforated basket to avoid clogging against algae and other debris of surface water source. Single-phase supply cable was extended up to check dam and pumped water was transferred from check dam to field to irrigate wheat crop by 2.5 inch sprinkler HDPE line.

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4. ARTIFICIAL GROUNDWATER RECHARGE 4.1 Feasibility Study of Rainwater Harvesting through Agricultural Fields (Ludhiana Centre)

The number of tubewells in Punjab was 1.92 lakh in 1970-71 and it increased to 13.75 lakh presently. It resulted in 103 blocks in the state as over exploited. The state has only 25 safe block which are either having poor groundwater quality or water table is too deep for its economic utilization. As per the state Master Plan for artificial recharge, about 1200 MCM of water is available from surplus monsoon runoff. At present more than 80 percent of geographical area is under cultivation in the state. It is observed that lot of runoff is generated from the fields during heavy rainstorms and it damages the crops and significant volume of runoff water gets wasted. By adopting rain water harvesting and artificial ground recharge, the negative impact of decline of ground water regime could be checked, to quite an extent. Due to decline of groundwater table, centrifugal pumps became defunct and farmers installed submersible pumps to draw water from deeper aquifers. Old groundwater structures related to centrifugal pumps, which are not in use today, could be effectively used for groundwater recharge by provision of silt settlement tank and filter chamber. There could be a major

boost to groundwater recharge activity in state with minimal investment on those old structures to make them suitable for groundwater recharge. To study feasibility of this idea, 2 old groundwater structures related to centrifugal pumps were selected. Arrangement for removing silt in recharging water was made by provision of silt settlement pit at site 1 (Fig. 4.1) and by provision of broken bricks in passage (length of 4 m and 0.6 m wide) of runoff water at site 2 (Fig. 4.2 (a)). The pit at site 1 was having diameter of 2.8 m and depth of pit was 3 m. It was conical in shape and bottom diameter of the pit was 0.9 m. The pit was filled with broken bricks which were acquired from the dismantled old construction and it was lined with flexi sheets so that walls of the pit remained intact. The flow from the pit was connected to the abandoned well 1 through 4” diameter pipe (Fig.4.1). At site 3, old structure was not available but runoff collection was taking place at low depression. There was an earthen channel to collect runoff. There was a possibility of using this condition. The soil profile at site (near the earthen channel) was studied. The stratum available from the surface to 3 m depth was sand. The recharge pit of 3 m depth and 3.8 m diameter was provided (Fig. 4.2 (b)).

Fig. 4.1. Provision of silt settlement pit at site 1

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(a) Site 2 (b) Site 3

Fig. 4.2 Spreading of brick blast on the way to abundand well 2 and recharge pit at site 3 The observation wells were installed in vicinity of all three structures to monitor the water table depth and water quality. Efforts were m ade to install the observation well as close as possible to the recharge structure.

4.2 Modeling of Water Table Depth

Fluctuations in Command Area of Percolation Tank Using Artificial Neural Network Method (Rahuri Centre)

In many districts of Maharashtra, the ground water levels are on decline. Percolation tanks are extensively used for recharging groundwater. Effect of percolation pond on downstream groundwater levels is required to understand enhanced availability of groundwater and optimizing the groundwater use. The physical based simulation models can predict groundwater levels accurately, but need huge data. In recent years, Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) has been successfully used to model numerous processes in the disciplines of hydrology and water resources. Considering the importance of groundwater level fluctuations in hydrological modeling,

the present study aims in capturing the trend and pattern in ground water fluctuations using an ANN model. In this study, an ANN model was developed, trained and validated with ground water levels in an observation well in the command of Nandgaon Shingave percolation pond. A multi input single output network was trained using back propagation algorithm with momentum factor of 0.1 and training rate of 0.3. The several networks were developed. The stopping criteria for the training was the mean square error MSE (0.01) and the best network was selected according to the three performance criteria i.e. correlation coefficient, MSE and RMSE. A 3-12-1 network performed better with hyperbolic tanh activation function. Correlation coefficient (r2) was used as performance criteria. The selected network resulted in a correlation coefficient of 0.98, 0.79 and 0.87 for training, testing and validation dataset, respectively. The time series plot of the predicated and observed ground water level during training; testing and validation periods are shown in Fig. 4.3 and Fig. 4.4 (a) and (b), respectively.

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Fig. 4.3 Comparison between desired output and predicted output during training of best network

(a) (b) Fig. 4.4 Comparison between desired output and predicted output during a) testing b)

validation of best network From these figures, it might be concluded that the given ANN network was able to give satisfactory results. Thus ANN could be successfully applied to predict the ground water level variation in an observation well.

4.3 Utilization of Haveli Storage for Ground Water Recharge (Jabalpur Centre)

‘Haveli’ is a system of collecting water within the periphery of field boundaries in heavy to very heavy soils of central part of Madhya Pradesh. This harvested water remains in the field for whole monsoon and

thus recharge the aquifer in addition to restrict weed infestation. A large area of more than 8 lakh hectare had been under Haveli system in central part of Madhya Pradesh. Good ground water at a reasonable depth has the characteristics of Haveli area which is now declining day by day. As this system is practiced in heavy soils during monsoon season, mostly one crop is possible during rabi season. If such heavy soil area, which is not workable during monsoon season, is brought under Haveli system in place of keeping them fallow, a good amount of ground water recharge is possible. The Haveli stored water is actually released in first fortnight

59

of October, which can be utilized for ground water recharge. The direct injection of Haveli stored water can be possible through recharge shafts. This year the study was conducted on utilizing the stored runoff in Haveli fields in Shahpura block of Jabalpur district.

During this year survey of 72 existing Haveli fields was conducted. The fields had 288 bunds with total 25685 m length. It was found that about 40 percent fields still had bunds in good condition. The length of the bunds is 40 m to 400 m with a height of 0.5 m to 2.5 m. Height of bottom bund was higher than top bunds. Mean value of the top width and bottom width for different blocks ranged from 1.41 to 1.69 m and 1.91 m to 2.03 m, respectively. The bund height varied from 1.20 to 1.60 m and length from 40 to 400 m among 288 bunds. The maximum value of top width, bottom width, height and length was as high as 2.2 m, 2.5 m, 2.5 m and 400 m,

respectively. Some of the bunds were not fully utilized and some of them were damaged or broken due to drainage necessity of kharif crops. The bunds might be rejuvenated with some investment on repair. The centre motivated Haveli farmers to raise Sighara crop and as a result of centre’s efforts, two farmers transplanted Singhara vines in their fields (Fig. 4.5). The total cost involved for singhara cultivation was Rs 39500. Production of 3800 kg of fresh water chestnut from 0.5 ha area having market rate of Rs 17 per kg resulted net returns of Rs. 24100. Other farmers were also interested to grow Singhara in Haveli fields. The major constraints in the Singhara cultivation were supply of water to fill the land during transplanting and as well as during October and November months, i.e. after end of monsoon.

Fig. 4.5 Haveli field with transplanted Singhara Crop Haveli fields generally have heavy soils. Soil moisture c ontent changes after draining of Haveli fields were studied to know proper condition for agricultural operations. Soil moisture reached at 28.9 percent after 15 days and 15.6 percent after one month. Thus, after 20-25 days of drainage, suitable soil workability could be found.

The upper layer of soil in Haveli fields i.e. clay restrict the intake of water due to its slow hydraulic conductivity. The basic infiltration rate of soils ranged between 0.81 to 1.37 cm/hr. If the clay barrier could be broken, it was possible to recharge aquifers with stored water in Haveli fields, which otherwise drained out in first fortnight of October. Recharge

shafts could be effectively used for directly injecting Haveli water into aquifer. The soil moisture balance procedure was used to estimate an amount of recharge on 20 percent dependable rainfall during this year for study area. It revealed that soil moisture started building up on 18 June (day 4) when rainfall of 33.4 mm was received and it increased to 19.72 from initial value at PWP (18%). The rainfall of different magnitude increased the soil moisture and on 4th July (day 20) the rainfall of 38.1 mm not only increased the soil moisture beyond field capacity (34%) but recharge and storage (2.42 cm) was also estimated. The surface storage had increased to 7 cm (day 22) but reduced to 6.43 cm (day 23) and then to 4.64 cm

60

(day 34) due to receipt of rainfall of lower magnitudes. During this period recharge was estimated as a constant value of 4 mm/day. Last significant rainfall with the value of 76 mm was observed on 15th

September (day 92), which increased the depth of storage up to 146.36 cm. Thus, with basic infiltration rate of 4 mm per day approximately 30 cm of water was infiltrated into soil and finally recharging the groundwater during 15 July to 30 September.

After deducting the water infiltrated into soil, an amount of water available in Haveli for recharging through recharge shaft was estimated as 31079 ha-m for 34533 ha of potential Haveli area in Shahpura block. This quantity was available at the end of monsoon period. Similarly, availability of space in aquifer system to store recharged water was also estimated by dividing area into three zones; Zone A, B and C. Total water available for direct injection for Zone A, Zone B, Zone C was 11250 ha-m, 10829 ha-m, 7200 ha-m, respectively. Aquifer capacity of the respective Zone was 4975425 ha-m, 4602621 ha-m and 2913090 ha-m, respectively. Thus, the intake capacity of the aquifer in all three zones was higher to accommodate all available water of Haveli storage through direct injection by recharge shaft.

Recharge shaft of different diameter from 0.15 m PVC perforated pipe to annular cement concrete ring of diameter up to 3 m was considered to estimate possible direct recharge through the shafts. Cost estimate for different pipe sizes of recharge shaft under Zone A, B and C were also worked out. Taking average depth of different kinds of strata and multiplying it by its hydraulic conductivity values and circumferential area of the recharge shaft, the rate of recharge was estimated. An equation for steady radial flow based on a Dupuit assumption could be applied for recharge through open wells as suggested by Todd (1961) as below.

Q = π K (hw

2- h02 ) / ln ( r0/rw )

A recharge rate of 0.5 to 7.7 ha m/day could be achieved using 0.15 to 3 m diameter recharge shafts. Number and capacity of recharge shaft could be decided on basis of recharge rate available and potential area of the Haveli storage. The size of the recharge shaft might be kept at minimum considering number of days available to clear the Haveli fields. The number of days available for recharge through shaft could be increased by early start of recharging before the end of monsoon. 4.4 Preparation of Guidelines for

Implementing Artificial Recharge Structures in Recharging Groundwater in the Hard Rock Regions of Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore Centre)

Systematic implementation groundwater recharge plan is necessary for augmenting groundwater resources under various hydro-geological situations and there is need to give emphasis to the areas where groundwater levels are declining and there is severe water shortage. The CGWB suggested following aspects for the preparation of plan based on the hydro- geological parameters and hydrological data base: i) Identification and prioritization of need based areas for artificial recharge to groundwater; ii) Estimation of sub-surface storage space and quantity of water needed to saturate the unsaturated zone ( 3 m bgl); iii) quantification of surface water requirement and surplus annual runoff availability as source water for artificial recharge in each sub basin/watershed; iv) areas of poor chemical quality of groundwater and scope of improvement by suitable recharge measures; v) working out design of suitable recharge structures; their numbers, type, storage capacity and efficiency considering the estimated storage space and available source water for recharge and vi) cost estimates of artificial recharge structures required to be constructed in identified areas.

Where, Q = Discharge/ recharge, m3/day; K = Hydraulic conductivity, m/day; rw = radius of recharge well, m; r0 = radius of influence circle, m; h0 = water table elevation at ro and hw = water table elevation at rw.

Master plan for artificial recharge in Tamil Nadu About 27 percent of the total geographical area of the state is underlain by sedimentary formations. The coastal

sedimentary tract of Tamil Nadu forms a part of the Coromandal Coast of India. The sedimentary deposits, comprising both semi-consolidated and unconsolidated formations consisting of sandstones, clays, pebbles, gravels, limestone and shales, can be broadly grouped into three viz. Mesozoic, Tertiary and Quaternary. The eastern coastal and deltaic tracts of the state are the receptacles of thick alluvial sediments. The gross groundwater draft for irrigation in the state by the end of 2002 was of the order of 16,742.18 MCM, whereas the draft for domestic and industrial water supply is computed as 878.93 MCM. Hence, the existing gross groundwater draft for all uses in the state is of the order of 17614.04 MCM. A quantum of 878.93 MCM has been allocated for domestic and industrial requirements for the next twenty-five years as per norms. The district-wise gross groundwater draft ranged from 4.57 MCM (Nilgiri district) to 1886.62 MCM (Villupuram district) (Source: CGWB, Chennai).

The area characterized by depth to water level more than 3m during the post monsoon period coupled with declining

long term trend (Decade) was considered as area requiring artificial recharge. The scope for artificial recharge denoted the surface water availability and the ability of the aquifer to take in the water. The area characterizing both declining trend and depth to water level in different categories, for each district was determined and total 17,293 sq. km area was identified for artificial recharge to ground water in Tamil Nadu state (Fig. 4.6) The field experiments showed an average recharge efficiency of 75 percent for individual recharge structure. Accordingly, the surface water required for artificial groundwater recharge was computed by multiplying the volume of water required for saturating the aquifer up to 3m bgl by 1.33. Volume of available sub surface storage was of the order of 2704.68 MCM and surface water requirement was of 3597.22 MCM. The s ource water availability was of the order of 26834.32 MCM and it was noticed that source water availability was approximately sufficient to saturate the aquifer up to 3 m bgl in all the districts.

61

62

Fig. 4.6 Area identified for artificial recharge to groundwater in Tamil Nadu Recharge structures and cost estimates

Tamil Nadu state has varied hydro- geological conditions. However, to saturate the shallow aquifer, percolation ponds and check dams would be more appropriate structures in regional scale recharge planning. It was assumed that 70 percent of available sub-surface storage would be recharged through percolation ponds and remaining 30 percent through check dams. A total of 8612 percolation ponds and 18,170 check dams would be required for Tamil Nadu to store 3040.37 MCM of water for recharge. The average cost of percolation pond is Rs. 20 Lakh, while the cost of check dam is Rs. 2 Lakh. An amount of Rs.1722.4 Crores is required for construction of percolation ponds while Rs.363.4 crores is required for construction of check dams to implement this recharge plan. Thus total of Rs. 2086 crores would be required to implement this plan.

Impact of artificial recharge to ground water is observed on downstream of recharge structure after end of monsoon and rise of water by 2-5 m could be seen. Saving in pumping energy would be additional benefit due to reduction in suction lift. Such impact would be seen over 17000 sq. km. The amount of water proposed to be recharged would be 3040.37 MCM, out of which, 50% would be lost as either base flow or used for the existing cropping pattern where the water supplied may be less than the actual requirement. Considering the average delta of 0.5 m per year, the additional land of 304037 ha that could be brought under cultivation. The artificial recharge to ground water would not only augment the area under irrigation but also provide sustainable source for irrigation to the existing cropping pattern. 4.5 Study on Impact of Artificial

Recharge Structures in Recharging

63

Groundwater in Parambikulam- Aliyar Project Area (Coimbatore Centre)

The study area is located between 7704” E to 770 4’ 33” E longitude and 100 48’ 51” N to 100 52’ 32” N latitude. The predominant rock types found in this river basin is crystalline rocks of Archean age. The winter water level varied from 4.00 to 18.00 m and the summer water level ranged from 18.00 to 18.25 m below ground level. Details of the study area (location, lithology, basin details, hydrogeology hydrology and geophysical data) and details of the recharge structures

were collected. The study area comprised of three micro watersheds namely Panapatti, Vadachitur and Bogampatti, which is located in the Koraiyar watershed. The rainwater harvesting structures viz; Percolation pond, Major check dam, Medium check dam, Minor check dams, constructed during 2007-2008, were selected for the evaluation study. The location recharge structures and network of observation wells in study area are shown in Fig. (4.7). Temporal monitoring of water level as well as groundwater quality before and after monsoon at well locations was done to asses the impact of recharge structures.

Fig 4.7 Location of recharge structures and observation wells in study area Total amount of rainfall received in the study area during 2011 was 783mm. The maximum rainfall of 256mm was recorded during t he m onth October. Minimum rainfall occurred during February (i.e. 7 mm). In village Vadachitur, 8 wells were identified. In the month of December, water level increased in all the wells due to

North east rainfall. In the month of April water level decreased. Due to significant quantity of south west monsoon, the water level increased in all the observation wells during July 2011. Water level fluctuations of observation wells are presented in Fig 4.8.

Wat

er l

evel

bel

ow g

.l

Water level fluctuations in the study area 2011

100

95

90

85

80

75

70

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Observation w ells

Apr-11 Jul-11 Sep-11 Dec-11

Fig. 4.8 Water level fluctuations of observation wells in study area For this purpose of quality monitoring, 8 water samples were collected in the Vadachitur village, during December 2011 and analyzed for various parameters such as pH, EC, cations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ and K+) and anions (CO3

-, HCO3-, Cl-). The

result revealed that the medium level (0.25 – 0.75 dS m-1) of salinity was observed in majority of the ground water samples collected from Elavambadi village. The groundwater was within the safe level with respect to Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) and Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) values as SAR values were less than 10 and <1.25 me L-1. The chloride concentration of the groundwater samples was also in the safe limit (<5 me L-1). Temporal monitoring o f groundwater quality would continue to assess the long- term impact of groundwater recharge structures.

4.6 Assessment of Groundwater Recharge from Low Cost Rainwater Harvesting Structure (Udaipur Centre)

Water scarcity and depletion of groundwater levels are among the major problems in southern Rajasthan. During May-June every year, most of the wells become dry due to decline in groundwater levels. Artificial recharge of groundwater seems to be an appropriate solution under the present situation. It has been observed that rainwater harvesting-cum- groundwater recharging structures play an effective role in raising groundwater levels in the region. Efficacy of a low cost rainwater harvesting-cum-groundwater recharging structure (Fig. 4.9), designed by centre, was evaluated in the selected micro-watershed in Udaipur district.

64

65

Dep

th (m

)

Fig. 4.9 Dry Stone Masonry Type Low Cost Water Harvesting Structure Stored rainwater in the structure was monitored for three monsoon seasons to evaluate efficacy of the rainwater harvesting-cum-groundwater recharging structure. The topographical survey of the selected site was carried out and a contour plan was prepared. A non-recording rain

gauge was also installed at the site to measure the rainfall of the area. The contour map of the catchment area along with submergence area is shown in Fig. 4.10 (a) and depth-capacity curve is shown in Fig. 4.10 (b).

3

2.5

Full Supply Level

2

1.5

1

0.5

0

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000

Capacity (m3)

(a) (b)

Fig 4.10 (a) Contour map and b) depth-capacity curve of Shishvi Micro Watershed

A correlation between rainfall, pond water level and well water level is shown in Fig

4.11 which clearly indicated that the water table of well increased due to increase in

66

the level of water in the constructed pond. During 2010 annual rainfall was 773.20 mm and average recharge rate of 10.34

cm/day was observed whereas net recharge volume was 7873.20 m3.

Fig. 4.11 Relation between rainfall, pond water level and well water level During 2011, annual rainfall was of 909.40 mm, average recharge rate of pond was 7.63 cm/day and net volume of recharge

was 6131.1 m3. Thus low cost structure improved availability of groundwater in the watershed.

4.7 Groundwater Recharge

Planning for Durg District Using Remote Sensing and GIS (Raipur Centre)

The Durg district is situated in the southern part of the rich Chhattisgarh plain. The geographical area of the district is 2238.36 km2. District lies between 20°54' to 21°32' N lattitude and 81°10' to 81°36' E longitude and altitude is varies from 150 to 300 m above mean sea level. Data for depth to water table for pre and post monsoon period are provided in Table 4.1.

The maximum area of district (i.e. 851.5 km2) had depth to water table from 1.48 to 5.47 mbgl before monsoon season whereas area of 1252.0 km2 had depth to water table from 0.81 to 2.44 mbgl during post monsoon season (Table 4.1). Still there was sizable area (i.e. 1500 km2) during pre monsoon period (Fig. 4.12) and 1100 km2

during post monsoon period having depth to water table more than 5.40 m and it was point of worry as su stainability of groundwater or energy of pumping of groundwater was concerned.

Table 4.1 Groundwater fluctuation before and after monsoon season

Sr. No. Depth to water

table before monsoon (mbgl)

Area (km2) Depth to water table after

monsoon (mbgl)

Area (km2)

1 13.43 to 17.42 488.9 2.44 to 4.06 677.0 2 9.45 to 13.43 296.3 4.06 to 5.69 364.5 3 5.47 to 9.45 722.1 5.69 to 7.31 64.5 4 1.48 to 5.47 851.5 0.81 to 2.44 1252.0

0.00

20.00

40.00

60.00

80.00

100.00

120.00

26/0

6/20

11

29/0

6/20

11

2/7/

2011

5/7/

2011

8/7/

2011

11/7

/201

1

14/0

7/20

11

17/0

7/20

11

20/0

7/20

11

23/0

7/20

11

26/0

7/20

11

29/0

7/20

11

1/8/

2011

4/8/

2011

7/8/

2011

10/8

/201

1

13/0

8/20

11

16/0

8/20

11

19/0

8/20

11

22/0

8/20

11

25/0

8/20

11

28/0

8/20

11

31/0

8/20

11

3/9/

2011

6/9/

2011

9/9/

2011

12/9

/201

1

15/0

9/20

11

18/0

9/20

11

21/0

9/20

11

24/0

9/20

11

27/0

9/20

11

30/0

9/20

11

3/10

/201

1

6/10

/201

1

9/10

/201

1

12/1

0/20

11

15/1

0/20

11

Date

Dep

th o

f Wat

er L

evel

(in

cm)

Well Water Level (cm)

WHS Water Level (cm)

Rainfall (cm)

250.00

67

Fig. 4.12 Depth to water table zones in Durg district of Chhattisgarh during pre-monsoon

season Thematic maps such as geology (Fig. 4.13 a), drainage, s lope, watershed, soil texture, depth to water table, water body and lineament map (Fig. 4.13 b) were overplayed and appropriate sites were

identified for artificial groundwater recharge structures at different places of upper, middle and lower reaches of the drainage lines.

a) Geology of Durg district

68

b) Lineament map of Durg district

b) Lineament map of Durg district

Fig. 4.13 Geology and lineament map of Durg district The site selection was generally done close to cultivated area so as to get maximum benefits of groundwater recharge to farmers. In addition to existing artificial groundwater recharge structures about 33

percolation tanks and 67 check dams were proposed for artificial groundwater recharging in the Durg district as shown in Fig. 4.14.

69

Fig. 4.14 Proposed check dam and percolation tank location for groundwater recharging in Durg district

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4.8 Water Balance and Assessment of Groundwater Recharge in Meghal River Basin of Saurashtra Region (Junagadh Centre)

Groundwater is an important source to meet water requirements o f various sectors in Saurashtra region. The sustainable development of groundwater resource requires its precise quantitative assessment. The implementation of groundwater recharge techniques can increase groundwater availability, improve its quality and can reduce the rate of seawater intrusion in the region. However, Government of Gujarat declared Junagadh district as ‘ Dark Zone’ as groundwater resources of the district were over exploited. Meghal, a major river in the region, was generally getting dried

immediately after monsoon. In view of this background, Government of Gujarat implemented large scale groundwater recharge schemes in the region. Therefore, a study was undertaken for Meghal river basin in district of Junagadh (Saurashtra region of Gujarat), located between 20° 58' to 21° 17' N latitude and 70° 13' to 70° 32' E longitude, (Fig. 4.15) using remote sensing and GIS tools to estimate different water balance components for Meghal river basin so as to determine quantum of groundwater recharge as result of implementation of large scale recharge schemes in the basin. Further, crop water requirements of different crops were estimated using Remote Sensing and GIS and efficient utilization of available groundwater was suggested.

Fig. 4.15 Location map of study area (Meghal river basin) in Saurashtra region of Gujarat The climate of the project area can be classified as tropical and sub-tropical. Major area falls under irrigated agriculture with groundnut as m ain kharif crop and wheat is grown in rabi season, horticultural crops like coconut, sapota and mango also grown in the area. The data used for the study included climatic data, different maps (Map of India, Gujarat and watershed and Cadastral map of Meghal river basin) and Satellite images of IRS P6

of sensor LISS IV and Awifs digital data. The remote sensing and GIS software, PCI Geomatica V10.1, was used. Various thematic maps such as land cover/land use, hydro-geomorphology, soil, slope, demarcation of watershed etc. were prepared using geo-coded IRS P6, LISS IV and Awifs digital data on 1:50,000 scale. Estimation of groundwater recharge

71

Estimation of natural ground water recharge using empirical methods: The amount of rainfall recharge (i.e. natural recharge) depends on various hydro meteorological and topographic factors,

soil characteristics and depth to water table. The groundwater recharge was estimated by using empirical formulae (Table 4.2) and data for 40 years (1970- 2009).

Table 4.2 Empirical models of groundwater recharge

Sr. No.

Name of Model Formula Remarks

1 Chaturvedi (1936) Rg = 2 (P-15)0.4 Rg is GWR in inches, P in

inches 2 Up Irrigation Research

Institute, Roorkee (1954) Rg = 1.35 (P-14)0.5

Rg is GWR in inches, P in inches

3 Bhattacharjee(1954) Rg = 3.47 (P-38)0.4 Rg is GWR in cm, P in cm 4. Krishna Rao formula

(1970) Rg= 0.25 (P- 400) Rg is GWR mm, P in mm

Formula by Krishna and Rao (1970) was found suitable for Meghal river basin as it was developed for hard rock aquifers of Karnataka.

Assessment of artificial groundwater recharge: To assess quantum of artificial groundwater recharge in basin, water harvesting structures in the basin were identified with the help of Google earth map of the study area and same structures were located in CARTOSAT image of October 2006. The total numbers of recharge structures were 900 but only 551

were identified through satellite image. The remaining structures were identified through ground truthing. The area under submergence was digitized using GIS to get water spread areas of structures. The structures were divided into nine groups according to their water spread area as shown in Table 4.3. Total volume of impounded water for these structures was estimated 1559.2 ha m. After deducting evaporation losses from harvested water, groundwater recharge of 3399.9 ha m was estimated.

Table 4.3 Estimated total recharge capacity of the water harvesting structures

Groups No. of structures

Average depth (m)

Average water spread area (ha)

Volume (ha m)

Volume of water -

(Evaporation losses) (ha m)

Total recharge (ha m)

Col. 1

2

3

4

5 = 6 = Col. 7 co.3*co. 4*0.7

co.5 - 0.145*co.4

I

<0.1 ha

453

0.50

27.8

9.7

5.7

17.1

II 0.1-0.5 ha 311 1.00 69.8 48.9 38.8 116.3

III 0.5 - 1 ha 53 1.50 34.8 36.5 31.5 94.4

IV 1 - 3 ha 52 2.00 87.6 122.6 109.9 329.7

V 3 - 5 ha 17 2.50 64.8 113.4 104.0 312.0

VI 5 - 10 ha 5 3.00 36.8 77.3 72.0 216.0

VII 10 - 20 ha 4 3.50 54.6 133.7 125.8 377.5

VIII 20 - 50 ha 4 4.00 108.0 302.3 286.6 573.3

IX >50 ha 1 4.50 226.9 714.8 681.9 1363.7 Total 900 711.1 1559.2 1456.1 3399.9

72

Estimation of total groundwater recharge: Total groundwater recharge in study area through rainfall, recharge structures and irrigation network was estimated as 12592 ha m. The recharge value through rainfall (Rr) was 6732.57 ha m (53.47 percent of total recharge), recharge through return flow of irrigation water (Ri) was 2459.49 ha m (19.53 percent of total recharge) and influent seepage from recharge structures (Rs) was

3399.90 ha m (27.00 percent of total recharge). Estimation of groundwater recharge using water table fluctuation method: Total groundwater recharge was also estimated using table fluctuation method as field verification of above calculations. Total study area was divided into different zones as given in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4 Groundwater recharge using water table fluctuation method

Zone Avg. water table

fluctuation (m) Specific

yield Area of aquifer

(ha) Recharge volume

(ha m)

Col. 1

2

3

4 Col. 5 = (col.2* col.3*col.4)

1.

10

0.1267

1947

2468 2.

5

0.0723

5622

2032 3.

9

0.0215

46589

9020 Total 54158 13520

Total groundwater recharge th rough rainfall and water harvesting structures in the study area was found 12592 ha m. While, recharge estimated through water table fluctuation method was estimated as

and

Kc NDVI = (2.7109*NDVI) + 0.424 Kc SAVI = (1.4131*SAVI) + 0.4077

13520 ha m. The difference between recharge estimated through water table fluctuation method and total groundwater recharge through rainfall and seepage from structures was found 928 ha m. Recharge through rainfall and seepage from structures was less than that of recharge estimated from water table fluctuation. This might be due to the groundwater outflow from the study area was less in comparison to inflow into area. During the calculations, both inflow and out flow were considered as equal.

Estimation of crop water requirements of the basin

Estimation of reference evapotranspiration using FAO Penman-Monteith method: Crop evapotranspiration requirements of various crops grown in study area were estimated using FAO Penman-Monteith method. The map of crop coefficient for wheat crop in the study area was prepared using EASI modeling for the study area. The equation developed by Gontia (2006) was used to calculate crop coefficient Kc for wheat crop.

The equation with SAVI values gave better regression hence used for this study. From the attribute table the percentage area under certain range of crop evapotranspiration in the study area was estimated. Estimation of wheat crop water requirement using RS and GIS: The land use/land cover maps of rabi season was prepared u sing remote s ensing imagery of study area for the month of February, 2008, which showed that about 9084 ha area was under wheat crop and it was distributed all over the study area. But area under wheat crop clipped was 9179 ha for Nov. 2007, 9092 ha for Dec. 2007, 9182 ha for Jan. 2008, 8430 ha for Feb. 2008 (1st fortnight) and 9139 ha Feb. 2008 (2nd fortnight) as areas of pockets under wheat crop were not recognized by remote sensing software. Using the vector layers of wheat crop area, the images of both sensors (LISS III and AWiFS) for rabi season were clipped to get the images representing only wheat crop area. The images representing only wheat-cropped area were used to generate the Soil

ha

Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI) using EASI modeling in software PCI Geomatica V10.1. In EASI Modeling of software PCI Geomatica V10.1, the algorithm was written in basic language to compute the pixel-wise crop coefficients from corresponding SAVI values. The output of the model represented the pixel-wise Kc

SAVI for the month Nov. 07, Dec. 07, Jan. 08, Feb. 08 (1st FN) and Feb. 08 (2nd FN). From these values crop evapotranspiration was computed using EASI modeling for the month of November, December, January and February based on SAVI values. The SAVI maps were generated for the images of DOP Nov. 26, 2007; Dec. 15, 2007; Jan

18, 2008; Feb. 1, 2008 and Feb. 25, 2008 for wheat crop. Crop coefficient map of wheat crop: The crop coefficient maps based on SAVI values were prepared. The Kc SAVI values of wheat crop varied from <0.6 to 1.2, 0.6 to 1.5, 0.9 to 1.8, 0.6 to 1.2 and <0.6 to 0.9 for different months of rabi season, namely Nov. 07, Dec. 07, Jan. 08, Feb. 08 (1st FN) and Feb. 08 (2nd FN), respectively and presented in Table 4.5. The lower ranges of Kc values in the month of November and February are due to initial and end crop growth stages of wheat crop.

Table 4.5 Crop coefficient (Kc SAVI) values of wheat crop using SAVI

Range of

SAVI

Nov. 07 Dec. 07 Jan. 08 Feb.08(1stFN) Feb.08(2ndFN)

Area Area Area Area Area

values Per cent ha

Per cent ha

Per cent ha

Per cent ha

Per cent

<0.6 3173 34.57 571 6.28 27 0.29 274 3.25 2655 29.05

0.6-0.9 4686 51.06 2431 26.74 342 3.73 3071 36.43 4922 53.85

0.9-1.2 1173 12.78 3623 39.85 1473 16.05 4556 54.04 1563 17.10

1.2-1.5 146 1.59 2326 25.58 4429 48.23 527 6.25 0.00 0.00

1.5-1.8 0.00 0.00 141 1.55 2911 31.70 2.00 0.03 0.00 0.00

Total area 9179 100 9092 100 9182 100 8430 100 9139 100

Crop evapotranspiration map of wheat crop: The outputs of the pixel-wise Kc maps were combined with the reference evapotranspiration (ETo) of corresponding months using EASI Modeling of software PCI Geomatica V10.1 to get crop evapotranspiration of wheat crop in study area. The algorithm was written in basic language to compute the pixel-wise crop

evapotranspiration (ETc) of wheat crop. The crop evapotranspiration of wheat crop (ETc) estimated using Kc SAVI values are shown in Fig.4.15, and varied from 1.0 to 4.0, 2.0 to 4.0, 3.0 to 6.0, 2.0 to 5.0 and 1.0 to 4.0 mm per day for different months of rabi season Nov. 07, Dec. 07, Jan. 08, Feb. 08 (1st FN) and Feb. 08 (2nd FN), respectively.

73

74

(a) Nov 26, 2007 (b) Dec 15, 2007 (c) Jan 18, 2008

(d) Feb 1, 2008 (e) Feb 25, 2008

Fig.4.15 Monthly spatially distributed crop evapotranspiration (ETc) (Kc SAVI based) maps of wheat crop generated using SAVI values for Meghal river basin

Computation of crop water requirement of wheat crop: Volume of water demand for the months of Nov. 07, Dec. 07, Jan. 08, Feb. 08 (1st FN) and Feb. 08 (2nd FN) were 522.44, 939.23, 1555.41, 1108.63 and 858.08 ha m, respectively. The volume of crop water demands for the months of Nov. 07, Dec. 07, Jan. 08, Feb. 08 (1st FN) and Feb. 08 (2nd FN) were 441.38, 762.90, 1234.23, 881.51 and 736.99 ha m, respectively. The total volume of crop water demand using Kc SAVI was 4057 ha m.

Irrigation water requirement of wheat crop: Using irrigation efficiency as 60 percent, volume of water demand for wheat crop based on Kc FAO (crop coefficient based on FAO) and Kc SAVI (crop coefficient based on SAVI) were estimated as 911, and 736 ha m for the month of Nov. 2007, 1336, and 1271 ha m for the month of Dec. 2007, 1774, and 2057 ha m for the month of Jan. 2008 and 1349, and 1228 ha m for the month of Feb. 2008. Irrigation scheduling for wheat crop in study area

75

Irrigation scheduling, which decides time and amount of water to be supplied per irrigation to obtain better wheat grain yield in the study region, is given in Table 4.6.

The irrigation schedule accounts for water sensitive growth stages of wheat crop such as crown root initiation (CRI) stage, late jointing stage and flowering stage.

Table 4.6 Irrigation schedule for wheat crop in the study area

No. of Irrigations

Weeks after sowing (WAS)

Stage of crop development

Depth of irrigation, mm Crop growth stage

Surface irrigation

Sprinkler irrigation

- - Pre sowing - - - 1 1 Initial 32.0 25.6 At initial stage 2 3 55.5 44.4 Crown root initiation 3 5 Crop

development 72.2 57.8 Tillering/Jointing

stage 4 7 89.5 71.6 Boot stage 5 9 Mid season 91.1 72.8 Flowering stage 6 11 98.9 79.2 Milk stage 7 14 Late season 131.5 105.6 Dough stage Total depth of irrigation (mm) 571 457

Optimal crop and irrigation planning Meghal river basin

The total groundwater recharge through rainfall and water harvesting structures in the study area was estimated 12592 ha m. If surface irrigation method (SIM) is adopted to irrigate 9084, 5595, 1602 and 796 ha of wheat, coconut, mango and sapota crop with 571, 1645, 679 and 1152 mm of irrigation water requirement, the volume of water demand would be as 5187, 9205, 1088 and 917 ha m, respectively. The volume of water used for irrigating a ll crops th rough surface irrigation method would be 16,397 ha m,

hence it indicated deficit in water supply. If micro irrigation systems (sprinkler and drip irrigation system) are adopted to irrigate 9084, 5595, 1602 and 796 ha of wheat, coconut, mango and sapota crop with 457, 1097, 453 and 768 mm of irrigation water requirement, the volume of water demand would be 4149, 6137, 725 and 611 ha m, respectively. The volume of water used for irrigating all crops through micro irrigation systems would be 11624 ha m, hence it indicated excess in water supply. Fig.4.16 shows comparison of crop water requirements of wheat, coconut, mango and sapota in Meghal river basin under surface and micro irrigation systems.

Fig. 4.16 Crop water requirements of different crops in Meghal river basin

5. GROUNDWATER POLLUTION STUDIES

5.1 Extent of Groundwater Pollution by Budha Nala in Ludhiana District (Ludhiana Centre)

To study the areal extent and severity of groundwater contamination/ pollution by Budhanala, a waste water drain, which carries effluents from agro, non-agro based industries and flows through Ludhiana city. Different villages such as Wallipur, Kumkalan, Malewal, Lubangarh, Jainpur and Malikpur along Budha Nala were selected for collection of groundwater samples on basis of initial survey. The groundwater samples for the analysis were taken from the tube wells which were either centrifugal or submersible pumps. Depth of tube well varied 50 to 60 ft in

Wallipur, 50 to 55 ft in Kumkakan, 15 to 25 ft Malewal and Lubangarh and 80 to 90 ft in Village Jainpur and Malikpur. Total eighteen groundwater samples were collected from tube wells of various villages. The samples were collected during first fortnight of June (Pre-monsoon) and first fortnight of October (Post-monsoon) as per standard procedures. The chemical analysis of groundwater samples was done for heavy metals at Department of Soil Science, PAU, Ludhiana. Table 5.1 shows the values for various parameters and their desirable limits according to Indian Standard Specifications for drinking water (ISI: 10500). These values were used to decide the groundwater quality is permissible or not for drinking.

Table 5.1 Indian Standard Specifications for drinking water IS: 10500

S. No.

Parameter Permissible Limit (mg/l)

S. No.

Parameter Permissible Limit (mg/l)

1 Lead (Pb) 0.01 7 Zinc (Zn) 5.0 2 Iron (Fe) 0.3 8 Manganese (Mn) 0.1 3 Arsenic (As) 0.01 9 Magnesium (Mg) 30 4 Chromium (Cr) 0.05 10 Calcium (Ca) 75 5 Cadmium (Cd) 0.003 11 Boron (B) 0.5 6 Nickel (Ni) 0.02 12 Sulphur (S) 200

Table 5.2 shows concentrations of toxic metals (mg/l) in groundwater samples collected within vicinity of 1.0 km of Budha Nala at W allipur village during pre monsoon and post monsoon period. Samples (No. 1, 2 and 3) were collected

from on one side drain and samples (No. 4, 5 and 6) were collected from other side of drain within lateral distance of 1 km.

76

Table 5.2. Concentrations of toxic metals (mg/l) in groundwater samples collected within vicinity of 1.0 km of Budha Nala at Wallipur village

Pre-M: Pre-Monsoon; Post-Monsoon: Post-Monsoon

Element Sampling Site 1 Sampling Site 2 Sampling Site 3 Sampling Site 4 Sampling Site 5 Sampling Site 6

Pre-M Post-M Pre-M Post-M Pre-M Post-M Pre-M Post-M Pre-M Post-M Pre-M Post-M

Arsenic 0.029 0.004 0.032 0.004 0.033 0.016 0.006 0.001 0.008 0.006 0.008 0.001

Boron 0.146 0.145 0.126 0.177 0.179 0.071 0.086 0.100 0.080 0.095 0.105 0.103

Calcium 39.1 17.29 14.9 55.94 23.5 14.55 23.4 19.68 23.5 15.22 27.8 12.65

Cadmium 0.0002 0.001 0.0004 0.001 0.0004 0.000 0.0004 0.000 0.000 2

0.000 0.0002 0.000

Chromium 0.0030 0.001 0.0036 0.002 0.0002 0.003 0.0038 0.002 0.001 2

0.002 0.0068 0.002

Copper 0.0028 0.014 0.0024 0.002 0.003 0.005 0.0088 0.003 0.009 8

0.008 0.005 0.001

Iron 0.0214 0.005 0.0284 0.009 0.0332 0.014 0.0118 0.003 0.048 2

0.001 0.005 0.003

Potassium 5.376 14.38 9.342 26.20 11.904 17.32 2.57 17.42 2.792 33.01 2.636 13.25

Magnesium 13.91 17.38 11.87 21.26 20.56 8.604 10.6 13.40 8.006 14.14 16.47 13.88

Manganese 0.1482 0.076 0.166 0.0374 0.1088 0.049 0.0694 0.048 0.064 0.027 0.0914 0.020

Sodium 45.76 71.98 43.38 94.98 83.4 31.48 10.948 18.50 17.80 4

18.47 10.016 8.46

Nickel 0.0004 0.001 0.0002 0.001 0.0008 0.001 0.0008 0.000 0.000 2

0.000 0.0014 0.000

Phosphorus 0.003 0.001 0.019 0.005 0.006 0.002 0.004 0.003 0.010 0.003 0.002 0.003

Lead 0.0108 0.002 0.0112 0.003 0.014 0.001 0.0112 0.000 0.014 0.001 0.014 0.001

Sulphur 7.75 0.495 7.96 4.951 3.46 0.543 8.99 8.808 7.09 9.630 9.95 9.630

Zinc 0.0004 0.001 0.0006 0.012 0.0008 0.002 0.0008 0.001 0.000 8

0.003 0.0008 0.003

The concentration of arsenic for sampling site 1 for pre-monsoon was 0.029 mg l-1

which was higher than the maximum permissible limit of 0.01 mg l-1 but for post-monsoon season the concentration of arsenic was 0.004 mg l-1 which was lower than the maximum permissible limit of 0.01 mg l-1. Similarly for sampling site 2, the concentration of arsenic for pre- monsoon was 0.032 mg l-1 which was higher than the maximum permissible limit of 0.01 mg l-1 .The concentration of arsenic for sampling site 3 was higher than maximum permissible limit both for pre- monsoon (0.033 mg l-1) and for post- monsoon (0.016 mg l-1). The concentration of arsenic for sampling sites 4, 5 and 6 were within permissible limits. The concentration of a rsenic for a ll th e sampling sites for pre-monsoon was higher as compared to post-monsoon analysis. The concentration of manganese for pre- monsoon for sampling sites 1, 2 and 3 was

0.1482 mg l-1 , 0.166 mg l-1and 0.1088 mg l-1 ,respectively, which was higher than the maximum permissible limit of 0.1 mg l- 1.The concentration of manganese in groundwater samples for post-monsoon was within permissible limits and less than pre-monsoon values. The concentration of lead for pre-monsoon for sampling sites 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 was 0.0108 mg l-1 , 0.0122 mg l-1, 0.014 mg l-1, 0.0112 mg l-1, 0.014 mg l-1 and 0.014 mgl-1 respectively which is higher than the maximum permissible limit of 0.01 mg l-1.The concentration of lead in groundwater samples for post-monsoon was within permissible limit. The concentration of other heavy metals like cadmium, chromium, iron, copper, magnesium, nickel and zinc were within permissible limits for all the sampling sites. At village in village Kumkalan, concentration of arsenic for pre-monsoon ground water sample, collected within the vicinity of 1.0 km from drain, was 0.01 mg

77

l-1, which was at par with the maximum permissible limits of 0.01 mg l-1 on both sides of the Budha Nala. The concentrations of other heavy metals like magnesium, cadmium, chromium, iron, copper, magnesium, nickel and zinc were within permissible l imits for all the sampling sites. The concentrations of arsenic, manganese and lead in groundwater samples collected within the vicinity of 1.0 km from drain during post- monsoon season at village Malewal were 0.012 mg l-1, 0.028 mg l-1 and 0.015 mg l-1

respectively. These concentrations were higher than their maximum permissible limits of 0.01 mg l-1, 0.1 mg l-1 and 0.01 mg l-1, respectively. At village Lubangarh, concentrations of arsenic, magnesium and manganese in groundwater samples within the vicinity of 1.0 km from drain for post- monsoon season were 0.016 mg l-1, 31.31 mg l-1 and 0.37 mg l-1. The concentrations were higher than their maximum permissible limits. The concentrations of other heavy were within permissible limits for all the sampling sites both seasons. At village Jainpur and Malikpur, concentration of lead in groundwater sample within the vicinity of 1.0 km from drain for pre- monsoon season was 0.0124 mg l-1 and it was higher than the maximum permissible limit of 0.01 mg l-1 on both sides of Budha Nala. The concentration of manganese for pre-monsoon in village Malikpur was 0.2858 mg l-1 which was higher than the maximum permissible limit of 0.1 mg l- 1.The highest concentrations of arsenic, magnesium, manganese and lead for pre- monsoon season were 0.033, 42.76, 0.386 and 0.0156 mg l-1 at village Wallipur, Lubangarh, Lubangarh and Malewal, respectively, and the highest concentration of arsenic, magnesium and manganese for post-monsoon season were 0.016, 37.2 and 0.468 mg l-1 at village Lubangarh, Malikpur and Malewal, respectively. The highest concentrations were higher than the maximum permissible limits.

5.2 Spatial Studies on Groundwater Quality in South West Punjab (Ludhiana Centre)

The south west Punjab (which includes districts of Ferozpur, Faridkot, Muktsar and Bhatinda), irrigated with Sirhind canal and having an extensive distribution network, is experiencing extreme instances of water logging and soil salinity problems. The problems are particularly severe in low- lying locations, which have inadequate or non- functional surface drains. Changing cropping patterns, aridity, rise in waters in old paleo- channels, use of poor quality irrigation waters and canal seepage have compounded the problem critically. Groundwater quality of the region is not good and it is a stumbling block in the exploitation of groundwater. It is widespread o ver a ll blocks (Malout, Muktsar, Lambi and Giddarbaha) of Muktsar district; where water table rises virtually to the surface in a number of villages during raining season causing serious damage to standing crops. There is need to create comprehensive spatial groundwater quality data base, which can be u sed for decide suitability o f groundwater for irrigation purpose directly or under conjunctive water use. With this objective, spatial-temporal information about groundwater quality in southwest Punjab was collected and analyzed. The groundwater samples were mainly collected from various blocks of south west Punjab viz. Bathinda, Gidderbaha, Mour, Nathana, Phul, Sangat, Talwandi Sabon, Kotkpura, Lambi and Malout. Out of 11 blocks, 7 blocks belonged to Bathinda district. The water samples were analyzed for Electrical Conductivity (EC) and Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) quantitatively using standard methods. Based upon the values of EC and RSC, the ground water samples were classified into different categories, following the criteria given in (Table5.3).

78

79

Table 5.3 Criteria used for rating of ground waters in Bathinda district

Category Groundwater Quality Suitable for Irrigation EC(dS/m) RSC(meq/l) 01 <2.0 <2.5 Suitable for all conditions

02 <2.0 2.5-5.0 Suitable after mixing with canal water

2.0-4.0 2.5-5.0 04 >4.0 5.0-7.5 Unsuitable for irrigation

>4.0 >7.5 Category*01-Good; 02-Marginal Saline to Highly Saline; 04- Poor

Chemical composition of ground water during pre-monsoon season

The quality of ground water for irrigation purpose was ascertained mainly on the basis of chemical composition of major ions, viz. Ca2+, and Mg2+, HCO3

- and Cl-

present in it. There were considerable variations in the chemical composition of ground water because of the differences in the geological stratification. The chemical analysis of ground water (Table 5.4) revealed that the samples collected from the Bathinda district showed that EC of groundwater ranged from 0.6-9.0 dSm-1. Block wise analysis showed maximum EC range (0.6-9.0) was observed in Sangat block, while in Talwandi Sabon block EC was in range of 3.1-5.9 with mean value of 4.7 ds/m. A fairly high value of EC suggested the dissolution co-efficient of minerals present in the substratum to be very high, thereby contributing to high salinity. RSC values in Bathinda district ranged from -40.4 to 15 meq/l. Block wise analysis showed that RSC values more than 2.5 meq/l were found in blocks Nathana (4.55 meq/l) and Phul (2.6 meq/l) which means that it is not suitable for irrigation purposes. In blocks Bathinda,

Sangat and Talwandi Sabon, RSC values were lesser than 1.25 meq/l and are considered safe. In various blocks of district Mukstar, EC values were less than 2.0 dS/m, so it was suitable for all conditions. RSC values in Gidderbaha block (5.5 meq/l) and Lambi block (2.7 meq/l) were more than 1.25 meq/l, so not safe for irrigation purposes. In block Kotkpura EC value was 2.7 dS/m and RSC value was 4.4 meq/l, so it can be used for irrigation after mixing with canal water. The concentration of chloride ions in Bathinda district ranged from 0.4 to 51 meq/l and higher concentration more than 10 meq/l was found in blocks Bathinda (10.1 meq/l), Sangat (16.1 meq/l) and Talwandi Sabon (19 meq/l) which meant that there is severe restriction of use of irrigation water. In Phul block, the concentration of chloride ion was 3.5 meq/l, so there is no restriction of use of water for irrigation. In district Mukstar, the concentration of chloride ion in blocks of Lambi and Malout was 5.1 and 5.5 meq/l, so there is slight to moderate restriction on use of irrigation water. In block Gidderbaha, there is no restriction on use of water for irrigation as concentration of chloride ion is lesser than 4.0 meq/l.

80

Table 5.4 Chemical composition of groundwater for Pre-monsoon in districts Bathinda, Faridkot and Mukstar

Blocks Bathinda Faridkot Mukstar

Bathinda Mour Nathana Phul Sangat Talwandi Sabon

Kotka- pura

Lambi Malout Gidderbaha

HCO3-

(meq/l) 2-11 (6.48)*

4-5.6 (4.8)*

6.4-14 (8.9)*

5-10 (7.5)*

3.4- 11.4 (7.7)*

4-12 (6.9)*

4.0-7.0 (5.5)*

0.4- 6.0 (4.3)*

5-8.4 (6.6)*

3.4-7.0 (6.4)*

Cl- (meq/l)

1-24 (10.1)*

4.4- 14 (9.2)*

3-15 (6.5)*

1.6-9 (5.3)*

2.6- 27.6 (8.7)*

2-22 (6.9)*

3.0-14 (8.5)*

0.6- 24.8 (9.2)*

4-25.6 (11.5)*

3.4-28 (10.7)*

Ca2+

and Mg2+

(meq/l)

1.6-21 (8.31)*

11.3- 42.7 (27)*

2.9-7 (3.5)*

2.7- 5.6 (4.3)*

0.7- 15.5 (6.8)*

3.3-27.5 (9.6)*

1-7 (4.0)*

0.3- 22 (7.8)*

5.7- 15.0 (10.5)*

7.0-21.0 (8.93)*

RSC (meq/l)

-14.8-9 (1.21)*

-7.3- 2.9 (2.5)*

-6.7-2.7 (- 1.17)*

-0.5- 2.4 (2.6)*

-26.6- 10.3 (0.38)*

-23.5- 7.9 (-2.5)*

-1.0- 5.4 (0.93)*

-6.4- 3.8 (0.4)*

-8.7- 2.7 (-3.8)*

-17.6-5.2 (-1.85)*

EC (ds/m)

0.6-6.2 (2.94)*

1.4-4 (2.7)*

0.8-3.8 (2.5)*

1.5- 2.0 (1.8)*

1.2-6.1 (2.78)*

1.1-4.2 (2.2)*

1.5-4.0 (2.3)*

1.5- 5.0 (2.8)*

1.3-5.0 (2.6)*

1.4-4.8 (2.4)*

*Values in parenthesis represent mean values of chemical characteristics of ground water

Suitability of ground water for irrigation during pre-monsoon season

In the study area, 39 samples were collected from Bathinda, Faridkot and Mukstar districts as shown in Table 5.5 and out of 39 samples, 25 samples were collected from Bathinda district. Similarly for district Mukstar, 3 samples were collected and no sample was found having EC greater than 4.0, so salinity hazard in blocks Lambi, Malout and Gidderbaha can be ruled out. Similarly for district Faridkot, no sample was found having EC greater than 4.0. Depending upon the values of RSC in ground water samples, the study area was divided into two water quality

zones, viz., good and marginal saline to highly saline according to criteria of assessment given in Table 5.3. According to these classes, majority of the samples (60 percent) in the Bathinda district falls under category 2 of marginal saline to highly saline, which are suitable after mixing with canal water while 26 percent of the samples falls under category 1, suitable for irrigation and 16 percent under category 4, unsuitable for irrigation. In block Sangat only 4 samples fall under category 1, 2 samples under category 2 and 4 under category 4 (Table 5.5). In block Nathana 33 percent sa mples analyzed fall under category 1, 2 and 4.

81

Table 5.5 Chemical composition of groundwater for Pre-monsoon in districts Bathinda, Faridkot and Mukstar

Name of block

No of samples

Residual Sodium Carbonate RSC (me/L)

Conductivity EC (dS/m) Category of water

<2.5 2.5- 5.0

5.0- 7.5

>7.5 <2.0 2.0- 4.0

>4.0 1 2 4

Bathinda District Bathinda 7 5 1 1 0 3 2 2 1 4 2 Maur 4 2 2 0 0 2 2 0 1 3 0 Nathana 3 1 2 0 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 Phul 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 Sangat 10 5 3 2 0 6 3 1 2 7 1 Talwandi Sabon

10

7

3

0

0

5

2

3

4

4

2

Faridkot district Kotkapura 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 Mukstar district Lambi 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 Malout 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 Gidderbaha 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0

Effect of seasonal variations in groundwater quality and suitability categories

Effect of s easonal variations in groundwater quality was studied by collecting and analyzing samples for 39 samples from same locations for pre- monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon season. There were slight variations in EC and RSC values as result of seasons. However, there was hardly any variation in number of samples under different categories. Number of samples, under category 1 (Good category), were 9 in all seasons. Under category No. 2 (Marginal saline to highly saline category), pre- monsoon and monsoon samples were 25 while post monsoon samples are 26. Thus, one sample in category 2 shifted from category 4 (Poor category), which is not suitable for irrigation to category 2 during post monsson. If district wise trend was analyzed, during the pre-monsoon season, 26 percent groundwater samples were

suitable for irrigation, 60 percent were suitable after mixing with canal water and 14 percent were not suitable for irrigation in district Bathinda. In district Faridkot and Muktsar all the samples were under category 2. This trend was same in all the three seasons. During the monsoon season, the trend similar to pre-monsoon season was observed in Bathinda district. During the post-monsoon season, 26 percent groundwater samples were suitable for irrigation, 62 percent were suitable after mixing with canal water and 12 percent were not suitable for irrigation in district Bathinda. Table 5.6 suggests that effect of season on groundwater quality was not significant. It indicated that annual rainfall of the region was very low and recharge contribution, which could improve groundwater quality, was also low. Thus groundwater quality in region is influenced by regional groundwater flow and seepage from canal water rather than recharge from rainfall.

82

Table 5.6 Seasonal variations of groundwater quality and suitability categories

Season No of samples

Residual Sodium Carbonate RSC (me/L)

Conductivity EC (dS/m) Category of water

<2.5 2.5- 5.0

5.0- 7.5

>7.5 <2.0 2.0- 4.0

>4.0 1 2 4

Pre-monsoon 39 21 15 3 0 17 16 6 9 25 5 Monsoon 39 19 16 3 1 15 17 7 9 25 5 Post-monsoon 39 18 15 5 1 18 17 4 9 26 4 Category*01-Good; 02-Marginal Saline to Highly Saline; 04- Poor

5.3 Study of Ground Water Vulnerability in Baur – Behgul Interbasin Using Drastic Model (Pantnagar Centre)

Groundwater can be contaminated as a result of anthropogenic activities at / or near the earth’s surface. Once identified, these areas can be targeted by careful land-use planning, intensive monitoring, and by contamination prevention of the underlying ground water. Keeping it in view, study to assess vulnerability of groundwater to contamination was undertaken for Baur – Behgul interbasin by GIS based DRASTIC model. The DRASTIC model is the basis for the aquifer sensitivity rating and uses it preparation of vulnerability maps. It examines several components that are important in determining the level of aquifer sensitivity, which is the relative ease with which a contaminant applied on or near a land surface, can migrate to the aquifer of interest. The name DRASTIC is taken from initial letters of seven parameters i.e. Depth to water, net Recharge, Aquifer media, Soil media, Topography, Impact of vadose zone, and hydraulic Conductivity, were used to evaluate intrinsic vulnerability of aquifer systems.

DRASTIC index, made up of a sum of product of ratings and weights for these seven parameters, was calculated to assess threat of vulnerability as given in equation below.

DRASTIC Index = Dr Dw + Rr Rw + Ar Aw + Sr Sw + Tr Tw + Ir Iw + Cr Cw

where Dr = Ratings to the depth to water table (varying 1-10)

Dw = Weights assigned to the depth to water table (i.e. 5)

Rr = Ratings for ranges of aquifer recharge (varying 1-10)

Rw = Weights for the aquifer recharge (i.e. 4)

Ar = Ratings assigned to aquifer media (varying 1-10)

Aw = Weights assigned to aquifer media (i.e. 3)

Sr = Ratings for the soil media (varying 1-10)

Sw = Weights for soil media (i.e. 2)

Tr = Ratings for topography (slope) (varying 1-10)

Tw = Weights assigned to topography (i.e. 1)

Ir = Ratings assigned to vadose zone (varying 1-10)

Iw = Weights assigned to vadose zone (i.e. 5)

Cr = Ratings for rates of hydraulic conductivity (varying 1-10)

Cw = Weights given to hydraulic conductivity (i.e. 3) The DRASTIC final index was computed, in which each map was multiplied by its weight after assigning the appropriate range. Each parameter was assigned a rating interval from 1 to 10, with relative weight settings varying from 1 to 5. According to standard DRASTIC, the most significant parameter has a value 5, and the less significant one has a value 1. The value for the final index was classified as Very Low, Low, Moderate, High and Very High; it varied 0-80, 81-102, 103-122, 123-144, 145 and more, respectively. Spatial values of DRASTIC index for pre- monsoon condition in study area were computed on basis of depth to water table and are given in Table 5.7.

83

Table 5.7 Values of DRASTIC index for pre-monsoon condition of depth to water table.

Node No.

Place

DRASTIC index values for pre-

monsoon

Node No.

Place

DRASTIC index values

for pre- monsoon

1 Gularbhoj 106 13 Tiraha 141 2 Jhagarpuri 106 14 Milak 101 3 Motipura 101 15 Mirjapur 150 4 Khanpur 101 16 Sheeshgarh 101 5 Chhatarpur 146 17 Shergarh 150 6 Matkota 146 18 Mawai Qaziyan 150 7 CRC Pantnagar 106 19 Aadalpur 150 8 University Bhatta 106 20 Baheri 101 9 Satuiya 101 21 Hariharpur 101

10 Bilaspur 106 22 Dandia Abhaichand 106 11 Maheshpur 101 23 Bunchi 150 12 Meodi 101 24 Gursauli 101

It was observed that DRASTIC index for pre-monsoon varied from 101 – 150 (i.e from Low to Very High Vulnerability class).

Corresponding areas under different vulnerability classes are given in Table 5.8 and shown in Fig. 5.1 (a).

Table 5.8 Percent of study areas under different vulnerability classes (Pre-monsoon)

Sr. No.

DRASTIC Index Value

Area (ha) Area (%) Vulnerability Class

1 81-102 89420 41.09 Low 2 103-122 72811 33.45 Moderate 3 123-144 8471 3.89 High 4 145+ 46938 21.57 Very high

Total 217640 100 Similarly to pre-monsoon condition, spatial values of DRASTIC index for post-monsoon condition in study area were computed.

Corresponding areas under different vulnerability classes are given in Table 5.9 and shown in Fig. 5.1 (b).

Table 5.9 Percent of study areas under different vulnerability classes (Post-monsoon)

Sr. No.

DRASTIC Index Value

Area (ha)

Area (%)

Vulnerability Class

1 81-102 29977 13.78 Low 2 103-122 132254 60.76 Moderate

3

123-144 -

-

High 4 145+ 55409 25.46 Very High

Total 217640 100 The areas, which were under very high vulnerable pollution (25.46 percent of total area), were located at Chhatarpur, Matkota, Tiraha, Mirjapur, Shergarh, Mawai Qaziyan, Aadalpur and Bunchi, which was

due to lesser slope, high recharge, and coarse sand aquifer media that had high pollution potential rating. Waste water discharge from household and small-scale industries remained there for many months

84

and even years in low lying areas and hence the groundwater recharge by this wastewater leads to very high vulnerable zones. There was no high class of vulnerability in area compared to pre- monsoon condition. The majority of the study area had a moderate vulnerability

(60.76% of total area) distributed as given Table 5.9. The lowest vulnerability index was found in a v ery small area i.e 13.78 percent of the total area. This might be due to low depth to water table and low recharge level.

(a) Pre-monsoon (b) Post-monsoon Fig. 5.1 Ground water vulnerability map of the study area for a) pre-monsoon and b) post-

monsoon water table condition Considering average water table depth, spatial vulnerability index values were calculated and are given in Table 5.10 and shown in Fig. 5.2 (a).

Table 5.10 Percent of study areas under different vulnerability (average water table depth)

Sl. No. DRASTIC index value Area (ha) Area (%) Vulnerability class

1

81-102

71750

32.97

Low 2 103-122 90481 41.57 Moderate

3 123-144 - - High 4 145+ 55409 25.46 Very High

Total 217640 100 DRASTIC index for pre-monsoon, post- monsoon, and average depth to water table and net recharge from groundwater inventory were different but when they were classified in ranges, groundwater

vulnerability map for these cases was the same. Thus final classes of DRASTIC indices in terms of vulnerability are given in Table 5.11 and in Fig. 5.2(b).

85

Table 5.11 Final classes of DRASTIC index in terms of vulnerability Sr. No. DRASTIC

index value Area (ha)

Area (%)

Vulnerability Class

1 81-102 - - Low 2 103-122 162231 74.54 Moderate 3 123-144 - - High 4 145+ 55409 25.46 Very high

Total 217640 100

a) Average water table b) Final Fig. 5.2 Ground water vulnerability map of the study area for a) average water table and b)

final ground water vulnerability map The topsoil in the area dominated by sand with more than 50 percent sand and these soils were well drained to moderately well drained and had the highest amount of recharge. Therefore, very highly vulnerable areas were at Chhatarpur, Matkota, Tiraha, Mirjapur, Shergarh, Mawai Qaziyan, Aadalpur and Bunchi (Fig. 5.2 (b)). The groundwater level in this area was relatively high. The results of the study showed that of the total 217640 ha, an area of about 55409 ha was in the very high vulnerable zone with a DRASTIC index ranging from 145 and more. This meant that groundwater of the study area was at v ery high risk in terms of pollution potential which was due to lesser slope, high recharge and coarse sandy aquifer media. These areas were mainly in the southern

area and in some parts of northern area of Baur – Behgul interbasin where the physical factors like gentle slope and high water table were very well supporting the chances of getting shallow aquifer water polluted. There was no low or high class of vulnerability area as mentioned in Table 5.11. The majority of the study area had a moderate vulnerability (74.54% of total area) with a DRASTIC index range between 103 and 122 in Table 5.11. 5.4. Study of the Quality of Soils and

Surface and Groundwaters for their Suitability for Irrigation and Different Land Uses in the Command Area of Mahadev Distributary (Pantnagar Centre)

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The command area of Mahadev distributary consists of parts of Kashipur block of district Udham Singh Nagar of Uttarakhand and Bhagatpur block of district Moradabad of Uttar Pradesh. The total Culturable Command Area (CCA) of the distributary is 6958 ha, out of which 4275 ha command area falls in Kashipur block of district Udham Singh Nagar and remaining 2683 ha command area falls in Bhagatpur block of district Moradabad of Uttar Pradesh. The design head discharge capacity of the distributary is 4.58 cumecs (176 cusec) and the length of canal is about 23.8 km. The total length of minors taking off from the distributary is 86.66 km. The objectives of the study were to evaluate the soils of the command area for land capability and irrigability, to study physico- chemical properties of surface and ground waters of the command area and to study suitability of ground water and surface water for different users.

The soil and ground water samples were collected at head, middle and tail reach of Mahadev distributary and analyzed. Based on sand, silt and clay content, texture of the surface and subsurface soils in the command area varied from sandy loam to loam. According to A.I.S.L.U.S.O land classification, soils of head and tail reach of the distributary were put under the land capability class I and soil middle reach was classified as class II. The soils of head reach and tail reach were grouped under class I of land irrigability and soils of middle reach were put under class II land due to moderate limitations.

The values of pH, Ca, Mg, Ca hardness, Mg hardness, Total hardness, Chloride content and Electrical Conductivity (EC) in ground water samples were within the permissible limits for drinking purpose. Sampling was done from villages in head reach (Jaspur Khurd, Shyampur, Cotton mill Kashipur and Dhimar khera), middle reach (Lohiyapur, Kataiya, Chatarpur, Berkhera Pandy and Gidhari Gaon) and tail reach (KukarJhundi, Kishanpur, Burhanpur and Larpur Barahi). The value of TDS at Dhimarkhera, Lohiyapur, Burhanpur, Kukarjhundi and Kishanpur village was higher than permissible limit for drinking

water. The alkalinity value at all the locations of the command area was higher than the permissible limit except at Jaspur Khurd. Suitability of Groundwater for Irrigation was assessed on the basis of criteria proposed by Wilcox (1955), Richards (1954) and Westcot and Ayers (1984). Water was categorized by Wilcox (1955) for its suitability for irrigation on the basis of percent sodium and EC values. Based on the EC values, the ground water at Jaspur Khurd was found excellent for irrigation purpose; at Shyampur, Cotton mill, Girdhari Gaon, Berkhera Pandy, Kataiya, Chatarpur, Kukarjhundi and Larpur Barahi were found under the class “Good”, where as ground water at Dhimarkera, Lohiyapur, Burhanpur and Kishanpur were found the class “Permissible”. On the basis of sodium alkalinity hazard and salinity hazard (which depend on the value of EC) Richards (1954) suggested the water suitability criteria for irrigation. The ground water samples collected from different locations i.e. head, middle and tail ends of the distributary were classified for their suitability for irrigation, based on above criteria. On the basis of Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) value the ground water of Jaspur Khurd, Cotton mill, Girdhari Gaon, Kataiya, Berkhera Pandy, Chatarpur and Kukarjhundi might be classified as “Excellent” water for irrigation with SAR as 0– 10 whereas the ground water at Burhanpur and Kishanpur were classified as “Good” with SAR as 10- 18, ground water at Dhimarkhera and Lohiyapur as “Doubtful” with SAR as 18- 26 and at Shyampur and Larpur Barahi the ground water was unsuitable for irrigation with SAR > 26. The ground water of different locations of Mahadev distributary command area was classified into different class based on salinity and alkalinity hazard is given in Table 5.12. The ground water of Shyampur and Larpur Barahi came under C2-S4 class and ground water of Dhimarkhera and Lohiyapur was under Class C3-S3. For most of the places of command area the ground water was under Class C2-S1.

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Table 5.12 Chemical quality classification for ground water at different locations of Mahadev distributary command area

Sr. No.

Location Salinity hazard Alkali hazard Class

1 Jaspur Khurd Low Low C1 - S1

2 Shyampur Medium Very high C2 - S4

3 Cotton mill, Kashipur Medium Low C2 - S1

4 Dhimarkhera High High C3 - S3

5 Lohiyapur High High C3 – S3

6 Girdhari Gaon Medium Low C2 – S1

7 Barkhera Pandy Medium Low C2 – S1

8 Kataiya Medium Low C2 – S1

9 Chatarpur Medium Low C2 – S1

10 Burhanpur High Medium C3 – S2

11 Kukarjhundi Medium Low C2 – S1

12 Kishanpur High Medium C3 – S2

13 Larpur Barahi Medium Very high C2 – S4

Further suitability of irrigation water was assessed by Westcot and Ayers (1984) considering EC, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) and Specific ion toxicity (i.e. SAR). The ground water at Jaspur Khurd, Shyampur, Cotton mill Kashipur, Girdhari Gaon, Barkhera Pandy, Kataiya, Kukarjhundi, Chatarpur and Larpur Barahi was showing salinity hazard class “None” as EC less than 0.7 dS/m. The ground water at Dhimarkhera, Lohiyapur, Burhanpur and K ishanpur w as found “Slight to moderate” class of salinity hazard with EC 0.7 to 3.0 dS/m. Similar results were obtained for salinity hazard classification on the basis of TDS. On the basis of specific ion toxicity, which depended upon SAR value, the ground water at Jaspur Khurd, Cotton mill, Girdhari Gaon, Barkhera Pandy, Kataiya, Chatarpur and Kukarjhundi were found under the class “Slight to moderate” with SAR between 3 to 9 and at Shyampur, Dhimarkhera, Lohiyapur, Burhanpur, Kishanpur and Larpur Barahi was found under the class “Sever” with SAR >9. This study showed that the groundwater in the command area was suitable for drinking, brewing, carbonated beverages, food canning and freezing and paper (kraft, bleached). Due to high values of hardness, the groundwater of the study area was unsuitable for food equipment washing, laundering, rayon manufacturing, and tanning and textile industries, without proper water treatment.

5.5 Feasibility Study of Industrial Effluent of MIDC, Kurkumbh (Dist.Pune) and Groundwater in the Vicinity of Industrial Area for Crop Production (Rahuri Centre)

The Kurkumbh MIDC area is located in Pune district of Maharashtra in survey of India topological sheet number 47-J/11. In this industrial area, 143 chemicals and 81 pharmaceuticals industries are situated which generate lot of industrial effluent. This leads to the ground water pollution around area. In present investigation, an attempt was made to investigate the quality of industrial effluent and groundwater around Kurkumbh MIDC area of Pune district in Maharashtra. Effluents samples were collected from Common Effluents Treatment Plant (CETP) of industrial units of MIDC Kurkumbh at i nlet and outlet points. The ground water samples were also collected from eight different wells in surrounding areas (5 to 10 km away from of MIDC Kurkumbh) to check level of contamination. Samples at inlet were without any prior chemical treatment but samples at o utlet were treated. The industrial effluents are not directly discharged to any river or stream but stored and used for gardening after treatment. Industrial effluent and groundwater samples of the surrounding area were analyzed for various important characteristics such as pH, electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids, concentrations of cations and anions and

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SAR to decide suitability of samples for irrigation.

It was found from the analysis of industrial effluent that the pH at inlet and outlet of CETP was 8.23 and 8.57, respectively. It was within the permissible limits as per the standards for industrial effluents set by NEQS. The EC at Inlet and outlet of CETP was 903 and 330 μmhos/cm, respectively and TDS value at inlet and outlet of CETP was 577.2 and 211.2 mg/l, respectively. The NEQS for TDS is 3500 mg/l. All the samples at inlet and outlet of CETP had TDS values within the permissible limit of NEQS. The calcium was dominant cation observed in industrial effluent at inlet and outlet. Values of HCO3-, CO3-- and Cl- at inlet were 457.6, 180.0 and 2056 mg/l, respectively and the values of HCO3- and Cl- at outlet of CETP were 335.5 and 744.5 mg/l, respectively. This industrial effluent was dominated by chloride which causes incrustation of chlorides on soil surface. The value of SAR of the industrial effluent at inlet and outlet of CETP was 6.71 and 10.53, respectively, indicating that the industrial effluent had medium sodium and might be used on coarse textured soil.

All pH values of groundwater samples indicated that the pH of groundwater was within the permissible limit prescribed by US-EPA and WHO for drinking water standards. EC values ranged from 300 to 1680 μmhos/cm with an average value of 875.10 μmhos/cm. TDS value of groundwater ranged from 192 to 1079.00 mg/l with average of 587.10 mg/l. The TDS values observed for all groundwater samples were above the permissible limits of US-EPA and WHO standards. The groundwater was dominated by Ca++ and anions were observed in the order Cl-> SO4-- > HCO3- , which causes incrustation of chlorides on soil surface. The SAR of the groundwater ranged from 2.12 to 3.32 with an average value of 2.42.

The overall class of industrial effluent at inlet was found C3S1 which indicated low sodium, high salinity and water can be used for irrigation on almost all soils with little danger of development of harmful levels of exchangeable sodium but at the outlet it was found C2S2 class. This indicated medium sodium, medium salinity and good class of water which can be used for irrigation purposes on coarse textured

soil. The overall class of groundwater was found C2S1, indicating low sodium, medium salinity and good class of water and can be used for irrigation on almost all soils with little danger of development of harmful levels of exchangeable sodium except few wells (well No. 1, 3 and 5) of C3S1 class, which indicated low sodium, high salinity and permissible class of water can be used for irrigation on almost all soil. As all the water samples from the surrounding area showed that the water is suitable for irrigation purpose, crop experiments were not planned. 5.6 Feasibility Study of Urban

Wastewater Discharged in Sina River (Ahmednagar District) for Crop Production (Rahuri Centre)

In this feasibility study, an attempt was made to characterize the urban wastewater from Ahmednagar city, which was discharged into Sina River, and to evaluate its suitability for irrigation purpose. The waste water samples were collected at the four major outlet points through which the municipal wastewater was discharged into the Sina River and analyzed for pH, EC, TDS, concentrations of cations and anions, and SAR. Suitability for irrigation was decided on basis of alkalinity hazard, salinity hazard, sodium percentage and magnesium hazard. The irrigation class of the wastewater was decided based on Wilcox diagram. All pH values indicated that the pH of wastewater was of within the permissible limit indicating that wastewater was of normal quality. EC value of wastewater ranged from 1010 to 1420 µmhos/cm with an average value of 1268 µmhos/cm with low SAR. That meant the water could be reused for irrigation purpose without treatment. Total salt concentration of municipal wastewater sample ranged from 646.40 to 908.80 mgL-1with an average value of 811.50 mgL-1. It indicated slight hazard (TDS in between 500-1000 mgL-1) for use of this water for agricultural purpose. The SAR of wastewater ranged from 4.66 to 11.81 with an average value of 8.22. As per the classification suggested by Richards (1954) wastewater was of S1 class (SAR< 10) and wastewater could be used for irrigation of shallow to medium well drained black soil. The average irrigation class of wastewater in Sina River was of C3S1. This class indicated low sodium and high salinity

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water which could be used for irrigation on almost all soils with little danger of development of harmful levels of exchangeable sodium. As the wastewater was of good to permissible quality, crop experiments to study effect of waste water use on soil and crop yield were not planned.

5.7 Extent of Sewage Irrigation in Jabalpur City (Jabalpur Centre)

Sewage Irrigation causes ground water pollution as well as contamination of direct eatables grown through sewage water irrigation. In order to identify extent and severity of groundwater pollution due to

waste w ater drains flowing t hrough Jabalpur city, to know extent of sewage irrigated area and contamination of vegetables due to such irrigation, study about Motinala, Urdana nala and Omti nala was undertaken by Jabalpur centre. The details such as length and area irrigated by sewage water for different drains are provided in Table 5.13. The total area receiving irrigation through sewage water was found to be 1085 ha and around 10 percent area was under vegetables. It was observed that vegetables were grown upto distance 3 km on both sides. Various vegetables grown were cabbage, cauliflower, brinjal, Spinach and radish.

Table 5.13 Length and area irrigated by sewage water irrigation

Name of Nala

Length of Nala (m)

Area irrigated through sewage water irrigation (ha)

Motinala 13000 352.8 Urdana

nala 15500

420.6 Omti nala 11500 312.1

Total 1085.48 The pH of Motinala drain was found varying between 5.91 to 7.77 with minimum value at Gohalpur and maximum at Amkhera. The water became acidic at Gohalpur but improved after about half a km downwards. The EC was within permissible limit throughout. There was no indication of presence of Carbonate, Cadmium, Lead and Copper in all water samples collected at different distances along the drain. Bicarbonates Chloride, Cromium, Nickel, Manganese, Iron and Zinc were found in drain water but were within permissible limits. As these samples were taken in post monsoon season, a lot of self cleaning might have happened due to storm drainage. The drain water quality was assessed on scale of -10 to 10, developed by Jabalpur centre considering different parameters. The poorest water quality was observed at village Gohalpur while excellent water quality f or irrigation purpose was observed at Baba Tola. The periodic water samples were collected and quality parameters were evaluated for groups of elements as suggested by Ayres (1977). Main groups were major Constituents (Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, Chloride); Secondary Constituents

(Carbonate, Bi-carbonate, Nitrate, Potassium, Iron) Minor Constituents (Zinc, Copper, Manganese, Cadmium, Lead, Nickel) Biological (BOD, COD, DO, E-coli) and physical constituents (pH, EC, Temperature and TDS). The Ca was around 200 mg/l, Mg varied 100-150 mg/l, Na was around 40 mg/l, and Cl varied 75- 100 mg/l. There was no carbonate content except for April 11 (2.54 mg/l) .The content of Bicarbonate was found varying 10-13 mg/l, K (30- 35 mg/l) and Nitrate (2-3 mg/l). Values of BOD, COD, DO and E-coli was found to be lesser; 72.60mg/l, 64.6 mg/l, 4.80 mg/l and 9.0 millions, respectively, in February month. The values of BOD (88 mg/l) and DO (5.6 mg/l) were the maximum during March. Interestingly, the E coli gave tremendously high value of 1300 million in the month of April 11. The EC increased from February (0.81 dsm-1) to April (0.98 dsm-1) but decreased to 0.89 dsm-1 in May. All values were not crossing limits of BIS. It could be concluded that the most of the parameters were not crossing limits of BIS except the Manganese, Potassium and Calcium. Effect of Motinala water on ground water quality was also studied at most contaminated

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points (Motinala at G ohalpur). The ground water samples were analyzed for 13 parameters and water quality was represented in Scale -10. In general the ground water quality improved along the stream as well as across the drain. In the reach of 3000 m the ground water quality improved from 8.52 to 9.25 at Scale -10. Laterally it improved from 8.82 to 9.25. Three samples were taken at 500 m lateral distance from the drain. All the values of water quality parameters indicated good to excellent quality of ground water for irrigation purpose. It was observed that in upstream side, ground water pollution was the minimum along the drain or across the drain.

5.8 Assessment and Management of

Groundwater Quality in PAP Basin (Coimbatore Centre)

Groundwater quality assessment in Parambikulam Aliyar basin basin was done on basis of 35 groundwater samples collected from open wells, bore wells and dug cum bore wells. The conductivity of water samples ranged from 0.59 to 5.20 dSm-1, 0.13 to 5.91 dSm-1, 0.54 to 4.04 dSm-1 and 0.68 to 3.81 dSm-1 during April, June, October 2011 and January 2012, respectively. The samples were classified according to USSL classification. Most of the samples come under high salinity class (C3), (74, 71, 57 %) followed by very high salinity class (C4), (17, 17, 26 %) medium salinity class (C2), (9, 9, 17 %) low salinity class (C1), (0 %) during April, June and October 2011, respectively. Whereas during January 2012, most of the samples came under medium salinity class (C2) followed by high salinity class (C3), low salinity class (C1) and very high salinity class (C4). The pH ranged from 6.70 to 7.92 during April 2011, 6.75 to 8.46 during June 2011, 6.44 to 8.06 during October 2011 and 7.21 to 8.50 during January 2012.

The samples were analyzed for cations like calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium. Calcium content ranged from 0.6 to 15.2 m.e L-1, 0.6 to 16.8 m.e L-1, 0.4 to 2.2 m.e L-1 and 0.2 to 5.8 m.e L-1

during April, June, October 2011 and January 2012, respectively. Magnesium content varied from 0.9 to 20.5 m.e L-1, 0.8 to 19.5 m.e L-1, 0.2 to 2.5 m.e L-1 and 0.1 to 2.8 m.e L-1 during April, June,

October 2011 and January 2012, respectively. Sodium content was observed from 0.4 to 14.2 m.e L-1, 0.4 to 15.0 m.e L-1, 0.6 to 12.2 m.e L-1 and 1.2 to 4.8 m.e L-1 during April, June, October 2011 and January 2012, respectively. Potassium content varied from 0.06 to 1.34 m.e L-1

and 0.40 to 10.08 m.e L-1 during April and June 2011, respectively. Most of the samples were found to be magnesium dominating water. Magnesium exceeded the calcium content in most of the water samples in all the sampling. Anions like carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride and sulphate were analysed in the water samples. Carbonates varied from 0.8 to 4.0 m.e L-1, 0.0 to 4.4 m.e L-1, 0.0 to 4.4 m.e L-1 and 0.2 to 0.8 m.e L-1 during April, June, October 2011 and January 2012, respectively. Bicarbonates found dominate and it ranged from 1.0 to 10.3 m.e L-1, 0.8 to 12.2 m.e L-1, 2.0 to 17.0 m.e L-1 and 10.0 to 35.0 m.e L-1 during April, June, October 2011 and January 2012, respectively. Chloride content varied from 2.0 to 20.8 m.e L-1, 1.6 to 22.0 m.e L-1, 0.4 to 19.5 m.e L-1 and 1.2 to 20.9 m.e L-1

during April, June, October 2011 and January 2012, respectively. Total hardness in the study area varied from 5.5 to 122.2 m.e L-1, 7.8 to 123.0 m.e L-1, 1.8 to 22.5 m.e L-1 and 3.87 to 20.24 m.e L-1 during April, June, October 2011 and January 2012, respectively. Most of the samples are deficient in Ca and Mg. SAR values ranged from 0.3 to 6.09 m.e L- 1, -25.96 to 7.94 m.e L-1, -4.96 to 0.40 m.e L-1 and -4.68 to 2.44 m.e L-1 during April, June, October 2011 and January 2012, respectively. LSI values were calculated and it ranged from 0.25 to 2.15, 0.69 to 1.98, -0.15 to 0.88 and -0.14 t0 1.48 during April, June, October 2011 and January 2012, respectively. It showed that probability of salt encrustation in irrigation pipes was common in the study area. Permeability Index ranged from 22 to 89, 22 to 85, 48 to 100 and 38 to 103 during April, June, October 2011 and January 2012, respectively. Results of water quality analysis could be summarized as Sodium dominated among cations followed by magnesium, calcium and potassium. Among the anions chloride dominated followed by bicarbonate, carbonate and sulphate. Magnesium

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dominated water type was observed in majority of the places. Total hardness values indicated that most of the samples were deficient in Ca and Mg. Salinity persisted in the basin and sodicity was observed among the samples. Possibility of salt accumulation in irrigation pipes was observed from LSI values.

Soil quality

Surface and sub surface soil samples were collected from 30 places during January 2011 and analysed for physic-chemical characteristics where as water samples were collected from the PAP basin during April, June, October 2011 and January 2012 and analyzed for EC, pH, physical properties and available macro and micronutrient status. It was ensured that soil samples were collected from fields irrigated by respective groundwater sources.

The results of soil analysis depicted that bulk density of surface soils and sub surface soils ranged from 1.00 to 1.54 Mg m-3, 1.11 to 1.54 Mg m-3, respectively. Particle density of surface and sub surface soils ranged from 1.67 to 2.86 Mg m-3, 1.57 to 2.86 Mg m-3, respectively. Porosity of surface soils ranged from 22.81 to 51.52 per cent and in sub surface soils it was from 30.30 to 73.77 percent.

EC values ranged from 0.11 to 1.69 dSm-1

in surface samples and 0.12 to 0.50 dSm-1

in subsurface soil samples. Available N ranged from 78 to 311 Kg ha-1 in surface and 112 to 274 Kg ha-1 in sub surface soils. Available P ranged from 19 to 148 Kg ha-1

in surface and 17 to 105 Kg ha-1 in sub surface soils. Available K ranged from 245 to 1263 Kg ha-1 in surface and 188 to 2356 Kg ha-1 in sub surface soils.

Sixty per cent of the surface samples and 63.4 per cent of sub surface sample came under low available N category, 36.7 and 26.6 per cent of surface and sub surface samples came under medium available N status. In surface soils, high available phosphorus dominated with 86.7 percent followed by medium available phosphorus with 13.3 percent. Sub surface soils indicated all the soil samples with high available phosphorus. Hundred percent of surface and sub surface samples exhibited high status of available K. Organic carbon status was

dominated with low (53.3%) followed by medium (43.4%) in surface samples. In sub surface samples, 53.3 percent samples were under low and 30.0 percent samples were medium category in sub surface. Fe, Zn, and Cu was deficient both surface and subsurface soils and Mn was deficient in 20 percent of surface and 33 percent of sub surface soil samples. It indicated that most of the soils were deficient in micronutrients. The results could be summarized as majority of the soil samples were low in available nitrogen and organic carbon, high in available phosphorus and potassium. Most of the soil samples exhibited micro nutrient deficiency. 5.9 Assessment of Groundwater

Quality of Rajsamand District of Rajasthan (Udaipur Centre)

Rajsamand district is located in the southern part of Rajasthan State and extends between north latitudes 24°43’32” and 26°1’36” and east longitudes 73° 28’30” and 74°28’55”. Rajsamand district with the area of 4768 sq km covers 1.39 percent of total area of state and is divided into 7 Tehsils and 7 blocks (Fig. 5.3). It is bounded in the south and south west by Udaipur district, in the east and south east by Bhilwara and Chittaurgarh district, in the north by Ajmer district and in the west by Pali district. For collection of samples from district, a systematic grid square pattern (Grid size = 6km × 6km) was used. 128 water samples collected in pre and post monsoon from the open dug wells, which were used for irrigation for purpose of analysis. Rise in groundwater level during post monsoon season was observed in all the seven blocks of Rajsamand district. The lowest value of average depth to groundwater level in pre and post monsoon seasons (7.73 and 2.92 m bgl, respectively) was observed in Kumbhalgarh block whereas the highest value in pre and post monsoon season (16.88 and 10.22 m bgl, respectively) was observed in Railmagra block. The average depth to groundwater level in pre a nd post monsoon in Rajsamand district was recorded 11.58 and 5.66 m bgl, respectively. The lowest average depth of wells (13.78 m bgl) was recorded in Kumbhalgarh block whereas

the highest average depth of wells (22.12 m bgl) was observed in Railmagra block.

The average depth of wells in Rajsamand district was observed as17.75 m bgl.

Fig. 5.3 Location map of Rajsamand district of Rajasthan The groundwater samples were analyzed for quality parameters viz; TDS, pH, Electrical Conductivity, cations: Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium and Potassium, and anions: Sulphate, Chloride, Carbonate and Bicarbonate for pre and post monsoon season (Table 5.14). The average TDS of groundwater of whole Rajsamand was recorded as 1507.61 ppm in pre monsoon season and 1142.46 ppm in post monsoon season. Average pH was recorded as 7.16 and 7.41 in pre and post monsoon season,

respectively. Average EC of in pre and post monsoon season was recorded 2.35 and 1.82 dSm-1, respectively. The average calcium content in pre and post monsoon was found as 6.64 and 5.20 meq l-1

whereas the average magnesium for both the seasons was found 6.61 and 5.23 meq l-1, respectively. Average sodium content was 8.79 and 6.61 meq l-1 for pre and post monsoon whereas the average potassium was 0.88 and 1.00 meq l-1, respectively.

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Table 5.14 Quality of groundwater in pre and post monsoon season of Rajsamand District

Parameters Pre-monsoon Post-monsoon

Min. Max. Av. Min. Max. Av. pH 6.30 8.20 7.16 6.70 8.30 7.41

EC (dS/m) 0.25 13.44 2.35 0.18 9.08 1.82 TDS (ppm) 164.00 8600.00 1507.61 120.00 5810.00 1142.46 Ca (meq/l) 1.00 44.00 6.64 0.80 36.00 5.20 Mg (meq/l) 0.80 34.80 6.61 0.60 23.60 5.23 Na (meq/l) 0.00 48.25 8.79 0.25 39.50 6.61 K (meq/l) 0.00 6.60 0.88 0.00 11.60 1.00

SO4 (meq/l) 0.00 32.80 4.78 0.20 22.00 3.89 Cl (meq/l) 1.20 43.40 9.88 1.00 33.40 7.70

CO3 (meq/l) 0.00 14.40 2.55 0.00 18.80 2.11 HCO3

(meq/l) 0.60 38.60 5.73 0.60 26.00 4.36

In general, amount of anions was less during post monsoon in groundwater compared to pre monsoon season. Chloride was found the dominated anion in groundwater in both pre and post monsoon seasons followed by bicarbonate, sulphate and carbonate ions. The quality of groundwater improved considerably in post monsoon season due monsoon recharge. Out of seven blocks of the Rajsamand district, the three blocks namely Rajsamand, Railmagra and Nathdwara blocks found to have high (C3) to very salinity (C4) class groundwater. The dominated salt types present in groundwater were chlorides, bicarbonates and sulphates of sodium, calcium and magnesium.

5.10 Studies on Groundwater Pollution arising from different Sources (Pusa centre)

The Patna bye-pass area is situated on both sides of National highway No. 31. The whole area is receiving a continuous disposal of sewage sludge for a period of over 50 years. The farmers grow a variety of vegetables and field crops by lifting sewage water through pumps and open wells. Altogether, 16 sites were selected for collecting surface soil samples (0-15 cm) and various crop species during the year. All these soil and plant samples were studied for micronutrients including heavy metal cations (Zn, Cu, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cr, Co, Cd and Pb). The surface soil samples were also analyzed for general characteristics

viz. pH, EC, organic Carbon, available P2O5, and available K2O. The analysis revealed that pH of the soils ranged between 6.07 to 8.13 indicating that soils were slightly acidic to medium saline category. The electrical conductivity of the soils varied from 0.33 to 2.30 dSm-1. It was evident that there was gradual increase in EC along the distance mostly up to 9.0 km away from the discharge point due to accumulation of soluble salts owing to disposal of sewage sludge, but the extent was below the tolerance limit for most of the crops. The organic carbon content in soils of various locations varied from 0.56 to 8.73 percent with highest amount of organic carbon content nearest to the discharge point of sewage sludge. The available potash and phosphate in surface soils ranged from 114.2 to 479 kg/ha (K2O) and 215 to 1461 kg/ha P2O5. It was noticed that the nearest site contained highest (489 kg/ha) P2O5 as compared to distant site of the discharge point. Micronutrients and heavy metals in soil The concentration of Zn, Cu, Fe and Mn in sewage sludge treated soils at nearby and distant sites from discharge point of sewage sludge at Patna bye-pass were investigated. The sites nearer to discharge point contained higher concentration of these metal cations which declined with increasing distance from disposal point. Zinc content in soils of various locations ranged from 2.41 to 4.32 ppm. The

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concentration of extractable Cu in soils as influenced by sewage-sludge varied from 3.62 to 9.93 ppm. All the soils contained appreciably Cu content than the safe limit. The iron existed in water in soluble ferrous form and ferric form as insoluble. The concentration of extractable Fe at various sites ranged from 10.34 to 24.93 ppm. It was evident from the data that all the sixteen sites were sufficiently rich in Fe with maximum acumination at the point of discharge point (i.e. 24.93 ppm). At all sites, extractable Mn accumulated in the surface soil, but the extent of accumulated was recorded much higher (15.39 ppm) nearby the discharge point of swage. It was also observed that there was irregular distribution of extractable Mn along the distance. The concentration of DTPA extractable Ni accumulated in soils of various sites up to the extent of 1.10 to 6.8 ppm depending on the distance from the discharge point. The DTPA extractable Cr differed in all sites ranging between 0.01 to 0.10 ppm. The concentration of extractable Cd was found in the range of 0.08 to 0.68 ppm. The soil nearest to the sewage discharge point (S1) contained appreciably high amount of DTPA extractable Pb (10.2 ppm) which gradually decreased as the distance from the discharge point increased (10.2 to 3.20 ppm). Distribution of trace-metal cations in plants

Concentration of Zinc: The Zn concentration in different crop species varied from 108 to 241 (Red spinach), 81 to 107 (Cow pea), 76-103 (Okra), 112 to 118 (Sugar beat), 72 to 135 (Chilli), 142 to 182 (cabbage), 69 to 84 (Spongegourd), 81 to 102 (Cow pea), 78-93 (Brinjal) 84 to 106 (Maize) and 64 to 142 (Pumpkin) ppm. The relative accumulation in different crop species based on mean values might be arranged as: Cabbage> Red spinach> sugar beat> Chilli =Pumpkin > Maize > Cowpea> Okra > Brinjal > Spongegourd.

Concentration of Copper: The concentration of Cu varied from to a great extent from crop to crop and change in sites of sewage-sludge disposal area. It varied from 108 to 200 (Red spinach), 64 to 107 (Cowpea), 73 to 103 (Okra), 112 to 118 (Sugar beat), 69 to 135 (Chilli), 143 to 182 (cabbage), 68 to 142 (Pumpkin), 664 to 1100 (Brinjal) and 84 to 106 (Maize) ppm. Average accumulation of Cu, in different plant species was fond in order of Cabbage > Red spinach> Sugar beat> Pumpkin> Maize> Chilli> Okra> Cow pea> Spongegourd>Brinjal. Concentration of Fe: The total concentration of Fe in various plant species grown on soils receiving differential quantities of sewage-sludge varied widely. The Fe content in different plant species varied from 1221 to 1693 (Red spinach), 906 to 1378 (Cow pea), 707 to 1577 (Okra), 932 to 1506 (Chilli), 891 to 1297 (Sponge gourd), 1377 to 1732 (Cabbage), 664 to 1100 (Brinjal), 714 to 1200 (Pumpkin), 1794 to 1814 (Sugar beat), 1246 to 1420 (Maize) and 816 (Poi) ppm. Based on the average accumulation the crop species was found in the order of Sugar beet> Red spinach> Cabbage> Maize> Chilli> Okra> Cow pear> Sponge gourd> Pumpkin> Brinjal. Concentration of Manganese: The Mn concentration in different plant varied from 50 to 217 (Red spinach), 33 to 139 (cow pea), 36 to 162 (Okra), 57 to 129 (Pumpkin), 50 to 279 (Chilli), 91 to 178 (Cabbage), 46 to 149 (Brinjal), 119 to 157 (Sugar beat), 98 to 105 (Maize) and 92 to 204 (Sponge gourd) ppm. The average accumulation of Mn was found in the order of Red spinach> sugar beet> Cabbage> Chilli> Sponge gourd> Okra > Maize = Pumpkin > Brinjal > Cow pea. A comparative picture of accumulation of trace metal cations in various crop species grown in the sewage sludge affected area of Patna bye-pass region is shown in Fig. 5.4 (a) and (b).

94

95

conc

entr

atio

n, p

pm

conc

entr

atio

n, p

pm

Relative accumulation of trace metal cations in various crops grown in patna bye-pass area.

300

Relative accumulation of iron in various crops grown in patna bye-pass area.

2000 1800

250

200

150

100

50

0

Zn (ppm)

Cu (ppm)

Mn (ppm)

1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200

0

Crop Crop

(a) Trace metal cations (b) Iron Fig. 5.4 Relative accumulation of a) Trace metal cations and b) Iron in various crops grown

in Patna bye-pass area Concentration of Ni: The content of Ni in different plant species grown on sewage- sludge treated soils disclose a wide variation in its concentration in red spinach, cow pea, bhindi, cucumber, chilli, cabbage, sugar beet, brinjal, sponge gourd, Poi and pumpkin as 57 to 97, 23.5 to 73, 7.5 to 78, 29.0, 55.3 to 82.8, 44.1 to 47.4, 70.1 t0 92.0, 29.9 to 90.5, 70.1 and 32.0 to 94.3 ppm, respectively. Hence, different plant species varied greatly in their Ni content as sugar beet>red spinach> poi> chilli> Bhindi> sponge gourd> cabbage> pumpkin.

Concentration of Cr: The Cr concentration in red spinach varied from (75.0 to 87), Cow pea (21.5 to 74.0), bhindi (21.8 to 75.5), Poi 39.0), chilli (12.4 to 53), Cabbage (27 to 22.9), Sugar beet (72.3 to 82.5), maize (29 to 31.0), Brinjal (22.2), sponge gourd (12 to 42) and pumpkin (17.2) ppm. The average relative accumulation of Cr in different crop species could be placed in the order of: red spinach> sugar beet> Bhindi> Cow pea> poi> sponge gourd> maize> cabbage>Brinjal> Pumpkin. The study also revealed that Red spinach contained maximum Cr which was the minimum in brinjal.

Concentration of Cd: Different species of the crops behaved differently for accumulation of Cd. It varied from 4.8.0 to 15.1 ppm for red spinach, 2.2 to 9.0 ppm for cow pea, 0.9 to 9.3 ppm for bhindi, 1.4

to 5.5 ppm for pumpkin, 3.7 to 7.3 ppm for chilli, 5.6 to 5.62 for cabbage, 7.0 to 8.2 ppm for sugar beet, 6.5 ppm for brinjal, 8.2 for poi, 4.2 ppm for maize and 0.8 to 7.0 for sponge gourd. Considering the average values, Cd accumulation in different crop species was found in the order: red spinach> poi>sugar beet> Brinjal>Bhindi> cabbage>Cow pea> chilli>sponge gourd> Pumpkin. Concentration of Pb: The Pb concentration in different crop species varied greatly and was found to range of between 34.7 to 89.5 ppm for red spinach, 33.4 to 81.3 ppm for cow pea, 35.6 to 98.6 ppm for bhindi, 31.5 to 61.0 ppm for pumpkin, 82.1 to 92.9 ppm for cabbage, 28.4 to 81.0 ppm for sponge gourd, 63.6 to 84.0 ppm for chilli, 64.3 to 80.2 ppm for sugar beet, 82.8 ppm for poi and 36.0 to 42.0. It was also noticed that pb concentration also varied greatly in same plant at different sites receiving differential amount of sewage-sludge. Considering the mean Pb content in different plant species the cops may be arranged as: cabbage>poi>red spinach>sugar beet> chilli>Brinjal>Bhindi> Cow pea> chilli>sponge gourd> Pumpkin>maize. A comparative picture of accumulation of Cd, Cr, Ni and Pb in various crop species grown in the sewage sludge affected area of Patna bye-pass region is shown in Fig. 5.5.

96

conc

entr

atio

n, p

pm

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

0 Fig. 5.5 Relative accumulation of heavy metals in various crops grown in Patna bye-pass area

In general it was noticed that leafy vegetables as well as root crops accumulates most of trace metal cations to the greater extent at site closer to disposal point.

5.11 Study on Groundwater Pollution arising from Sugar Mills (Pusa Centre)

A study was also carried out to ascertain the effects of sugar mill effluents on ground water quality parameters of various water bodies nearby the sugar mills. Samples were collected during pre- monsoon period from various sources from surrounding areas of the Sugar Mill located at Gopalganj and Hassanpur (Samastipur district), respectively. All the water samples were analyzed in laboratory to assess the various quality parameters like pH, EC, Na, K, Ca+Mg, CO3-- +HCO3-, TDS, Cl-, NO3-N and some derived parameters viz. SAR by standard procedure.

Sugar mill at Gopalganj

The water samples from various sources showed pH value varied from 8.21 to 8.64 with an average of 8.48, which was found at par of the permissible range. Therefore, it is obvious from the data that pH values of majority of the sources fall under medium saline. The EC values varied from 0.31 to 1.22 (dS/m) with an average value of 0.64 (dS/m) and was found within the safe limit. Similarly, the concentration of Na and K did not show any definite trend in respect of radial distance from the sugar

mill. The concentration of Na ranged from 2.42 to 8.58 (me/l), while K varied from 0.06 to 0.30 (me/l) and was found within the safe limit. The concentration of Ca+Mg ranged from 6.30 to 26.0 (me/l) amongst the sources with an average value 13.49 (me/l). In general, concentration of Ca+Mg was found high near th e sugar m ill as compared to the water bodies situated away from the sugar mill. It was also obvious from the data that there was no definite trend beyond 10.0 km from the sugar mill. Water with concentration of Ca+Mg above >10 me/l was not suitable for domestic, industrial and irrigation purposes. Excessive hardness may also cause foliar deposits of calcium or magnesium carbonate under overhead irrigation. The concentration of CO3--

+HCO3- were found in the range of 2.50 to 5.50 (me/l) with an average value of 3.46 (me/l) and was found within the safe limit. SAR values ranged from 0.73 to 4.85 with an average value 2.24 which was found within acceptable range of drinking as well as irrigation water. The concentration of total dissolved solids (TDS) varied from 200 to 787 (ppm) with an average value 415 (ppm) thereby, ground water samples of various sources were in acceptable range for irrigation and drinking purposes. The chloride content in water samples were in the range of 6.20 to 15.2 (me/l) with an average value of 9.55 (me/l). A perusal of the data revealed that the water bodies yielded high chloride content (i.e.>10

97

me/l) at nearby of the sugar mill in comparison to the sources located at distant point of sugar mill. The study revealed that water bodies situated in surrounding areas of the sugar mill, contained high chloride content and found unsafe for irrigation. It was also noticed that the chloride content decreased in definite trend with radial distance from the sugar mill. Similarly, NO3 -N content in water samples of various sources varied from 5.8 to 8.0 (ppm) with an average value of 6.68 (ppm) indicating safe use of irrigation water.

Based on the categorization of irrigation classes, about 70 percent of the water bodies come under medium salinity hazard (C2S1) except some hand pumps which fall under high salinity hazard (C3S1). Hence, water of these sources needs special management for salinity control and requires controlled use of water with salt tolerant crops.

Sugar mill Hassanpur (Samastipur)

The pH of groundwater samples ranged from 8.20 to 8.76 with the average of 8.45 in various water bodies, which comes under neutral to saline. EC value of ground water samples varied from 0.30 to 1.67 (dS/m) with the average value of 0.58 (dS/m). The water can safely be used for drinking as well as irrigation purposes.

The concentration of Na varied from 3.70 to 8.56 (me/l) amongst the sources however, indicated that water bodies yielded high Na content at surrounding areas of the sugar mill than that of sources located away from the sugar mill, but were within acceptable range. The concentration of K did not show any trend in respect of radial distance from the sugar mill and it varied from 1.8 to 7.5 (me/l).

The concentration of Ca+Mg declined with increasing distance from the sugar mill almost up to 10 km, beyond which irregular trend was obtained. Its values were in the range of 11.6 to 28.2 (me/l) with average value 18.89 (me/l) in ground water of various water bodies. The data in table also revealed that all water bodies showed high content (i.e.>10.0 me/l) of Ca+Mg than permissible range of irrigation water. The concentration of (CO3--+HCO3- ) ranged from 2.42 to 5.20 (me/l) with the

highest value nearby sugar mill. SAR values ranged from 1.43 to 3.0 and were found within safe limit for irrigation and drinking purposes. The total dissolved solids ranged from 190 to 1068 (ppm) which was found below the safe limit as recommended by (WHO, 1971) and (FAO, 1985). It did not show any definite trend in respect of radial distance from the sugar mill. The chloride content in water samples of various sources varied from 6.6 to 13.2 (me/l). It was noticed that the chloride content decreased with increasing distance from the sugar mill almost up to 5.0 km. However, it was evident from the data that water bodies having chloride content (i.e. >10.0me/l) are unsafe for drinking and irrigation purposes. Similarly, NO3--N concentration ranged from 5.9 to 7.8 (ppm) with its average value as 6.94 (ppm) however, indicating safe utilization of water for both irrigation and drinking. The categorization of irrigation classes was carried out following the water quality chart (Richards, 1954). Overall analysis of the ground water of various sources indicated that most of the sources fall under medium saline with low sodium (C2S1), whereas some hand pump/ deep tube well was of C3S1 class which comes under high saline category. Hence, water samples of these sources require more attention towards salinity control and other irrigation management practices. 5.12 Ground Water Quality

Assessment around Somni Nala of Gajra Watershed (Raipur Centre)

Groundwater samples from different tube wells and surface water samples from upper, middle and lower reach of the stream of Somni watershed was collected each month and analysed in the Soil Science Laboratory of Department of Soil Science, College of Agriculture, Raipur. Samples collected during pre-monsoon period analyzed for chemical properties such as SAR, SSP, RSC, KSR and pH etc. The pH value ranged from 7.14 to 8.48 with a mean value of 7.40, EC value ranged from 0.37 to 0.86 with a mean value of 0.52 dS/m, the HCO3 ranged varied from 2.40 to 6.80 with a mean of

98

4.90 me/l, the Cl content ranged from 0.64 to 1.44 with a mean of 1.06 me/l, the Ca and Mg content ranged from 3.76 to 9.72 and 4.44 to 10.00 with mean value of 6.65 and 6.41 me/l, respectively. The Na and K values ranged from 0.58 to 1.75 and 0.19 to 1.44 with a mean value of 1.00 and 0.52 me/l, respectively. The SAR value varied from 0.36 to 0.94 with a mean of 0.56 me/l. The SSP and KSR values ranged from 4.41 to 10.17 and 0.04 to 0.60 with mean values of 7.08 and 0.11me/l respectively.

Analysis of post-monsoon season samples revealed that the pH value ranged from 6.94 to 8.31 with a mean of 7.25. The EC value ranged from 0.30 to 0.58 with a mean of 0.45 dS/m. The HCO3 content varied from 3.20 to 6.80 with mean of 5.18 me/l. The Cl content varied from 0.96 to 2.16 with a mean of 1.46. The Ca and Mg content ranged from 2.29 to 10.44 and 4.92 to 10.80 with mean value of 5.35 and 7.83 me/l, respectively. The Na and K values ranged from 0.63 to 2.23 and 0.21 to 1.48 with a mean value of 1.51 and 0.58 me/l, respectively. The SAR value varied from 0.34 to 1.24 with a mean of 0.85 me/l. The SSP and KSR values ranged from 4.36 to 15.33 and 0.04 to 0.18 with mean values of 9.77 and 0.12 me/l respectively. It was found that most of the chemicals were within the prescribed limits defined by Indian Standards for irrigation purpose.

Groundwater samples from different tube wells of the Kurudihnala watershed were

also collected on monthly basis and analysed. It was found that the concentrations of most of the chemicals were within the prescribed limits of the Indian Standard for drinking as well as irrigation water. Case study on surface and groundwater quality of Arang watershed A study on water quality analysis of surface and groundwater of Arang watershed (Sanghari nala) was conducted during the year 2010-11. The soil analysis was carried out at different locations of the watershed. The watershed is a part of eastern plateau Mahanadi basin which is located between 810.54’ to 820.0’ E longitude and 210.12’ to 210.12’ N latitude and covers an area of 54.50 km2. The elevation of the watershed ranges from 270 m to 290 m above Mean Sea Level (MSL). The average slope of the watershed is 1.5 percent. Predominant soil of the watershed is clay loam. The watershed receives an average annual rainfall of 1420 mm. The total of 24 water samples were collected from sources of surface water (open water stream and pond) and ground water (tube well and open well) in all villages in the watershed area and analyzed for the different standard parameters (pH, electrical EC, TDS, total hardness, calcium hardness, Ca++, Mg++, Na+, K+, Cl-, primary alkalinity, total alkalinity, carbonate, bicarbonate etc.). Results of analysis are given in Table 5.15.

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Table 5.15 Quality parameters of water sample of open water stream and tub well

S. No

Parameter Tube well

Open Stream

Standard Specifications

Suitability

Drinking Irrigation Drinking Irrigation Tube

well Open

Stream Tube well

Open Stream

1 pH 6.7 6.8 6.5 to 6.8

8.5 Yes Yes Yes Yes

2 Electrical conductivity (EC)

3035.20micro mhos/cm

463.37 micro mhos/cm

- - - - - -

3 TDS 1942.53 ppm 296.56 ppm

500 2100 No Yes Yes Yes

4 Total hardness (TH)

1008.00 ppm 192 ppm 300 - No Yes Yes Yes

5 Calcium hardness (CH)

545.02 ppm 112.21 ppm

- - - - - -

6 Calcium (Ca++)

218.01 ppm 44.88 ppm

75 - No Yes Yes Yes

7 Magnesium (Mg++)

112.5 ppm 19.39 ppm

30 - No Yes Yes Yes

8 Sodium (Na+)

187.2 ppm 15.4 ppm

- 26 - - Yes Yes

9 Potassium (K+)

64.2 ppm 2.8 ppm - - - - - -

10 Chloride (Cl-)

510.48 ppm 19.85 ppm

250 600 No Yes Yes Yes

11 Primary alkalinity (PA)

0.0 ppm 0.0 ppm - - - - - -

12 Total alkalinity (TA)

448 ppm 228 ppm 200 - No No - -

13 Carbonate (CO3)

0.0 ppm 0.0 ppm - - - - - -

14 Bicarbonate (HCO3)

546.56 ppm 278.16 ppm

- - - - - -

As per standards, tube well water was not suitable for drinking purpose. Surface water was suitable for drinking purpose except slightly higher total alkalinity. Both surface and groundwater were suitable f or irrigation purpose.

Total 07 soil samples were collected from different locations in watershed and analyzed for different chemical properties i.e., pH, Soluble Salt, Macro nutrient (N, P and K) and Micro nutrients (zinc, iron,

copper, manganese etc.). It was found that pH of soil samples ranged from 7.1 to 8.4, soluble salt ranged from 0.10 to 0.19 milli mhos; available Nitrogen ranged from 200.70 to 301.06 kg/ha; available Phosphorus ranged from 5.37 to 9.85 kg/ha; available Potash ranged from 89.6 to 324.8. The concentration of Zn ranged from 0.11 to 0.60 ppm; Fe ranged from 2.65 to 14.4 ppm; Cu ranged from 0.56 to 1.49 ppm and Mn ranged from 1.21 to 11.3 ppm (Table 5.16).

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Table 5.16 Concentrations of Zn, Fe, Cu and Mn in soils of watershed

S. No.

Village Name

Sample Code

Chemical Properties Zinc

(ppm) Iron

(ppm) Copper (ppm)

Manganese (ppm)

1 Amethi AM-1 0.11 3.79 0.65 3.59 2 Bodra BD-1 0.26 14.4 1.61 11.3 3 Ghumrabhata GH- S1 0.60 9.26 1.49 7.80 4 Khamtarai KH-1 0.20 5.39 0.89 6.22 5 Jaroud J-2 0.11 2.65 0.56 1.21 6 Kalai KL-1 0.20 4.65 0.95 2.46 7 Chhatauna CHHT-S1 0.29 6.33 1.24 7.92

5.13 Evaluation of the Skimming

Technology and Pumping Schedule in Coastal Area of South Saurashtra (Junagadh Centre)

The Mangrol and Porbandar Talukas of South Saurashtra are affected due to sea water intrusion and were selected for this study. After monsoon of 2010 to pre- monsoon of 2011, once in a month pumping for 8 hours was done from selected wells (Fig. 5.6). Total 16 samples,

at interval of half an hour, were collected from individual well. The samples were analyzed for chemical properties to know status of samples as per irrigation water quality criteria. Statistical analysis of water quality parameters viz. EC (dS/m), pH, SAR and RSC (me/l) were done according to completely Randomized Block Design (RBD) and minimum, maximum and average values were recorded from overall replicated data sets. General mean values were estimated from replicated data sets.

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Sampling

Well Pipe line

Static Water

Submersible Pump

Fig. 5.6 Schematic diagram of skimming well

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Analysis of pumped water quality of four wells at Mangrol and Porbandar showed that no significant effect was found in water quality parameters of samples taken at different pumping times at 0.5 hr interval. In case of different days of pumping also, water quality did n ot differed significantly. However, there were variations among samples at different sites and wells. It could be seen that no significant variation at 5% level were found among the quality parameters like EC, pH, SAR and RSC of samples taken at different pumping time. The mean of EC was found as 8.82 dS/m. All values were under very high category and thus pumped water was not suitable for irrigation purpose. The large variation in water quality was observed in Mangrol well 1. The EC of the water varied between 7.26 to 9.63 during five different sampling days and coefficient of variance was found as 7.40. It showed the variation among the water quality at different dates of pumping test of well 1. In case of pH, the maximum value was 7.99 and minimum was 7.25. It indicated lower variation in the pH value within the timing interval. Timing interval of sample drawn from well 1 showed qualitative change in the water for pH and it was found as safer limit for irrigation purpose and coefficient of variance for pH was 2.79. The mean of SAR was 11.56, which was higher than safe limit of 10.0.

Major observations based on study are listed below.

• The mean of EC of pumped water was found as 8.8 and 12.6 dS/m, respectively at Mangrol Well 1 and Well 2, respectively, while it was 3.19 and 2.87 dS/m at Porbandar Well 3 and Well 4. These all values were found in high to very high category class .i.e. C4 and C5.

• It could be seen that no significant variation at 5% level was found among the quality parameters like EC, pH, SAR and RSC of samples taken at different pumping time for all of the 4 sites.

• The farmers are getting limited 8 hours electric supply daily and the observation revealed that the eight hours pumping of open well has no significant effect on quantity of discharge water.

These results of study showed that sea water intrusion has already taken and there is no layer of fresh water floating on saline water. Under this situation, enhancing groundwater recharge, creating layer of fresh water and extracting it through systematic pumping schedule can be long- term solution.

5.14 Estimation of Pesticides Residues in Groundwater of Saurashtra Region (Junagadh Centre) In Saurashtra region, per ha consumption of pesticide is more as two cash crops (i.e. cotton and groundnut) are grown in the region. In view of this background efforts were made to determine the residual concentrations of pesticides in the ground water as w ell as in groundnut and cotton seeds. Groundwater samples were collected from the different places of Saurashtra region as per the standard procedure applied by Groundwater board for groundwater sampling. While the pods of ground nut and cotton seeds were collected from farmers fields and brought in to plastic bags as per the required conditions of sampling given by the AINP residue Laboratory Anand Agricultural University, Anand for the further analysis of pesticide residues analysis. Group of Organic chlorides, Synthetic pyrethroids and herbicides residues were estimated. Instruments used for the analysis was GLC: Shimandzu, Thermo Trace GC, GC-MS: Focus Polaris Q. Standards used were procured from Sigma-Aldrich e.g., Organochlorines, organophosphates, syntheticpyrethroids an d h erbicides. 0.1 ppm standards were used. The methodology adopted and standard were used as the standard procedure applied by Hernandez et al. (1993). [Hernandez F, Beltran J and Sancho JV (1993). Study of multi-residue methods for the determination of selected pesticides in ground water. Results of analysis of eight ground water samples as well as cotton and groundnut kernel produce samples of cotton and groundnut showed that residues of the pesticides, herbicides and synthetic pyrethroids were found below detection limit (BDL) in Junagadh district. Though the farmers of this region are utilizing pesticides and fertilizers in their fields, SPs viz Bifenthrin, Fenpropathrin, L- cyhalothrin, B-cyfaluthrin, a-cypermethrin, Fenvalerate-I, Fenvalerate-II, Deltamethrin did not found in ground water sample. Six herbicides viz Trifluralin,fluchloralin, Alachlor, Metolachlor, Dicofol-I, Pendimethalin, butachlor, chlorbenzilat were not detected in any sample. Organic chlorine group of 20 standards were compared but all were found in below detection limit (BDL). Similarly, the groundnut and cotton seed collected from the region did not found any OCs, SPs or herbicides residues. Results of analyses were confirmed by AINP on pesticides residues laboratory Anand agricultural university, Anand Gujarat in

India. All ground water samples were analyzed for Nitrate nitrogen and concentration was more than 45 ppm. Therefore, groundwater is hazardous for drinking purpose.

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6. TRANSFER OF TECHNOLOGIES

6.1 Transfer of Technology to Farmers (Ludhiana Centre)

6.1.1 Installation of recharge structures

In order to propagate the groundwater recharge through rooftop, f our demonstration units were installed at Krishi

Vigyan Kendras at different places namely; Bahowal (District: Hoshiarpur), Kheri (District: Sangrur), Samrala (District: Ludhiana) and Bathinda. Also one demonstration unit was installed at Rurka Kalan (District: Jalandhar) for the office of Agricultural department.

Plate 6.1 Rainwater harvesting structures for groundwater recharge

6.1.2 T.V./ Radio Talks

Sr. No.

Topic Date of Recording Location Name of Scientist

1 How to arrest declining water table in Punjab

28 March,2011 PAU, Ludhiana Dr. R. Aggarwal

2 Rainwater harvesting for groundwater recharge

5th August,2011 PAU, Ludhiana Dr. R. Aggarwal

3 Recharging Rainwater 8th August,2011 All India Radio, Patiala

Dr. R. Aggarwal

6.1.3 Articles in News paper

Scientists of centre wrote articles on artificial groundwater recharge in leading news papers

such as Hindustan Times, Indian Express, Bhaskar and local language news papers.

6.1.4 Participation in seminars, conferences, symposia, workshops etc.

Sr. No.

Programme Venue Date Name of Scientist

1 Indo-US Workshop PAU, Ludhiana 28th Feb. to 3rd Mar. 2011

Dr. Sunil Garg

2 Scope of greenhouse technology in Punjab

Department of Soil and Water Engg, PAU, Ludhiana

8th Apr. 2011 Dr. Sunil Garg

3 Workshop on strategy to implement IWMP in non kandi area w.r.t. depleting water resources

Soil Conservation Complex, Phase IV, Mohali

11th Apr. 2011 Dr. R. Aggarwal

4 Chief scientist meet of AICRP on Groundwater Utilization

PUSA, RAU, Samastipur

28-30th Apr. 2011

Dr. R.Aggarwal Dr. Sunil Garg Er. Chetan Singla

5 Research and Extension Specialists Workshop for Soil & Water Conservation

PAU, Ludhiana 5th May 2011 Dr. R.Aggarwal Dr. Sunil Garg Er. Chetan Singla

104

105

6 Water Resource Day PAU, Ludhiana 25th May 2011 Dr. R.Aggarwal Dr. Sunil Garg Er. Chetan Singla

7 Fourth International Groundwater Conference (IGWC-2011) on The impact of climate change on groundwater resources with special reference to hard rock terrain

Madurai 27-30th Sept. 2011

Dr. Sunil Garg

8 Safer and more sustainable disposal of domestic sewage effluent in India using agro- forestry systems

Department of Forestry & Natural Resources, PAU, Ludhiana

18th Oct. 2011 Dr. Sunil Garg

6.1.5 Invitation Lectures

Sr. No.

Programme Venue No. o lectures

Date No. of partici- pants

Name of Scientist

1. Rainwater harvesting techniques at PAU campus & visit to sites

PAU, Ludhiana

1 25/02/11 5 Dr. R. Aggarwal

2. Declining water resources in Punjab and its remedial measure

Banga 1 24/03/11 66 Dr. R. Aggarwal

3. Planning, layout and design of drip irrigation system

PAU, Ludhiana

1 08/04/11 20 Dr. Sunil Garg

4. Rain Water Harvesting for groundwater recharge & visit to water ha rvesting structures

PAMETI, Ludhiana

2 10/05/11 16 Dr. R. Aggarwal

5. Planning, layout and design of drip irrigation system

PAU, Ludhiana

1 19/05/11 20 Dr. Sunil Garg

6. Planning of Water Harvesting and Groundwater Recharge

PAMETI, Ludhiana

1 26/05/11 23 Dr. R. Aggarwal

7. Planning, layout and design of drip irrigation system

PAU, Ludhiana

1 16/06/11 20 Dr. Sunil Garg

8. On farm water management and its efficient utilization

SWE, PAU, Ludhiana

1 23/06/11 18 Dr. R. Aggarwal

9. Introduction of drip irrigation system

KVK, Ropar 1 06/07/11 20 Dr. Sunil Garg

10. Planning of Water Harvesting and Groundwater Recharge

PAMETI, Ludhiana

1 30/08/11 23 Dr. R. Aggarwal

11 Recharging of groundwater KVK, Nurmahal

1 12/09/11 47 Dr. R. Aggarwal

12 Rainwater harvesting for groundwater recharge

KVK, Samrala

1 17/10/11 47 Dr. R. Aggarwal

13 Watershed Concept & Watershed Management

PAMETI, Ludhiana

1 08/11/11 46 Dr. R. Aggarwal

14. Watershed Concept & Watershed Management

PAMETI, Ludhiana

1 21/11/11 48 Dr. R. Aggarwal

15.

Best Practices for Agricultural Pump sets and Rural Demand side Management distribution reforms, upgrades and management (DRUM) training of Program.

BBMB, Nangal

2 21/12/11 28 Dr. R. Aggarwal

16. Watershed Concept & Watershed Management

PAMETI, Ludhiana

1 29/12/11 46 Dr. R. Aggarwal

17. Watershed Concept & Watershed Management

PAMETI, Ludhiana

1 09/01/12 27 Dr. R. Aggarwal

18. Watershed Concept & PAMETI, 1 10/01/12 27 Dr. R. Aggarwal

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Watershed Management Ludhiana

6.1.6 EXHIBITIONS ARRANGED:

• PRECISION AGRICULTURAL TECHNIQUES AND TECHNOLOGIES ON 28TH FEBRUARY, 2011 AT PAU, LUDHIANA ON OCCASION OF INDO US WORKSHOP-2011

• NATIONAL LEVEL TRAINING AND EXHIBITION ON PLANT AND MACHINERY FOR HORTICULTURE USE ON 10-12TH MARCH, 2011AT PAU, LUDHIANA

6.1.7 Consultancy/Technical Advice:

• Technical advice for installation of

rainwater harvesting for groundwater recharge at Baba Farid Group of Institutions, Bathinda by Dr. Rajan Aggarwal

• Technical advice for installation of tube wells to M.B.S. Sandhu for his 200 acre farm at village Phul near Ropar by Dr. Rajan Aggarwal

• Technical guidance for installation of rainwater harvesting for groundwater recharge at Divya Jyoti Jagrati Sansthan, Nurmahal (Jalandhar) by Dr. Rajan Aggarwal

6.1.8 Participation in Kisan Melas

• All the scientists of the scheme

participated in Kisan Melas at the main campus and regional stations twice the year to show various technologies developed in the scheme.

6.1.9 Participation in trainings

• Er. Chetan Singla attended training programme on Data analysis using SAS of the NAIP Consortium at PAU, Ludhiana during July 11-16, 2011.

6.2 Transfer of Technology to Farmers (Pantnagar Centre) 6.2.1 Farmers’ Training Programmes To acquaint the farmers of the region with the development of propeller pump, foot valves, and to educate them regarding the selection of pumps and pipe fittings to achieve the high efficiency of the pumping system, optimal utilization of available land and water resources, and their efficient management meetings with the farmers were organised at different places in Uttarakhand as given below. Topics of farmers’ interest were covered.

Farmers’ trainings organised by Pantnagar centre

Location Duration

No. of Farmers

District Village Total Male Female Gen. SC ST OBC

Nainital Haripur Kaliyajala

July 25-31, 2011

54 42 12 8 46 - -

Deviram Pur 58 17 41 55 - 1 2 Dhanpur Oct. 17-23,

2011 56 37 19 51 1 - 4

Bandar Jyooda 52 48 4 32 9 - 11 Dehradun Kailash Pur May 06-12,

2011 57 42 15 55 - - 2

Nakrauda 58 15 43 55 - - 3 Haripur Nov. 24-30,

2011 76 16 60 5 25 18 28

Tilwari 57 38 19 57 - - - Haridwar

Halu Majra September 15-21, 2011

55 55 - 38 13 - 4

Mewar 56 56 - - - - 56

Udham Singh Nagar

Biriya Oct. 16-22, 2011

21 7 14 - - 21 -

Audali 50 12 38 - - 50 -

Almora Paithana Nov. 5-11, 2011

78 23 55 75 3 - - Qumaleshwar 50 12 38 45 - - 5

Total 778 420 358 476 97 90 115

6.2.2 Organization of trainers’ training programme

Trainers’ training programme of 14 days was organised during 1-14 Dec. 2011 at Department of Irrigation & Drainage Engineering, College of Technology, Pantnagar. Total 27 participants (24 male and 3 female) took part in it. Besides other general topics, topics such as selection of

pumps for efficient operation; selection of prime m over; s election of pipe s ize; selection of foot valve/ reflux valve; selection of bends and other fittings; selection of pump for high discharge against low heads; conjunctive use of canal and ground water; use of micro-irrigation for water conservation and proper management of land and water resources were also covered in the training.

(a) Farmers’ training (b) Trainers’ training

Plate 6.2 Organization of training for Farmers and Trainers by Pantnagar centre

6.2.3 Seminars/Conferences attended by scientists

Dr. H.C. Sharma, In-charge AICRP on GWU, Pantnagar and D r Yogendra Kumar, Professor and Head attended National Seminar “Strategic Resource Management for Sustainable Food and Water security” held at G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar- 263145 (Uttarakhand), India from June 13-15, 2011. Dr. H.C. Sharma also acted as Organizing Secretary of National Seminar. Both also attended 45th Annual Convention of Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers and International Symposium on Water for Agriculture held at Dr. P.K.D.V. Campus, Nagpur from January 17 to 19, 2011.

6.3 Transfer of Technology to Farmers (Rahuri Centre) 6.3.1 Farmers’ training programmes The four days farmers training programme was organized on “Agricultural pumps: selection, repairs and maintenance” during 14-17 February, 2011 at Central Campus, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri. Total 18 participants attended the training. The two days farmers’ training programme entitled “Groundwater: Artificial recharge and its utilization” was successfully organized at Dr. Annasaheb Shinde College of Agricultural Engineering,MPKV,Rahuri during period December 8-9,2011. Total 25 farmers participated in it.

(a) (b)

Plate 6.3 Farmers’ training programmes on (a) Agricultural pumps

(b) Groundwater Recharge at MPKV, Rahuri

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6.3.2 Participation of scientific staff in national conference / seminars / symposium

• Dr. S. D. Dahiwalkar attended the 45th

ISAE Convention and International Symposium on Water for Agriculture held at Nagpur during 17-19 January, 2011.

• Er. S. A. Kadam attended the 45th ISAE Convention and International Symposium on Water for Agriculture held at Nagpur during 17-19 January, 2011.

• Dr. S. D. Dahiwalkar, Research Engineer, attended National Convention of Agril Engg. at Institute of Engg., Hyderabad during Jan.24-25, 2011.

• Dr. S. D. Dahiwalkar attended the Chief Scientists Meet of AICRP on Ground Water Utilization held at Rajendra Agriculture University, Samastipur, Bihar during April, 2011.

• Dr. S. D. Dahiwalkar attended the Brain storming session on climate change held at Directorate of Research, MPKV, Rahuri on last week of August 2011.

• Dr. S. D. Dahiwalkar attended 26th Indian Engineering Congress held at Bangalore during period 15-18, Dec.2011.

6.3.3 Participation of scientists in training course

• Er. S. A. Kadam, Asstt. Research

Engineer, completed the training course on “Crop Micro-Meteorology”, held at Dept. of Agricultural Meteorology, College of Agriculture, Pune during 02.02.2011 to 22.02.2011 (3 weeks)

6.4 Transfer of Technology to Farmers (Jabalpur Centre)

6.4.1 Meetings with Farmers of WUA in canal command area Water User Association formed by the government is the elected forum of irrigators of a particular area. It serves as a bridge between government and farmers. Hence WUAs were chosen by centre as a medium to educate farmers. The meeting of all the WUAs working in the area was held on 8-06- 2011 at v illage Bauchhar of Gotegaon block. Eleven chairmen of the WUAs participated in the meeting along with several members of association from Bauchar to Gotegaon. This meeting was aimed to know the experience of farmers with canal water and associated problems and to educate them for efficient use of canal water. WRD was also involved in this meeting and Mr. S.K. Jain Sub Engineer represented the department. Similarly local Janpad Panchayat Member Shri Varun Saxena represented farmers. Meeting was chaired by Mr. Patel a senior farmer. WUA chairman were invited one by one to speak about their association. The quarries and problem raised by the farmers were answered by Dr. R.K. Nema, Dr. M.K. Awasthi, Dr. R.N. Shrivastava and Mr. Jain of WRD. Dr. Awasthi gave a thought provoking and convincing lecture to promote pressurized irrigation in command areas. Dr. Nema talked each and every irrigator present in the meeting and tried to solve problems patiently. Progressive farmer of the area and winner of many awards Shri Narayan Patel shared his views and experiences and assured GWU scientist to adopt sprinklers. A user’s manual and guide book on irrigation methods “Sichai Vidhi Nirvahan - Samay Ki Mang” prepared by GWU, Jabalpur Center along with many extension pamphlets were distributed to the farmers.

Plate 6.4 Interactive meetings by scientists with members of WUAs A meeting of the members and president of WUA, Bijori and scientist of GWU project. Jabalpur centre was held on 25/11/11, in the command area of Jhansi at farmer’s field.

This meeting was aimed to have dialogues with WUA people. It was observed that as the WUA members and farmers were advised to take up the cleaning of the minor,

108

109

making it free from weed de-silting of the minors and using water on rotational basis. They have adopted it in some part and are getting full advantage of the system.

6.4.2 Trainings to officers of government departments

Scientists of the project were also involved in Training of officers of the Department of Agriculture and Horticulture and Water Resources as a part of programme on water productivity improvement in command areas of MP. Following activities were undertaken.

• In the year 2011-12 total 08 trainings of

Junior and middle level Officer of the Department of Agriculture, Horticulture, Water Resource and SMS of KVK’s were conducted. Total 102 participants attended the trainings.

• Two special trainings were conducted for Assistant Director, Department of Farmer Welfare and Agriculture Development (M.P.) on “Use of Remote Sensing and GIS in Agriculture” In these trainings 19 participants were present.

• Training to WUA members were organized by KVKs at Damoh, Katni, Chhatarpur, Tikamgarh Panna, Sagar, Umariya, Rewa and College of Agriculture, Ganjbasoda. In total 49 trainings, 2608 members of Water User Association were benefited at 9 locations during the year 2011-12.

• A special training on Irrigation Water Management was organized at all 9 locations during 26-27th March 2012. Total 659 President and Secretaries of

WUAs attended the training and appreciated the technical input given by Scientist and field workers at different locations.

6.4.3 Display of Improved Technology at Demonstration Units • Demonstration units are being maintained

at Sagar, TIkamgarh and Jabalpur on irrigation methods and improved crop management as well as Horticulture. More than 1500 farmers visited the demonstration unit during 2011-12

6.4.4 Participation in Kisan Mela and Kisan Sangoshthi Scientists of centre participated in Kisan Mela and Kisna Sangoshthi, delivered lectures in farmers’ training centre, prepared leaflets and distributed to farmers and delivered talks on Akaswani Varta on Irrigation methods and efficiencies. 6.5 Transfer of Technology to Farmers (Coimbatore Centre) 6.5.1 Farmers’ training programmes Under the XI plan scheme of DWM, Bhubaneswar on “Scaling up of water productivity in agriculture for livelihoods through teaching cum demonstration to the trainers and farmers” the following trainings were organized at Water Technology Centre, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore.

Sr. No.

Date

Place

1 20th-26th Jun. 2011 Rettiyarur village, Pollachi (south) block, Coimbatore 2 11th-17th Jul. 2011 Veeralptti village, Pollachi (South) block, Coimbatore 3 8th-14th Aug.2011 Thondamuthur village (South) block, Coimbatore 4 5th-11th Sept.2011 Kanjampatty village, Pollachi (South) block, Coimbatore 5 19th-25th Oct. 2011 Ukayanur village, Palladam block, Tripura 6 14th-20th Nov. 2011 Sedapalayam village, Palladam block, Tripura 7 21st-27th Nov. 2011 Vadugapalayam village, Palladam block, Tripura 8 1st-7th Dec. 2011 Kalappatty village, Coimbatore 9 2nd-8th Jan. 2012 Kethanur village, Pongalur block, Tripura

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Plate 6.5 Organization of farmers’ trainings by Coimbatore centre 6.5.2 Trainers’ training conducted at TNAU, Coimbatore

Sr. No.

Period No. of participants

Departments of participants

1 16th -29th Aug.

2011

19

Agriculture and Agricultural Engineering Department, Agricultural Marketing, Horticulture and NGO’s

2 8th -21st Dec.

2011

21

Agriculture and Agricultural Engineering Department, Agricultural Marketing, Horticulture and NGO’s

Training on “Development of Participatory Irrigated Cropping Systems” to the middle level officers of Department of Agriculture, Government of Rajasthan was held from

27.01.12 to 01.02.12. About 14 participants attended this training. Field visits to Aqua sub Industries; Coimbatore was also arranged for practical exposure.

Plate 6.6 Training on Development of participatory Irrigated cropping systems by Coimbatore

centre 6.5.3 Participation of scientific staff in national conference / seminars / symposium

Dr. C. Mayilswami, Professor (SWCE), Chief scientist (GWU), Er. A. Valliammai, Assistant Professor (SWCE) and Dr. P. Jothimani,

Assistant Professor (ENS) attended the Chief scientists’ meet of the All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Groundwater Utilization (GWU) was held at Rajendra Agricultural University (RAU), Pusa (Samastipur), Bihar during 28-30, April 2011.

Dr. C. Mayilswami, Professor (SWCE), Chief scientist (GWU), Er. A. Valliammai, Assistant

Professor (SWCE) and Dr. P. Jothimani, Assistant Professor (ENS) attended the fourth International Groundwater Conference (IGWC2011) on “The impact of climate change on groundwater resources with special reference to hard rock terrain” held at Yadava College of arts and science, Madurai from 27.09.11 to 30.09.11.

Plate 6.7 Participation scientists in seminars/ conferences

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Dr. C. Mayilswami, Professor (SWCE), Chief scientist (GWU), Er. A. Valliammai, Assistant Professor (SWCE) and Dr. P. Jothimani, Assistant Professor (ENS) attended the International conference on Climate change, Sustainable Agriculture and public leadership at NASC complex, New Delhi during 07.02.2012 to 09.02.2012.

6.6 Transfer of Technology to Farmers (Udaipur Centre)

6.6.1 Farmers’ training programmes Under the XI plan scheme of DWM, Bhubaneswar on “Scaling up of water productivity in agriculture for livelihoods through teaching cum demonstration to the trainers and farmers” the following trainings were organized by Udaipur centre.

Sr. No.

Period

Place

1

24-30 Nov. 2011 Village Maharaj Ki Khedi, Tehsil-Vallabhnagar, District Udaipur

2 24-30 Dec. 2011 Village Karget, Tehsil-Girwa, District Udaipur 3 29 Feb.-6 Mar.2012 Village Bijanvas, Tehsil- Mavli, District Udaipur

6.6.2 Training programmes for government officials

• Organized six days WDT training of Bikaner, Nagore and Jodhpur district on Watershed Management under Integrated Watershed Management Programme during 4-9 July, 2011 at CTAE, Udaipur sponsored by Directorate of Watershed Development, Govt. of Rajasthan.

• Organized six days WDT training of Sirohi and Jalore district on Watershed Management under In tegrated Watershed Management Programme during 16-21 August, 2011 at CTAE, Udaipur sponsored by Directorate of Watershed Development, Govt. of Rajasthan.

• Organized One Month Para Engineer Training on Watershed Management under Indo-German Watershed Management Project during 6 September

to 05 October, 2011 at CTAE, Udaipur sponsored by NABARD, Jaipur.

6.7 Transfer of Technology (Pusa Centre) 6.7.1 Farmers’ Training Programmes Farmers’ training programmes were organized through 10 KVKs of RAU, Pusa under XI plan scheme of DWM Bhubaneswar on ‘scaling up of water productivity in agriculture for livelihoods through teaching and demonstration’. Altogether 1100 farmers in 20 batches were trained on various scientific approaches for making better utilization of scarce water resources including demonstrations and field visits. Farmers were made acquainted with various schemes implemented by the governments to support farming community and new technologies available for enhancing the agricultural production with limited water use.

Plate 6.8 Organization of farmers’ trainings by Pusa centre

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6.7.2 Participation in Kisan Mela Kisan Mela was organized by Rajendra Agricultural University during 17-19 March, 2012. A stall was arranged by the scientists of this centre to increase the awareness in safe exploration and utilization of ground water. The farmers were educated on the various aspects like care and maintenance of diesel pumping systems, an application of Raingun irrigation systems and their queries about the availability and Government’s

schemes for promotion of such technology etc. were explained. Farmers were also acquainted w ith importance o f various quality parameters, their application in field crops, causes of ground water contamination and their remedies in relation to human health and sustainable crop production, through pictorial presentation. The scientists of the centre participated in the Kisan Gosthi organized on this occasion and replied to the queries of participating farmers.

Plate 6.9 Participation of centre’s scientists in Kisan Mela 6.7.3 Organization of chief scientists’ meeting at Pusa

The Chief Scientists’ Meet of All India Coordinated Research Project (AICRP) on Ground Water Utilization was organized at Rajendra Agricultural University (RAU), Pusa (Samastipur) Bihar to discuss the groundwater assessment, conjunctive water use, rainwater harvesting and groundwater recharge, and groundwater pollution due to domestic and industrial waste waters along with management options during 28-30 April 2011. It was inaugurated by Dr. Ashwani Kumar, Director, Directorate of Water Management (DWM), Bhubaneswar. Dr. A.P. Mishra, Ex. Dean, CAE, Pusa and Dr. S. Chellamuthu, Director, WTC, TNAU were Guest of Honours. Dr. V.P. Singh, Director Research, RAU, Pusa presided the function.

Dr. Ashwani Kumar, Director, DWM, in his address, briefly elaborated national groundwater resources scenario and raised important issues related to its management. He also spoke about responsibilities of this scheme in emerging climate change scenario. Annual Report of AICRP on GWU for the year 2010-11 was released by him. Dr. M.J. Kaledhonkar Principal Scientist and Dr. M. Raychaudhuri, Senior Scientist from Coordinating Unit presented achievements of the scheme for year 2010-11. The centres of AICRP on Groundwater Utilization presented the progress of their research studies during different t echnical sessions an d a lso proposed research plans for 2011-12 during the meeting. Dr. S.K. Jain, In-charge Pusa centre, along with team of scientists from centre, thanked all delegates for their cooperation for success of the meeting.

Plate 6.10 Organization of chief scientists’ meeting of AICRP on Groundwater Utilization

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6.8 Transfer of Technology (Raipur Centre)

6.8.1 Dissemination of appropriate technologies on farmers’ fields

A field experiment was conducted at the research farm (Matasi soil) of the Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Indira Gandhi Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Raipur (C.G.). The performance evaluation of different water management and weeding regimes were carried out during Kharif 2011-12 with twelve treatments (Two on w ater management and six on weeding) which were replicated three times. Various parameters including soil properties, quality of puddling, weeding efficiency, puddling index, re-germination o f weeds, bulk density, moisture content and yield attributing characters were observed. Nursery was raised as per the recommendation for SRI and twelve days old seedlings were planted in the field marked by rotary marker. All the recommended agronomical practices of SRI were adopted throughout the experiment.

The research results revealed that the water management practice in which irrigation was applied just after the disappearance of water performed better for all the weeding regimes compared to alternate wetting and drying. Under different treatments of weeding, Treatment-4 (weeding with Ambika paddy weeder – three times at 10 days interval) outperformed all the treatments under both water management regimes (grain yield and straw yield 50.3 q/ha, 86.1 q/ha, respectively). It has also been observed that ground water plays very important role for nursery raising and transplanting of rice under SRI as well as provided irrigation at critical stages of dry spell. Besides this the project team provided technical support to the Farmers’ Participatory Action Research Program (FPARP) team in planning, capacity building, execution and monitoring of SRI trials at farmers’ fields at 54 locations covering Gariaband, Mainpur, Arang and Patan blocks of Chhattisgarh plains.

(a) Inspection of Ambika Paddy Weeder used for weeding in SRI-Paddy

(b) Interaction with SRI farmer at village Ameri, Patan Block

Plate 6. 11 Interactions of review team with officials and members of WUA of Selud distributory

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6.8.2 Visit of review team to Raipur centre

A review meeting of AICRP on “Groundwater Utilization” was held on 20.08.2011 in seminar hall of the Directorate of Research, Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur. Dr. Ashwani Kumar, Director and Project Coordinator, Directorate of Water Management, Bhubaneswar was the chairman of the meeting. Dr. S.K. Patil, Director of Research of IGKV, Raipur, Dr. R. K. Sahu, Dean, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, IGKV, Raipur, Dr. V. P. Verma, Head of The Department, Soil and Water Engineering, FAE, IGKV, Raipur and Dr. (Mrs.) M. Raychaudhary, Senior Scientist, Directorate of Water management, Bhubaneswar were present in the meeting as a special guest. Dr. M. P. Tripathi, Professor and PI, AICRP

on GWU along with Er. P. Katre, Assistant Professor, Shri L. K. Ramteke, Assistant Professor attended the meeting. Review team also interacted with other staff members and post graduate students at the centre. Individual scientist presented research achievements and progress done during the year 2010-11 and they were also presented the technical programmes for the current year 2011-12. Dr. Ashwani Kumar Director and Director Research, IGKV, Raipur gave few important suggestions for further strengthening of research activities at the centre. Review team also visited different demonstrations and experiments related to conjunctive water use of surface and groundwater and System of Rice Intensification (SRI). The team also interacted with officials of Department of Water Resources of Chhattisgarh who are working in the Mahanadi Irrigation project.

Plate 6.12 Presentations by centre scientists before review team and university authorities

115

6.9 Transfer of Technology (Junagadh Centre)

6.9.1 Organization of training programmes and workshop

• Training on “New Production Technologies

and Water Use efficiency in Agriculture” was organized at Junagadh during 12th – 14th July, 2011.

• AICRP Ground Water Utilization Junagadh Centre and District Rural Development Agency- Junagadh, Government of Gujarat organized 3 days training for Multi Disciplinary Team and watershed Development Team of DRDA.

6.9.2 Participation of staff in

professional events (workshop/ seminar/ conference/ Group meet etc) (State /National/International level):

• Dr. H.D. Rank, Research Engineer, Er. P.

B. Vekariya, Assistant professor, Mr. P. G. Vadher, Associate professor attended Fourth International Groundwater Conference (IGWC-2011) On the Impact of Climate Change on Groundwater Resources with Special Reference to Hard Rock Terrain at Y adava College of Arts & Science, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India(September 27-30, 2011)

• Dr. H.D. Rank, Research Engineer and Er.

NICRA held on 27/03/2011 at MPUAT, Udaipur

6.9.3 Participation in Krishi-Mahotsav and Krushi Mela • Scientists of Junagadh centre were

involved in Krishi-Mahostav organized by Gujarat government and Krushi Mela organized by University and in preparation of Contingency plan for of Dhoraji Taluka of Rajkot district.

6.9.4 Radio talks/ Doordarshan talk Dr. H. D. Rank, Research Engineer delivered radio talk on “Jamin Sarkshanni Vividh Rito- Akashvani Rajkot on 17/04/11 at 1:10 pm and on “Drip Paddhtini gothavni ane Janavani- Akashvani Rajkot on 17/04/2011 at 7:20 pm. Similarly he gave programme on Video Talk on " Shuksma Piyat Paddhatio na Fayda"- Doordarshan Rajkot on 21/09/2011 at 7:00 pm. 6.9.5 Lectures in farmers’ meetings/ trainings Scientists of AICRP GWU Junagadh delivered 40 lectures in different events like farmer meets, farmer trainings, staff trainings, Gram Shabha meetings, etc. during the year.

P. B. Vekariya, Assistant professor attended one day discussion meet on

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7: List of Publications during 2011-12 7.1 Publications of Ludhiana Centre

International/ National Journal Papers

Aggarwal Rajan, Samanpreet Kaur and

Pamela Miglani. 2011. Study at m icro level of water resource in Kapurthala district. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 10 (2): 24-27.

Pamela Miglani and Aggarwal Rajan. 2011. Assessment of groundwater potential in Sirhind canal tract of Punjab. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation 10 (4): 306-309.

Jaskaran Dhiman, MP Kaushal and Sunil Garg. 2011.Well Spacing in Central Indian Punjab: A Case Study Journal of Crop Improvement, 25:151–160, 2011.

Sunil Garg, S K Shakya and Anil Bhardwaj 2011. Management of groundwater quality in sodic soils using semi- analytical one-dimensional solute transport model. Journal of Agricultural Engineering. 48(2), Pp.52-54.

Singla Chetan and Singh K G (2011) Crop water requirements and fertigation options for early drip irrigated cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrys Linn.) grown in a greenhouse. Progressive Horticulture: Vol. 43(1):99-101.

Singla Chetan , Singh K G and Biwalkar Nilesh (2011) Effect of Irrigation Schedules and Nitrogen Levels on the Yield of Cauliflower Through Drip Irrigation. Progressive Agriculture-An International Journal: Vol. 11(2):403- 408.

Singla Chetan , Pannu C J S and Biwalkar Nilesh (2011) Study on Use of Aero- Blast Sprayer in Punjab. Progressive Agriculture-An International Journal: Vol. 11(2):453-455.

Singh Sukhdarshan, Sharda Rakesh, Lubana P P S and Singla Chetan (2011) Economic evaluation of drip irrigation system in bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L. var. Grossum).Progressive Horticulture: Vol. 43(2):289-293.

International/national conference papers/ abstracts

Shweta Vishwarkarma , Sunil Garg, AK Jain and Anil Bhardwaj. 2011. Effect of different inflow rate on water application efficiency and border irrigated wheat yield. Souvenier 45th Annual convention of ISAE and International Symposium on Water for Agriculture, Jan 17-19, 2011.Pp.88 organised by ISAE held at Nagpur.

Arun Kaushal, Sunil Garg, M P Kaushal and Makhan Singh 2011. Water management and planting technology for sugarcane cultivation. Souvenier 45th Annual convention of ISAE and International Symposium on Water for Agriculture, Jan 17-19, 2011.Pp.22 organised by ISAE held at Nagpur.

Garg S, Singla C and Aggarwal R. 2011. Assessment of heavy Metals in groundwater samples of village Ballipur in Ludhiana. Proceedings of the Fourth International Groundwater Conference (IGWC-2011) o n the impact of climate change on groundwater resources with special reference to hard rock terrain (Sept 27-30, 2011) held at Madurai Pp. 138

Books edited Mayilswami C, A Valliammai, S

Chellamuthu, Rajan Aggarwal, M Raychaudhuri, M J Kaledhonkar and Ashwani Kumar. 2011. A handbook on groundwater modeling system.Water Technology Centre, Tamilnadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore pp 214.

Book chapters Aggarwal Rajan. 2011. Groundwater

potential in South-west Punjab. A handbook on groundwater modeling system. Eds Mayilswami C, A Valliammai, S Chellamuthu, Rajan Aggarwal, M Raychaudhuri, M.J. Kaledhonkar and Ashwani Kumar. 2011. A.E. Publications, Coimbatore: 131-137.

Aggarwal Rajan. 2011. Development of groundwater simulation model for South-west Punjab. A handbook on groundwater modeling system. Eds Mayilswami C, A Valliammai, S Chellamuthu, Rajan Aggarwal, M

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Raychaudhuri, M J Kaledhonkar and Ashwani Kumar. 2011. A.E. Publications, Coimbatore: 131-137.

Aggarwal Rajan. 2011. Simulation- optimization model for groundwater management in South-west Punjab. A handbook on groundwater modeling system. Eds Mayilswami C, A Valliammai, S Chellamuthu, Rajan Aggarwal, M Raychaudhuri, M J Kaledhonkar and Ashwani Kumar. 2011. A.E. Publications, Coimbatore: 131-137.

Aggarwal Rajan. 2011. Declining water table and its remedial measures.Contingent crop planning. Eds S.S. Walia and S.S.Gosal. Director of Research, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana: 33-42.

Extension articles

Aggarwal Rajan.2011. Techniques for

arresting declining water table. Progressive farming 47 (4):12-13.

Aggarwal Rajan.2011. Harvesting rainwater for enhancing groundwater. Progressive farming 47 (4):13, 15, 24.

Aggarwal Rajan and Mahesh Chand Singh.2011. Jameen paani de paddar nu chukan laye barsati paani di vartoan. Changi Kheti 47 (7):12.

Technical bulletin

Singh Manjeet, Singh Bijay, Singh Y,

Kumar R., Singh T., Garg Sunil, Mahal J S, and Sharma Ankit. 2011. Precision farming and its potential in Punjab Agriculture. Directorate of Research, PAU, Ludhiana. Research Bulletin 2011/04.

7.2 Publications of Pantnagar Centre

International/ National Journal Papers

Chandra Harish and Jaiswal C.S., 2011.

Optimum cropping pattern based on rainfall in a canal command area. International Journal of Water Resources of Environment Management. Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 91- 102.

Kumar Ambrish, Sharma H.C., Singh Ramesh and Prasad Sudarshan, 2011.Modeling of Spring discharge in

mid hills of north- west Himalayas. Indian Journal of Soil Conservation, 39 (2): 95-99.

Kumar Ambrish, Sharma H.C. and Kumar Suresh, 2011. Planning f or replenishing the depleted groundwater in upper Gangetic plains using RS and GIS. Indian Journal of Soil Conservation, 39(3): 195-201

International/national conference papers/ abstracts

Kumar Yogendra, Kumar Shiv and Sharma

H.C.. 2011. Optimum Utilization of natural spring Water in Tehri Garhwal region of Uttarakhand. paper presented in International Symposium on Water for Agriculture held at D r. P.K.D.V. Campus, Nagpur from January 17 to 19, 2011.

Singh Ramesh, Kumar Ambrish, Sharma H. C. and Dhyani. S. K. 2011. Estimating Runoff of Ungauged Watershed in Mid Himalayan Region Using GIS and Remote Sensing. Paper presented in International Symposium on Water for Agriculture held at Dr. P.K.D.V. Campus, Nagpur from January 17 to 19, 2011.

Teshome Wondifraw, Kumar Yogendra, Kumar Shiv and Sharma. H. C. 2011. Variability of hydraulic conductivity in drainage field of region of Uttarakhand. In: Proc. National Seminar on Strategic Resources Management for Sustainable Food and Water Security, held at College of Technology, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar- 263145 (Uttarakhand), India from June 13-15, 2011.

Kumar Ambrish, Sharma.H.C, Singh Ramesh and Prasad Sudarshan. 2011. Modeling of spring discharge in mid himalayan region of Uttarakhand. . In: Proc. National Seminar on Strategic Resources Management for Sustainable Food and Water Security, held at College of Technology, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar- 263145 (Uttarakhand), India from June 13-15, 2011.

Kumar Ambrish, Sharma H.C. and Kumar Ramesh. 2011. Delineation of geomorphic units using RS and GIS for groundwater recharge planning in North-West Uttar Pradesh. . In: Proc.

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National Seminar on Strategic Resources Management for Sustainable Food and Water Security, held at College of Technology, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar- 263145 (Uttarakhand), India from June 13-15, 2011.

Srivastava R.K., Sharma H.C. and Raina. A.K. 2011. Prioritization of un-gauged hilly watersheds using morphometric analysis. In: Proc. National Seminar on Strategic Resources Management for Sustainable Food and Water Security, held at College o f Technology, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar- 263145 (Uttarakhand), India from June 13-15, 2011.

Kumar Vinod, Sharma H.C., Chandra Subhash and Singh Gurvinder. 2011. Effect of recharge through monsoon on water quality of shallow aquifer. In: Proc. National Seminar on Strategic Resources Management for Sustainable Food and Water Security, held at College of Technology, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar- 263145 (Uttarakhand), India from June 13-15, 2011.

Kadam Satish Arjun, Shiv Kumar, Kumar Yogendra and Sharma.H.C. 2011. Effect of fertilizer factory effluent on wheat crop: A case study. In: Proc. National Seminar on Strategic Resources Management for Sustainable Food and Water Security, held at College of Technology, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar- 263145 (Uttarakhand), India from June 13-15, 2011.

Kumar Vinod and Sharma.H.C. 2011. Water quality of shallow aquifer in jamrani dam command. In: Proc. National Seminar on Strategic Resources Management for Sustainable Food and Water Security, held at College of Technology, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar- 263145 (Uttarakhand), India from June 13-15, 2011.

Singh Raj Kishore and Sharma.H.C. 2011. Land evaluation in jamrani dam command for artificial ground water recharge planning. In: Proc. National Seminar on Strategic Resources

Management for Sustainable Food and Water Security, held at College of Technology, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar- 263145 (Uttarakhand), India from June 13-15, 2011.

Singh Arvind Tomar, Sharma H.C., Kumar Y. and Kumar Vinod. 2011. Decision Support Systems for integrated water management: A review. In: Proc. National Seminar on Strategic Resources Management for Sustainable Food and Water Security, held at College of Technology, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar- 263145 (Uttarakhand), India from June 13-15, 2011.

Chandra Harish and Sharma H.C., 2011. Water resources planning in jafarpur minor command area. In: Proc. National Seminar on Strategic Resources Management for Sustainable Food and Water Security, held at College of Technology, G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar- 263145 (Uttarakhand), India from June 13-15, 2011. pp. III-5.

7.3 Publications of Rahuri Centre International/ National Journal Papers Kadam S.A., Dahiwalkar S.D., Gorantiwar

S.D.and Gadge S.B. 2011. Characteristics of Industrial effluents and their possible impact on Groundwater quality. International Journal of Research in Chemistry and Environment Vol.2 (1):124-129.

Deshmukh V.V. and Kadam.S.A. 2011. Effect of riser height on evaporation and drift losses in mini-sprinkler. International Journal of Agriculture Engineering Vol.4(C):100-103.

Kadam S.A. and Deshmukh.V.V. 2011. Effect of nozzle size on evaporation and drift losses in mini-sprinkler. International Journal of Agriculture Engineering Vol. 4(2):130-132.

International/national conference papers/ abstracts Kadam S.A., Dahiwalkar S. D. and

Gorantiwar S. D.. 2011.Performance evaluation of filtration unit for artificial

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groundwater recharge through wells: Laboratory study. Souvenir of IGWC- 2011.held at Madurai, Tamilnadu during September 27-30, 2011.

Dahiwalkar S. D., Kadam S.A. and Gorantiwar S. D.. 2011. Groundwater recharge through percolation tanks in hard rock region of Maharashtra-A case study. Souvenir of IGWC- 2011.held at Madurai, Tamilnadu during September 27-30, 2011.

Dahiwalkar S. D., Kadam S.A. and Gorantiwar. S. D. 2011. Groundwater pollution hazards due to su gar factory” in 26th Indian Engineering Congress held at B angalore during period 15-18, Dec.2011.

Dahiwalkar S. D., Kadam S.A. and Gorantiwar S. D. 2011. Performance evaluation of sand and gravel filters for artificial groundwater recharge. Souvenir of 45th Annual convention of ISAE and International symposium on Water for Agriculture held at college of Agriculture, Dr. PDKV campus, Nagpur during January.17-19, 2011.

Dahiwalkar S. D., Kadam S.A. and Gorantiwar S. D. 2011. Studies on groundwater pollution due to municipal wastewater. 24th National Convention of Agricultural Engineers and National Seminar on Technological Interventions for Evergreen Revolution held at ANGR Agril. University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad during January 24-25, 2011.

7.4 Publications of Jabalpur Centre

National Journal papers

Mishra K.L. and Awasthi M.K. (2011).

Planning and Design Drainage System in Gopagwari village in the foot hills of Bargi dam. JNKVV Res. Jour. 45 (2) 205-209.

Mishra K.L. and Awasthi M.K. (2011). Design parameter of border irrigation for clay loam soil at JNKVV campus, Jabalpur. JNKVV Res. Jour. 45 (2) 203-204.

National conference papers/ abstracts

Deshmukh Grantham, Hardaha M.K., Nema

R.K., and Negi Rishiraj (2011): Farm pond technology for Shahdol District

of Madhya Pradesh, Proceedings of the National Seminar on Restructuring of irrigated agriculture status & strategies. March, 15-17, 2011 at JNKVV, Jabalpur

Upadhyay Renu, Sharma Suraj K., Sharma S.K. and Nema R.K. (2011): Remote sensing and GIS for land use mapping of Rewa block in Rewa district Proceedings of the National Seminar on Restructuring of irrigated agriculture status & strategies. March, 15-17, 2011 at JNKVV, Jabalpur

Suraiya Seema, Upadhyay Renu, Sharma S.K. and Nema R.K. (2011):Lland use land cover classification using remote sensing technique of Seymour block in Rewa district (M.P.), Proceedings of the National Seminar on Restructuring of irrigated agriculture status & strategies. March, 15-17, 2011 at JNKVV, Jabalpur

Sharma Suraj K., Suraiya Seema, Sharma S.K. and Nema R.K. (2011): Land use land cover mapping through digital image processing of satellite data in Jawa block at Rewa districts, Madhya Pradesh, Proceedings of the National Seminar on Restructuring of irrigated agriculture status & strategies. March,

15-17, 2011 at JNKVV, Jabalpur. Awasthi M.K., Nema R.K., Shrivastava R.N., and Tiwari Y.K. (2011): Seepage quantification of Haveli fields of Central Narmada Valley, Proceedings of the National Seminar on Restructuring of irrigated agriculture status & strategies. March, 15-17, 2011 at JNKVV, Jabalpur.

Singh S.K., Nema R.K., Awasthi M.K. and Suraiya S. (2011): A study on monitoring field water storage using spectral response, Proceedings of the National Seminar on Restructuring of irrigated agriculture status & strategies. March, 15-17, 2011 at JNKVV, Jabalpur

Soni Abhishek, Awasthi M.K. and Nema R.K. (2011): Seasonal estimation of Ground Water Potential of command of Patan branch canal, Proceedings of the National Seminar on Restructuring of irrigated agriculture status & strategies. March, 15-17, 2011 at JNKVV, Jabalpur.

Mishra K.L. and Awasthi M.K. (2011): Water requirement estimation of left bank canal of Bargi project, Proceedings of the National Seminar

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on Restructuring of irrigated agriculture status & strategies. March, 15-17, 2011 at JNKVV, Jabalpur

Sharma, S.K., Nema, R.K. and Tignath, S. (2012). Use of Geographical Information System in Hypsometric analysis of watershed. Paper presented and Abstracted in 46th Annual Convention of ISAE and International Symposium on Grain Storage held on 27-29 Feb-2012 at G.B. Pant University of Agriculture & Technology, Pantnagar.

Nema, R.K. and Seema Suraiya (2012).Wheat yield estimation using Remote sensing data Annual Convention of Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers, 27-29 February 2012, ,GBPUAT Pantnagar 306p.

Awasthi, M.K, Upadhyay, R. and Thakur S. (2012). Accuracy Assessment of Land Use/Land Cover Mapping using Satellite Data. Annual Convention of Indian Society of Agricultural Engineers, 27-29 February 2012, GBPUAT Pantnagar 252p.

Technical Bulletins/ Manuals

Nema R.K., Shrivastava R.N., Awasthi M.K.

and Tiwari Y.K. (2011): flapkbZ fof/k fuokZgu % le; dh ekax p32, An user’s manual for irrigators. GWU project Jabalpur centre.

Shrivastva, R.N., Devakant, Awasthi, M.K. and Nema, R.K. (2012). Practical Manual on Irrigation Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering JNKVV Jabalpur.

Nema, R.K., Awasthi, M.K., Shau, M.L., Tiwari, Y,K, and Sharma,S.K. (2011). Annual Progress Report-2006 to 2011 of Madhya Pradesh Water Sector Restructuring Project.

Sharma, S.K. and Nema R.K. (2011). Use of Remote Sensing in agriculture water management. Training Manual developed government officers for the training conducted during12-22 December 2011.

Sharma, S.K. and Nema, R.K. (2012). Remote Sensing & Geographical Information System application in agriculture. Training Manual developed for Assistant Director of Agriculture for the training conducted during 16-25 January and 30 Jan- 8 Feb 2012.

7.5 Publications of Coimbatore Centre International/national conference papers/ abstracts Devi Sarojini, B., Ranghaswami M.V. and

Mayilswami C.. 2011. Delineation of Groundwater recharge zones in hard rock terrain of Tamil Nadu. Paper presented in fourth International Groundwater Conference held at Yadava College of arts and science, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India during September 27-30, 2011.

Devi Sarojini, B., Ranghaswami M.V. and Mayilswami C.. 2011. Groundwater recharge estimation in PAP basin. Paper presented in fourth International Groundwater Conference held at Yadava College of arts and science, Madurai,Tamilnadu,India during September 27-30, 2011.

Sellamuthu,.K.M., Jothimani P., Mayilswami C., Rajeswari S.R., Srinithi M. and Chellamuthu S. 2011 Assessment of Groundwater quality in the Parambikulam – Aliyar basin. Paper presented in fourth International Groundwater Conference held at Yadava College of arts and science, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India during September 27-30, 2011.

Books Mayilswami, C., Valliammai, A.,

Sellamuthu, K.M., Jothimani, P., Chellamithu, S., Raychaudhuri, M., Kaledhonkar, M.J., Kumar, Ashwani. 2011. A Handbook on Groundwater Perspectives: Noyil River Basin. Water Technology Centre, TNAU, Coimbatore, pp139.

Mayilswami, C., Valliammai, A., Chellamithu, S., Agarwal, Rajan, Raychaudhuri, M., Kaledhonkar, M.J., Kumar, Ashwani. 2011. A Handbook on Modelling Groundwater System. Water Technology Centre, TNAU, Coimbatore, pp214.

7.6 Publications of Udaipur Centre Papers Published in Journals Singh, P.K., Machiwal, D. and Rai, Manoj.

2011. Monthly daily rainfall and probabilistic estimation of designed

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maximum daily runoff for selected watershed of Udaipur, Rajasthan. Indian J. of Soil Conservation. Vol. 39 (3): 176-182.

Yadav K.K, Verma Arvind and Kanthaliya P.C. (2010). Soil fertility status and fertilizer recommendations for major crops of Udaipur and Rajsamand districts of Rajasthan, India. Ecology, Environment and Conservation 16 (1): 9-12.

Kumawat R.M., Pathan A.R.K. and Yadav K.K. (2011). Effect of FYM and Phosphorus on Soil Properties and Nutrient content of Fenugreek under Saline Water Irrigation. Ecology, Environment and Conservation. 17 (4): 65-70.

Yadav J.P, Mathur A.K. and Yadav K.K. (2011). Effect of integrated nitrogen management on available N, P and CO2 evolution at different intervals under wheat (Triticum aestivum) cultivation Ecology, Environment and Conservation. 17 (4): 111-114.

Gour S.L., Yadav K.K. and Singh S.D. (2011).ffect of zinc and iron on growth and yield of fennel crop. Environment and Ecology. 29 (3B): 1502-1505.

Papers Published in Proceedings

Singh, P.K. and Purohit R.C. (2012). Cost

Effective Technologies for Water Resources Management in Urban and Periurban Areas. Paper presented in the International Workshop on Urbanisation of Peri-Urban Regions - 21st-22nd February, 2012, Udaipur, India organized by MPUAT and ACIAR, Govt. of Australia at CTAE, Udaipur.

Yadav K.K., Singh P.K., Gupta P.K. and Meena R.H. (2011). Conjunctive use of canal water and marginally saline groundwater for wheat cultivation under calcareous soil of Bundi district. Presented in the 76th Annual Convention of the Indian Society of Soil Science (ISSS) held during November 16-19, 2011 at t he University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad.

Meena R.H., Meena R.P. and Yadav K.K. (2011). Effect of organic and inorganic soil amendments on mustard crop under saline-sodic soil environment. Presented in the 76th Annual Convention of the Indian Society of

Soil Science (ISSS) held during November 16-19, 2011 at t he University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad.

Books

Mahnot, S.C., Singh, P.K. and Chaplot, P.C. (2011). Soil and Water Conservation and Watershed Management. Published by Apex Publishing House, Udaipur. pp. 365.

Popular Article

Lakhawat S.S., Jingar K.L. and Yadav K.K.

(April, 2011). Adrak ugayen , Adhik labh kamayen. Ra jasthan K heti Pratap. pp 10-11.

7.7 Publications of Pusa Centre

Papers Published in Journals

Chandra, R. Sharma, B. R. and Bhatt, V. K.

s(2012) “Ground Water use across command area of Pabnawa minor of Bhakra Irrigation system.” Journal of Agricultural Engineering (ISAE). Vol. 49 Jan-March (2012) Pp- 61-65.

Singh, A. K., Jain S. K. and Chandra R. (2012) “ Studies on impact of municipal, Industrial and Agrochemical pollution on quality of Ground Water” Journal of Agricultural Engineering (ISAE) (Accepted).

Bulletins

Jain, S.K., Singh, A. K. and Chandra, R.

(2012) क�ष म� जल उतपाककप उउनन क उप – पर�श पककप. PP. 1-61.. . pp. 1-61.

Jain, S. K., Chandra, R. and Jain, S. K. (2012) Assessment of Ground Water Resources of Burhi Gandak Basin.” (In press)

7.8 Publications of Raipur Centre

Papers Published in Proceedings

Tripathi M.P. Katre P. and Pandey V.K.

(2011). Water resources status and future prospects in Chhattisgarh. In Proceedings of Engineering

122

Interventions in Agriculture, held at NSAE, IGKV, Raipur from 03-04, January 2011, P: 313-326.

Meshram K.S., Tripathi M.P. and Mukherjee A.P. (2011). Effect of ar tificial recharge structures on ground water availability in semi-critical area in Chhattisgarh. In Proceedings of Engineering Interventions in Agriculture, held at NSAE, IGKV, Raipur from 03-04, January 2011, P: 385-391.

Tripathi M.P. Katre P. and Pandey V.K. (2011). Watershed parameterization using geographic information system and satellite remote sensing. In Proceedings of Engineering Interventions in Agriculture, held at NSAE, IGKV, Raipur from 03-04, January 2011, P: 360-368.

Pandey V. K., Tirkey Gulshan and Tripathi M. P. (2011). Assessment and Management of Groundwater for the Upper Mahanadi Watershed using Simulation Technique. In Proceedings of 45th Annual Convention of ISAE and International Symposium on Water for Agriculture, held at ISAE, Nagpur from 17-19, January 2011, P: 40.

Agrawal N., Verma M. K. and Tripathi M. P. (2011). Hydrological modeling of chhokranala watershed using weather generator with SWAT model. In Proceedings of Indian Journal of Soil Conservation, held at IJSC, Dehradun, Uttarakhand from volume 39 Number 2 August 2011, P: 89-94.

Meshram Kumud S., Sharma Ujjawal K., Tripathi M.P., Pandey V.K. and Mukherjee A.P. (2012) Artificial recharge structures – way to augment ground water in semi-critical area in Chhattisgarh. In Proceedings of National Conference on “Demonstrated Options for Improved Livelihood in Disadvantaged Area of India , held at NAIP (ICAR) Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwadidyalaya, Raipur, from 20-21 January 2012, P: 342.

Tripathi M.P. (2011). Groundwater Potential Assessment: A Case Study of Multi Layer Aquifer System. In Proceedings of A Handbook on Groundwater Modelling System, held at Water Technology Centre Tamil Nadu Agricultural University

Coimbatore from June 2011, P: 174- 190.

Tripathi M.P. Katre P., Khan T.A. and Mukherjee A.P. (2012). Studies on Conjunctive Water Use of Selud Distriburaty Command of Tandula Canal in Durg District. In Proceedings of National Conference on “Demonstrated Options for Improved Livelihood in Disadvantaged Area of India, held at NAIP (ICAR) Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwadidyalaya, Raipur, from 20-21 January 2012.

Tripathi M.P and Katre P. (2011). Performance evaluations of artificial ground water recharge structures of a small watershed in semi-critical area of Chhattisgar. In Proceedings of Fourth International Groundwater Conference (IGWC) on the impact of climate change on Groundwater Resources with special reference to Hard rock Terrain, held at Yadava College of Arts & Science (Govt. Aided) Madurai, Tamil Nadu, from 27- 30, September 2011, P: 60-61.

�तरपा, एम.ी. एव कटर ी. (2012). जल गर

पब, छतीीसग ी (जनवर�-मरचर 2012),

इ�दरर सरबी क�ष �वशव�ववदरलद, ररदर,

ज,30-34.

कटर ी. एव �तरपा, एम. ी. (2012). आज क

�रपरद म � -जल न�ररर कक मतर,

छतीीसग ी (जनवर�-मरचर 2012), इ�दरर

सरबी क�ष �वशव�ववदरलद, ररदर, ज 23-26.

7.9 Publications of Junagadh Centre Papers Published in Proceedings Vekariya P.B., Rank H. D., Gontia N.K.,

2011, Groundwater management in conjunction with harvested rainwater for irrigation. Proceeding of Fourth International Groundwater Conference (IGWC-2011) on the Impact of Climate Change on Groundwater Resources with Special Reference to Hard Rock Terrain held at Yadava

123

College of Arts & Science, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India(September 27-30, 2011.

Vadher P. G. and Gontia N. K., 2011, Impact of artificial groundwater recharge on seawater intrusion in coastal aquifers of Saurashtra region of Gujarat. Proceeding of Fourth International Groundwater Conference (IGWC-2011) on the Impact of Climate Change on Groundwater Resources with Special Reference to Hard Rock Terrain held at Yadava College of Arts & Science, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India(September 27-30, 2011.

Sahu Dezy, Rank H. D., Vekariya P B and Dugad S. B., 2011, Performance Evaluation of Vertical Sand Filter for Drip Irrigation System. Proceeding of Fourth International Groundwater Conference (IGWC-2011) on the Impact of Climate Change on Groundwater Resources with Special Reference to Hard Rock Terrain held at Yadava College of Arts & Science, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, In dia, September 27-30, 2011.

Books LAMBERT Publishing Germany published a

book on “Water Management Research for Cotton for Irrigation Engineer and Planner” authored by Dr. H. D. Rank, Research Engineer and in- Charge, AICRP on Groundwater Utilization, Junagadh.

124

IV. J.N.K.V.V., JABALPUR ANNEXURE - I

STAFF POSITION DURING 2011-12

Project Coordinating Unit, DWM, Bhubaneswar

1. Dr. Ashwani Kumar (Director) 2. Dr. M.J. Kaledhonkar (Principal

Scientist) 3. Dr. Mousumi Raychaudhuri (Senior

Scientist) I. P.A.U., LUDHIANA

1. Dr. Rajan Aggarwal, Res. Engr & I/C

2. Dr. Sunil Garg, Res. Engr. 3. Er. Samanpreet Kaur, Asstt. Res.

Engr. 4. Er. Chetan Singla, Asstt. Res. Engr.

(Joined on 09-09-2011) 5. Mr. Manpreet Singh, Helper to

Electrician 6. Mr. Darshan Singh, Mechanic 7. Mr. Parmjit Singh, Mechanic 8. Mr. Tarseem Lal, Sr. Scale Steno. 9. Mr. Talwinder Singh, Clerk-cum-

Store Keeper 10. Mr. Nachattar Pal, Tracer/ Jr.

Drafts man 11. Mr. Harjeet Singh, Driver 12. Mr. Mrs. Parminder Kaur,

Messenger II. G.B.P.U.A.T., PANTNAGAR

1. Dr. H. C. Sharma, Professor & I/C 2. Dr. Yogendra Kumar, Professor 3. Dr. Harish Chandra, S.R.O. 4. Mr. Janardan Singh, Tech. Asstt. 5. Mr. Ashok Kumar, Field Asstt. 6. Mr. M. C. Chimwal, Accounts Clerk 7. Mr. Ramu, Survey Mate

III. M.P.K.V., RAHURI

1. Dr. S.D. Dahiwalkar, Associate Professor & I/C

2. Er. S.A. Kadam, Assistant Professor 3. Er. K.G. Pawar, Jr. Research Asstt.

(AE) 4. Mr. E.K. Kadam, Agril. Asstt. 5. Mr. R.D. Shinde, Steno. 6. Mr. S.D. Kulthe, Clerk-cum-

Storekeeper 7. Mr. R.P. Bahiram, Driver

(Transferred on 13 Oct. 2011) 8. Mr. B. S. Pawar, Messenger Peon

(Retired on 1st Mar. 2011)

1. Dr. R. K. Nema, Irrigation Engineer & I/C

2. Dr. M. K. Awasthi, Junior Scientist 3. Er. Y. K. Tiwari, Junior Scientist 4. Er. R. N. Shrivastava, Tech.

Assistant (Promoted and transferred in May 2012)

5. Er. P. K. Sharma, Technical Assistant (Transferred in May 2011)

6. Mr. G. P. Yadav, FEO 7. Mr. T. N. Singh, FEO (Retired on 29

Feb. 2012) 8. Mr. S.C. Bagdare, Sr. Mechanic 9. Mr. Amit Shukla, Junior Clerk 10. Mr. Balwant, Messenger

V. W.T.C, T.N.A.U., COIMBATORE

1. Dr. C. Mayilswami, Professor & I/C 2. Er. A. Valliammai, Asstt. Professor

(SWCE) 3. Dr. P. Jothimani, ENS 4. Ms. S.R. Rajeswari, Field

Technician (left on 31-05-2011)

5. Ms. V. Sridevi, Field Technician (joined 1-07-2011)

6. Ms. V.M. Chitra, Field Assistant 7. Mr. K. Nitya, Field Assistant (Left

on 19-10-2011) 8. Ms. V. Kavitha, Field Assistant

(Joined on 30-01-2012) 9. Mr. N. Krishnaveni, Jr. Clerk 10. Mr. G. Vanitha, Jr. Steno (Left on

17-07-2011) 11. Mr. A. Selvambal, Jr. Steno (Joined

18-07-2011) 12. Mr. K. Nagarajan, Messenger

VI. M.P.U.A.T., UDAIPUR

1. Dr. P.K. Singh, Associate Professor & I/C

2. Dr. K.K. Yadav, Asstt. Professor (Soil science)

3. Mr. Jeet Singh, Field Technician 4. Mr. Sombir Singh, Agril. Supervisor 5. Mr. J.S. Sharma, Agril. Supervisor 6. Mr. M.S. Solanki, clerk 7. Mr. Gunjan Sharma, Steno 8. Mr. Dhulji, Class-IV

VII. R.A.U., PUSA, SAMASTIPUR

1. Dr. S.K. Jain, Associate Professor & I/C

125

2. Dr. A.K. Singh, Asstt. Professor (Soil Chemistry)

3. Er. Ravish Chandra, Asstt. Professor (Agril. Engineering)

4. Mr. Awadhesh Kumar, Field Asstt. 5. Mr. Vikash Kumar, Field Asstt.

VIII. I.G.A.U., RAIPUR

1. Dr. M.P. Tripathi, Assoc. Professor & I/C

2. Er. P. Katre, Asstt. Professor 3. Shri. L. K. Ramteke, Asstt.

Professor 4. Mr. Jacob George, Asstt. Gr. II-

Steno 5. Mrs. Nirmala Yadav, Messenger

IX. J.A.U., JUNAGADH

1. Dr. H. D. Rank, Research Engineer

& I/C 2. Shri P. G. Vadher, Assoc. Prof 3. Er. P. B. Vekariya, Asstt. Prof. 4. Shri Y. H. Hala, Technician/

Mechanic 5. Shri M. R. Paramar, Steno Gr-III 6. Shri K. M. Pithiya, Field Asstt 7. Shri M. G. Patoliya,

Messenger/Peon

126

समनवय इका,यए.आा.सी.आर.पी.,यभजलयउपवोग

जल परबन �नदशालय

(भकरतीवयइ�षयअनसधकनयप�रषद)य

भनशर, ७५१य0२३,यउडीशक,यभकरत

Coordinating Unit, AICRP on Groundwater Utilization Directorate of Water Management

(Indian Council of Agricultural Research) Bhubaneswar, 751023, Odisha, India

फोन/Phone: 91-674-2300060, 2300010, 2300016,यफकस/Fax: 91-674-2301651

-मल/Email: director.dwm@icar.org.in

बसक ट/Website: www.wtcer.ernet.in