Afshin Molavi Persian Pilgrimages_ Journeys Across Iran

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P E R S I A N

P I L G R I M A G E S

-r

1

1





P E R S I A N

PlLGRIMAGES

Journeys across Iran

A f sh in M o l av i

W . W . N o r t o n & C o m p a n y

N e w Y ork L o n d o n



Copyright

©

2002

by

A fshin M olavi

4

A ll rig hts reserved

Printed in the United States of America

Firsi Edition

Excerpt from "Ending of the Shahnameh," from Iranian Cultwr.A Fersumist View by

M ichael Hill man. Copyright © 1990 by University P ress of A merican I nc. R eprinted by

permission from University P ress of A merica,

For information about permission to reproduce selections from this book, write to

P ermissions, W W. Norton & Company, lnc.

r

500 Fifth A venue, N ew York, N Y 10110

The text of this book is composed in

Guard

with the display set in Pompeijana

Composition by Claire Fontaine

M anufacturing by M aple-Vail Book M anufacturing G roup

Book design by Blue Shoe Studio

Production

manager:

Julia Druskin

L ibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-P ublication Data

M olavi, A ishin,

P ersian pilgrimages

:

journeys across Iran / A fshin M olavi,

p.

cm.

Includes Index.

ISBN

0-393-05119-6

1 . Iran—Description and travel, 2 . Iran—Social life and customs—20th century. 3. Iran—

Poliiics and government—1997-

.

4. M olavi, A fshin—Journeys—Iran. 1. Title.

DS 2S9.2 .M 65 2002

955.05'W—dc21 20020692U

W.

W N orton & Company, I nc . 500 Fifth A venue,

New

York,

N Y-10110

www. wwnorton. com

W W. Norton

&

Company L td., Castle House. 75/76 Wells S treet, L ondon W I T 3Q T

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 S 9 0



For my parents an d for Sheila

who have given me the w orld

and for the people of Iran

who filled my journey with light and hope



CONTENTS

A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s x iii

P r o l o g u e x v i i

I

The Sleeping Guardian of the Islamic Books 3 *** Notes on a Pilgrimage:

Cyrus the Great 11 Currencies and Passports aboard Iran Air Flight 32 7 to

Shiraz 14 * What Is the Nam e of This Street? IS * Persepolis:

Celebrations and Revolutions 21 The Zoroastrian Stamp 27

Colonial Markings 30 * Ancient History and Green Cards 3 3 +

Pilgrimage to the Tomb of Cyrus the Great 36

Cities; Tehran, Shiraz, P ersepolis, Pasargad

I I

The Imam and the

Poet:

An Introduction 43 Mr. Ghassemi's Funeral 44

•¥ Islam and the Iranian Accomm odation 52 * Moha mma d's Melon Truck

Tour 56 + The SunnifShVa Split 62 Mou rning and Miracles 66 +

Pilgrimage: Ferdowsi the Poet 69 Imam Ali or Rostam? 75

"Global Arrogance" and Green Cards at the Nader Shah Museum 79

Pilgrimage: Imam Reza Tomb 82

Cities: M ashhad, Tous

m

The Polincs of Personal Appearance 87 * A "Blasphemous" Play 92 *

Dance Party 94 Cam pus Politics 96 Hard-Liners and Green



C O N T E N T S

Cards 101 4 - Elites and Masses 104 * lire Road to Neishapour 106 *

Notes on a Pilgrimage: Oma r Khayyam , the Poet 110

4-

The Spice Men of the

Bazaar 112 ^ The Pilgrimage: Om ar Khayyam Tomb 115

Mohsen, the Student, and Hassan, the War Veteran 119

+ Martyrs'Cemetery 122

Cities: Tehran, Neishapour

I V

The Silenced Satirist 12 4 Red Lines 12 9 4- Narges and the Censoring of

Milan Kundera 132

Wfn> a

Fourteenth-Century

Pcef

Speaks So Eloquently

to Contemporaiy Iranians 134 Pilgrimage: The Tomb of Hafez,

the Poet 145 Mrs. Teimouri's Wedding 150 * The Case of Akbar Ganji:

Journalist, Prodemocracy Advocate, Prisoner 154

Cities: Tehran, Shiraz

V

Islam and Demo cracy 159 ^ The Shi'atization of Iran 167

4

Sensual Isfahan 170

4"

The Bazaar and the Mosque 174

4-

Pilgrimage:

Mullah Moha mma d Bagher Majlesi and the Rise of the Shi'a Cleric 177

Mr Mohseni, the Young Cleric 184

Cities: Tehran, Isfahan

V I

Winds of Reform 191 + A Murder in Kashan 194 * Tabriz Student

Protests, 1999 20 0 * The Case of Ahm ad Batebi 2 06 * Iran's Fight for a

Constitution: 1906-11 20 9 * An American Constitutionalist in Tabriz 2 15

* "The Strangling of Persia": A Constitutional Ending 2 19 +

77ie Parliament of the Islamic Republic of Iran 2 22

Cities: Tehran, Kashan , Tabriz



C O N T E N T S

V I I

My Tehran 2 26 ''The International Congress on the Elucidation of the

Islamic Revolution and the Thoughts of Imam Khom eini" 23 0

"AJugofLove" 2 37 + Mr. Hashemi and the Pro-Kiiomcini "Oppressed'' 24 0

Reza Shah: Forgotten Shrine, Remembered King 2 44 4-

The Khom eini Rise 2 48 **• Pilgrimage: The Shrine ofAyatollah Khom eini 2 54

Cities: Tehran, Rey

V I I I

My Friend Hossein 2 60 Hossein's War 2 64 Journey to Ahvaz 27 2

War Miracles 274 * Pilgrimage: War Martyrs'Shrine 27 8 •

HajiAghaAbu Torabi and the Prisoners of War 28 0

Cities: Tehran^ Ahvaz, Ahada n, Khoram shahr

r

Shalamcheh

I X

Storming the Gates with the Software Engineers 2 83 Children of the

Revolution 28 5 * Visas and Billboards 293 * "In Dam ascus,

I Can Breathe" 2 98 The Canadian Emba ssy Visa Pilgrimage 302

4- Farewell, Iran 30 7

Cities: Tehran, Dam ascus (Syria)

I n d e x 3 0 9



A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S

In Persian, there is a saying, yek dunya mammon* I t m e a n s " a w o r l d o f t h a n k s .

1 1

S o m e t i m e s [ t h i n k " o n e w o r l d " m ay n o t b e e n o u g h t o t h a n k a l l t h e p e o p l e

w h o s u p p o r t e d t h i s b o o k .

I b e g i n , a p p ro p ri a te l y , in I ra n . M a n y o f t h e I ra n i a n s I a m m o s t t h a n k fu l

to—friends, fe l low trave lers , sources , new acquaintances—have to remain

namel ess . I am un cer ta in how th e b oo k wi l l be received in Iran, and I th i nk it

best to err on the s ide of caution. As a resu l t , the names of many of the peo

p le in this book, the human voices that bring the fo l lowing pages a l ive , have

been chan ged to pro tect their identi t ies . I t is , in my view, a profo und ly

ungratefu l ac t for the trave l wri ter to endanger his sources , the very people

w h o p ro v i d e t h e l i g h t fo r t h e j o u rn e y . S t i l l , t h i s b o o k c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n

c o m p l e t e d w i t h o u t t h i s c o l l e c t i o n o f n a m e l e s s fe l l o w t ra v e l e rs w h o s h e d l i g h t

on my path. I sha l l thank each one persona l ly on future vis i ts .

O f course , publ ic f igures—government offic ia ls, jour na l is ts , pub l ic co m -

mentators—are a different matter . There is less cause for caution, so I can,

a n d s h a l l , t h a n k t h e m p u bl i cl y . F irstl y , I s h o u l d l i ke t o t h a n k H o s s e i n N o s r a t

a n d H o s s e i n S h i ra v i i n t h e F o re i g n P re s s S e c t i o n of t h e M i n i s try of C u l t u re ,

b o t h o f w h o m h e l p e d a rra n g e m y p re s s c re d e n t i a l s . I s h o u l d a l s o t h a n k A l i

R eza H agh igh i for his friendship and assista nc e in nav igating I ran 's political

w a te rs . In a d d i t i o n , I m u s t t h a n k M r . M o h a m m a d * f ro m t h e O ffic e o f F o re ig n

R e si d en t s a n d t h e o t h e r M r . M o h a m m a d i , fro m t h e M i n is tr y o f C u l t u r e ,

wh ose fr iendship a nd ins ights I va lued. Journ a l is ts Da riu sh S aj jaddi , S hirzad

B o z o rgm e h r , a n d M e h rd a d S e r jo o ie p ro v e d t o b e ex t rem e l y k n o w l e d g e a b l e

guides to the I ranian pol i t ica l terra in . Haji A gha A bu To rabi offered m e a rare

gl impse into the l ife of a government-affi l ia ted senior M us l im c leric , for

which I am gratefu l . M ay he res t in peace.

I should l ike to thank the fo l lowing people in Iran for sharing their

ins ights with me in severa l conversat ions: po l i t ica l sc ientis t Hadi Semati ;

X U l




XIV

j o u r n a l i s t s A k b a r G a n ji

T

M a s h al l a h S h a m s ol v a ez in , a n d M e h d i N a s si ri ; e c o n

om ist Fariborz R aisdana; Caspian specia l is t A bbas M aleki; and chief of s taff to

t h e p r e s i d e n t M o h a m m a d A l l A b t a h i , w h o i s c u r r e n tl y t h e v ic e p r e s id e n t o f

I ra n .

I am deeply indebted to my extended Iranian family , who offered me love,

w a rm t h , a n d h o s p i t a l i t y t h ro u g h o u t m y s t a y i n I ra n . T h e i r p re s e n c e m a d e i t

feel as if I we re rep ort ing from ho m e.

In t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s I s h o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k E d C o d y o f t h e Washington Post

fo r m a k i n g a b o y h o o d d re a m c o m e t ru e , g i v i n g m e s p a c e i n m y " h o m e t o w n

p a p e r" t o w rit e a b o u t I ra n . A l s o a t t h e Post, I h av e t o t h a n k N o ra B o u s t a n y ,

w h o c h a m p i o n e d m y c a u s e a n d c o n t i n u e s t o b e a s o u rc e o f i n s p i ra t i o n , I a m

also gratefu l to the fo l lowing e ditors w ho gave m e space in thei r pages; S tan

l ey R e e d a n d H a rry M a u e r of BusinessWeek, N i c h o l a s N e s s o n of Arables Trends,

M a r k S t r au s s of

Foreign Policy,

K a tr in a v a n d e n H e u v e l a n d K a r in R o t h m y e r of

th e Nation, a n d J u s t i n B u rk e o f E u ra s i a N e t . M y c o l l e a g u e s at t h e R e u t e rs

b u re a u i n D u b a i (1 9 9 8 -9 9 ) h e l p e d m e g ro w as a j o u rn a l i s t a n d o b s e rv e r o f

I ra n . I e sp e ci al l y t h a n k B a rry M a y a n d F i ro o z S e d a ra r

I am immense ly gratefu l to the fe l lowship support offered me by the

W o o d ro w W i l s o n I n t e rn a t i o n a l C e n t e r fo r S c h o l a rs in t h e s u m m e r of 2 0 0 1 .

T h a n k s t o M i k e V a n D u s e n , R o b e r t L i tw a k , J a n i n e R o w e , a n d t h e e n t ire s ta ff

a t the center for making me fee l a t home in an environment that is t ru ly wor

thy of that great in tern ationa l is t A merican p res ide nt . A t the center I benefited

from th e energy and ski l l s of two uniqu e l y ta lented intern s , Jus t in K ahrl an d

Tiffany DarabL Both provided exce l lent research and proved to be va luable

chap ter reade rs . Jus t in K ahrl often we nt above and b eyo nd th e cal l of duty in

his w ork , for w hic h I am very apprecia t ive . A bove a l l , I th an k th e form idabl e

d i re c t o r of t h e M i d d l e E a s t P ro j e ct a t t h e c e n te r , H a l e h E s fan d i a ri . M s . E s fa n -

diari

T

s sup po rt an d ins ights were inva luabl e , I on l y ho pe the fo l lowing pages

vindicate her fa i th in the project

In t h e s u m m e r o f 2 0 0 1 m y m a n a g e r a t IP C . J o s e p h O ' K e efe , g e n e ro u s l y

gran ted m e t ime away from my desk to do the heavy writ ing . M y co l l eagues

L u d w i n a Jo s e p h , A d r i an a G o m e z , a n d S u j a n i E l i h e l p e d c o v e r m y b e a t w h i l e

I was away.

O v e r t h e y ea rs I h a v e l e a rn e d a b o u t I ra n fro m s o m a n y s c h o l a rs a n d s p e

cia l is ts , many of whom I have had the privi lege to get acquainted with . Al l

their ins ights co lor the pages of th is book, but the l is t would be too exhaus-




t ive to note here . Ins tead, I have confined myse lf to those whom I in terviewed

for this boo k. Th ey are : Dr. R. K . R amaz ani of the U nivers i ty of Virginia . Dr.

A h m a d K a ri m i H a k k a k o f t h e U n iv e rs it y of W a s h i n g t o n , D r E r ic H o o g l u n d

of Critique, Dr. Seyyed H oss ein N asi" of G eorg e W ash ing ton Univers ity , Dr.

J a h a n g i r A m u z e g a r , D r . H o m a K a t o u z i a n of O x fo rd U n i v ersi ty , D r . R a rni n

Jahanbegloo of the Univers i ty of Toronto, Dr. Haleh Esfandiari of the Woodrow

W ils on C enter, and Bil l R oyce of th e Voice of A me rica . I shou l d a l so l ike to

t h a n k D r . G a ry S i c k o f C o l u m b i a U n i v e rs it y a n d m y G u l f2 0 0 0 c o l l e a g u e s

w h o s e a l m o s t d ai l y c o m m e n t s o n I ra n rea d l i ke a ru n n i n g i n te rvi ew .

O ne professor, a m an w ho se wor ks I adm ire greatly , p layed a crit ica l ro l e

in the creat ion of th is book. Dr. Fouad Ajami was my graduate school adviser

a t t h e J o h n s H o p k i n s S c h o o l o f A d v a n c ed I n t e r n a t i o n a l S t u d i e s, a n d h e

t a u g h t m e t h e i m p o rt a n c e o f p ro b i n g b e y o n d p o l i t i c s t o t h e c u l t u re a n d h i s

tory of th e lands I cover. O ver l un ch a t an I ndian re s tau ran t in N ew York City ,

we discussed t he p oten tia l for th is boo k. T hr ee years la ter , with his sup po rt ,

it has become a reality.

M y e d i t o r a t N o r t o n , E d w i n B a rb e r, h e l p e d t ra n s fo rm m y e ar l y d i s o rd e re d

pages into an acceptable manuscript . His subsequent edit ing, with great ski l l

and l i terary sense , substantive ly im prove d the bo ok, I w oul d a l so l ike to t ha nk

N a n c y P a l m q u i s t , t h e m a n a g i n g e d i t o r of W . W N o r t o n , a n d m y c o p y e d it o rs ,

P e ar l H a n i g a n d M a ry B a b c o c k , w h o c l e a n e d , p o l i s h e d , a n d i m p ro v e d t h e

l a n g u a g e . In d e e d , I a m i n d e b t e d t o E d B a rb e r, D e i rd re O ' D w y e r , a n d e v e ry

o n e a t W . W N o r t o n fo r t a k i n g a c h a n c e o n a y o u n g , u n t e s t e d w ri te r .

I a m g ra t e fu l t o t h e fo l l o w i n g p e o p l e w h o re a d a n d c o m m e n t e d o n a l l o r

p a r ts o f t h e m a n u s c r i p t : D r . R . K . R a m a z a n i . D r A h m a d K a ri m i H a k k a k , B il l

R o y c e ,

D r

F o u a d A j a m i ,

D r

N a g h m e h S o h r a b i , K a ri m S a d ja d p o ur , D o k h i

F a s s ih i a n, a n d m y fat he r, D r . H a s s a n A . M o l a v i . D r K a r im i H a k k a k , i n p a r t i c

u lar , proved to be an extraordinari ly va luable cri t ic who gave generous ly of his

t i m e a n d e ru d i t i o n .

M y s is t e r Y e g a ne h

T

s i n t e re s t i n I ra n n o u r i s h e d m y o w n , a n d h e r e n c o u r

agement to t rave l to Iran p layed no smal l ro le in my own journey. Hopeful ly ,

t h i s b o o k w il l g u i d e h e r t w o -y e a r-o l d s o n , K e y va n , t o h i s o w n I ra n i a n j o u r n e y

when he comes of age.

Shei la Shahriari , my wife and fr iend and va lued reader, a lways reminded

me to s tay focused o n the h u m a n aspect of the s tory, for sh e un de rs t an ds

that , a t the end of the day, human dignity is more important than f lee t ing

X V




p o l it ic a l p h e n o m e n a . S h e al s o r e ad a n d c o m m e n t e d w i se l y o n t h e m a n u s c r i p t

a n d p ro v i d e d m u c h -n e e d e d e m o t i o n a l s u p p o r t . In m a n y w a y s, t h i s b o o k is a

joint venture . I sha l l a lways be gratefu l to her.

A b o v e a l l, I m u s t t h a n k m y p a re n t s . T h e i r c o n s t a n t , u n c e a s i n g l o v e a n d

devotion have cas t a warm g low over my l i fe . Their support for th is book

p ro j e c t h a s b e e n u n y i e l d i n g . M o re t h a n t h e y w i l l e v er k n o w , m y a t t e m p t t o

u n d e rs t a n d I ra n h a s b e e n a n e f fo r t t o p a y h o m a g e t o t h e m . F o r a l l t h a t t h e y

have done for me, I am eterna l ly gra tefu l .

A f sh i n M o l a vi

W a s h i n g t o n , D . C .

XVI



P R O L O P V E

This is a book about Iran and Iranians , For more than a year, I t rave led across

this

old

and sophis t icated and tormented land to observe, l is ten, d iscuss , th ink,

and write. 1 lagged thousands of miles and visited more than twenty cities and

vi l lages . In a l l my trave ls , I had one s imple request of the thousands of I rani

ans I enc ou nte red . "Te l l me yo ur s tory," I asked. T he y did. T he s tories were

edifying, en l ightening, maddening, exhi lara t ing, t ragic , t r iumphant, sad, won

derfu l , an d terr ib le . A t t imes

1

fe l t o v e rw h e l m e d , s u b m e rg e d , a l m o s t d ro w n i n g

in a sea of voices w antin g to be heard. O ften th e interview subjects con tact ed

m e .

" I h e a r y o u a re a j o u r n a l i s t a n d h a v e c o m e f ro m A m e ri c a , " o n e a n o n y

mous te lephone ca l ler sa id . "Wel l , perhaps my own s tory may interes t you"

These voices formed the heart of my narra t ive; I ran 's co lorfu l and tor

m e n t e d t w e n t y -s i x -h u n d re d -y e a r h i s t o ry fo rm e d t h e b a c k b o n e . I b e g a n m y

j o u rn e y w i t h a p i l g r im a g e t o t h e t o m b o f C y r u s t h e G re a t , t h e s i x t h -c e n t u ry

B . C . P e rs i a n k i n g w h o fo u n d e d t h e P e rs i a n E m p i re , a k i n g w h o re m a i n s a c u l

tura l icon to this day. I ended i t with two modern pi lgrimages , to the shrine of

I ra n ' s w a r " m a rt y rs , " t h e n e a rl y 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 y o u n g m e n k i l l e d i n t h e 1 9 8 0 -8 8

Iran-Iraq war and to the Canadian embassy in Damascus, Syria , s i te of the

Iranian youth "visa pilgrimage," an a lmost ritualized pattern of exit for young

Ira nians frustra ted by ihe lack of jo b op po rtu nit i es and th e Is l amic R epub l ic 's

res tr ic t ions on persona l and socia l freedoms.

The war martyrs ' shrine , located in a scraggly dir t p la in on the Iraqi bor

der, is a haunting tes tament to a los t generat ion of I ranian youth and a sad

reminder of the his torica l tendency for I ranian leaders to send their sons to

death for hazy pol i t ica l causes . T h e visa pilgrim age shr ine , especial ly th e brai n

drain of I r an 's you ng profess iona l e l i te, d isp layed vivid ly, in L en in 's fam ous

phrase , "a people voting with their feet / ' In between, I v is i ted the shrines of

saints, po ets, c lerics, an d fa l len political figures in an att em pt to un de rs ta nd

the Iranian his tory that so co lors the present .

XVII



P R O L O p V E

Unders tandably, the his tory presented in the fo l lowing pages is not com

p re h e n s i v e . A l a n d w i t h n e a rl y t h re e t h o u s a n d y e a rs o f c o n t i n u o u s re c o rd e d

his tory cannot be encapsula ted in an account of one trave ler 's journey. S t i l l ,

a n y a t t e m p t t o u n d e rs t a n d t o d a y ' s I ra n d e m a n d s a l o o k b a c k a t y e s t e rd a y ' s . In

the fol lowing pages, I bring you a f lavor of that history, particularly the

m o m e n t s t h a t h o l d s o m e re s o n a n c e i n to d a y ' s I ra n . J u s t as i m p o rt a n t , I a l s o

explore Iranians ' perceptions of their own his tory, which animated a great

dea l of twentie th-century Iranian pol i t ica l d iscourse , In fact , a recurring

t h e m e o f m o d e rn I ra n i a n p o l i t i c s h a s b e e n a n a t t e m p t t o d e f i n e I ra n i a n h i s

tory to fit political agendas.

M y j o u rn e y w a s o rg a n i z e d a ro u n d a s e ri e s o f p i l g r i m a g e s ac ro s s t h e c o u n

try , p i lgrimages of my own choosing. I ranians are frequent pi lgrims, v is i t ing

shri nes of medieva l poe ts , S ufi mystics , ob scu re c lerics , and even fal len he roe s

o f p o l i ti cs o r c u l t u r e l ik e M o h a m m a d M o s s a d e q , t h e l at e p o p u l a r p r im e m i n

i st er w h o w a s o v e r t h r o w n in a 1 9 53 C I A - s u p p o r t e d c o u p d ' et a t, o r G h o l a m

R e za T a k h t i , a n O l y m p i c c h a m p i o n w re s t l e r b u r i e d in a T e h ra n c e m e t e ry .

Some of the pi lgrimages I chose were obvious because of their re l igious and

cul tura l importance to a l l I ranians; o thers ref lec ted a certa in aspect of I ranian

h i s t o ry o r c u l t u re t h a t I fel t i m p o rt a n t t o e x p l o re . T e re n c e O ' D o n n e l l , a p e r

ceptive A m erican w ho s pe nt fourteen y ears l iv ing on a farm in Iran in th e

1950s an d 1960s, w rote this of th e Iranian pi lgrimage ( in 19S0, am id the fury

of the revolution 's ear ly days);

From all that I know of the Iranians, I believe that in time the fanaticism of the

revolution will pass. I can think of no better support for this than the nature of

the

Iranian pilgrimage and the shrines which are its object. Iranians are much prone to

pilgrimage, for though thty love the

flesh,

they love the spirit too— perhap s not quite

the contradiction that some in the West might think. And they certainly havr much

opportunity for pilgrimage since Iran is

covered

w ith shrines, every thing from tittle

wayside places to the great edifices in the holy cities—some of the latter among the

most dazzling buildings in the East. Not one of these thousands of shrines honors

a soldier or a political figure. All are dedicated to either saints or poets. In the end ,

these, rather than the bullhorns, are the voices that Iranians heed and venerate.

1 first began traveling to Iran as a journa l is t in 1997 to cover in a sense the

"bu l l ho rns ," the pol i tics and the publ ic debate . I t was an excit ing mo m en t in

X V l l L



P R O L O p V E

I ran 's h is tory. A charismatic c leric , ca l l ing for democracy, the ru le of law, and

i n c re a s e d f re ed o m s , c a p ti v a te d t h e c o u n t ry . P re s i d e n t M o h a m m a d K h a t a m i ,

w h o w o n o v e rw h e l m i n g e l e c t i o n v i c to r i e s i n 1 9 9 7 a n d 2 0 0 1 , w a s t re a te d l i ke

a ro c k s t a r , h i s p u b l i c a p p e a ra n c e s m a rk e d b y c h e e r i n g fa n s a n d b a n n e r-

waving you ths . M eanw hile a new breed of I ranian jour na l is t pro bed t he pol i t ics

of the l and, tackl ing subjects that w ere formerly tabo o. T he ir pe ns b l is tered

the s t i l l -entrenched ru l ing conservative c lergy ( to the de l ight of readers) and

promoted heady ideas of democracy, freedom, and c ivi l socie ty . I ran 's univer

s i t y c a m p u s e s , d o rm a n t s i n c e p l a y i n g a c r i t i c a l ro l e i n t h e t h u n d e r i n g 1 9 7 9

revolution, sprang a l ive once again, agita t ing for more socia l and pol i t ica l

freedoms; s tu de nt p rotes t s beca m e a famil iar feature of cam pu s l ife . In t he

p ro t e s t s m a n y o f t h e s t u d e n t s w o re p i c t u re s of K h a t a m i o n t h e i r c h e s t s a s

they waved their newly be loved newspapers in the a ir . I t seemed for a moment

t h a t t h e " b u l l h o rn s " h a d b e c o m e i n t e re s t i n g .

Today there is considerabl y less po l i t ica l excite m ent in I ran. T ho se ta nt a

l iz ing days have given way to a more sober rea l i ty: I ran 's antidemocr

at ic conservative ru l ing c lerics , the rea l ho lders of power, are in l i t t le mood

for chang e. A series of effective conservative- led assaul ts o n reform ist su p

p o r t e rs of K h a t a m i h a s l eft j o u rn a l i s t s i n j a il , n e w s p a p e rs s h u t d o w n , p a r l i a

m e n t a r i a n s g ro p i n g t o re m a i n rel e v a n t , a n d K h a t a m i ' s o n c e - s h i n i n g s t a r

darkening.

A s a j o u r n a l i s t

1

wa tched the pol i t ics c lose ly . A s a t rave ler and writer and

stud ent of I rania n history, I fo l lowed t he cu l ture t ra i l . A l tho ug h pol i t ics has

the capacity to dominate the present , cu l ture is a bet ter guide for the future .

The history of Iran is ful l of fai led political enterprises; i ts culture is far more

e n d u r i n g . In d e e d , t h e s t u d e n t o f I ra n i a n c u l t u re e m e rg e s w i t h a d if fe ren t v ie w

of the land from that of th e s tu de nt of po l i t ics. O ften h e is m or e o ptimis t ic ,

more hopefu l . After a l l , the s tudent of cu l ture can bask in the g lories of an

ancient c ivi l iza t ion that has produced some of the world 's most gif ted poets

and thinkers , s tunning architecture , and exquis i te art . Sure ly , such a formida

b le cu l ture can weather the s torms of po l i t ics , the cu l ture scholar says . The

stud ent of po l i t ics has a m ore grim view. W ith rare exceptions , he has seen

shorts ighted, vena l , and bruta l leaders . He has witnessed exploita t ive and vio

lent meddl ing by foreign powers . He has seen a co lorfu l ga l lery of fa lse mes-

siahs,

rogues , pre tenders , and despots , with only short respites from a

genera l ly g loomy pol i t ica l p ic ture .

X i X



P R O L O p V E

In 1997, w hen I fi rs t bega n trave l ing to Iran as a jour na l is t to wri te a bo ut

the pol i t ics , i t became easi ly apparent lo me that there was far more to the

Iranian universe than the reformist-conservative power s truggle that captured

world headl ines . Unfortunate ly , my three-week vis i ts fe l t hurried, unsatisfy

i n g , s o m e h o w a r ti fi ci al . R u s h i n g fro m a p p o i n t m e n t t o a p p o i n t m e n t ,

I

had l i t

t le time to l inger over a cup of tea, get lost in the twisting bazaars, develop

m eaningful re l a t ion ships with ne w friends. I m et m any offic ia ls of th e Is l amic

R epubl ic , bu t I found my co nversa t ions with taxi drivers , th e butche r, the

baker, or the trader more interes t ing and. indeed, more revea l ing.

I

l e a rn e d

m o r e a b o u t I ra n f ro m a l i n e of p o e t ry t h a n f ro m h u n d r e d s of g o v e rn m e n t

briefings. A fter ea ch visit

1

r e t u r n e d h o m e t o W a s h i n g t o n o r D u b a i m o r e p e r

p lexed than before , grasping the pol i t ics but fa l l ing to comprehend the se ismic

shifts taking place in Iranian society, hints of which I cul led from my conversa

t ions with average Iranians , and groping to unders tand the cu l ture and his tory

that colors the Iranian canvas.

So in the middle of 1999 I decided to leave a se t t led posit ion with an

i n t e rn a t i o n a l n e w s a g e n c y a n d h e a d fo r I ra n . I t w a s a h o m e c o m i n g o f s o r t s . I

was born in Iran but moved to the United S ta tes a t a young age, severa l years

before the revo lu tion. M y mem orie s of the land were hazy: soccer in th e

streets ; saffron-f lavored ice cream ; a boy na m ed A bdol lah and his m otorcy c l e

rides . A s a univers i ty s tud en t , I had trave led to othe r p l aces: E uro pe , E ast

A s ia , t h e A ra b w o r l d . A s a j o u rn a l i s t I h ad c o v e re d A ra b l a n d s a n d s o u g h t

A rab tru ths for seven years: in R iyadh, in Cairo, in Dub ai . I t was ,

1

t h o u g h t ,

t ime for me to re turn to Iran, to experience the land of my ancestors , to te l l

an Iranian s tory, to seek Iranian truths .

I t was a moving experience for me persona l ly , but the fo l lowing pages are

not devoted to my own interior persona l journey. They are devoted to a

description, as best I could represent, of the history of this old civil ization, of

the cu rre nt I ranian pred icam ent, and , m os t of a l l , of the l ives , fates , and ho pes

of I rania ns I met a l ong th e way.

X X



P E R S I A N

P I L G R I M A G E S



i

4*

The Sleeping Guardian of the Islamic Books * Notes on a Pilgrimage:

Cyrus the Great Currencies and Passports aboard Iran Air Flight 32 7 to

Shiraz What Is the Nam e of This Street? Persepolis: Celebrations and

Revolutions The Zoroastrian Stamp Colonial Markings & Ancient

History and Green Cards *$* Pilgrimage to the Tomb of Cyrus the Great

Cities; Tehran, Shiraz, Persepolis, Pasargad

The Sleeping Guardian of the Islamic Books

he guardian of the Is lamic books l ibrary was as leep. S louched in a chair ,

his gray-bearded chin res t ing on his chest , he snored soft ly , h is round

stomach r is ing and fa l l ing. Two thin hairs poked out from his wide nose.

O n o n e o f h i s g n a r l e d b ro w n h a n d s , h e w o re a t u rq u o i s e p i n k i e r in g . H i s t a t

tered white shir t revea led traces of what looked l ike soup s ta ins . Behind him,

a b ov e t h e l a rg e p h o t o g ra p h of A y a t o l i ah K h o m e i n i , t h e c l o c k re a d 8 :3 0 A . M .

He perched there (when he was not as leep) to serve wait ing passengers

w h o m i g h t w a n t t o b o rro w a b o o k . C o n s e rv a t i v e re l i g i o u s fo u n d a t i o n s l i n k e d

to the government fund this l ibrary and many others in publ ic spaces across

t h e c o u n t ry . U s u a l l y , re l i g io u s ti t l e s a n d t h e w ri t i n g s of p ro m i n e n t M u s l i m

clerics , m ost ly writ te n in I ran 's nat io na l la nguag e of Fars i, s tock th eir she lves .

A t t h i s l ib ra ry , o c c u p y i n g a c o rn e r of t h e M e h ra b a d A i rp o r t d o m e s t i c d e p a r

ture lounge, I saw tit les, in Farsi, such as

The Book of Guidance, The Last Message

of Imam Khom eini, a n d Youth and Morals in Islam, I a lso spotted a few books in

E n g l i s h a n d a c o u p l e i n F re n c h :

The R ightly Guided Path, Dieu et Ses A ttributes

a n d a t ra n s l a t e d v o l u m e ,

Le Dernier Message dTma m K komeiny,

I edged around the s leeping c lerk to get a c loser look a t the books. His

heaving s tom ach m oved to the tu ne of his raspy snore as I brow sed— alone. A

thin layer of dust covered the bo ok s ' jackets ; no one e lse , am on g three hu nd red

or so passengers waiting for f l ights to a l l parts of Iran, showed any interest.

3



P E R S I A N

P I L p JU M A f E S

" D o n ' t w a k e h i m , " a y o u n g m a n i n b l u e j e a n s a n d a w i d e s m i rk s a i d ,

notic ing my interes t in the books as the guardian s lept . "The fe l low usua l ly

s leeps a l l morning. You may give him a heart a t tack." He laughed and pul led

a pack of cigarettes from his front shirt pocket. His black hair, with its front

bangs hanging over his eyes, shone with the wet gloss of hair gel . He affected

an a ir of cool d is interes t in his surroundings , repeatedly f ingering his hair and

s h r u g g i n g h i s s h o u l d e r s i n a " w h a t ' s - t h e - u s e -a n y w a y " m a n n e r . " N o b o d y i s

interested in those books/ ' he said, f l ipping his hair back as he offered me a

cigaret te . "That 's why the o ld man can s leep a l l morning."

He tapped his hands to his chest and r ibs and searched the pockets of his

b l ue N ike jacket for a m atch . " If you d o wake him up, ask him for a l ighter/ '

th e yo un g m an said. " I have seen h im sm okin g. A fter a l l , he m us t pass the

time, no?" He smiled and drifted away toward the gift shop that sold Barbie

dol ls ,

honey-soaked sweets , s teaming tea , and foreign chocola tes .

In fact, the airport Is lamic l ibrary is one of the few public places in Iran

w h e r e o n e c a n b r o w s e a m o n g b o o k s w i t h o u t a c r o w d . A m i n i b o o m r ag e d in

m o s t b o o k s t o re s a c ro s s t h e c o u n t ry . I ra n i a n s a v i d l y b o u g h t b e s t -s e l l i n g

b o o k s b y p ro d e m o c ra c y j o u rn a l i s t s , p o p u l a r P e rs i a n ro m a n c e n o v e l s , a n d

b i o g ra p h i e s o f A m e ri c a n m o v i e s t a rs (L e o n a rd o D i C a p r i o w a s e s pe c ia l l y i n

vogue a t the t ime, though he has been ec l ipsed recent ly by the Backstreet

Boys). But here there was no buzz, no jos t l ing for space, no l i fe , on ly a brown-

eyed young man with a c igaret te dangl ing from his l ips , looking for a l ight .

I decided no t to wake the s leep ing c lerk. I wal ked over to th e new sstan d

i n s t e a d . A l a rg e c ro w d h a d g a t h e re d , a w a i t i n g t h e m o rn i n g n e w s p a p e rs , i m p a

t i e n t l y f l i p p i n g t h ro u g h t h e w e e k l y m a g a z i n e s . E v e ry m i n u t e o r s o , s o m e o n e

a p p ro a c h e d t h e n e w s p a p e r c l e rk : " H a v e t h e n e w s p a p e rs c o m e ? " " W h e n w i l l

t h e y b e h e re ? "

T h e ne w l y f re ed p re s s e n t ra n c e d I ra n , N e w s s t a n d s h a d b e e n t ra n s fo rm e d

i n t o t h e m o s t c ro w d e d p l a c e s in I ra n i a n c i t ie s ; t h e n e w s p a p e r v e n d o r h a d

b e c o m e t h e m o s t p o p u l a r m a n i n t o w n . T h e n e w s p a p e rs , l ib e ra l i ze d af te r t h e

s w e e p i n g e l e c t i o n v i ct o ry of t h e re fo rm i s t c l e r ic M o h a m m a d K h a t a m i t o t h e

p re s i d e n c y i n M a y 1 9 9 7 , s e rv ed a s a s c o re c a rd i n t h e o n g o i n g p o w e r s t ru g

g le between reformers pushing pol i t ica l and socia l l ibera l izat ion and their

p o w e rfu l h a rd - l i n e o p p o n e n t s i n t e re s t e d i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n

s t a t u s q u o .

4



T E H R A N

Every day Iranians rushed to the newsstands to read the la tes t news. The

highly popular papers wrote breath less ly of democracy, c ivi l socie ty , d ia logue,

th e ru le of law, free speech , the r ights of th e individua l . Th ey lashed ou t a t

Iran 's conservatives as autocrats hungry for power, us ing re l igion as a cover

for their voracious appeti tes . They tackled formerly taboo subjects , quest ion

ing fun dam enta l aspects of the Is lam ic R epubl ic from the doctri ne of c lerical

ru le , known as the

velayat-e-faqih.

t o t h e m a n d a t o ry v e i l i m p o s e d u p o n

w o m e n , hijab, t o I ra n 's s t a u n c h o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e M i d d l e E a st p e a c e p ro c e s s .

T he conser vative-co ntro l led judic ia ry regular ly used i ts pow ers to shu t

down the reformist papers . Such act ions hard ly s lowed the f low of reformist

presses . A s soo n as th e judic iary c losed on e paper, an ot he r sp ran g up, often

contro l led by the same editors of the newly banned dai ly Conservative papers

fought back, bra nd ing I ran 's reformists as W estern L ackeys, m ora l l y cor rup t ,

a n d u n w i t t in g s u p p o r t e rs o f " w o r l d Z i o n i s m / ' B u t few re ad t h e m . O n c e , a t a

Tehran newsstand, a vendor furt ive ly s l ipped a reformist dai ly ins ide the

pages of a conservative one that 1 had br ou gh t. W h en 1 detected his su b

terfuge, he said: "You are a jou rna l ist. You write for foreign new spap ers. You

m ust no t read that conservative garbage. You m ust read th e reformist pap ers

Tha t is wh at a l l I ranians are reading " G ove rnm ent bui l dings and Iran A ir d is

tributed excess conservative dailies for free.

In A p ri l 2 0 0 0 t h e c o n s e rv a t i v e -c o n t ro l l e d ju d i c i a ry d re w t h e l i n e . L a u n c h

ing a wide-ranging crackdown, it c losed nearly a l l of the reformist dail ies and

jai led leadingjourna l is ts . O vernight the journa l is ts became n ationa l heroes , their

nam es on every I ranian's l ips, their tria ls eagerly fol lowed and buzzed ab ou t.

T he press crack dow n s tark ly ref lec ted a fact th at P res iden t K hata m i had

begun to realize in his first few months of office: his lack of real , substantive

bureaucrat ic power within the system. In Iran, e lec t ions for the pres idency

and Par l iament and some forms of c ivi l socie ty create pockets of "democratic

space/ ' P res iden t K hatam i benefi ted from this l imited dem ocratic space.

These pockets , however, must compete with sweeps of authori tarian space,

main ly powerfu l conservative f igures and bo dies— the office of th e S up rem e

L e ad er , A y a to l l a h A l l K h a m e n e i ( th e su c c e s s o r t o t h e l a te A y a to l l a h K h o

meini),

who has veto power on a l l matters of s ta te ; the conservative judic iary,

w h i c h re g u l a r l y s h u t s d o w n n e w s p a p e rs a n d j a il s d i s s i d e n t s : a c o u n c i l o f e l e c

t ion supervisors kn ow n as the G ua rdia n Co un ci l tha t vets a l l can dida tes for



e lect ive office; wel l -connected merchants who engage in corrupt business

with leading officia ls , enriching both sides; and security services, ranging from

Ira n ' s el i t e R e v o l u t i o n a ry G u a rd s t o t h e m i l i ta ry l e a d e rs h i p . T h e f ra m e rs b u i l t

t h i s u n e q u a l s t ru g g l e i n t o t h e s y s te m . I t t u r n s t h e I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c i n t o a c o n

fused political entity, a system that gives a small amount of power to the peo

ple and the decisive power to an alliance of conservative clerics and the security

services that has little regard for democracy. To top it off, the mantle of religion

and morality covers this authoritarian order. The conservative ruling c lergy

labe ls op po ne nts no t ju s t po l i t ica l d iss idents , bu t "unbe l ievers ," "b lasph em ers ."

1 wal ked away from the vendo r an d sa t do w n in on e of the l oun ge 's b l ue

plas t ic chairs . N earby a gr ou p of yo un g m en in b lu e jean s , c lu nky b lack

shoes , and ge l led hair jok ed w ith an I ran A ir offic ia l , their backpac ks s l ung

c a s u a l l y o v e r o n e s h o u l d e r T w o y o u n g w o m e n i n re d l i p s t i c k s a n d c o l o rfu l

head scarves , their hair ju t t in g o ut defiant ly against the Is lam ic R epubl ic dress

c o d e , w a l k e d p a s t , t ra i l i n g a s c e n t o f p e rfu m e . T h e y o u n g m e n d i d a d o u b l e

t a k e ,

s te a l i n g a g l a n c e a t t h e w o m e n , t h e n q u i c k l y l o o k i n g a w ay . A n e l d e rl y

w om an in a whee l chair , p l um p and gray, w ith skin th e co lor of with ered green

ol ives , drank tea the Iranian way: popping a sugar cube in her mouth before

s i p p i n g t h e h o t l i q u i d , t h e c u b e m e l t i n g u p o n i m p a c t a n d ru s h i n g d o w n t h e

throat in a burs t of sugar and tea and warmth.

T h e e a r l y -m o m i n g s u n s t re a m e d i n t l i ro u g h t h e t a l l a i rp o r t w i n d o w s . R e d

and oran ge ne on s igns b l inked across the ha l l , advert is ing the S hand iz re s tau

rant , a new ice-cream f lavor, and a popular detergent . The Shandiz s ign, a big

s trawberry dipped in chocola te , appeared to be dying, i ts red l ight f l ickering

and f lashing in sha des of pin k and red. U nd er ne ath th e s ign a tod dl er w ith

big brown eyes scurried across the lounge, chased by his mother, her long

Hack ov ercoat t rai l ing the f loor as sh e p leaded, "A l l A l i S low dow n, A Ji,"

I re turned to the lending l ibrary, where the guardian of the books s t i l l

s l e p t a l o n e . I f l i pp e d t h ro u g h s e ve ra l b o o k s . In o n e n o n d e s c r i p t p a m p h l e t -

s t y l e b o o k , I c a m e a c ro s s t h e fo l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e : " T h e velayat-e-faqih is our

e t e rn a l sy s te m o f g o v e rn m e n t . M a y G o d b l e s s Im a m K h o m e i n i for h i s fo re

s i g h t a n d w i s d o m . "

T h e

velayat-e-faqih

essentia l ly grants po l i t ica l power, the s ta te 's ru l ing

apparatus , to Iran 's c lergy and gives one supreme c lerica l leader the ro le of

head of state. T h is su pr em e clerical leader, th e faqih, i n t h e o ry w o u l d ru l e t h e

6



TEHRAN

c o u n t ry in a j u s t m a n n e r a c c o rd i n g t o h i s i n t e rp re t a ti o n of I s l a m i c l a w . T h e

idea, f irst in tr odu ced in 1971 by the exi led A yato l lah K hom eini to a gr ou p of

his c lerical peers during a series of lectures in the Iraqi holy city of

Najaf,

argued that the c lergy, as the most learned in Is lamic law and the tempora l

re p re se n t a ti v e of S h i ' a I s l a m ' s m e s s i a h f ig u re , s h o u l d ru l e t h e m a j o ri ty M u s

l i m I ra n i a n p e o p l e . T h i s re v o l u t i o n a ry i d e a n o t o n l y d i s t u rb e d t h e ru l i n g I ra n

i a n g o v e rn m e n t o f t h e t i m e — t h e n ru l e d b y a n a u t o c ra t i c , m o d e rn i z i n g ,

U . S . -b a ck e d m o n a r c h ( S h a h M o h a m m a d R e za P a h ia v i) — b u t a l s o K h o m e i n i ' s

c l er ic al p e e rs. T h e c l a ss ic a l S h i ' a M u s l i m v ie w i n I ran a n d a m o n g o t h e r S h i ' a

c o m m u n i t i e s o p p o s e d d i re c t in v o l v e m e n t i n po l i ti c s. T h e re a s o n i n g w e n t l i k e

this : In the absence of the Shi 'a messiah-—the twelf th imam, who went into

h i d i n g m o re t h a n a t h o u s a n d y e a rs a g o — a l l g o v e rn m e n t s a re p ro fa n e , s o t a k

i n g p a r t i n g o v e rn m e n t w o rk w o u l d b e d e e m e d u n w o rt h y o f t h e c l e rg y . T h e

M u s l i m c l er ic m i g h t

interact

with gov ern m ent offic ia ls, bu t m us t nev er get

involved in govern ing. O f c ours e , in practice , S hi

l

a c lerics have formed an

important power center in Iranian pol i t ics s ince the s ixteenth-century r ise of

t h e I ra n i a n S a fa v i d d y n a s t y t h a t e m b ra c e d S h i ' i s m a n d p ro c l a i m e d i t t h e n e w

offic ia l fa i th of the then-m ajori ty S un ni I ran, bu t they never wie l ded direct

pol i t ica l power.

1

A yatol lah K hom eini , a S hi 'a c leric , bec am e a revol utionary f igure in th e

ear ly 1960s, defying the a i l -powerfu l S ha h in s t inging, re l ig ious-na tiona l is t

antigovernment speeches that led to his forced exi le in Turkey, I raq, and

later France for three decisive months in 1977. Before his forced exile,

K h o m e i n i ' s b ra z e n d e fi an c e a l s o t a p p e d i n t o s e e t h i n g re s e n t m e n t s a g a i n s t

I ra n 's a u t o c ra t i c S h a h (k i n g) , M o h a m m a d R e za P a h ia v i, f ro m m a n y q u a r t e rs .

T h ro u g h o u t t h e 1 9 7 0 s , a c o a l i t i o n o f re v o l u t i o n a ry fo rc e s — M a rx is t s, I s l a m i c

socia l is ts , nat iona l is t democrats , le f t is t in te l lec tua ls , the underc lass , s tudents ,

writers, c lerics , frus tra ted m erchants— al l agita ted against the S ha h, jo in ing

forces in creat ing a popular revolution that is inaccurate ly ca l led Is lamic.

A fter a l l , eco no m ic grievances , lo ngin gs for greater dem ocracy, frus tra t ion

1 The S hi'a-S unni schism dates back to the early years of Islam and arose over succession

rights to the P rophet M uhammad. Today the majority of the M uslim world is S unni, 84

percent- but Iran is overwhelmingly Shi'a, 99 percent, as a result of the Safavid dynasty's

actions.

A

full treatment of the schism is offered in chapter

2

and the Safavid Shi'atization

in chapter 5.

7



P E R S IA N P U f R l M A p t 5

with th e S hah 's secret po l ice , le f tist antiroya l ism, the r is ing expecta t ion s of a

growing middle c lass , and the sheer excitement of defying an a l l -powerfu l

king p layed ju s t as big a ro le in the rev ol ution 's ga thering s tor m as did

K h o m e i n i ' s u n d e f i n e d E s l am ic u t o p i a n i s t v i si o n s.

A f te r I r a n ' s t h u n d e r i n g 1 9 7 9 r e v ol u t io n a n d K h o m e i n i ' s t r i u m p h a n t

re t u r n t o I ra n , a b a tt l e p l a y ed o u t a m o n g l e a d i n g re v o l u t i o n a ry g ro u p s ; c hie fl y

t h e K h o m e i n i s t s, t h e I s l a m i c s o c ia l i s ts ( t h e M o j a h e d i n -e -K h a l q ) , t h e n a t i o n

alists,

a n d t h e ra d ic a l M a rx is t a n ti - i m p e r i a l i s t g u e ri l l a g ro u p s ( t h e F e d a y e e n -

e -K h a l q ) . A s is o f te n t h e c a s e w i t h p o p u l a r re v o l u t i o n s , t h e u n i t y t h a t e n s u re s

t h e re v o l u t i o n ' s s u c c e s s c ru m b l e s o n c e v i c t o ry h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d , a n d t h e

m o s t m i l i t a n t g ro u p s — n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e m o s t p o p u l a r— e m e rg e a s l e a d i n g

c o n t e n d e rs fo r t h e t h ro n e . In I ra n ' s c as e , t h e m o s t m i l i t a n t w e re t h e K h o

m e i n i s t s , t h e M o j a h e d i n , a n d t h e F e d ay e e n . T h e K h o m e i n i s t s, i m b u e d w i t h a

messianic sense of right, the luster of a leader sti l l viewed as a hero, manifestly

h i g h e r p o p u l a r i t y t h a n t h e o t h e r t w o g ro u p s h a d , a n d m o re t h u g s p e r s q u a re

mile th an the oth er s ides , w on th e batt le . T h e vic tor usua l l y wri tes th e his tory,

and her e th e vic tor ca l led i ts revol ution I s lam ic. A nd so did the res t of th e

w o r l d .

T h u s t h e e ra o f t h e I s l a m i c re p u b l i c a r r i v e d . T h o u g h l e g i o n s o f s c h o l a rs

w i l l d i s p u t e t h e " Is l a m i c n e s s " o f I ra n ' s s y s t e m ( Is l a m , l i k e o t h e r m o n o t h e i s t i c

re l i g i o n s , i s o p e n t o m u l t i p l e i n t e rp re t a t i o n s ) , a n d s e v e ra l h i g h -ra n k i n g I ra n

ian S hi 'a c lerics repud iated K hom eini 's idea of an Is lam ic repub l ic , I ran 's gov

e rn m e n t b a si ca l l y a d h e re d t o K h o m e i n i ' s v is i o n . In e s s e n c e , t h i s m e a n t t h a t

t h e c l e rg y s h o u l d ru l e . T h i s n o v e l i d e a s u rp r i s e d m a n y I ra n i a n s , w h o ro s e u p

against th e S ha h for a variety of reasons, man y of th em havin g no thi ng t o d o

with Is lam. Few had even heard of the term velayat-e-faqik before the revolu

t ion. A s ignificant nu m be r had never heard of K hom eini himse lf un ti l jus t a few

months before the revolution 's success .

Dia logue and protes t on the subject , however, were muted as the ini t ia l

eup ho ria of the revo lutio n gave way to m ob vio lence, rem inisc ent of oth er

p o p u l a r re v o l u t i o n s . R i v a l re v o l u t i o n a r i e s t u rn e d t h e i r g u n s o n o n e a n o t h e r ,

on their form er opp resso rs , often o n innoc ent s . T h e dead bo dies of th e la tes t

"devi l ish offic ia ls" executed by the revolutionary f ir ing squads covered the

newspapers . Zea l re igned over reason, and the law of the s treet sa id s imply:

H e w h o h a s t h e m o s t g u n s w i n s . A f r i g h t e n in g c h a ra c te r , A y a to l l a h S a d e q

3



T E H R A N

K h a Jk h al i , b e c a m e t h e " H a n g i n g J u d g e , " e x e c u t i n g h u n d r e d s o f fo rm e r g o v

ernment offic ia ls on inquis i t ion- l ike charges of "spreading corruption on

e a r t h " a n d " w a r r in g a g ai n st G o d . " I n a m a c a b re m o m e n t , K h a l k h a l i t u r n e d t o

a vis it ing I ndian jou rna l is t , po inte d to a gr ou p of im priso ned m en , and sa id:

" P i c k a n y o n e o f t h e m . I 'l l e x e c u t e h i m fo r y o u " E v e n K h o m e i n i l o s t c o n t ro l

of the s treet . R evol utionaries ign ored his de m an d to re tu rn a l l f i rearms. T he y

sti l l had scor es to se t t le . Various leftist an d M arxis t gr ou ps sa id K hom eini had

go ne "soft.'" K ho m ein i resp on de d, in effect, "I ' l l show you soft," an d s an c

t ioned more ki l l ings .

A n a l l i a n c e b e t w e e n t h e K h o m e i n i s t s a n d t h e o rg a n i z a ti o n a l l y s t ro n g

C o m m u n i s t T u d e h p a r t y ( th e T u d e h w a s t h e s i l e n t p a r t n e r) se a l e d t h e K h o -

me inis t v ic tory. K hom eini 's cha rism a as the defiant c leric w ho cha l len ged th e

king and the unbending man of re l igion ensured vic tory for the se t t ing up of

a n Is l a m i c R e p u b l i c . T h e K h o m e i n i s t re v o l u t i o n a r i e s , w i t h t h e c h a ra c t e r is t i c

hubris of vic torious revolutionaries , saw in their v ic tory a chance to create a

n e w w o r l d , a n e w w a y o f t h i n k i n g , n e w h e ro e s , a n e w I ra n . L e a rn i n g f ro m

their C om m un is t a l l ies, they se t up a prop aga nd a m ach ine s imilar in sty le , if

n o t in s c o p e , t o M a o ' s C h i n a o r S t a l i n 's R u s s ia . T h e y p re s se d b o o k p u b l i s h

e rs i n t o t h e i r s e rv i c e , p ro d u c i n g t h o u s a n d s o f " re v o l u t i o n a ry " b o o k s . T h e s e

b o o k s p re a c h e d a d h e r e n c e t o A y at ol l a h K h o m e i n i a n d th e

vektyat~e-faqih.

T h e y t o l d n o b l e t a l e s of S h i ' a M u s l i m h e ro e s , i g n o r i n g t h e p re - Is l a m i c h e ro e s

of P ers ia 's pas t . Th ey a t tacked "im peria l is t po w ers" and "the G rea t S atan" of

t h e U n i t e d S t a te s . T h e y re p r i m a n d e d t h e " d e v il i s h " S h a h . T h e y p re a c h e d a

conservative social mora l i ty , heavy in patr iarchy. N u m er o us b oo ks expla ined

w h y w o m e n m u s t w e a r t h e

hij&b,

the Is lamic vei l .

E l e g a n t , l e a t h e r-b o u n d v o l u m e s o f K h o m e i n i ' s s p e e c h e s a n d w ri ti n g s, o f

prominent Shi 'a re l igious tracts , of b iographies of Shi 'a re l igious f igures , pro

l i fera ted. In many cases , complex theologica l d iscourses , once confined only

to seminaries and co l leges , now took center s tage in newsstands and a irports .

T h e n e w b o o k s o f t h e " Is l a m i c R e v o l u t i o n " w e re i n t e n d e d t o c l e a n s e I ra n i a n s

of the S hah 's regime and teach th e f lock the new way, the R ight ly G uided

Path, as one of the tit les suggests.

T h e " re v o l u t i o n a ry e d u c a t i o n " o f I ra n i a n s s p re a d b e y o n d b o o k s . B i l l

b o a r d s p r o c l a im i n g t h e j u s t n e s s

of velayat-e-faqih

s p ro u t e d o n h i g h w a y s . C l e r

ics appe ared o n TV u rging the fa ithfu l to pray, rem ind ing the m of th e

9



P E R S I A N

P l l f U M A f E S

sacrif ices of the revolutionary "martyrs /

1

w a rn i n g t h e m a g a i n s t t e m p t a t i o n . In

a n e x t ra o rd i n a ry ac t re m i n i s c e n t o f C h i n a ' s C u l t u ra l R e v o l u t i o n , I ra n 's u n i

vers i t ies were c losed for three years in order to rewrite the curricu lum, to

"Is lamicize" and "revolutionize" every subject from l i tera ture to sc ience.

Ironica l ly , in today 's I ran, a country wounded by an anemic economy, the

d e v a s t a t i n g 1 9 8 0 -8 8 w a r w i t h I ra q , h i g h u n e m p l o y m e n t , l o w w a g e s , a n d

s o ci a l a n d p o l i t i c a l re p re s s i o n , t h e b o o k s o f t h e R i g h tl y G u i d e d P a t h s i t i d l e.

Books about the former Shah (even censored ones) se l l brisk ly , and c lerics

have trouble gett ing taxis to s top for them on the s treet .

A l l o v e r t h e c o u n t ry I ra n i a n s o f a l l c l a s se s o p e n l y b l a m e t h e ru l i n g c l ergy

for everything from the weak economy to the s t if l ing summer heat . In publ ic

protes ts , peopl e ch an t , "T he c lerics are r ich W e are poo r " S impl e daily frus

trations—airline delays, heavy traffic, a bad batch of fruit at the market—serve

as launching points to wide-ranging a t tacks on the c lergy and nosta lgic rem

iniscen ces of "h ow thing s once were before the revo lution ." A n Irania n taxi

driver wi l l rare ly take you from poin t A t o po int B w itho ut f il l ing yo ur ear with

a tirade against akkoond-fui, those c lerics (usual ly these tirades refer to conser

vative c lerics, no t the reformists, l ike K hatam i, w h o rema in largely popul ar,

even if widely acknowledged as weak). A friend, a young cleric in training, told

me he tr ied to borrow money to buy a car because no taxi would pick him up.

It is a familiar sight: c lerics stranded by a road as empty taxis whiz by. "I guess

that is the price of power," the young cleric said rueful ly Today, when he real ly

needs a taxi, he puts on civil ian c lothes and stuffs his c lerical robes into a bag.

S t e p p i n g q u i e t l y a ro u n d t h e s t i l l - s n o o z i n g g u a rd i a n o f t h e I s l a m i c b o o k s

l i brary, I p u t t h e p a m p h l e t b a c k o n t h e d u s t y

shelf,

s l ipped a smal l b i l l in his

s h i r t p o c k e t , a n d w a l k e d a c ro s s t h e l o u n g e , p a s t s i g n s a n n o u n c i n g d e p a r t u re s

to various Iran ian c i t ies : M ash ad , Yazd, Tabriz , Is fahan. Un de rn eat h one of

th e s igns , a smal l c rowd had gath ered aro un d an Iran A ir offic ia l , a yo un g,

s l im, bearded man wearing the b lack s lacks and white shir t of an a ir l ine s tew

ard. Their faces were taut and angry as he spoke. "There wi l l be a s l ight

de lay," he sa id . "P lease go back to your seats . W e sha l l inform y ou. N o need

t o k e e p a p p ro a c h i n g t h e d e s k . " A h e a t e d e x c h a n g e e n s u e d , w i t h t w o p a s s e n

gers,

a middle-aged man and a co l lege-age woman, berat ing the offic ia l in the

pleading, angry tones heard from frustra ted a ir t rave lers around the world .

But this was Iran, and inevitab ly the argument turned to pol i t ics .

"This is the third de lay I 've experienced," the young woman said, her f in-

10



T E H R A N

ger jabbing the air. "This is horrible] Simply horrible And this is the airline

of your Islamic Republic/' she said, her voice dripping with sarcasm. "You

should be ashamed " The crowd craned their necks to hear the angry, finger-

pointing diatribe and nodded their heads in support. Her anger seemed dis

proportionate, but the Iran Air official remained patient and apologetic.

"Please,"

he said, cutting her off, "I'm very sorry for the delay Why don't you

go gel a newspaper?" he said, pointing to the vendor "I think they have

arrived." Heads turned. Indeed, the papers had arrived. Most people trickied

away toward the newsstand. The young woman stayed behind, continuing

her tirade against the apologetic Iran Air official, who, shortly after the verbal

beating ended, rushed to the newsstand to buy a paper

Notes on a Pilgrimage: Cyrus the Great

ear the Islamic books library, in the comfortable chairs in the back of

the departure lounge, I joined my travel partner, Davoud. He perused

a copy of Sobk-e-Emrooz, one of the more daring reformist dailies. He

wore black jeans and a blue shirt, cuffed at the elbows. He sported a three-day

beard on his square jaw. In his early forties, he was fit, with broad shoulders

and a Jong pink scar on his left arm, the result of a car accident. He was a

good travel partner and friend, his knowledge ranging from Persian poetry

and history to racy jokes and American rock music. We awaited a plane to

Shiraz; our destination was the tomb of Cyrus, the sixth-century

~B

.c. king of

Persia, known in history books as Cyrus the Great. When I first told Davoud

of my travel plans, of my chronological journey through important moments

in Iranian history, he said: "You must begin with Kurosh-e-Kabir [Cyrus the

G r ea t] ,

It aJl began with him." His tomb stands eighty miles outside Shiraz on

a dusty, windswept plain ringed by honey-colored hills.

A millennium before Islam came to Persia in the seventh century

A . D . ,

Iran emerged as the world's first superpower, with Lands from India in the east

to present-day Macedonia, a landmass covering two million square miles.

The story of the rise of the Persian Empire, one of the great stories of antiq

uity, begins with Cyrus, an ethnic Iranian prince from the province of Pars,

today known as Fars, in south-central Iran. Cyrus descended from the Aryan

tribes from Central Asia that migrated to Iran in the period 1500-850 B . C .

These Aryan tribes spread through the Iranian plateau—comprising roughly

11



P E &S I A N P I L f i U M A f E S

t o d a y ' s I ra n , A fg h a n i s t an , a n d p a r t s of w e s t e rn C e n t ra l A s i a— a n d i n t o In d i a .

T h e nam e Iran derives from this A ryan heri tage, a fact of wh ich m any Ir ani

a n s a re q u i c k t o re m i n d v i s i to rs w h o c o n fu s e t h e m w i t h S e m i t i c A ra b s .

z

C y r u s c o n q u e r e d t h e n o r t h e r n I r a n i a n t r ib e s o f M e d i a i n 5 50

B . C

, j o i n i n g

t h e M e d e s w i t h t h e P e rs i a n s t o fo rm a p o w e rfu l n e w c o u n t ry d e s t i n e d t o

b e c o m e t h e c e n t e r of t h e va s t P e rs i a n E m p i re . T h i s u n i o n of M e d e s a n d P e r

s ians we nt on to co nq ue r nearby regiona l pow ers , f irst Babylonia and A ssyria ,

t h e n t h e l a n d s o f w e s t e rn C h i n a , a n d t h e n w e s t a l l t h e w a y t o t h e e d g e o f

M a c e d o n i a . T h e O l d T e s t am e n t d o c u m e n t s C y r u s ' s c a p t u r e o f B ab y l o n

because he freed the Jews from captivity, practiced re ligious tolerance, and

f i n a n c e d t h e re c o n s t ru c t i o n o f t h e d e s t ro y ed J e w is h t e m p l e i n J e ru s a l e m . T h e

O l d T e s t a m e n t r ef er s t o h i m a s " t h e L o r d ' s A n o i n t e d O n e . " S c h o l a r s of a n t i q

uity a lso laud Cyrus as a t ra i lb lazing, progress ive king, one who disp layed

u n i q u e l ev el s of t o l e ra n c e fo r c o n q u e re d p e o pl e s - E v e n P l a t o , w h o s e G re e k

compatriots expressed l i t t le love for their Pers ian foes , ca l led Cyrus "a great

man who gave his people the r ights of free men."

W h e n I s u g g e s t e d t h a t D a v o u d j o i n m e o n m y v is it t o t h e C y ru s t o m b , h e

agreed imm ediate ly . L ike m e, he h ad a fascination w ith Cy rus as a his torica l

f igure. O f equa l im por tanc e, we bo th were interes ted in the his torio grap hy of

Cyrus as a twentie th-century icon, a f igure whose legacy has been a l ternate ly

p ra i s e d a n d c o n d e m n e d b y I ra n i a n l e a d e rs a n d t h i n k e rs i n t h e h i g h l y c o n

tentious pol i t ica l and cu l tura l bat t les of that century.

" T h e l e g a cy o f C y ru s t h e G re a t h a s b e e n m i x e d u p i n t w e n t i e t h -c e n t u ry

Ira n i a n p o l i t i c s, " D a v o u d e x p l a i n e d , w h e n w e d i s c u s s e d t h e t r i p . " T h e p o l i t i

ca l d iscourse of th is t ime created two prevai l ing views on Cyrus , both

extremes. The f irs t v iew is the part-roya l is t , part-nationa l is t caricature of the

k i n g a s t h e u n e q u a l e d fo u n d e r o f t h e P e rs i a n E m p i re , a k i n g w e s h o u l d w o r

ship for achieving Iranian greatness , though this view rare ly focuses on

Cy rus 's progress ive views on re l igious to le rance . O n th e ot he r side , the s ide of

Iranians have an unfortunate tendency to cultural arrogance, especially toward their

Asian and Arab neighbors. Arabs come under particular scorn in the popular culture,

resulting from a combination of twentieth-century Persian chauvinism propagated by the

P ahlavi shahs, anti-A rab strains in a prom inent eleventh-century epic, Iran's A ryan roots,

and the political historiography surround ing the m emory of the seventh-century A rab

invasion of Iran.

12



T E H R A N

the Cyrus-bashers—mainly leftist intellectuals and the group of Islamic cler

ics who supported the revolution—Cyrus is condemned as the first in the

long line of absolute monarchs 'strangling Iran for twenty-five hundred

y e a r s / He is not a king to be loved and emulated, but just another tyrannical

Shah."

The two Pahlavi shahs—Reza Shah (reigned 1925-41) and Mohammad

Reza Shah (reigned 1941-79)—aggressively promoted Cyrus in the official

nationalist propaganda as the founder of the golden age of Persia, the first in

a great Persian kingly tradition, with the Pahlavi shahs merely the latest

example. Reza Khan, a soldier and nationalist, enthroned himself in 1925

after leading a coup d'etat in 1921 against the weak and incompetent Ahmad

Mirza, last of the Qajar shahs. He took the name Pahlavi from the name of

the language used in Iran just before the seventh-century Arab invasion and

became known simply as Reza Shah. An admirer of Turkey's secular nation

alist leader Kemal Ataturk, he sought to uproot Islam from Iranian society,

viewing the religion and Iran's clergy as regressive forces keeping his country

down. By praising the era of Cyrus and the Achaemenian kings as the golden

age to be emulated, he purposely ignored Iran's thirteen-hundred-year

Islamic history, a fact of which Iran's clergy angrily reminded their compatri

ots after their victory in the 1979 revolution. His son, Mohammad Reza Shah,

who took on the title King of Kings and Light of the Aryans, continued in the

same tradition, though he showed less overt hostility to Islam. In 1971 he

held a ceremony marking twenty-five hundred years of Persian monarchy, a

lavish gathering that was widely criticized for its expense and opulence. In

1976,

he sought to change Iran's Islamic calendar to an "imperial calendar"

marking the birth of Cyrus as the first day, instead of the flight of the Prophet

Muhammad from Mecca to Medina in the seventh century

A . U

that marks

the Muslim calendar. Overnight, Iranians were told that the year was no

longer 1355, but 2535. The plan, however, fizzled when Iranians largely

ignored the calendar change.

As a result of the official Cyrus worship, Cyrus became a derided histori

cal symbol of monarchy among many anti-Shah revolutionaries in the

970s.

Leftist writers—and just about every prominent writer of the sixties and sev

enties was a leftist of some stripe—openly criticized what they saw as Cyrus

worship, debunking the Achaemenian king's image as the first in the long line

13



FEUS IA N P l L ( I U M A f

E 5

of tyrants that s tran gle d I ran. M us l im c lerics , for their part , d isl iked the P ahlavi

praise of Cyrus because it g lorified Persian history before Is lam, an inferior

his tory to them, ca l led, according to Is lamic l&wJahilliycL, the age of ignorance.

I n th e ear ly years after the 19 79 revol ution, loca l revolu tionary auth ori t ies

took revenge. In severa l loca l d is tr ic ts , use of the name Cyrus ( in Pers ian, i t is

K u ro s h ) o r D a r i u s , a n o t h e r c e l e b rat e d P e rs ia n k i n g , for n e w b o r n s w a s b a n n e d .

When parents ins is ted, offic ia ls s imply wrote an Is lamic name on the bir th

certificate: A li

F

M o h a m m a d , o r H o s s e i n . T o d a y v ery few I ra n i a n t e e n a g e rs

c l a i m t h e n a m e K u ro s h o r D a r i u s (D a r i u s h i n F arsi ).

S h o r t l y af te r I ra n ' s 1 9 7 9 re v o l u t i o n , A y a t o l i ah K h a l k h a l i , t h e i n fa m o u s

" H a n g i n g J u d g e , " p u b l i s h e d a b o o k b ra n d i n g C y ru s a t y ra n t , a l ia r, a n d a

h o m o s e x u a l . H e c a l l e d fo r t h e d e s t ru c t i o n o f t h e C y ru s t o m b a n d t h e re m a i n s

o f a t w o -t h o u s a n d -y e a r -o l d P e rs ia n pa l a c e i n s o u t h e rn I ra n , k n o w n a s P e rs e -

pol is , bui l t by Cyrus 's successors . Fortunate ly , cooler heads prevai led, and

C y ru s ' s t o m b a n d t h e P e rs e p o l i s p a l a c e re m a i n e d s t a n d i n g . D a v o u d a n d I

p lanned to vis i t both s i tes .

T h e a t t e n d a n t c a l l e d o u r f l ig h t. W e b o a rd e d t h e b u s e s t h a t w o u l d t a k e u s

to th e a irp lane. S eated next to me on the b us , a yo un g ma n in jea ns l is tened

t o a W a l k m a n . F ro m t h e fai n t s o u n d e m e rg i n g f ro m h i s W a l k m a n , I c o u l d

m a k e o u t t h e s o n g , C e l i ne D i o n ' s " M y H e a r t W i l l G o O n , " f ro m t h e A m e r i c a n

hit movie Utank. Iran s t i l l bans W estern po p mu sic , bu t l ike' so m any ru le s of

th e Is lam ic R epubl ic , the peop le have learned ways to defy the m quiet ly .

Currencies and Passports aboard Iran Air

Flight 327 to Shiraz

board the aging Boeing 737, one of severa l bought before the 1979

re v o l u t i o n a n d s t il l u s e d b y I ra n A i r, D a v o u d a n d I w e d g e d o u rs e l v e s

into our seats in the rear of the p lane. A s teward handed out candies .

A n Is l a m i c p ra y e r w a s w h i s p e re d o v er t h e l o u d s p e a k e r . A f te r a s m o o t h t a k e

off, we flew above Tehran, leaving the massive sprawl of the city of thirteen

mil l ion beh ind us , A smil ing s tewarde ss with high che ekb one s offered us

s p o n g y c h i c k e n s a n d w i c h e s w ra p p e d i n p l a s t ic . A b e a rd e d s t e w a rd , w e a r i n g a

pilot 's white shirt with black shoulder tassels , offered us tea.

"A h, yes ," Da vou d said, s ipp ing th e tea , " this is exact ly w hat I nee d now.

I 'm fa l l ing as leep. I was up la te las t n ight ," he sa id , "read ing a sel f-he lp bo ok

14



l E H J U M - S K l J l A Z

b y a n A m e ri c a n n u t r i t i o n i s t . Y o u k n o w , o n e of t h o s e b e s t -s e l l i n g b o o k s t h a t

offer seven or ni ne or twelve steps to a hea l thie r l ife. I ca n't re m em be r t he

n u m b e r / ' H e l a u g h e d .

"Anyway as I read about the things I should not be eat ing, I rea l ized that I

should be dead by now " He laughed again, s lapping me on the shoulder. " I t ' s

a s i l ly book/ ' he added, shrugging his shoulders , "but I have to make a l iv ing."

D a v o u d , a m o n g o t h e r j o b s , t ra n s l a t e d b o o k s fo r a l e a d i n g p u b l i s h e r . T h e

b o o k b y t h e A m e ri c a n n u t r i t i o n i s t w a s h i s l at e st a s s i g n m e n t . A fe w y e a rs e a r

l i er h e h a d t ra n s l a t e d K u n d e ra , G u n t e r G ra s s , a n d o t h e r n o t e d w ri t e rs t o

m u c h c ri ti ca l a c c l a im , t h o u g h s m a l l s a l e s . H i s t ra n s l a t i o n s o f d o c t o rs '

self-

help books and lyrics from Western rock bands so ld better , so he had been

s p e n d i n g m o re t i m e o n t h o s e l a t e l y

"Iranians are no different from the res t of the world ," Davoud once to ld

m e w i t h a c o n t e m p t u o u s i n t e l l e c t u a l s n e e r . " H i g h l i t e ra t u re c a n n o t c o m p e t e

in sa l e s w i t h L e o n a rd o D i C a p r i o o r t i p s o n h o w t o re d u c e c h o l e s t e ro l l e v e l s. "

In the year I t rave led in Iran, the second best-se l l ing book in the country was

a trans l a t ion of lyrics from t he vintage Bri tish rock ban d P ink Floyd.

S t il l , D avo ud, in ear ly midd le age, har bor ed dream s of wri t ing his own great

novel, of be co m ing an I ranian K und era. But l ife, chil dren , an d the need for

m o n e y l e d h i m t o p u t h i s d re a m o n h o l d : t o t ran s l a t e b o o k s b y A m e ri c a n n u t r i

tionists , to edit an industry magazine, and to write occasional advertising copy.

To my benefit, he had the novelist 's eye for keen social observation and

the comic's gift for wit.

" D i d y o u f i n d s o m e t h i n g s t ra n g e a b o u t t h a t s t e w a rd e s s ? " h e a s k e d a s t h e

smil ing s tewardess handed out sweets .

" N o t p ar t ic u l a r l y , " I sa id. S he l ooked typica l : A scarf covered her hea d,

and a loose ly f i tt ing m an tea u covered any curves in he r body. S he wa s w ear

ing the offic ia l ly mandated women's uniform of the Is lamic Republ ic .

" S h e w a s s m i l i n g ," D a v o u d s a i d . " M o s t w o m e n i n s e rv i ce i n d u s t r i e s d o

not smile . I t w ou ld be seen as to o suggestive . O r pe rha ps they have l i t t le to

smile about." S ince he was ever the cu l ture cri t ic , I expected a disquis i t ion on

the his tory of smil ing women in Iran, but he left i t a t that ,

I t o l d h i m t h a t I h a d s e e n a rai r n u m b e r o f s m i l i n g w o m e n w o rk i n g a s

trave l agents and receptionis ts . "Those are service industr ies too," I sa id .

" W el l , t h e y sm i l e a t y o u b e c a u s e t h e y k n o w y o u h a v e c o m e f ro m A m e r

i c a . " H e l a u g h e d . " T h e y w a n t y o u t o m a rry t h e m a n d t a k e t h e m t o t h e l a n d o f

1?



P E R S I A N )

P i L C i U M A . £ E S

g o l d / ' h e s a i d , s l a p p i n g m e o n t h e s h o u l d e r i n h i s D a v o u d w a y . " Y o u , m y

friend, are a walking green card "

H i s s m i l e s u d d e n l y t u rn e d s e r i o u s , a n d h e p a u s e d , g a t h e r i n g h i s t h o u g h t s ,

a s i g n a l t h a t h e w a s a b o u t t o e m b a rk u p o n o n e o f h i s c u s t o m a ry c u l t u ra l

h o m i l i e s .

"T his fascination w ith going to A m erica and the W est is no thi ng new," he

s a id . " B e fo re t h e re v o l u t i o n , e ve ry h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t w a n t e d t o g o t o A m e r

i c a a n d t h e W e s t t o s t u d y , b u t t h e y a l l p l a n n e d o n re t u rn i n g h o m e e v e n t u a l l y

to wo rk in Ir an. T he se days , if a s tu de nt is lucky en ou gh to s tud y in the W est ,

he wil l rare ly com e hom e. Th ere are so few good jo bs th at everyone, from s t u

dents to middle-aged engineers , is looking for a way out . For many, the West

has turned from a dis tant dream to a dai ly obsess ion. People are a lways gos

s iping about the la tes t news on green card appl icat ions and foreign embassy

visas . W e have be com e a natio n ob sessed w ith l eaving,"

He was r ight . In record numbers , I ranian youth are heading for the exits ,

or a t leas t t rying to . E ur op ea n em bassies are f looded w ith visa ap pl icat ions

fro m I ra n i a n s . M o re t h a n t w o h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d l e ft t h e c o u n t ry l eg al l y i n

2001. C ou nt l ess oth ers left il lega l ly, taking advantag e of a sm ugg l in g rou te to

t h e W e s t t h a t h a s b e c o m e l u c ra ti v e a n d s o m e t i m e s d a n g e ro u s , w i t h s t o p s

i n c l u d i n g B o s n i a for e n t ry i n t o W e s t e rn E u ro p e , a n d C u b a a n d M e x i c o fo r

entry into th e U nite d S ta tes . In fact, in the ear ly 1990s, severa l H ava na hote l s

c a t e re d t o y o u n g , e c o n o m i c a l l y s t ra p p e d I ra n i a n s w h o p l o t t e d t h e i r b o a t j o u r

neys into F lorida .

He fingered the tray table in front of him and continued in a soft whisper.

" B u t i n re al i ty , c a n y o u b l a m e u s ? E s p e ci a l l y o u r y o u t h . T h e re a re n o j o b s fo r

t h e m . O u r e c o n o m y is a m e s s . T h e m i d d l e c l as s is d e c i m a t e d . S o m e y o u n g

w o m e n h a v e e v e n t u rn e d t o p ro s t i t u t i o n t o h e l p t h e i r p a re n t s w i t h t h e b i l l s o r

t o s u p p o r t t h e m s e l v e s . "

" A n d w h a t a b o u t y o u ? " I a s k e d .

H i s fa c e w i d e n e d i n a s m i l e . ' W e l l , I d o n ' t t h i n k p ro s t i t u t i o n i s m y c a l l

i n g " — h e l a u g h e d , s l a p p i n g m e o n t h e s h o u l d e r— " b u t I ' m w i l l i n g t o t h i n k

a b o u t i t " H e p a u s e d , h i s sm i l e e v a p o ra t i n g a g a i n . " N o , n o . I ' m t o o o l d t o

e m i g ra t e . T h a t i s a y o u n g m a n ' s d re a m . "

T ra v e l i n g a c ro s s I ra n , o n e c o n s t a n t l y h e a rs o f e c o n o m i c p a i n , a n d t h e

s u b s e q u e n t t a l k i s o f e m i g ra t i o n t o a b e t t e r p l a c e , a p l a c e w i t h j o b s . G o v e rn

m e n t s t at is ti cs p u t u n e m p l o y m e n t a t 16 p e r c e n t, t h o u g h i n d e p e n d e n t e c o n -

16



T E H J U N - S H I R A Z

omists say i t is c loser to 25 percent . Prices of basic goods have r isen s teadi ly

every year s ince 198 8, as wages have fa l len or s tagn ated. M assive un de re m

ployment adds to the s truggle , with engineers working as taxi drivers , phar

macis ts se l l ing T-shirts , professors becoming traders .

T h e s t a t e - d o m i n a t e d e c o n o m y , m i r e d i n c o r r u p t i o n , a n d e x c e s s b u r e a u

cracy, s lows job -cr eat ing g row th. De spite I ran 's massive oil wea l th (it has the

worl d 's f i fth-largest o i l reserves and secon d-l argest gas reserves), th e m idd l e

c l as s i s d e e p l y w o u n d e d . M i d d l e -c l a s s a s s e ts — c a rp e t s , g o l d , a p a r t m e n t s —

acquired in a four-year boom after the 1973 oil price rise, have largely been

sold off to ke ep up wi th inflation an d to offset l ow wa ges. Today, I ran ian s e ar n

o n e -fo u r t h o f w h a t t h e y d id b e fo re t h e re v o l u t i o n i n re a l t e rm s , a c c o rd i n g t o

e c o n o m i s t B ij an K h a j e h p o u r . A s a re s u l t , m i d d l e -c l a s s e x p e c t a t i o n s h a v e

low ered. S ons n o long er expect the eco no m ic securi ty of the ir fa thers. A s for

the poor, they have s imply become poorer, whi le a different c lass of people

(m a i n l y m e rc h a n t s w e l l c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e g o v e rn m e n t ) h a v e b e c o m e r i c h .

Periodica l ly s lums enf lame in r iot , l ike the one in 1995 in Is lamshahr, a

Tehran s lum, but the authori t ies react swift ly : Po l ice que l l the unres t with

fo rc e , t h e n t h e a u t h o r i t i e s t h ro w n e w m o n e y a t t h e s l u m a re a , h o p i n g t o p re

vent future riots.

T o b e s u re , I ra n i s n o t p o o r . I t s n a t u ra l re s o u rc e s e n s u re a m i d d l e - i n c o m e

s t a t u s a m o n g d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s . In d e e d , s e v e ra l s u b -S a h a ra n A fr i c a n

c o u n t r i e s w o u l d l o n g for t h e " e c o n o m i c p ro b l e m s " I ra n h a s . N o r d o e s I ra n

have the wretched swathes of poverty of , say, India and Egypt. Ins tead, I rani

a n s h a v e re l a t i v e l y h i g h e c o n o m i c e x p e c t a t i o n s , e v e n a m o n g t h e u rb a n w o rk

i n g c l a s se s , o w i n g t o a p r e r e v o l u t i o n e c o n o m i c b o o m . T h e c u r r e n t

s t a t e -d o m i n a t e d e c o n o m y fa i l s m i s e ra b l y t o m e e t t h o s e e x p e c t a t i o n s .

D a v o u d c o n t i n u e d : " B e fo re t h e re v o l u t i o n , t h e t o m a n [ I ra n ' s c u rre n c y ]

was s trong . I t was seven to m an s to th e dol lar . N ow i t is e ight hu nd re d," he

said, th en pa used again and repeated th e f igure: "e ight hu nd re d. "

3

Iranians constantiy bring up this currency calculation, a lways reminiscing

about the old days, w he n seven tom ans equaled a dol lar, w he n a middle-class m an

could take his family to E ur op e on a one-w eek holiday and a civil servant cou ld

afford a house. "What has come of u s ? " a frustrated but stil l haughty Iranian once

^ The official currency is the rial , but th e population largely uses the term "toman." O ne

toman is equivalent to ten rials.

17



P E R S I A N P L f R I M A p E S

asked m e. "O ur currency is worth less . Th os e backward A rabs go to E urope with

their ria ls , and we can barely visit Turkey with our worthless tomans "

" A n d t h e I ra n i a n p a s s p o r t / ' D a v o u d w e n t o n , " u s e d t o b e w e l c o m e d a l l

o v e r t h e w o r l d . W e h e l d o u r h e a d s h i g h w h e n w e t ra v e l e d . T o d a y n o b o d y

w an ts to give us visas, an d if we are lucky e no u gh to get one, cu sto m s officials

treat us l ike crimina ls when we arrive ."

Davoud rare ly complained, so his words rung with a part icu lar force , as he

c o n t i n u e d . " T h e re a re p e o p l e w h o s a y t h a t t h e re v o l u t i o n re c l a i m e d I ra n ' s d i g

nity because we are no longer beholden to the United S ta tes as we were under

t h e S h a h , b e c a u s e w e c a n h o l d o u r h e a d u p h i g h a s a n i n d e p e n d e n t s t a t e . In

that respec t , I see their poin t . But som etim es I w ond er: W ha t dignity is there

i n u n e m p l o y m e n t ? In n e rv o u s l y l i n i n g u p o u t s i d e fo re i g n e m b a s s i e s h o p i n g

for visas? In having a passport that makes us unwelcome everywhere we go

a n d a c u rre n c y t h a t i m p o v e r i s h e s u s a s s o o n a s w e s t e p o u t s i d e o u r b o rd e rs ? "

W e l a n d e d i n S h i ra z w i t h a t h u d .

W hat Is the Nam e of This Street?

t t h e S h i ra z a irp o r t , m a s s i v e p h o t o s o f A y a to l l a h K h o m e i n i a n d t h e

c u r r e n t S u p r e m e L e a de r, A y at ol l a h A l i K h a m e n e i , m i n g l e w i t h n e o n

s i g n s a d v e r t is i n g d e t e rg e n t s a n d h o t e l s . D e n s e c ro w d s , w i t h b o u q u e t s

an d n ervo us smiles, wait in the arrivals l oun ge. O uts ide , at an officia l taxi stan d,

people l ine up (or, more accurately, crowd around) to pay the cashier, obtain a

ticket, and st ep in to a wa iting car. A m id th e crow ds, free-lance taxi drivers,

technica l ly i l lega l , approach quiet ly , whispering, "Taxi, agha [Taxi, mis ter]?"

Th ese unoffic ia l drivers usua l l y ho l d oth er job s , b ut in to ug h t im es every car

can be converted into an unofficia l taxi. O nc e I was driven from th e a irport

by a man who had jus t f inished his morning shif t as an a ir t raff ic contro l ler .

O n t h e ro a d t o d o w n t o w n S h i ra z, t o w a rd o u r h o t e l , w e p a ss e d ro w s o f

c ru m b l i n g d i r t -c o l o re d h o u s e s a n d b i l l b o a rd s a d v e r t i s i n g s o f t d r i n k s , s o a p s ,

and gray -beard ed c lerics . A s we app roa ch ed th e c ity, we saw lo ng row s of fab

u l o u s re d ro s e s a n d ro u n d , s p o u t i n g fo u n t a i n s . W e c h e c k e d i n t o o u r h o t e l , a

three-s tar es tab l ishment with a garden fu l l of dying roses and an empty din

ing room with bore d waiters in il l - f i t ting red jackets . D av ou d we nt u p to t he

room for a res t . I se t out in to the s treets for a look around.

O n Towh id S treet , ju s t o uts ide o ur ho te l , frui t s ta l ls overf lowed with ye l-

18



l o w a p p l e s a n d g re e n o ra n g e s a n d fa t l i m e s a n d re d , b ru i s e d p o m e g ra n a t e s .

Bread bakers roasted the f ia t , long s tr ips of bread ca l led sangah (l itt le stone),

named after the burning hot s tones i t is cooked on. A smal l c rowd waited

patient ly for the next batch of the subsidized hot bread ( the government se l ls

the ingredients to bakers a t low prices , making a long s tr ip of bread a bargain

even in Iranian terms and a vir tua l s tea l in do l lars a t about seven cents a

s tr ip) . A b l ack -m usta chio ed tea se l ler squat ted by his massive pot , r inged by

tiny p las t ic bags of sugar cube s . A su n-w rink l ed vi l lage w om an in co lorfu l

c l othing sa t on th e s idewalk, se l l ing fresh vegetables a nd greens . A pair of

teenage boys with s l icked, ge l led hair and sunglasses swayed to the beat of a

song p laying from t he spea ker of a fruit ju i ce s tan d. T he s inger was S ha dm eh r

A q u i l i, o n e of m a n y I ra n i a n m u s i c i a n s w h o b e n ef it e d f rom t h e K h a t a m i c u l

t u ra l l i b e ra l i z at io n . N e a rb y a b l i n d m a n w h i s p e re d v e rs e s from t h e Q u r a n . A

y o u n g b o y , i n t o rn c l o t h i n g , g u i d e d t h e b l i n d m a n b y t h e a rm .

A n e r v o u s - l o o k i n g t h i n m i d d l e - a g e d m a n w a l k e d s l o w l y p a s t m e , w h i s

pering in Farsi,

"Varagh,

veeshey,

dolar

[P l aying cards , whiskey, do l la rs] ." A l l a re

offic ia lly i l lega l , bu t wide ly trad ed and us ed, som etim es op enl y by ner vo us -

l o o k i n g m e n o n s t re e t c o rn e rs .

I l o o k e d b a c k at t h e b o o t l e g tra d e r ; h e s t o p p e d . " D o y o u w a n t d o l l a rs ? " h e

w h i s p e r e d . " W h i s k e y ? W h a t ? H u r r y u p / ' h e s a i d , l o o k i n g a r o u n d . " C o m e

with me to the a l ley. Come."

I dec l ined. I a l ready had a regular do l lar-changer in Tehran, and I decided

against the n eedl ess r isk of cha ngi ng m one y in an a l ley w he n 1 cou ld do i t

eas ily over tea and biscuits in the currenc y trade r 's hom e. I co nti nu ed wa lk

ing, by T-shirt s tores , bargain c lothing and e lectronics s tores , toy shops,

b o o k s e l l e rs , a n d a s m a n y p o s t e rs o f t h e h a n d s o m e , b l o n d -m a n e d B ri t i s h s o c

cer s tar David Beckham as there were pic tures of I ran 's revered, dark-bearded

Im a m A l i, f irs t i m a m o f t h e S h i ' a M u s l i m fai th .

I asked a tea vendor where I might buy some camera f i lm.

"K eep wal king do w n this s treet ," he sa id . "D ariu s S treet has everything

you need."

" D a r i u s S t r e e t ? "

"Yes,

you are now on D arius S treet ."

M y m a p s h o w e d t h a t I w a s o n T o w h i d S t r ee t .

Towhid,

an A r a b ic t h e o l o g i

c al t e rm b ro a d l y d e f i ne d a s t h e " o n e n e s s o f G o d , " b e c a m e a c o m m o n s t re e t

name in postrevolution Iran. Before the revolution, th is had been Darius

1$



P E R S I A N F I L p J U A A A f E S

S t re e t , n a m e d a f t e r t h e a n c i e n t P e rs i a n k i n g a n d C y ru s ' s m o s t c e l e b ra t e d s u c

cessor, th e king w ho se re ign consol idated th e gains of th e Pers ian E m pire a nd

la id the f irs t s tone for the fabulous Pers ian pa lace known in the West as

P e rs e p o l i s . D e s p i t e t h e p o s t re v o l u t i o n n a m e c h a n g e t o T o w h i d , t h e t e a v e n

do r and m ost of Sh iraz , I fou nd ou t la ter , s ti l l ca l led the s treet Da rius .

Short ly after the 1979 revolution, any s treet name smel l ing of I ran 's pre-

Is lamic golden age or l inked to the roya l family or the West was changed.

P u b l i c s q u a r e s b e a r in g t h e S h a h ' s n a m e t u r n e d i n t o I m a m S q u a r e ( K h o m e i n i

w a s w i d e l y c a l l e d Im a m , a re fe re n c e t h a t s o m e o f h i s s u p p o r t e rs c u n n i n g l y

d e v i se d t o e q u a t e h i m w i t h t h e s a cre d S h i ' a i m a m s o f t h e p a s t ) . S t re e t s h o n

o r i n g A m e ri c a n p re s i d e n t s of c o u rs e rec e iv e d t h e a x a s w e l l : K e n n e d y S q u a re

b e c a m e T o w h i d S q u a r e , a n d E i s e n h o w e r A v e n u e w a s t ra n s f o rm e d t o A z ad i

(F re e do m ) A v e n u e .

I n Te hran th e broad, tree-l ined P ahlavi A venue wh ere cafes and club s on ce

drew pe opl e late into the nig ht is no w cal led Vali-A sr ("imam of th e age," refer

ring to the last imam, a Shi 'a messiah figure who wil l one day return and bring

justice to the world). In fact, the batt le for this street name—one of the longest

streets in the world, stretching twelve miles across the city—began shortly after

the revolution. First , i t was rechristened M ossadeq A venue, in ho no r of the sec

u lar nat iona l is t prim e minis ter overthrown in a CI A -supported cou p d 'e ta t in

1953. T he renam ing of the s treet to M ossadeq took p lace early in the revolution,

w hen K hom eini supporters were engaged in a postrevolution power s truggle

with othe r revolutionaries—nationalists , M arxist guerril las, Co m m uni sts, and

dem ocrats. M ossad eq's defiance of th e British in nationalizing the A ngl o-I ranian

O i l Com pany, his chest- thum ping nationa l ism, his avowed pu rsuit of democracy,

and his opp osition to th e S ha h proved appealing, in varying degrees, to a l l of

Iran's revolutionaries. Hence the street name. But after the postrevolution power

struggle had end ed in victory for the K hom einists , re l igious street nam es p re

vai led, and M ossadeq A venue und erw ent further a l tera t ion: M ossadeq, the secu

lar national ist, was exchan ged in favor of Vali-e-A sr, the prom ised m essiah.

M a n y s t re e t n a m e s m e m o ri a l i z e o t h e r " re v o l u t i o n a r i e s, " c re a t in g j u x t a p o

s i t ions that are sometimes downright cheeky: the s treet adjoining the Bri t ish

embassy is ca l led Bobby Sands, named after the Ir ish nationa l is t who died of

a h u n g e r s t ri k e i n a B r i ti sh p r i s o n . O t h e r s t re e t n a m e s h a v e c a u s e d i n t e rn a

t iona l d isputes , l ike th e on goin g s tra in in E gyptia n-I ranian re l a t ions over the

s t re e t n a m e d i n h o n o r of K h a l e d I s l a m b o u l i , t h e E g y p t ia n I s l a m i c m i l i t a n t

2 0



P

ER .S

E P 0 L I S

w ho assass inated A nw ar S adat . In terest ingly , the s treet na m es devoted to I ran 's

re v e re d m e d i e v a l p o e t s re m a i n e d u n c h a n g e d . T h e y w e a t h e re d t h e s t o rm o f t h e

revolution, s ignifying the importance Iranians a t tach to their poetry.

A fter a lo ng walk on Da rius/T ow hid S treet , I hai led a taxi driven by a M r.

Zari , a young man in his mid-twenties , a s l ight ly pudgy fe l low, with a quie t

s m i l e a n d a l i g h t b ro w n b e a rd . A s h e d ro v e , w e t a l k e d i n e v i t a b l y a b o u t j o b s .

M r . Z a r i , a c o l l e g e g ra d u a t e a n d a n e n g i n e e r, c o u l d f in d n o w o rk . " I d o n ' t l i ke

d r iv i n g t h i s ta x i, b u t w h a t c a n I d o ? T h e r e a re n o j o b s . I k n o c k e d o n t h e d o o r

of every company in this c i ty/ ' he sa id , "but no one wi l l take me. Even if they

d o , I m a k e m u c h m o re m o n e y d r i v i n g t h i s t a x i . "

He drove purposefu l ly and carefu l ly , a welcome respite from his daredevi l

taxi driver col leagues who darted in and out of traffic as if playing a video

g a m e t h a t a l l o w e d t h re e c ra s h e s p e r c o in . F e el i n g c o m fo r t a b l e w i t h M r . Z a r i

r ight away, I asked him if he would drive Davoud and me to the ruins of Perse

pol is and the Cyrus tomb the next day. He agreed, and we parted with the

familiar Iranian display of ritualized hospita lity, cal led ta rof. I t went l ike this :

" H o w m u c h ? " I a s k e d .

" N o ,

please, i t is not necessary for you to pay," he said, repeating the

familiar

ta'rof

l ine . " I t was my p leasure to serve you. I am at your service ."

" N o , p l eas e/ ' I pers is ted. " I mu st p ay/ ' I w as going a lo ng with th e famil iar

ta'rof ro u t i n e , i n w h i c h I , t h e c u s t o m e r , m u s t a b s o l u t e l y i n s i st o n t h e n e e d t o

pay and he, the sel ler, must refuse obstinately, saying what a pleasure it was to

serve me.

"Be my guest , p lease . I am at your service ," he repeated.

" O f c o u rs e n o t , " I re p l i e d , c o n t i n u i n g t o p l a y m y p a r t i n t h e d ra m a w e l l .

O ften, a t th is s tage, th e driver wi l l , with a great show of re lu ctance , charg e

t h e c u s t o m e r d o u b l e t h e g o i n g ra t e . M r . Z a r i , h o w e v e r, c h a rg e d a re a s o n a b l e

rate.

W e s h o o k h a n d s a n d s a id g o o d -b y e .

Persepolis: Celebrations and Revolutions

he next morning, after a breakfast of tea, eggs, and hot f lat bread with

feta c h e e s e , D a v o u d a n d I e m e rg e d o u t s i d e o u r h o t e l t o s e e M r . Z a r i

perched on the hood of his car .

"Solum,

A fshin agha," he said , ho pp ing off th e ho od and offering his h an d

and a quiet smile.

21



P ER S IA W P I L p l U M A f E S

I rania ns are exceedingly formal and usua l l y say "M r." (agha), even with the

first name.

1 i n t ro d u c e d h i m t o " A g ha D a v o u d " a n d w e e n g a g e d in t h e u s u a l ta'rof

p l e a s a n t r i e s , h o p i n g w e h a d n o t t ro u b l e d e a c h o t h e r t o o m u c h a n d p l e d g i n g

o u r s e rv i c e t o e a c h o t h e r t h ro u g h o u t t h e t r i p .

A massive thermos of tea perfumed with orange peta ls f i l led the entire

front seat , so D avo ud an d I sl ipped in to th e back. M r. Za ri 's car, a w or n and

rusted white Paykan, chugged into f irs t gear, and we sputtered out onto

TowhiaVDarius S treet . The Paykan, the nationa l car of I ran modeled after the

B ri t i s h H i l l m a n H u n t e r o f t h e 1 9 6 0 s , h a s d i s p l a y e d a n u n c a n n y re s i l i e n c e

over the years . A l l over Ira n, tw enty - an d thir ty-year-o l d P aykans s ti l l c hu g

a long the roads , defying their wheezing engines and rus ted bodies . The

Paykan inspires equal parts of love and hate in its drivers. "The Paykan is l ike

a n o l d , t ru s t e d s e rv a n t / ' a n I ra n i a n o n c e t o l d m e . " H e d o e s n ' t l o o k g o o d , n o r

wil l he work very fas t or do i t the way you want i t to be done, but in the end

b o t h h e a n d t h e P a y k a n g e t t h e j o b d o n e . "

L e a v i n g t h e c ro w d e d s t re e t s of d o w n t o w n S h i raz , w e d ro v e p a s t w e l l -

m a n i c u re d ro w s o f g re e n t re e s, t o w a rd t h e co ffe e b ro w n Z a g ro s M o u n t a i n s i n

the dis tance. M r. Za ri offered us biscuits and urged us to pou r ourse lves cup s

of tea from the the rm os. W e s ipped tea redo le nt of orang e peta ls . I t tas ted l ike

a sweet , hot perfume.

O n c e o n t h e h i g h w a y, M r . Z a r i as k e d u s if h e c o u l d p l ay m u s i c . H e

popped in a tape. I recognized the voice: Ebi , an Iranian s inger in exi le , based

i n L o s A n g e l e s , C a l i fo rn i a, h o m e t o m o s t o f t h e c o u n t ry ' s t o p p o p s i n g e rs of

t h e 1 9 6 0 s a n d 1 9 7 0 s, n o w b a n n e d f rom s i n g i n g i n t h e i r h o m e l a n d . T h e i r

tapes are ba nn ed to o, bu t can be easi ly bo ug ht in major c i t ies from a n im po r

t a n t p l a y e r i n I ra n ' s e c o n o m y , t h e u n d e rg ro u n d t ra d e r .

"I l is ten to E bi day and night ," M r. Za ri sa id as we drove past cornfie lds

and vast ye l low an d tan p la ins . In fact, M r. Za ri proved to be an expert o n th e

I rania n po p musi c scene in L os A ngeles (widely referred to as Teh range les) ,

expounding a t length on each s inger 's persona l l i fe and repertoire of songs.

Interes t ingly , M r. Za ri , a re l igious you ng m an from a tradit iona l l y co nserv a

t i v e fa m i l y o f m o d e s t m e a n s , h a d n o q u a l m s a b o u t l i s t e n i n g t o t h e b a n n e d

m u s i c , " T h e re i s n o t h i n g i n I s l a m a g a i n s t m u s i c , " h e s a i d w h e n I a s k e d h i m

ab ou t the Is lam ic R epubl ic 's ban on I ran 's po p s ingers . "T ha t is ju s t false ." H e

t u rn e d u p t h e v o l u m e , p e rh a p s t o p ro v e h i s p o i n t .

22



T h e d r iv e t o w a rd t h e P e rs e p ol i s p a l a ce c o n t i n u e d for a b o u t a n o t h e r h o u r

o n a t w o - l a n e h i g h w a y fl a n k e d b y d u s t y p l a in s a n d s u d d e n p a t c h e s o f g re e n .

M r . Z a r i h u m m e d a l o n g w i t h t h e m u s i c a s r u m b l i n g d ie s el tr u c k s a n d s p e e d

ing w hite P aykans rushe d pa st us in the opp osite direc t ion. E bi sang in Fars i,

his dee p voice soft and pe netra t ing : "Your eyes are l ike th e co l or of ho ne y . . .

your l ips are oh so red/ '

A s we got c loser to P ersepol is , I saw a co l lec t ion of fraying p urp l e an d ye l

low tents in the dis tance.

" T h o s e t e n t s a re f ro m t h e S h a h ' s b ig t w e n t y -f i v e -h u n d re d -y e a r m o n a rc h y

c e l e b ra t i o n / ' M r . Z a r i s a i d . T h e 1 9 7 1 P e rse p o l i s p a rt y, a s i t c a m e t o b e k n o w n ,

featured de l icacies from M axim 's in P aris and a t tracted m or e th an s ixty hea ds

o f s t a t e a n d ro y a l h o u s e s , m a n y o f t h e m h o u s e d i n t h e o n c e - l u x u r i o u s t e n t

s u i te s w i t h t h e m a rb l e b a t h ro o m s t h a t 1 s a w i n t h e d i s t a n c e . T h e e s t i m a t e d

c o st of t h e e v e n t w a s b e t w e e n o n e a n d t w o h u n d re d m i l l i o n d o l l a rs . T h e p a r t y

proved oste nta t iou s and sha l low , as wel l as po l i t ica l ly m yopic . Jus t ab ou t

everything for th e event was imp orted from Franc e. M or e cri tica l ly , th is was

n o party for Ir ani an s; few b ut t he e l ite received in vitations.

N a t u ra l l y , I ra n ' s a n t i -S h a h o p p o s i t i o n w i d el y c r it ic iz e d t h e p a r ty . T h e

Persepol is ce lebrat ion acted as a l ightning rod for opposit ion forces that used

the event to ra l ly t roops against what they viewed as an increasingly vainglo

rious and megalomaniaca l k ing, unwil l ing to open up the pol i t ica l sys tem to

different voices . Tod ay the tent s st il l s ta nd, w or n and w eath er-b eate n, f lap

p i n g i n t h e w i n d in t h e s h a d o w of th e P e rse p o l i s p al a c e . T h e Is l a m i c R e p u b

lic, I wa s to ld , l ikes to keep th e tents ar ou nd as a rem ind er of the o ld ,

profligate ways.

D a v o u d a s k ed M r . Z a r i t o m a k e a d e t o u r t o t h e t e n t s , s o w e c o u l d s e e

t h e m u p c l o s e . M r . Z a r i s t o p p e d t h e c a r in a n e a rb y p a rk , w h e re a j u n g l e o f

green trees offered cool so lace from t he m idday h eat . O nl y a few of the ten ts

re m a i n e d i n g o o d s h a p e . A g e a n d w e a t h e r h a d re d u c e d m o s t t o d o m e d s k e l e

tons of s tee l g irders with patches of purp le c loth hanging precarious ly to the

meta l . T h e once -sp l end id t ents were described by a 1971 Iran ian mag azine as

" a d o u b l e b e d ro o m a p a r t m e n t w i t h b a t h , k i t c h e n a n d s i t t i n g ro o m l a i d o u t o n

five s treets that came together to form a f ive-pointed s tar and were grouped

a c c o rd i n g t o g e o g ra p h ic a l a rea s — A s ia , E u ro p e , O c e a n i a , A fri ca , a n d A m e r

i ca ." N o w a d a y s t h e t e n t s u i t es t h a t h o u s e d k i n g s a n d p r i m e m i n i s t e rs a re

s trewn with rocks and marked with graffi t i . In Fars i , one scribbler wrote: " In

2 3



P E R S t A W P I L f R L M A p E S

M e m o r y of G h o l a m R e za N a s r. " I a l s o s p o t t e d t h e u b i q u i t o u s " D e a t h t o

A m erica" graffi ti com petin g for space with a s t icker of L eo na rd o D iCap rio. In

a n o t h e r t e n t , o n e s cr i b b l e r h a d w ri t t e n s im p l y , " I l ov e R i c ky M a r t i n . "

W e s a t d o w n o n a w o o d e n b o a rd i n o n e of t h e p o c k m a rk e d t e n t s . D a v o u d

and M r. Za ri l it c igarettes , the s m ok e danc ing and disappea ring in th e a ir .

I a s k e d D a v o u d if h e re m e m b e re d t h e P e rs e p o l i s c e l e b ra t io n s .

" O f c o u rs e , h o w c a n I fo rg e t? I w a s t h i r t e e n y e a rs o l d . M y t e a c h e rs o rg a n

i z e d c o n t e s t s fo r t h e s t u d e n t s t i e d t o t h e u p c o m i n g c e l e b ra t i o n s . I d re w a p i c

t u re o f t h e C y ru s t o m b f ro m a m a g a z i n e p h o t o . I was excited abo ut the

ce l ebrat ion s . M y ra ther was a nat ion a l is t and a roya l is t, an d he ins ti l led som e

o f t h a t i n m e . T h e w h o l e w o r l d w o u l d b e l o o k i n g a t I ra n a n d re m e m b e ri n g

one of our greates t k ings ,"

Was Davoud aware of po l i t ica l unres t in Iran a t the t ime?

"I w a s t o o y o u n g , b u t I d o re m e m b e r a n o l d e r c o u s i n o f m i n e , a u n i v e rs i t y

s tudent , arguing a lo t with my fa ther, saying the Shah and his family were

corrupt and cri t ic iz ing a l l the money that would be wasted on these 's i l ly ce l

e b ra t i o n s ' a s t h o u s a n d s of p e o p l e w e n t h u n g ry . H e k e p t m e n t i o n i n g K a r l

M a rx , n o o n e I h a d h e a rd o f." H e l a u g h e d .

"L ater, after I got older, I real ized w hat a publ ic re la t io ns disas ter th e ce l

ebrat ions were . Chefs f lown in from Paris whi le people suffered jus t a few

miles away. O nl y e l i te I rania ns an d foreigners were invited. I t was a l l so exces

s ive and, u l t imate ly , embarrass ing for the Shah," he sa id .

"To be fair," he added, taking a deep puff on his cigarette "I believe that

the S ha h did man y goo d thing s for I r an, th i ng s he sho ul d be given credit for,

e s p e c i a l l y t h e e c o n o m i c m o d e rn i z a t i o n o f t h e c o u n t ry , b u t s o m e t i m e s h e

s h o w e d s u c h p o o r j u d g m e n t , l i k e w i t h t h i s p a r t y " .

" W h e n I e n t e re d t h e u n i v ers it y i n 1 9 7 6 , 1 s til l d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d M a rx

ism, but I coul d see w hy my c ous in fe l l for i t . I t w as fashionable . A l l over th e

c a m p u s p e o p l e t a l k e d p o l i ti c s, a n d j u s t a b o u t e v e ry o n e w a s a n a n t i -S h a h l e ft

is t of som e variety , M arxism had a certa in forbidden appe a l to it , and m an y

p e o p l e q u o t e d M a rx w i t h o u t rea l l y k n o w i n g w h a t t h ey w e re s a y in g . P e o p l e

h a d p o s t e rs of C h e G u e v a ra in t h e i r d o rm ro o m s , a n d t h e y q u o t e d G ra m s c i

and ju s t a bo ut any radica l socia l ist they cou ld t hin k of."

W h a t a b o u t y o u ? I a s k e d .

"I was very re l igious and a lso idea l is t ic . I unders tood inequa l i ty and dis

p ar it y, w h i c h I sa w al l o v e r I ra n . L i k e a n y e m o t i o n a l c o l l e g e s t u d e n t , I w a n t e d

2 4



P E R S E P O U S

t o d o s o m e t h i n g , s o m e t h i n g re v o l u t i o n a ry , a n y t h i n g t h a t w o u l d e n d t h e

injust ices I saw, th e poverty of the p oo r and th e cor ru pti on of th e e l i te . S om e

o f t h e o l d e r s t u d e n t s t o l d m e I c o u l d f i n d t h e a n s w e r t o I ra n ' s p ro b l e m s , i t s

i n e q u al i t y a n d d i sp a r it y , i n M a rx , i n M a o , i n C h e G u e v a ra . I re a d M a o , b u t i t

d id n o t a p p e a l t o m e . I t h o u g h t t h e r e m i g h t b e s o m e t h i n g w r o n g w i t h m e .

M a y b e I w a s n o t m a t u r e e n o u g h t o u n d e r s t a n d M a o . N o w I r ea l iz e t h a t I w a s

t h e m a t u re o n e .

"Persona l ly , I was a t tracted to Al i Sharia t i ," he sa id .

S h a r i a t i , a p o p u l a r 1 9 7 0 s T e h ra n l e c t u re r a n d e s s a y i s t , m i x e d a re v o l u

t ionary interpreta t ion of Shi 'a Is lam with left is t and socia l is t rhetoric , captur

i n g t h e i m a g i n a t i o n o f a g e n e r a t i o n o f I r a n i a n y o u t h l i k e D a v o u d :

middle-c lass , re l igious , and left is t . His message was s imple and powerfu l :

re v o l u t i o n a n d o v e r t h ro w o f t h e e x i s t i n g o rd e r . Im a m H o s s e i n , t h e s a c re d

seven th-ce ntury S hi 'a martyr, rose up against tyranny, he sa id: W hy sh ou l dn ' t

we? Interes t ingly , Sharia t i a lso dis trus ted Iran 's c lerics , whom he viewed as

reactionary forces , content to have the f lock weep for Imam Hossein ins tead

o f e m u l a t i n g h i m .

W h a t a b o u t K h o m e i n i ? I a s ke d ,

D a v o u d p a u s e d a n d s q u i n t e d . T h e s u n p o u r e d t h r o u g h a m a s s i v e h o l e i n

t h e t e n t . " W e l l , t o b e h o n e s t , I k n e w n o t h i n g a b o u t h i m u n t i l j u s t b e fo re t h e

re v o l u t i o n . I h a d h e a rd h i s n a m e , o f c o u rs e , i n p o l i t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s o n c a m

p u s . B u t y o u s e e , for m e a s a y o u n g i n t el l e c t u a l , I s i m p l y c o u l d n o t s u p p o r t a

m u l l a h . " H e u s e d t h e t e rm " m u l l a h , " a s l i g h t l y d e ro g a t o ry t e rm . I ra n ' s c l e r i c s

h a v e t a k e n t o c a l l i n g t h e m s e l v e s rouhanee, tran s la ted as "c leric ," as op po sed to

m u l l a h o r

akhoond,

w h i c h h a v e s l ig h tl y d e ro g a t o ry c o n n o t a t i o n s . T h e w o rd

akhoond is derived from a Fars i verb meaning "to s ing," and from some c lerics '

ro l e a s s i n g e rs o f m o u rn i n g s o n g s . T h e akhoond would, for a fee, s ing songs of

mourning for whoever wanted i t , a task that cheapened the c lerica l c lass .

Davoud shifted his seat to avoid the sun. " I was very re l igious a t the t ime,

b u t I d i d n o t t ru s t t h e m u l l a h s . M a n y o f u s fe lt t h i s w ay . T h e m u l l a h s re p r e

sented a reaction ary Is l am, no t a revol utionary o ne, as S haria t i argued. O f

c o u rs e, K h o m e i n i p ro v e d t o b e di fferen t. H e s o u n d e d m o re l i k e S h a r i at i t h a n

o t h e r m u l l a h s , s o I s u p p o r t e d h i m t o o , t h o u g h n o t a s m u c h a s I b a c k e d

Sharia t i ."

Davoud went s i lent for a few minutes . I got the impress ion that he was

g a t h e r i n g h i s t h o u g h t s , s o I d i d n o t a s k a n o t h e r q u e s t i o n . J u s t o u t s i d e o u r

2 5



P E R S I A N F 1 L C R I M A P E 5

tent a family picnicked, a red-cheeked boy and giggl ing gir l p laying hide-and-

seek in th e ten ts once reserved for E ur op ean roya l ty and he ads of s ta te. M r,

Zari had l is tened so intent ly to Davoud's words that he forgot to pul l on his

c igaret te ; a long, th in orange-and-black ash fe l l to the ground. This ta lk of

revo lu tion vis ib ly fascinated M r. Zari , w ho w as f ive years o ld in 1979 and had

p ro b a b l y h a d l i t t l e i d e a w h a t w a s h a p p e n i n g i n h i s c o u n t ry t h e n . In D a v o u d ' s

s i l e n c e , M r . Z a r i l o o k e d t o m e , a l m o s t i m p l o r i n g m e t o a s k m o re q u e s t i o n s .

" S h a r i a t i w a s v e ry p o p u l a r , " D a v o u d s u d d e n l y c o n t i n u e d , s t a n d i n g u p a s

if to say that th ese w oul d be his las t w ord s on th is matter . "O f course the re

were S haria t i sup po rter s wh o did not un de rs ta nd his views," he sa id , as M r.

Z a r i a n d I s t o o d u p , fo l l o w in g D a v o u d ' s c u e . " T h e re w e re e v e n S h a r i a t i s u p

po rters w ho ha d never read a wo rd of his or heard h im speak. S haria t i ha d

b e c o m e fa s h io n a b l e . B u t t h e n a g a in , t h o u s a n d s of K h o m e i n i s u p p o r t e r s w e re

just l ike that too," he sa id , shaking his head in wonder. " I t was not necessar

ily wh at these me n said. I t was ho w they sa id it . K hom eini m ana ged to t ra n

scend som e of my suspicio n of mul la hs beca use h e was so brave. A fter t he

re v o l u t i o n , o f c o u rs e , m y s u s p i c i o n s re t u rn e d . "

D a v o u d , l i k e m a n y y o u n g i n t e l l e c t u a l s , o p p o s e d t h e i d e a o f a g o v e rn m e n t

ru n b y M u s l i m c l e ri cs . H e w a s al s o re p u l s e d b y t h e b l o o d y p o s t re v o l u t i o n

purges .

" K h o m e i n i h a d a l l t h e s e W e s t e r n - e d u c a t e d p e o p l e a r o u n d h i m . T h e y

a s s u re d u s t h a t K h o m e i n i w a s i n t e re s t e d i n d e m o c ra c y . I ' m n o t s u re if t h e y

w e r e l y i n g o r d e l u s i o n a l "

T he n he smiled. " I don ' t th ink they gave K homeini an d the c lerics en oug h

credit . The y underest imated them . The y thou gh t they could p ush these 's imple

mullahs ' back to Qom [an Iranian holy city that is home to the most important

religious seminary, th e seminary whe re K hom eini and oth er leading clerics stud

ied] and they would take over the government. But it didn't happen that way."

M e h d i B a z a rg a n , a F re n c h -e d u c a t e d e n g i n e e r a n d I ra n ' s first p o s t re v o l u

tion pr im e minister, resig ned l ess th an a year after takin g office, frustrated by

h i s i n ab i l it y t o c o n t ro l t h e p ro -K h o m e i n i m i l it ia g ro u p s t h a t ru l e d t h e s t re e t s

of Iran. Bazargan, frus tra ted by his powerlessness , described himse lf as "a

k nife w i t h o u t a b l a d e . " A b o i H a s s a n B a n i -S a d r , t h e F re n c h -e d u c a t e d p re s i

de nt of the Is lam ic R epub l ic of I ran, fel l ou t of favor with K hom eini over the

p o w e r-h u n g ry , s h a d o w g o v e rn m e n t o f t h e I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c p a r t y , ru n b y

K hom eini discip les . H e fled the cou ntry in 19 81 ,

Z6



P E R S E P O U S

A s for Sh aria t i , he died ju s t before the revol ution 's t r i um ph , before a n

authori tarian king was rep laced by an authori tarian c leric , and perhaps before

h i s o w n v i e w s w e re t e s t e d — a n d p o s s i b l y d e b u n k e d — i n t h e m e rc i l e s s a n d

unforgiving l ight of the postrevolution reckoning.

The Zoroastrian Stamp

s we pi led back into M r, Zari 's P aykan for the sh or t drive to th e P erse-

p o l i s p a l a c e, t h e ta l l t a n c o l u m n s o f t h e m a j es ti c A c h a e m e n i a n s t ru c

ture came into view over a hi l ly , dust-co lored horizon. Persepol is is a

G re e k t e rm t h a t t ra n s l a t e s a s " t h e c i ty of P e rs i a n s / ' t h o u g h , o b v i o us l y , t h e

Pers ians did not ca l l their own ci ty by that name. Today Iranians ca l l the

P e rs e p o l i s p a l a c e T a k h t -e -J a m s h i d , f ro m t h e m y t h i c a l I ra n i a n k i n g J a m s h i d

recorded in poetic epics as one of I ran 's ear l ies t and most ce lebrated kings , a

j u s t , w i s e, a n d s e m i d i v in e ru l e r . N e i t h e r P e rs e p o l i s n o r T a k h t -e -J a m s h i d ,

however, f ind his torica l back ing. T h e exact nam e of th e pa l ace has be co m e

lost in his tory, but ear ly- and mid-twentie th-century Western archae logis ts ,

w h o s e w o rk g re a t l y re s u s c i t a t e d a n c i e n t P e rs i a n h i s t o ry , c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e

A c h a e m e n i a n k i n g s p ro b a b l y c al l e d t h e p a l a c e P a rsa .

In any case , the pa lace , even in i ts ruined s ta te , provides one of the most

s t u n n i n g e x a m p l e s o f p re - l s l a m i c a rc h i t e c t u re i n a l l I ra n . P a r t i a l l y d e s t ro y e d

b y A l e x a n d e r t h e G re a t 's i n v a d i n g arm i e s , w h i c h t o rc h e d t h e p a l a c e i n 3 3 1

B . C

, by sev enth -ce ntu ry A rab Is lam ic invaders , w ho defiled i t, and by k l ep to-

c ra t i c n i n e t e e n t h - a n d t w e n t i e t h -c e n t u ry W e s t e rn a rc h a e o l o g i s t s , i t re m a i n s a

m o n u m e n t a l a n d m a j e s t i c t e s t a m e n t t o t h e a rc h i t e c t u ra l g e n i u s a n d s p l e n d o r

of A cha em enia n P ers ia . I ts s ize , scope, and a t ten tion to deta i l leave th e vis i tor

b re a th l e s s . O n l y a few o f i ts 5 5 0 c o l u m n s a re i n t a c t , t h o u g h p l e n t y re m a i n s t o

inspire awe. A n A m erican vis i tor wrote of his vis it to P ersepol is in 1942 , "You

cannot expect to come to Persepol is and remain as you were ."

A p p ro a c h i n g t h e p a l a c e, M r . Z a r i p a rk e d t h e c a r in a ro c k -s t re w n d i r t l o t .

T h e a i r w a s h o t a n d y e l l o w w i t h s u n . N e a rb y a t o u r b u s d i s g o rg ed a s t re a m o f

e l d er l y J a p a n e s e t o u r i s t s, w h o m o v e d i n s m a l l s t e p s a m i d m u c h c h a t t e r a n d

fanning toward th e ancie nt pa lace . T he pa lace , ra ised on a p la tform 50 feet

above ground, occupies an area 325 by 487 yards , massive, the s ize of near ly

five footba l l f ie lds. T he pa lace has n o cei l ing now ; i ts co l um ns and s ta ircases

2 7



P E R S I A N

F t L C R t W A C E S

a n d b a s -re l i e fs s t a n d e x p o s e d t o t h e d a i l y s u n . Q u i e t b ro w n m o u n t a i n s p a i n t

t h e b a c k g r o u n d .

Persepol is took a long t ime to bui ld . Firs t conceived by the king Darius in

5 1 8 B.C. , the pa lace s t il l need ed re finem ent in 331 B .C. , w h e n A l e x a n d e r s e t it

o n fire , th ou gh i t was indub itab ly the greates t bui l ding of its t ime. T he pa lace

was intended to inspire awe, even fear, in vis i tors to the Pers ian kings , whose

m i g h t k n e w n o e q u a l u n t i l t h e y w e re h u m b l e d b y A l e x a n d e r .

The pa lace , however, s tood for more than a symbol of Pers ia 's might . I t

a lso s ignified, l ike so many of the world 's most magnificent s tructures , a

s h r i n e t o t h e D i v in e , a n d w a s i n t e n d e d for u s e p ri m a r il y d u r i n g t h e N o w -R u z

(new year) spring fes tiva l , A rth ur P ope, the la te A m erican his torian of P ers ian

art and architecture who he lped rescue ancient Pers ia from obscuri ty , puts i t

th is way: "P ersepol is does proc l a im boastfu l ly , in t radit iona l m ann er, t he

achieve m ents of power of th e A cha em enid kings , bu t it a lso emphasizes their

divine inv es tit ur e. . . . P ersepolis was, in fact, a sacred nation al shri ne dedicated

to a specific p urp ose : to serve as a po ten t setting for the spring festival , N aw ruz

[sic]. By al l the resource s of sym bol ic repr esenta tion, the Divine p owers were

implored to grant ferti l i ty and abundance."

T h e " d i v in e p o w e rs " a t t h i s t i m e w e re Z o ro a s t r i a n g o d s . L o n g b e fo re t h e

P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d e m e r g e d i n A r ab ia , a n d I sl a m sp r e a d in t o I r a n , t h e

p ro p h e t Z o ro a s t e r p re a c h e d w h a t c a m e t o b e fo r t h e o n e t h o u s a n d y e a rs

before Is lam the Iranian fa i th .

I t is a s imple fa i th with a s imple credo: good thoughts , good words , good

d e e d s . I t s E a s t e rn o r i g i n s l e n d i t a s o f tn e s s a k i n t o H i n d u i s m ' s a n d B u d

d h i s m ' s . U n l i k e t h e S e m i t i c fa i t h s — Is l a m , J u d a i s m , C h r i s t i a n i t y — t h e Z o ro a s

tr ian god ts not a l l -powerfu l or omniscient . There is no origina l s in , no

fear-inspiring lord, no complex ru les on how be l ievers should l ive . The

Z o r o a s t r i a n g o d , A h u r a M a z d a , i s t h e s p i ri tu a l e m b o d i m e n t of t r u t h a n d

r i g h t e o u s n e s s . T h e Z o ro a s t r i a n h o l y b o o k , t h e A v e st a, p ra i s e s t ru t h a n d o rd e r

and conc ludes that man is capable of discerning the r ight path. In the holy

b o o k , A h u r a M a z d a is s e t a g a in s t a m o re e vil g o d , A h r i m a n . T h e c o m p e t i t i o n

betw een the two, betw een tr ut h and evi l , ref lec ts th e interna l s truggl e of m an

c h o o s i n g b e t w e e n g o o d a n d e v i l .

Scholars routine ly date the l i fe of Zoroaster , prophet of the fa i th , to the

s e v e n t h c e n t u r y B . C , o n e g e n e ra t i o n b e fo re t h e ris e o f C y ru s t h e G re a t . M o re

2 $



F E R S E P O

L 1 5

recent scholarship, however, has proved that t imel ine to be wi ld ly wrong.

M a ry B oy c e, t h e W e s t 's fo re m o s t a u t h o r i t y o n Z o ro a s t r i a n i s m , d a t e s t h e

prophet Zoroaster 's l i fe to c irca 1200

B . C .

in eas tern Iranian lands , loday the

steppes of Cen tra l A sia .

T h e A c h a e m e n i a n k i n g s w e r e m o s t p r o b a b l y a d h e r e n t s of t h e Z o r o a s t r i a n

fa it h . T h r o u g h o u t t h e P e rse p o l i s p al a c e , c a rv i ng s of A h u ra M a z d a a s a w i n g e d

angel appear above the carvings of kings . K ingly inscript ions—"I abh or th e l ie

and pursue the truth"—reflect Zoroastr ian teachings .

Zoroastr ianism, today a minori ty re l igion in Iran, s t i l l inf luences Iranian

l ife. T h e m o s t p ro m i n e n t I ra n i a n h o l i d ay re m a i n s t h e N o w -R u z of a n c i e n t

Z o r o a s t r i a n i s m . I n o t h e r M u s l i m c o u n t r i e s , M u s l i m h o l i da y s t e n d t o d o m i

n a t e , b u t N o w -R u z re i g n s s u p re m e in I ra n . In a C h r i s t m a s - l i k e a t m o s p h e re ,

Iranian chi ldren receive gif ts and p lay tradit iona l games, and famil ies pay reg

u l a r v is it s t o o n e a n o t h e rs ' h o m e s . S h o r t l y a ft er t h e re v o l u t i o n a n u m b e r o f

I ra n ' s ru l i n g c l e ri cs s o u g h t t o d o w n p l a y t h e i m p o rt a n c e o f N o w -R u z ; a fe w

p ro m i n e n t v o i c e s e v e n c a l l e d fo r a b o l i t i o n o f t h e p re - Is l a m i c h o l i d a y a l t o

gether. Such a move would have been disas trous , however, and most of I ran 's

ru l i n g cl e r ic s , m a n y of w h o m h a v e fo n d N o w -R u z m e m o ri e s of t h e i r o w n ,

k n e w t h a t . T o d ay , t h e t ra d i ti o n a l t w o -w e e k N o w -R u z h o l i d a y s til l s h u t s d o w n

government offices.

Z o ro a s t r i a n i s m h a s al s o i n f l u e n c e d t h e c o u rs e of I ra n i a n S h i ' i s m . A m y s

t i c a l S h i ' a s c h o o l o f t h o u g h t , k n o w n a s t h e I l l u m i n a t i o n i s t o r E s h ra q i , o w e s

its origins to th e Zoro astr ian w orsh ip of l ight . T hi s scho ol , w hic h f irst

e m e rg e d i n t h e e l e v e n t h c e n t u ry , c o n s t i t u t e s a n i m p o rt a n t t h re a d i n t h e S h i ' a

s e m i n a ry e d u c a t i o n . In b o t h Z o ro a s t r i a n i s m a n d I ra n i a n S h i ' i s m , l i g h t c o n

s t i tutes a symbolic reminder of the spir i tua l in the materia l world . A vis i t to

p ro m i n e n t S h i ' a s h r i n e s a n d m o s q u e s i n I ra n re v e a l s t h e i m p o rt a n c e o f l i g h t ,

with their luminous rooms of cut mirror work and windows ski l l fu l ly carved

to spil l l ight at a l l angles.

Z o r o a s t n a n i s m ' s i n f l u e n c e d i d n o t s t o p i n I ra n . A s t h e s c h o l a r B e rn a rd

Lewis notes, when Cyrus freed Jews from the Babylonian captivity, they took

with the m to Jerusa l em s om e of the Zor oa str ia n ideas of good versus evil ,

wh ich are ref lected in the la ter book s of the Heb rew Bible . Th ese, in tu rn ,

c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e g o o d / e v i l a n d h e a v e n / h e l l d i c h o t o m y t h a t p l a y s s u c h a n

important ro le in Chris t ianity and, la ter , in Is lam.

29



P E R S IA N P l L f fU M A f E S

Colonial Markings

wide s ta ircase led up to the vast , exposed p la tform of the pa lace

gro un ds. A t th e base of th e s tairs, I bo ug ht three t ickets from a smil ing,

t e a -s i p p i n g g u a rd . M r . Z a r i , a c c o rd i n g t o t h e a p p ro p r i a t e d e c o ru m o f

ta'rof

declined t o joi n

us.

We insisted. He declined again. We insisted a third time,

signaling that we were sincere. He re lented, and we walked up the steps, each

short enough in height, so the guidebooks told us, for visiting horse-backed

dignitaries to r ide up to th e top. Th ere , we entered th e G ate of A l l N ations .

O n c e t h ro u g h t h e G a t e o f A l l N a t i o n s , A r t h u r P o p e s a id , t h e a n c i e n t v is it o r

would enter "a world of overwhelming sp lendor." We saw, ins tead, photo-

c l i ck i ng J a p a n e s e t o u r i s t s , c ro w d e d a r o u n d m a s s iv e s t o n e c o l u m n s t o p p e d

with f igures of winged bul l s . A n I ranian tou r guide described th e scene in

J a p a n e s e , n o t a n u n u s u a l s i g h t. In t h e 1 9 8 0 s a n d 1 9 9 0 s , p o o r e c o n o m i c t i m e s

a n d t h e d e v a s t a t i n g 1 9 8 0 -8 8 w a r w i t h I ra q s e n t t h o u s a n d s o f y o u n g I ra n i a n s

to Japan seeking jobs , many of the m men ia l . W hil e sweeping s treets and w ash

ing dishes , some of these young Iranians saved money and learned the lan

guage. Several now make nice l ivings, ta lking about ancient Persian glories in

broken Japanese to e lder ly pensioners from Tokyo,

4

The faces of the winged bul ls , partia l ly destroyed, had the look of a boxer

after a bad nig ht in the ring, a l l smas hed no ses a nd cut eyes. T h e tol l of succ es

s ive invaders from A lexander 's fourth-cen tury B.c, arson to seventh-century

A , D .

A ra b in v a d ers to t h e t h i r te e n t h -c e n t u ry M o n g o l h o rd e s w a s ev i de n t i n t h e

crum bl ing grand eur of the palace . S t il l , a m od ern defacement s truck me m ore

tha n the an cient ones . A l l a long a wal l of the G ate of A l l N ations , recent Western

visitors had engraved their names neatiy, in proper typeface, in the stone. The

w a l l l oo k ed l ik e t h is : " L C o l M a l c o l m J M e a d e H B M C o n s u l G e n er a l 1 8 9 8 " ;

" 1 9 1 1 - 1 2 3 9

t h

K G O C e n t ra l In d ia H o rs e " ; " P V a n m a l i B o m b a y 1 9 2 6 " ; " C a p t

J o h n M c D o n a l d 1 8 0 8 - 1 8 1 0 " ; " L t C o l J M c D o n a l d E n v o y 1 8 2 6 "; " F W G ra f

S c h u l e n b e rg 1 9 2 6 -1 9 G e s a n d t e r-3 0 -1 9 3 1 " ; " S t a n l e y N e w Y o rk H e ra l d 1 8 7 0 ."

Below the bul l ' s be l ly , more captains and l ieutenants had e tched themselves

in stone a longside a l is t of names written in Russian. This defacement, while

unsett l ing, told the story of Iranian political l ife in the nineteenth and twentieth

c e n t ur i e s. O n e m e d d l i n g forei gn p o w e r afte r a n o t h e r— m o s t p m m m e n t l y R u s -

^ Interestingly, the S hah used to pledge that I ran would become the nest Japan.

30



P E & 5 E P O

L I S

sia, Britain, and the United States—saw Iran a lternately as a critical piece on the

A sian chessboard in the la te ninet een th an d earlv twentie th centuries or as a

rich oil wel l an d an im po rtan t proxy state later, in the Col d War. M u ch has bee n

said and written abo ut A m erican invol vem ent in Iran in th e twe ntieth century,

especia l ly the 1953 CIA -supported cou p d 'e ta t against the nationa l is t prim e

m i n i st e r M o h a m m a d M o s s a d e q , b u t b e fo re t h e U n i t e d S t at es e n t e re d t h e f ra y,

the power game in Iran, chiefly between Britain and Russia, had played out

for a lmost a hundred years. Russia annexed Iran's northern territories, parts of

present-d ay G eorgia, A rm enia, and A zerbaijan, a l ter a series of land w ars

between th e two in the early nineteen th century. Britain, inten t on p rotecting l and

routes to India, saw Iran as a vita l buffer and began its gradual incursion into

Iran in the mid-nineteenth century. Russia, interested in obtaining access to warm-

water ports in the P ersian G ulf and com peting with Britain for A sian dom inion ,

looked covetously at a l l Iran, not content with its northern territories. Inevitably,

Iran entered the G reat G ame, that n ine teenth -centu ry batt le tor A sian imperia l

power played by Britain and Russia in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Iran.

T h r o u g h o u t t h i s G re at G a m e p e r i o d , e sp e ci al l y in t h e l a te n i n e t e e n t h

c e n t u ry a n d e a r l y t w e n t i e t h , a s u c c e s s i o n o f w e a k I ra n i a n m o n a rc h s s o l d c o n

cess ions to Bri t ish industr ia l is ts to pay for their luxurious l i fes ty les . The kings

he ld l i t t le power beyond Tehran. In the countryside , feuda l lords crushed the

peasantry. In the ear ly twentie th century, the Bri t ish ambassador regular ly lec

tured the Shah as i f he were a naughty schoolboy.

In 1907 , Bri ta in and R ussia p ut as ide their r iva lry and joi ne d h an ds to

carve the country into spheres of inf luence, Russia in the north and Bri ta in in

the oi l -r ich so uth . By 191 8, short l y after R ussia had fa l len to Bolshevik re vo

lut ionaries , Bri ta in thought Iran r ipe for a takeover and made a bid to annex

t h e c o u n t ry a s a p ro t e c t o ra t e o f t h e c ro w n . T o a c h ie v e t h i s e n d , L o n d o n

bought off a few key Iranian pol i t ic ians , whom it assumed could de l iver the

necessary par l iamentary vote for Bri t ish annexation. I t fa i led. The Iranian Par

l i a m e n t v o t e d a g a i n s t a n n e x a t i o n , p ro m p t i n g o n e B r i t i s h o b s e rv e r t o re m a rk

caustica l ly : " Iranians wi l l se l l their country to the highest b idder. They jus t

won' t de l iver i t ." I ranians , for their part , s t i l l harbor deep suspic ions of a l l

things British, seeing a devious, twisted British plot behind every ripple and

f low in Iranian pol i t ics , inc luding the fa ir ly common popular view that a

British and M us l im c lergy a l l iance precipita ted th e 1979 revolu tion. (Bri tain

fu n d e d s e v e ra l p ro m i n e n t m e m b e r s of t h e M u s l i m c l e rg y b e g i n n i n g i n t h e

31



P E R S I A N P t L £ i U M A £ E S

ear ly twentie th century as e i ther an insurance pol icy or s imply an a t tempt to

s tay on i ts good s ide . Today the re is a pop ul ar I ranian saying: "W he n you shave

the b eard of a m ul la h, yo u wi l l see a 'M ad e in Bri ta in ' s tamp on his cheek.")

A fter th e Brit ish had fa iled to ann ex I ran, t r iba l un res t an d wide spread

lawlessness s t i l l racked the country. Bri ta in , rea l iz ing the danger of a chaotic

Iran near the borders of i ts Indian crown jewel , decided to support a l i t t le -

k n o w n b u t a m b i t i o u s c o l o n e l i n a p a l a c e c o u p . In 1 9 2 1 , R e za K h a n , a t a l l ,

b ro a d -s h o u l d e re d s o l d i e r t ra i n e d i n t h e R u s s i a n C o s s a c k b r ig a d e , l e d a s m a l l

b a n d o f p ro t e s t e rs i n t o t h e k i n g ' s p a l a c e , d e m a n d i n g c o n t ro l o f t h e a rm e d

forces . T h e fearfu l k ing granted his wish. N am in g himse lf m inis ter of war,

R e za K h a n s e t a b o u t c o n s o l i d a t i n g h i s p o w e r , a n d i n 1 9 2 5 , i n a s o m b e r c e re

m o n y , h e h a d h i m s e l f c ro w n e d t h e n e w k i n g o f I ra n , b e g i n n i n g t h e s h o r t

l ived Pahlavi dynasty.

M o s t i n fe r B r i ti s h s u p p o r t i n R e za S h a h ' s r i s e. E v e n s o , m a n y I ra n i a n s

revere the late king for his efforts to distance Iran from its foreign "backers,"

i n c l u d i n g B ri t a i n , R e z a S h a h a l s o c o n t r i b u t e d i m m e n s e l y t o t h e m o d e rn i z a

t ion of the I ranian s ta te , bo ost ing the co unt ry 's road s , school s , and infra

s tructure , whi le he lping create the f irs t batch of technocrats that formed the

m o d e m s t a t e b u re a u c ra c y . T o d a y b o o k s a b o u t R e z a S h a h , e s p e c i a l l y t ra n s

l a t e d v o l u m e s l e s s s u s c e p t i b l e t o t h e c e n s o r ' s p e n , s e l l ra p i d l y . D u r i n g W o r l d

W a r I I , R e za S h a h e m p l o y e d t h e o l d M i d d l e E a s t e rn i de a t h a t t h e e n e m y o f

m y ene m y is m y fr iend and f l i rted with H it ler 's G erm any. T he f l i r tat ion

proved fatal , Bri ta in 's su n had no t yet se t on P ers ia . T he A l l ied pow ers , w ho

h a d o c c u p i e d I ra n a s a re s u p p l y l a n d l i n k t o R u s s i a , q u i e t l y d e m a n d e d R e z a

S h a h ' s r e m o v a l f ro m p o w e r . H i s t w e n t y - o n e - y e ar - o l d s o n , M o h a m m a d R e za ,

re p l a c e d h i m a n d ru l e d I ra n u n t i l t h e 1 9 7 9 re v o l u t i o n .

A f te r W o r l d W a r I I e n d e d , B r it is h t ro o p s w e n t h o m e , R u s s i a n t ro o p s , h o w

e v e r , s t a y e d i n n o r t h e rn I ra n , p ro m p t i n g a 1 9 4 6 c o n fro n t a t i o n w i t h t h e

U n i t e d S t a t e s . P re s i d e n t T ru m a n d re w a l i n e i n t h e s a n d . H e d e m a n d e d a

R ussian re treat . R ussia com pl ied, giving th e Unite d S ta tes i ts fi rs t Col d W ar

victory. A s a resu l t , A m erican inf lu ence in Iran grew, and m ore om inou s ly ,

A m e ri c a n i n t e re s t s i n I ra n a l s o g rew . In 1 9 5 3 t h e C IA h e l p e d fo m e n t a c o u p

d ' e t a t a g a i n s t M o s s a d e q , w h o t h re a t e n e d W e s t e rn o i l i n t e re s ts b y d ram a t i c a l l y

n a t io n a l i z in g t h e A n g l o - I r a n i a n O i l C o m p a n y . I r a n i a n s sti l l c o m p l a i n o f t h e

C I A c o u p a g a i ns t M o s s a d e q , w o n d e r i n g w h a t m i g h t h a v e b e e n h a d t h e p o p

u l a r p r i m e m i n i s t e r re m a i n e d i n p o w e r .

32



Before moving on lo the res t of the Persepol is pa lace , 1 looked back a t the

W e s t e rn n a m e s e t c h e d o n t h e w a l l o f t h e G a t e of A l l N a t i o n s . W i t h s u c h a

tormented his tory of foreign meddl ing, i t is not surpris ing that the names of

B ri ti sh c o n s u l s , A m e ri c a n j o u rn a l i s t s , R u s s i a n s o l d i e rs, a n d h i g h I n d i a n o ff i

cia ls of the British Raj are etched in stone at Persepolis .

Ancient History and Green Cards

h e c r u m b l i n g s t o n e s a n d t o w e r i n g c o l u m n s o f t h e p a l a c e t u r n e d y e l l o w -

o ra n g e a s t h e s u n w a s h e d t h e p l a i n . I w a l k e d a m i d t h e s t o n e c u t t i n g s o n

t h e w a l l s , o f P e rs i a n s o l d i e rs d o i n g b a t t l e w i t h m u s c u l a r l i o n s , o f p ro -

cess ions of somber dignitaries wait ing to see the king, of b lank-eyed digni

taries in f lowing robes, and of men in long beards, the beards a series of

s tone-cut c irc les l ike bunches of grapes .

P u l l i n g o u t a c o p y o f D o n a l d W i l b e r ' s e x c e l l e n t v o l u m e o n t h e h i s t o ry o f

the Persepol is pa lace , I showed i t to Davoud.

" D o n a l d W i l b e r? I s n ' t h e . , . " H e p a u s e d , s e a rc h i n g fo r re c o g n i t i o n o f t h e

n a m e .

"Yes, he is ," I sa id , expla ining that he was the same Donald Wilber who

h a d h e l p e d p l a n t h e 1 9 5 3 C IA c o u p d ' e t a t a g ai n s t M o s s a d e q .

D a v o u d l a u g h e d , s a y in g : " A n d y o u w o n d e r w h y w e I ra n i a n s a re so s u s p i

cious of foreigners "

Donald Wdber wi l l probably best be remembered in his tory for his part in

the CIA manipula t ions , but he was a lso a great authori ty on Pers ia , with an

obvious reverence for Pers ian c ivi l iza t ion and cu l ture . He long defended

a n c i e n t P e rs i a a g a i n s t m o d e rn s c h o l a rs h i p t h a t d e p i c t e d t h e P e rs i a n s a s " b a r

b a r i a n s " c o m p a re d w i t h t h e G re e k s . H e w ri t e s: " G re e k w ri t e rs s u c h a s A rr i a n

e m p l o y e d t h e t e rm ' b a rb a r i a n ' a s i n t e rc h a n g e a b l e w i t h P e rs i a n b u t i n t h o s e

years 'barbarian ' meant on ly foreigner or a l ien. I t has been only in modern

times thai the concept of Pers ians as barbarians , that is as uncivi l ized com

pared with the G reeks , has gained som e currency. A ctual ly , the P ers ians seem

t o h a v e l o o k e d d o w n o n t h e c o m m e rc i a l l y -m i n d e d G re e k s , a n d i t i s c l e ar t h a t

in such aspects of publ ic l i fe as adminis tra t ion, s tab le government, and to ler

ance of different races and creeds the Pers ian achievements outshone those

of th e G reek city states."

33



P E R S I A N

P I L f JU M A p E 5

WU ber's v iew, defensive and pro- P ers ian , marks th e ton e of m uc h W est

ern schol arsh ip on ancie nt P ers ia. T h e great Univers i ty of Chicag o P ers ianis t

A . T . O l m s t e a d , w h o d i ed i n 1 9 4 5 , j u s t a s h e w ra p p e d u p t h e s e m i n a l o n e -

v o l u m e History of the Persian Empire (p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 5 9 ) , d e b u n k e d W e s t e rn

adm irat i on of A lexander, w ho m h e treats rou gh ly in his c lassic study.

D e s c r i b i n g A l e x a n d e r ' s d e s t ru c t i o n o f P e rse p o l i s, h e w ri t e s : " T h e IP e rs ia n ]

m e n w e re a l l s l ai n w i t h o u t m e rc y . . . a n d t h e M a c e d o n i a n s fo u g h t o n e

an ot he r over the p lun der, , , , To add to his evil repu tat ion , A lexander even

boasted in his le t ters how he had ordered the Pers ian captives to be massa

c re d / ' O l m s t e a d t h e n d e p i c t s A l e x a n d e r ' s a rs o n of t h e P e rs e p o l i s p a l a c e a s

" a n a c t of s h e e r v a n d a l i s m " a n d d e r i d e s A l e x a n d e r a p o l o g i s t s w h o s o u g h t t o

l ay b l a m e o n a G re e k t e m p t re s s , T h a i s , w h o a l l e g e dl y u rg e d A l e x a n d e r t o b u r n

th e pa lace in a dr un ke n feas t.

Interes t ingly , A lexander receives no hatred in I ran. M any I ranians see him

as a re la t ive ly benign warrior-scholar , a notion p lanted by the e leventh-century

Pers ian epic

Shaknarneh,

or Book of K ings, an epic that inc lu des A lexander

(E skandar) in the l ineage of P ers ian kings . A lexand er 's a t traction— against h is

ini t ia l ins t incts—to the Pers ian kingly way of pomp and grandeur fos tered a

wid espread Iranian his torica l v iew th at A lexand er becam e Pers ianized. Because

of that perception and Ferdowsi's depiction, l i t t le exists in the way of anti-

A lexand er his toriography. I ronica l ly , m ost cri t ic ism directed a t A lexander

c o m e s f ro m W e s t e rn s c h o l a rs o f a n c i e n t P e rs ia , s c h o l a rs l ik e O l m s t e a d a n d

W i l b e r , w h o b r i s d e at t h e h e ro i c t r i b u t e s a c c o rd e d t o t h e M a c e d o n i a n i n t h e

West .

S i t t i n g o n t w o -t h o u s a n d -y e a r-o l d s t a i rs , t h e s a m e o n e s u s e d b y n e rv o u s

d i g n i t a r ie s p re p a r i n g t o m e e t t h e P e rs i a n k i n g of k in g s , I f l ip p e d t h ro u g h

O l m s t e a d ' s b o o k . M r . Z a r i c a m e t o si t b e s id e m e . I s h o w e d h i m t h e b o o k , a n d

h e s e e m e d i m p re s s e d a s h e f l ip p ed t h ro u g h t h e p a g e s, s t o p p i n g a t t h e n u m e r

ous diagrams and photographs. We heard the azan, the Is lamic ca l l to prayer,

soft and lyrica l and pene tra t ing. I saw no m inaret o r m os qu e in s ight . I t was

as if th e ca l l to prayer had co m e directly from the m ou nt ain s be hind us . T h e

sun beat down on our heads , and we s ipped ta l l cups of co ld sweetened rose

water, a S hiraz specia l ty. N ot far away, a gr ou p of red-faced G er m an w om en

fa n n e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h P e rs i a n h i s t o ry p a m p h l e t s a n d l o o s e n e d t h e i r h e a d

scarves , seemingly frus tra ted by the Is lamic garb they were forced to don.

M r. Zari knew l i t tle abo ut ancie nt P ersia , he to ld m e. His school h is tory

34



P E f c S E P O U S

l e s s o n s h a d fo c u s e d m o re o n I ra n ' s S h i ' a M u s l i m h i st o ry, a m i l l e n n i u m a ft er

the g lories of ancient Pers ia .

"[ th i nk a ncien t P ersia is a very im po rtan t par t of I ranian his to ry/ ' M r. Zari

sa id , gazing a t the towering co lumns. "We should have learned more about i t ,"

Davoud, who clicked photos a few feet away, had read widely of Cyrus and

D a ri u s a n d a n c i e n t P e rs ia a s a s c h o o l b o y b e fo re t h e re v o l u t i o n . H i s b o o k s

a n d t e a c h e rs , h o w e v e r, h a d c o n c e n t ra t e d l i tt l e o n M u s l i m h i s to ry .

I t r ie d t o e n g a g e M r- Z a r i i n a c o n v e rs a t i o n a b o u t t h e s e c o m p e t i n g h i s t o

ries an d th e different tex tboo ks, bu t he seem ed m or e interes ted in an ot he r

subject, green cards.

"I have been thinking about leaving Iran," he said. "There are no jobs for

m e h e re . D o y o u t h i n k

1

can get a green card to l ive and w ork in A m erica? "

I to ld h im th at l ife was n ot so s impl e in A merica , that green car ds r equ ired

a long watt ing period, that—

"I k n o w a l l t h a t , " h e i n t e rru p t e d , " b u t c a n y o u h e l p m e ? " H i s e y e s s h o n e ,

as i f he were about to burs t in to tears .

W e e x c h an g e d p h o n e n u m b e r s . I p r o m i s e d h i m I w o u l d a sk a r o u n d , d o

w h a t e v e r I c o u l d .

H e a s k e d m o re q u e s t i o n s a b o u t A m e ri c a : " W h a t is t h e a v e rag e s al a ry fo r

e n g i n e e rs ? " " H o w m u c h d o e s a c a r c o s t ? " " H o w a b o u t h o u s i n g ? " " Is i t s a fe

to walk around a t n ight?" Fina l ly , he sa id , " I 'm sorry, you had asked me a

question, and I d id not answer i t ."

"N ot a pro bl em ," I sa id , "we ' l l d iscuss it la ter ,"

M r . Z a r i w a s n o t i n t e re s t e d i n of i n t e l l e c t u a l d i s c u s s i o n s o n I ra n ' s c o m

p e t i n g h i s t o r i e s . H e w a n t e d t o k n o w a b o u t g ra d u a t e s t u d y p ro g ra m s , t h e

number of lanes on highways, what kind of car I drove, hea l th-care p lans ,

c o m p u t e r l e a rn i n g c e n t e rs . H i s i n t e re s t s , l i k e m o s t y o u n g I ra n i a n s , s p a n n e d

neith er th e exotic nor t he am bit iou s: He wa nted a job , a dec ent wage, a l ife , a

cha nce to rec la im his dignity . A famil iar s tory. I ran 's pop ul a t io n is one of th e

y o u n g e s t i n t h e w o r l d . N e a r l y t w o -t h i rd s o f i t s p e o p l e a re u n d e r t h e a g e o f

thir ty and ha lf under twenty-one, and many of them are frus tra ted, angry, and

often l ook ing for a way o ut of I ran. E m igrat ion to the Far E ast for th e less

educated or to Ca nad a and A ustra l ia for co l lege gradu ates is on th e r ise . I ran

has a high ra te of bra in drain; near ly one in four co l lege-educated Iranians

w o rk s o u t s i d e t h e c o u n t ry .

"In A merica , I wi ll have oportun it ies ," M r. Zari sa id . "H ere , I have n othin g."

35



P E R S I A N P t L p iU M A p E S

D a v o u d re t u rn e d f ro m s n a p p i n g p h o t o s , a n d w e h e a d e d b a c k t o t h e c a r .

M r. Za ri op ene d his t runk an d pul led ou t a cool er that was f il led with d eep

pu rpl e grapes packed in ice . S hiraz is ren ow ned for its grapes , w hic h pro duc e

a n e x q u i s i t e w i n e , t h o u g h t h e p o s t re v o l u t i o n re l i g i o u s p u r i t a n i s m h a s a l l b u t

ki l led th e w ine industry. Tod ay trader s m anu factu re an inferior S hiraz wine in

low -qual i ty cond it ion s hidd en from go ver nm ent view. W e got back in the car

an d cru nc he d the fa t grapes , s l urp ing the juice , and spit t ing the seeds out the

w i n d o w o n o u r w a y t o t h e C y ru s t o m b .

Pilgrimage to the Tom b of Cyrus the Great

yrus 's conquest in 539 B.C. of Babylonia, the premier power of the day,

marked the first s tep in the rise of the Persian Empire; the way he con

quered Babylonia ensured i ts subsequent success . Some weeks before

arriving in Iran, I spen t a few days in L on do n's Bri tish M us eu m . Th ere , in a

g lass disp lay case in room 52, a smal l s tone tab le t ca l led the Cyrus Cyl in

der te l ls the taie of the Babylonian victory in the king's own words: ". . . my

great army entered this city without incident. The holy places of the city moved

my heart . I accorded to a l l men the freedom to wo rship their own god s and

ordered that no one had the r ight to both er the m . I ordered th at no hou se be

destroyed, that no inhab itant be dispossessed I requeste d that the tem pl es

that had been c losed be reopened I accorded peace and quiet to a l l m en."

Such words radica l ly departed from the kingly norm of Cyrus 's era , which

ce lebrated th e dea th and destru ction of th e conq ue red c i ty in dec lara t ion s

in te nd ed to inspire fear. E ven if Cy rus exaggerated th e peaceful na tu re of his

i n v a s i o n , t h e fe e t t h a t h e p ro m o t e d t o l e ra n c e c a m e a s s o m e t h i n g n e w . C o n

s ider the dec lar a t ion of the A ssyrian king A ssurba nipa l , th e previous ru ler of

Babylonia , wri t ten jus t one hundred years ear l ier: " I conquered in a s ingle

a t ta c k t h e c it y of G i n a b o u . . . . 1 decapita ted six hu nd red ene m y so ldiers on

t h e s p o t a n d b u r n e d a l i ve t h re e t h o u s a n d p r i s o n e rs . . . . I c a rv e d u p t h e g ov

ern or w ith my ow n ha nd s I gril led oth ers on fire; I cut off the han ds, fin

gers , ears , and noses of a la rge number of prisoners ; r ipped thousands of eyes

fro m t h e i r s o c k e t s a n d t o n g u e s f ro m t h e i r m o u t h s . . . . I ra ze d t h e t e m p l e s t o

t h e g r o u n d a n d s u p p re s s ed t h e ir g o d s . . . . I s o w ed s al t a n d t h o r n s . "

In a t ime when the severed heads of enemies and the number of s laves

c a p t u re d m e a s u re d p o l i t i c a l l e a d e rs h i p , C y ru s ' s p a t h re p re s e n t e d a m e t h o d o f



governance a l together new to the world . His pra ise of loca l gods , protect ion

of ru l ing famil ies , and encouragement of re l igious to lera t ion had no prece

den t . A s the great Pers ianis t R ichard Frye of Harvard Univers ity note d in his

classic study The Heritage of Persia, "the vic tories of th e P ers ians were no t

real ly greate r or different from th os e of past c on qu er or s . . . w ha t was differ

ent was the new pol icy of conci l ia t ion/ '

That po l icy of conci l ia t ion is evident in the contras t ing dec lara t ions of

Cyru s and A ssurb anip a l . T he difference b etwe en the se two texts expla ins , in

part , Cyru s 's early success . A co nq ue red peopte may be s i lent for a few years

(especially if you gril l their leaders over an open fire), but in the absence of firm,

daily control , they wil l eventual ly become restive and rebel l ious. In the ancient

N ear E ast , no arm y in the world coul d m anag e a far-f lung em pire l ike P ers ia 's

through mere force . The respect and freedom of be l ief accorded to the con

quered peoples contributed immense ly to the ini t ia l success of the enterprise .

Short ly before his successfu l invasion of Babylon, Cyrus 's t roops won a

d e ci si ve b a t tl e i n t h e j u n c t i o n t o w n o f S i p p or , o n t h e T i g r i s R i ve r i n m o d e m -

d ay I raq . In a 1 9 6 3 b i o g ra p h y of C y ru s t h e G re a t , t h e a u t h o r H a ro l d L a m b

describes the scene that fo l lowed: Cyrus proc la imed to the vi l lagers : "Come

forth , co l lec t your herds , draw water for the animals , and give your famil ies to

eat. T he d is tur ban ce is end ed. T h e peace of the A cha em enia n prevails . By

c o m m a n d o f C y ru s t h e K i n g, " T h e v i l l ag e rs t h e n re c o u n t e d a l l t h e h a rd s h i p s

t h e i r B a b y l o n i a n ru l e rs h a d i m p o s e d o n t h e m . C y ru s re p o r t e d l y re s p o n d e d :

"I t is the law—henceforth—that the s trong sha l l not in jure the weak."

U p o n c a p t u r i n g B a b y l o n , C y ru s p ro c l a i m e d t h e s l a v e t ra d e i l l e g a l a n d

reported ly sa id: " I t is ordered that a l l the peoples who are captive in Babylon

s h a l l re t u rn t o t h e i r h o m e s . A re t h e J ew s d if fe re n t f ro m t h e o t h e r s ? M y w o rd

covers you. Set out when you wi l l and rebui ld your temple [ in Jerusa lem]."

Sti l l , the Cyrus legend cannot be taken a l together as fact . A great dea l of

ro m a n c e h a s s h ro u d e d t h e m e m o ry of t h e P e rs ia n k i n g , w h o h a s h a d n o

s h o r t a g e o f d a zz l e d t w e n t i e t h -c e n t u ry W e s t e rn c h ro n i c l e rs , i n c l u d i n g L a m b

a n d t h e l a t e -n i n e t e e n t h -c e n t u ry F re n c h I ra n o l o g i s t C o m t e d e G o b i n e a u r ,

who dec lared that "Cyrus towers over a l l o ther leaders of nat ions . There has

n e v er b e e n o n e h i s e q u a l . " M a n y e m i n e n t I ra n s c h o l a rs h a v e ra i se d a n i m p o r

t a n t c o u n t e ra rg u m e n t . F o r e x a m p l e , E l t o n D a n i e l , a h i g h l y re s p e c t e d I ra n i s t

a n d a s s o c i a t e e d i t o r o f t h e m o n u m e n t a l Encyclopaedia

lranka,

p re s e n t s t h e

counterpoint effectively in a passage that deserves to be quoted at length:

37



P E R S I A N F U p l U M A p E S

The personality and exploits of Cyrus have exerted a fascination upon writers

down to the present day. Man y of them, usually monarchists or apologists for one

type of

autocracy

or

another;

have held him up as a paragon of the ideal ruler.

Mu ch recent scholarship has emphasized, rather anach ronistically and just as

tendentiously, his supposed "tolerance" of other cultures and his

concern

for

"hum an rights." In reality, for every story about the virtue and justice of C yrus,

there is usually a contrary version that is much less flattering. . . . The favors he

granted he probably bestowed to secure political tranqu ility, not out of any philo

sophical purity. The praise given him b y Isaiah [in the Hebrew Bible} perhaps

says as m uch about Jewish messianic expectations of deliverance from Babylonian

oppression as about Cyrus. Tlic gracious words of

the

'Cyrus Cylinder' are formu

laic repetitions of sentiments stressed by priests on behalf of Mesopotam ia^ rulers

at least as far back as the time ofH amurabi; they reflect not so much his convic

tions as the degree to which Cyrus was awed by Babylonian antiquity and deferred

to the norms of a culture manifestly grander than his own. In summary, Cyrus was

primarily a conqueror who dazzled his contemporaries and stirred their imagina

tion with h is rise from relative obscurity to mastery of an empire of unprecedented

dimensions—but one with an enviable ability to do so without making unnecessary

enemies and to come away with a remarkably unscathed historical reputation.

Seen in the co ld rea l i ty of his torica l l ight , Cyrus was not the supremely

d a z z l i ng m o n a rc h s o m e of h i s c h ro n i c l e rs a n d b o o s t e rs p o s i t e d . S t i l l , few w i l l

doubt his importance as an epocha l f igure in Iranian his tory. Indeed, a pow

e rful a rg u m e n t c a n b e m a d e t h a t C y ru s ' s po l i c ie s o f t o l e ra n c e , w h e t h e r m o t i

vated by puri ty or not , proved to be cri t ica l to the foundation of the Pers ian

E m pire and se t a s tan dar d that I ranian k ings sou gh t, often unsuccessfu l ly , to

emulate . Cyrus was, indubitab ly , a t ra i lb lazer who could arguably be seen as

one of the ancient world 's most important leaders .

A s w e d ro v e t o w a rd t h e C y ru s t o m b o n a t w o - l a n e h i g h w a y f l a n k e d b y

d i r t -c o l o re d e m p t i n e s s , D a v o u d t o l d m e t h a t h e h a d o n c e b o u g h t a re p l i c a o f

t h e C y ru s C y l i n d e r . " T h i s c y l i n d e r w a s v e ry i m p o rt a n t . T o o m a n y I ra n i a n s

j u s t re m e m b e r C y ru s fo r t h e e m p i re h e c re a t e d , w h i c h b ro u g h t p o w e r a n d

glory to I ran. But th is is no t w hat I apprecia te ," he sa id as M r, Za ri low ered

the Iranian pop music to l is ten. "After a l l , in one sense , Cyrus was an imperi

a l is t and conquered peoples much l ike the Bri t ish imperia l is ts we grew up

hating . But it was a to lerant im peria l ism / ' Davoud con tinu ed. "By the s tan -

38



P A S A k f A D

dards of his age, Cyrus was extremely progress ive . That is what we should

apprecia te / '

Cyrus 's successor, h is son Cam byses IT, con tras te d sharp ly with his fa th er

An into lerant brute , he died short ly after gaining power, though not before

l o s i n g s o m e o f t h e s y m p a t h y t h a t C y ru s h a d b u i l t u p a m o n g t h e c o n q u e re d

peoples- T he ne xt ru ler , Da rius , com bin ed so m e of Cyr us 's to l erant vis ion

with an adminis tra t ive and mil i tary genius unpara l le led for his era . Under his

s tewardship, Pers ia grew to the extraordinary power i t became. Darius a lso

"Pers ianized" the empire , s ince he no longer had to re ly fu l ly on the Baby

l o n i a n b u re a u c ra t s w h o s u p p o r t e d t h e e m p i re t h a t C y ru s h a d b u i l t . A t i re l e s s

nation bui lder, Darius act ive ly worked toward creating a uniform set of laws,

w h i c h h e ca l l ed " t h e O rd i n a n c e o f G o o d R e g u l a t i o n s . " H e b u i l t ro a d s , c a n a l s ,

a n d a n e w m o n e t a ry s y s t e m . T h e w e l l -g u a rd e d ro a d s a l l o w e d fo r t h e w o r l d ' s

first effective postal service.

5

P e rh a p s m o s t i n t e re s t i n g l y , g i v e n t h e c o rru p t i o n

i n t o d a y ' s I ra n i a n c o u r t s , D a r i u s h a rs h l y p u n i s h e d j u d g e s w h o t o o k b r i b e s .

L ater P ers ian kings , th e heirs to Cyrus and Da rius , d igressed, be com ing

t ra d i t i o n a l a n c i e n t N e a r E a s t e rn a u t o c ra t s , m e n w h o s o u g h t t o i n sp i re fea r i n

their subjects , hu ng ry for ever m ore l and and power. To the west , the G reek

city-s ta tes tem pte d th ese new P ers ian kings . W ars of co nq ue st ens ued , with

the two s ides batt l in g interm ittent l y for m any years . T he G reek wars (fifth and

fo u r t h c e n t u r i e s B . C . ) drained Pers ia 's resources . Back home, the ru lers had

b e c o m e m o r e aloof, interested more in the affairs of the harem than of state.

B y t h e t i m e A l e x a n d e r t h e G re a t k n o c k e d o n P e rsi a 's d o o r , t h e e m p i re a n d

the s ta te had lapsed into disrepair . W ith re lat ive ease , A lexa nder 's arm y fel led

t h e o n c e - m i g h t y P e rs ia n E m p i re , a fe at t h a t e a rn e d h i m h i s t it l e . T h e M a c e

d o n i a n g e n e ra l d e e p l y a d m i re d C y ru s a n d s e l f -c o n s c i o u s l y s o u g h t t o o u t d o

his hero. A fter re turn ing from India , he m ade a pi lgrimage to the Cy rus tom b

to pay his respec ts to the fa l len king. W h e n he saw th e tom b's sad sta te, he

persona l ly ordered i t c leaned and beautif ied, angri ly dismiss ing the guards of

t h e t o m b .

E m e rg i n g f ro m t h e m o n o t o n y o f t h e d ry , h i l l y p l a t e a u o n t h e t w o - l a n e

highway, we approached a burs t of green ta l l bushy trees l in ing the road,

p lanted more than thir ty years ago in preparat ion for the 1971 Persepol is ee l -

The unofficial U.S. P ostal Service motto—"N either snow nor rain nor heat nor gloom of

night stays these couriers from the swift completion of their appointed rounds"— derives

from Persia in the time of Danus.

3 9



PEf cStAN P 1 L C ( U \ U £ E S

e b ra t i o n s , t h e p a r t of t h e c e re m o n y t h a t t o o k p l a c e a t t h e C y ru s t o m b . A t t h e

end of the trees , I saw the to m b in the d is tance: a white , r inged s tru ctu re of

seven leve ls se t in the middle of a dramatica l ly vast p la in . We approached

s l o w l y , b u m p i n g o n t h e t i n y ro c k s t h a t fo rm e d t h e ro a d , t h e m a s s i v e t o m b

stone growing in height and size to its ful l thirty-six feet as we got c loser.

A smil ing potbe l l ied guard s ipping tea s tepped in front of the car and s ig

na led us to park further back. "But p lease , be my guest for tea and lunch/ ' he

s a i d , s h o w i n g t h e a p p ro p r i a t e ta'rof h o s p i t a l i t y , t h o u g h

I

d o u b t e d h e h a d

l u n c h fo r t h re e p e o p l e re a d y i n h i s t i n y g u a rd ro o m . D e c l i n i n g w i t h t h a n k s ,

we parked the car.

Bits of wh ite , f luffy c l oud s hov ered in a b lue sky. Two G erm an tou ris ts

s n a p p e d p h o t o s . A n I ra n i a n m a n l e a n e d a g a i ns t o n e of t h e t o m b ' s se v en l a rge

block s , h is head cock ed a t the sky. A ccord ing to his torians , the to m b on ce

boa sted r ings of imp eria l garde ns . Tod ay a vast, w indsw ept p l a in has rep l aced

t h e g a rd e n s .

The wind whooshed gent ly as i t passed my ears . Up c lose , the l ight tan

rocks spark led with f lashes of white and sp lotches of b lack. Blotches of brown

fung us grew her e and there . Two cu cu m be r skins lay a t the tom b's base , next

t o a n e m p t y C o k e b o t t l e .

S o m e w h e re o n t h e t o m b , o u t o f v i e w , w a s w ri t t e n : "I am Cyrus , son of

C a m b y s e s , w h o fo u n d e d t h e E m p i re o f P e rs ia , a n d w a s K i ng o f A s ia . G ru d g e

m e n o t t h e re fo re t h i s m o n u m e n t . " T h e o r i g i n a l i n s c r i p t i o n , h i s t o r i a n s

believe, read simply:

"I

a m C y ru s t h e M e d e , t h e P e rsi an k i n g. " A l e x a n d e r t h e

G reat apparen t ly decided to cha nge i t to i ts presen t e lab oration , to befit t he

P e rs i a n k i n g h e a d m i re d s o m u c h .

T h e I ra n i a n w h o s e h a n d s l a y a g a i n s t t h e s t o n e l o o k e d a n g ry . H e s h o o k h i s

hea d in disgu st. "L ook at thi s " h e said. "T his is a travesty Cy rus is th e

fou nd er of ou r country , and l ook ho w dirty the to m b is. Th is is sham eful . I

c o m e h e re a l l t h e t i m e , a n d n o b o d y c l e a n s i t . " H e re a c h e d d o w n t o p i c k u p

t h e C o k e b o t t l e .

" I o n c e b r o u g h t t w o I ra n i a n s w h o l iv e i n A m e ri c a t o t h i s t o m b , " h e s ai d .

" T h e y w e re d o c t o rs . W h e n t h e y s a w t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e t o m b , t h e y b e g a n

weeping. I fe l t so ashamed in front of the doctors ," he sa id , obvious ly

imp ressed by their profess ion.

M r . Z a r i l a u g h e d a n d re t o r t e d : " T el l t h o s e d o c t o rs t o w e e p fo r u s y o u n g

peopl e . Cyrus ha d a goo d l ife. H e does n ot ne ed a c lea n tom b. W e nee d job s

40



P A S A k f A D

and a proper l i fe ." He walked away, toward Davoud. with whom he shared a

cigarette,

I sa t down in the dir t and s tared a t the tomb and the p la in and l is tened to

the wind. The vast p la in and the hi l ly horizon and the somber l ines of the

tomb's s tructure had a ca lming effect . The s implic i ty of the tomb created a

sense of res tra ined beauty. I t le f t a powerfu l imprint on the mind, equa l ing

t h e n u m e ro u s e l a b o ra t e l y d e s i g n e d s h r i n e s a c ro s s I ra n . A f t e r a fe w m i n u t e s

D avo ud sat d ow n next to m e. " I t is a f ine tom b," he sa id . M r. Za ri jo i ne d u s .

T h e t h re e o f u s p a u s e d t h e re t o g e t h e r , q u i e t l y l o s t i n o u r t h o u g h t s a s h u s h e d

winds swirled by.

I f l ipped th ro ug h m y no tes on Cyrus , the breeze f lapping t he pages of my

pad. I cam e across a passage I had copied from J. M , R oberts , the em ine nt

Brit ish his torian, who argued that the Pers ian Empire gave r ise to the f irs t

out l ines of a world c ivi l iza t ion. He says of the era : "We can mark an epoch.

R i gh t a c r o ss t h e O l d W o r l d , P e rs ia s u d d e n l y p u l l e d p e o p l e s i n t o a c o m m o n

e x p e r i en c e . In d i a n s , M e d e s , B a b y l o n i a n s, L y d ia n s, G re e k s , J ew s , P h o e n i c i a n s ,

Egyptians were for the f irs t t ime governed by one empire whose ec lect ic ism

sho we d ho w far c ivil iza t ion had a l ready com e. T he era of c ivil iza tion em bo d

ied in dis t inct h is torica l enti t ies wa s over in the N ear E ast. Too m uc h had

been shared, too much diffused for the direct successors of the first civil iza

t i o n s t o b e a n y l o n g e r t h e b u i l d i n g b l o c k s o f w o r l d h i s t o ry . . . , T h e b a s e o f a

future world c ivi l iza t ion was in the making."

The twenty-firs t century wi l l probably be fa irer to Cyrus 's image in Iran.

As the revolution 's f i re has tempered, the days of po lemica l bat t les over the

m e a n i n g o f I ra n i a n h i s t o ry a re o n t h e w a n e . R e c e n t l y , p ro m i n e n t l e a d e rs o f

t h e I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c h a v e o p e n l y p ra is e d p re - Is l a m i c P e rsi a, D u r i n g a v is it t o

P e r se p o l i s, a p o w e rf u l M u s l i m c l e ri c a n d f o r m e r p r e s i d e n t . All A k b ar

Hashemi Rafsanjani , sa id he was "humbled" by ancient Pers ia 's achievements .

P res ident K hatam i, for his part , regular ly l aud s the o ld P ers ian kings. E ven

Iran 's conservative c lerics , the men who s tand in the way of reform, rare ly

e n g a g e in a t ta c k s o n t h e c o u n t ry ' s p re - Is l a m i c l e a d e rs , A y a to l l a h K h a l k h a l i ,

the c leric w ho wa nted to destroy Cyrus 's to m b, is now a margina l ized bi t

player.

A s w e s a t in t h e d i r t, t h e C y ru s t o m b t o w e ri n g a b o v e u s , I t h o u g h t a b o u t

m y n e x t pi l g r im a g e s , i n t h e n o r t h e a s t e rn c it y o f M a s h h a d , w h e re I w o u l d

ref lect on the ear ly Ira nian en co un ter w ith Is lam , T he A rab defeat of I ran in

41



P E R S I A N P I L C JU M A p E S

t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u ry A .D.

t

on e tho us an d years after A lexand er 's defeat of the

P e rs i a n E m p i re , w o u l d d ra m a t ic a l l y a l t e r I ra n 's d e st in y , b e c a u s e t h e A ra b

i n v a d e rs b ro u g h t w i t h t h e m s o m e t h i n g A l e x a n d e r d i d n o t : a n e n t i c i n g n e w

faith , Is lam. In M ash ha d, I wo ul d ref lec t on how Iran, an o ld , sophis t icated

power, reacted to the arriva l of the new invader and the new fa i th that would

t ra n s fo rm t h e I ra n i a n l a n d s c a p e fo r t h e n e x t t h i r t e e n h u n d re d y e a rs .

D a v o u d a n d M r . Z a r i s m o k e d c i g a re tt e s w h i l e a s m a l l g ro u p o f I ra n i a n

t o u r i s t s a p p ro a c h e d t h e t o m b , c a m e ra s c l i c k in g . A w e s t e rn w i n d c o a s t ed

across th e p la in , scat tering dust and swaying nearby weeds. D avo ud an d M r.

Zari shie lded their c igaret tes with their hands, covering the ash from the

wind. As dusk fe l l , the orange sun softened. The sky grayed. The a ir cooled.

W e m a d e o u r w a y t o t h e c a r fo r t h e t w o -h o u r d r i v e b a c k t o S h i ra z . F ro m t h e

b a c k s e a t , I w a t c h e d t h e e l e g a n t w h i t e t o m b d i s a p p e a r i n th e m o o n l i t d i s

t a n c e . A n I ra n i a n p o p s o n g s c ra t c h e d o n t h e t a p e d ec k . D a v o u d a t e g ra p e s.

M r . Z a r i l o o k e d s tr a i g h t a h e a d , h u m m i n g a l o n g w i t h t h e m u s i c .

42



t l

The Imam and the Poet: An Introduction Mr. Ghassemi's Funeral

Islam and the Iranian Accommodation * Moha mma d's Melon Truck Tour

4-

T he Sunni/Shi'a Split Alouming and Miracles

Pilgrimage: Ferdow si,

the Poet Imam Ali or Rostam? Global Arrogance" and

Green Cards at the Nader Shah Museum

4" Pilgrimage:

Imam Reza Tomb &

Cities: M ashhad, Tous

The Imam and the Poet: An Introduction

M a s h h a d , s ix h u n d re d m i l e s n o r t h e a s t o f t h e w i n d -s w e p t P a s a rg ad P l a i n

t h a t s u rro u n d s C y ru s t h e G re a t 's t o m b , t w o p u b l i c s p a c e s, j u s t a few m i l e s

apart, frame the broad sweep of Iranian history: one a pilgrimage site for

an e ighth-century martyred Shi 'a imam; the other, a park and a shrine for an

e le venth- century epic poet . I w ent to M ash ha d on pi lgrimage to both s i tes .

T h e s h r i n e of Im a m R e za (d . 8 1 7 ) , t h e e i g h t h i m a m o f th e S h i 'a M u s l i m

faith , a ttracts m i l l ions of I ra nian pi l grims every year, as wel l as S hi 'a M us l im s

from S ou th A sia and th e A rab wo rld . Im am R eza hai ls from th e family of the

P ro p h e t M u h a m m a d , I s l a m ' s h o l y m e s s e ng e r . B e c a u s e o f t h e im a m ' s l i n e a g e

and his designation as one of th e twelve sacred im am s of th e S hi 'a M us l im

faith , the shrine is the most wide ly vis i ted in Iran. I ts sp lendor—aqua spires ,

f lowing ca l l igraphy, in tr icate wal l des igns , luminous chandel iers , g l i t tering

gold domes— effects an a l m ost heavenly a ir . T h e Bri t ish am bass ado r to I ran

Roger S tevens , in his 1962 trave l book

Land of the Great

Sophy, cal ls i t "one of

the most beautifu l , i f not the most beautifu l , concentra t ion of re l igious bui ld

ings in the world ."

Just a few miles away, the marbled shrine of Ferdowsi, the tenth- and

e leventh-century Iranian epic poet , shines as an oasis of p leasant gardens ,

t i led fountains , and large grassy areas in an otherwise desola te landscape. Fer-

dowsi 's masterpiece , the

Shahnameh,

a m o n u m e n t a l e p i c , p a r t m y t h a n d p a r t

his tory, that required thir ty-five years to complete , chronic les Iran 's pre-

43



P E R S I A N P I L C f U M A C E S

Is lamic kings and g lories in co lorfu l and powerfu l verse . I t ends with the sev

en th- ce ntu ry defeat of the P ers ians a t the han ds of A rab Is lam ic invaders . For

Ferd ow si, w riting 350 years after tha t event, th e Irania n defeat pre sen ted an

u n m i s t a k a b l y t rag i c e n d i n g t o a g re a t e m p i re , a m o m e n t w h e n t h e u n i v e rs e

s h i f t e d a n d " t h e g o o d b e c a m e u n s e e m l y a n d t h e u n s e e m l y b e c a m e g o o d / '

In a sense , these two shrines , Imam Reza and Ferdowsi, frame the twenty-

s i x -h u n d re d -y e a r I ra n i a n o d y s s e y : o n e s h r i n e d e v o t e d t o a n I ra n i a n p o e t w h o

s a n g of I ra n 's p re - Is l a m i c g l o r i es , t h e o t h e r t o a n A ra b M u s l i m w h o s e re l ig i o n

has pro found ly a l tered the seco nd ha lf of I ra nian his tory. In fact, th e A rab

defeat of I ran in 636-38 divides recorded Iranian his tory into roughly two

t h i r t e e n -h u n d re d - y e a r s l i c es , b e g i n n i n g w i t h C y ru s th e G re a t a n d e n d i n g

w i t h t o d a y ' s I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c .

T h o u g h the date of the A rab invasion mak es for a neat d ivide in the swee p

of the Iranian narra t ive , h is tory rare ly makes such dis t inctive breaks . Changes

come gradua l ly , s lowly, sometimes grudgingly, over decades and centuries .

The origina l force causing the break ( in this case , Is lam) undergoes change,

transf orm ation , and cross-p ol l in at ion in th e proce ss as wel l . True, the arriva l

of Is lam profoundly a l tered Iran, but I ran a lso inf luenced the course of

Is l am ic history, and ultim ately, Iran ma na ge d a feat that ol de r civil izations,

chiefly E gypt and A ssyria , had b een un abl e to do: I t res is ted A rabization.

M y vis it to the se two shrin es w ou ld reca l l th e t ransi t ion period in Iranian

his tory when seventh-century invaders bearing an entic ing new fa i th con

quered the o ld and sophis t icated Iranian c ivi l iza t ion. I ran 's reaction to that

invasion, i ts accommodation of Is lam, and i ts s truggle to re ta in an Iranian

i d e n t i ty in t h e n e w A ra b - d o m i n a t e d o rd e r w o u l d d e f in e I ra n ' s h i s t o ry i n t h e

ensuing three hundred years and would be the foca l point of my pi lgrimages .

But first, a funeral.

Mr. GHassemi's Funeral

4k

r. M olavi ," the bari tone -voic ed ca l ler sa id on th e othe r L ine,

I \ f\ " M r . G h a s s e m i h a s g o n e t o G o d ' s h a n d s l a s t w e e k . I k n o w h e

• • V w o u l d h a v e w a n t e d y o u t o a t te n d t h e f u n er a l c e re m o n y ."

T h e c a l l s u rp r i se d m e . I h a d s e e n M r . G h a s s e m i t w o m o n t h s b e fo re i n

T e h r a n , w h e r e 1 l ived when

I

was not t rave l ing. I knew he had hea rt p robl em s,

4 4



M A S K HAD

bu t he had to ld m e he fe lt "in great hea l th an d goo d spiri ts ." A t ou r las t me et

ing, h is s i lver hair was s l icked back, cur ly tufts protruding on the s ides . He

wore a tie, "a sign of civil ization " he a lways said, I assumed him to be in his

mid-seventies . His cheeks sank into his face , h is hands were l iver-spotted, but

he had bright eyes and a quick gait.

M r . G h a s s e m i p o s s e s se d a n e x t ra o rd i n a ry ab il i ty t o q u o t e l o n g p as s a g e s o f

Ferdowsi 's

Shahnameh.

Iranians deeply revere their o ld poets , often sprinkl ing

t h e i r c o n v e rs a ti o n w i t h p o e t i c v e rse s , b u t M r . G h a s s e m i t o o k it m u c h fu r th e r .

S t ro l l i n g t h r o u g h a T e h ra n p a rk , p a s t g u rg l i n g fo u n t a i n s a n d u n d e rn e a t h t h e

green leaves of heavy brown trees , he quoted from the epic poet for hours , h is

voice moving to a fas t , s taccato beat as he described scenes of Pers ian war

r io rs o n t h e m a rc h a n d s l o w i n g i n t o a m e l a n c h o l y -s o a k e d d r u m w h e n h e

described the Pers ian defeat .

I m e t M r . G h a s s e m i t h r o u g h a f ri en d , a j o u r n a l i s t w h o k n e w o f m y i n t e r

e s t i n F e rd o w s i . " Y ou m u s t m e e t A g h a ye G h a s s e m i , " h e s a i d . " F e w p e o p l e

re ve re F e rd o w s i a s m u c h a s M r . G h a s s e m i . "

W e m e t i n a d o w n t o w n T e h ra n p a rk a n d s a t a c ro s s f ro m e a c h o t h e r o n a

fresh ly painted g reen picnic tab le . W h en I asked him ab ou t the t ie he wore , he

said:

"I

a lways we ar a t ie wh en I go ou t . I t is m y smal l ac t of defiance." N ec k

t ies are banned in government bui ldings in Iran ( they are a s ign of the

" d e p ra v e d " W e s t , a v ie w re fl e c t in g b o t h t h e a n t i -W e s t e rn K h o m e i n i s t i n t e r

preta t ion of Is lam and the ant lcapita l is t le f t ism of the revolution). Ties are not

ban ned in publ ic spaces , however. A s a resu l t , the wearin g of a t ie m akes m ore

than a fashion s ta tement. I t a lso speaks a po l i t ica l language. I t says to the

Is l a m ic R e p u b l i c : " I ' m n o t o n e o f y o u ; I d o n o t s u p p o r t y o u . "

M r . G h a s s e m i d e s cr i b e d h i m s e l f s u c c in c t l y , i n s h o r t , d e c l a ra t iv e s e n

tences: " I am a nationa l is t . I revere M ossa deq . I despise ou r c lergy, bu t I have

religious faith in a S u6 [m ystical] way. R eza S ha h, ou r greates t king, w as right

to a t tack our c lergy. Ferdowsi is our greates t poet . He rescued our Iranian

identity w he n th e A rabs tr ied to swal low u s ."

M r . G h a s s e m i w a s b o r n i n " 1 9 2 1 o r 1 9 2 2 , " h e to l d m e . " W e d id n o t h a v e

b i r t h c e r t i f i c a t e s t h e n , a n d m y m o t h e r d o e s n o t re m e m b e r . S h e w ro t e t h e d a t e

in a Q u r a n , b u t s o m e o n e s t ol e t h e Q u r a n f ro m o u r h o m e . M y G o d , h o w

c o u l d a n y o n e s t e a l a Q u r a n ? "

He a t tended the univers i ty in the la te 1930s, s tudying engineering. " In my

univers i ty , we a l l hated the Bri t ish. We knew their o i l company exploited us ,"

4 ?



P E R S I A N P L L p f t l M A f E S

4 *

h e s a id , re ferr in g t o A n g l o - I ra n i a n O i l C o m p a n y (A IQ C ), a B r i t i s h -o p e ra t e d

company that paid more in profi t taxes to i ts own government than i t d id in

re v e n u e s h a r i n g t o I ra n .

"We supported Reza Shah, and we wanted to support h is efforts to create

a m od er n n ation -s ta te , to l ift us from ou r backwardn ess . A t th is t ime we ta lked

of p a n - I r a n i s m , of re u n i t i n g A fg h a n is t a n w i t h I ra n . W e a l s o ta l k e d o f n a t i o n a l

ism. Ferdowsi became very popular , part ly because of Reza Shah 's support for

h i m a n d p a r t l y b e c a u s e o f t h e n a t i o n a l i s t i m p u l s e s t h e

Shahnamek

inspired."

Reza Shah used Ferdowsi the way he used the pre- ls lamic Pers ian kings

Cyrus and Darius: as a symbol of roya l is t , nat iona l is t pride . He beautif ied the

Ferdowsi shrine in 1935 and demanded that the poet be taught in the new

s e c u l a r sc h o o l s h e c re a t e d , t h e s c h o o l s t h a t w o u l d s e n d y o u n g m e n l i k e M r .

G h a s s e m i t o s im i l a r l y s e cu l a r u n i v e rs i ti e s t o l e a rn t h e p h y s i ca l s c i e n c e s n e c

essary to create an industr ia l modern s ta te .

B u t i t w a s n ' t j u s t t h e k i n g w h o e m b ra c e d F e rd o w s i . N a t i o n a l i s t s a n d s e c

u l a r i n t e l l e c t u a l s e m b ra c e d t h e Shahnamek as a symbol of identity, Iran's ver

s ion of the

Iliad

o r t h e Aeneid.

It

h e l p e d t h a t F e rdo w s i l a m e n t e d t h e A ra b

M usl im invasion , especial ly s ince severa l leading inte l lec tua l s and nationa l is ts

viewed Iran 's M us l im c lergy as a regressive force on socie ty, erra nt we eds of

"A rab bac kw ard ness " on pu re Iranian soi l . Ferdowsi, even m ore so th an

Cy rus th e G reat , wa s often in terpr eted by secul ar in te l lec tua l s , nat iona l is ts ,

and the roya l family as a chest- thumping nationa l is t poet who disp layed l i t t le

regard for Is lam. In fact , th is characterizat ion of Ferdowsi revea ls more about

the interpreters than i t does about the poet 's work, which is far more

n u a n c e d a n d s u b d e t h a n t h e " n a t i o n a l i s t i n t e rp re t e rs " a l l o w fo r . In d e e d , t h e re

is n o e v i d e n c e of F e rd o w s i ' s a n t i -M u s l i m s t a n c e i n h i s w o rk , t h o u g h h e d o e s

disp lay a cu l tura l pride in his I ranianness ,

In o n e e x a m p l e o f t h e e x t e n t s t h e s e i n t e rp re t e rs w o u l d g o t o p re s e n t F e r

dowsi as a nat iona l is t , an eariy-twentie th-century Iranian nationa l is t and l i t

erary f igure of some repute , Ibrahim Pourdavoud, even fabricated a Ferdowsi

l ine to en ha nc e the p oet 's nat iona l is t image: " If I ran do es no t exis t , the n le t

m e n o t e x i s t " T h e e m o t i o n - t u g g i n g v e rs e b e c a m e p a r t o f a m a r t i a l a n t h e m ,

and to this day, I ranians quote the l ine as Ferdowsi 's own, though his epic

c o n t a i n s n o s u c h p h ra s e .

M o t i v a t ed b y t h e n a t i o n a l i s m o f h i s d ay , M r . G h a s s e m i , t h e y o u n g e n g i -

i



M A S H HAD

n e e r i n g s t u d e n t , h e l p e d c re a t e w h a t h e c a l l e d " a s m a l l i n fo rm a l a s s o c i a t i o n o f

n a t i o n a l i s t s t u d e n t s . "

"We met weekly and we read a loud from Ferdowsi 's

Shahnameh.

W e d ra n k

whiskey. W e w or e t ies . W e ta lked of a new daw n in I ran, of a day wh en p ro

fess iona ls l ike ourse lves might he lp Iran r id i tse l f of foreign contro l . Whether

t h e A ra b s o r t h e T u rk s o r t h e M o n g o l s o r t h e B r i t is h , s o m e o n e w a s al w a y s

trying to contro l I ran."

W h e n M o s s a d e q n a t io n a l i ze d t h e B r it is h o il c o m p a n y i n 1 9 5 1 , M r . G h a s

semi remembers i t " l ike a dream, a b l issfu l dream." He smiled, as i f remem

bering that heady moment. "The Bri t ish oi l company was a s lap in our face .

They treated us l ike their servants . Besides , they did not give us an equitab le

a rra n g e m e n t , l i ke t h e A m e ri c a n s d i d w i t h t h e S a u d i s ."

" I w a s w o rk i n g fo r a p r i va t e c o m p a n y t h e n . O n e o f m y c o l l e a g u e s c a m e

ru n n i n g i n t o t h e h o s p i t a l . H e y e l l e d o u t l o u d : ' M o s s a d e q n a t i o n a l i z e d t h e o il

com pany H e did it) He rea l ly did i t

r

W e h u g g e d e a c h o t h e r . W e c l a p p e d o u r

h a n d s . I a l m o s t t h i n k t h a t w e w o u l d h a v e b e g u n d a n c i n g r i g h t t h e n i f t h e re

had been m usic ," he sa id , la ugh ing. "O ur gen erat io n grew up fearing t he

Brit ish. M ossad eq defied the m . I t was extraord inary R eal ly extraordinary "

I ra n p a id d e a r l y fo r M o s s a d e q ' s d e fi an c e. A B r i t is h - l e d W e s t e rn o i l

embargo of I ranian crude choked the country 's a l ready ta t tered f inances ,

l e a d i n g t o a n e c o n o m i c s l o w d o w n t h a t d re w n e w re c ru i t s t o I ra n ' s g ro w i n g

C o m m u n i s t T u d e h p a rt y. T h e T u d e h p a r ty ' s s u p p o r t fo r M o s s a d e q i n h i s b a t

t l e w i t h t h e B r i t is h a l a rm e d W a s h i n g t o n a n d l e d t o t h e s u b s e q u e n t u n fai r

b r a n d i n g o f M o s s a d e q a s a C o m m u n i s t .

M o s s a d e q , u n w i l l i n g t o b u d g e a n i n c h in n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e B r i t is h ,

f ac ed t h e p r o s p e c t o f s o c ia l u n r e s t . M e a n w h i l e , a n i m p o r t a n t a l ly i n

M o s s a d e q ' s c o a l i ti o n , t h e n a t i o n a l i s t c l e ri c A y a to l l a h K a s h a n i , w i t h d re w h i s

support . This act ion inf l ic ted a serious b low to the oi l nat iona l izat ion move

m e n t b e c a u s e K a s h a n i c o u l d d ra w t h e m a s s e s t o t h e s t re e t s t h ro u g h h i s u s e

o f t h e re l ig i o u s p o d i u m i n far g re a t er n u m b e rs t h a n M o s s a d e q o r a n y s e c u l a r

nationa l is t could.

By 195 3, a com bin ation of factors , m os t notabl y the defection of K ashan i

and the growing economic cris is , c reated fert i le ground for an assaul t on

M o s s a d eq ' s p r e m i e r s h i p . T h e S h a h , w h o s e em e d p o w e r l e s s as M o s s a d e q d i c

t a t e d t e rm s t o t h e B r i t i s h , a p p ro v e d a C IA p l a n t o o v e r t h ro w t h e " p e s k y "

47



P E R S I A N

F l l p JU M A f E S

p r i m e m i n i s te r . W o rk i n g a l o n g s i d e ro y a l i st g en e ra l s , C IA a g e n t s ro u s e d m o b s

t o a t t a c k M o s s a d e q ' s s u p p o r t e rs a n d d is p l ay s t re n g t h i n n u m b e rs . W h e n t h e

p l a n s e e m e d t o g o aw ry, t h e S h a h i m m e d i a t e l y f le d t o R o m e .

Sti l l , the roya l is t genera ls were not done. In a c lass if ied report re leased in

2 0 0 0 a n d p r i n t e d b y t h e

New

York

Times,

t h e C I A n o t e d t h a t I r a n ia n s u p p o r t

e rs o f t h e S h a h m a n a g e d t o t u rn t h e s i t u a t i o n a ro u n d . L e d by a l o c a l T e h ra n

t h u g k n o w n a s " S h a b a n t h e B ra in l e s s, " t h e y b e g a n t o w i n t h e g a m e o f n u m

bers on the s treet . Tehran res idents , many of whom were frus tra ted by the

eco no m ic an d pol i t ica l chaos of the postn ationa l iz at ion years , w ere in l i t tle

m oo d to f ight, and crit ica l ly , w itho ut th e su pp or t of K ashani 's re l igious card

t o ril e t h e m a s s e s , M o s s a d e q ' s s u p p o r t e rs w e re o v e rw h e l m e d .

F o r M r . G h a s s e m i a n d m a n y I r a n ia n s , t h e o v e r t h r o w of M o s s a d e q w a s a

bit ter pi l l to swal low and served as an anti-A m erican ra l ly ing point for m an y

o f I ra n ' s d e m o c ra t i c -m i n d e d re v o l u t i o n a r i e s i n 1 9 7 9 . M o s s a d e q , d e s p it e a

p o l i t i c a l s t y l e t h a t b o rd e re d o n d e m a g o g u e ry , h a d m a d e s e r i o u s a t t e m p t s t o

bui l d a dem ocra cy in Iran, inc l udin g his sup po rt for a free press th at often

e x c o r i a t e d t h e p r i m e m i n i s t e r himself. M o s t of a ll , f or M r , G h a s s e m i a n d h i s

g e n e r a t i o n of d e m o c r a t i c - m i n d e d n a t i o n a l i s ts , M o s s a d e q r e p r e s e n t e d a

d re a m o f a l i b e ra l a n d p ro s p e ro u s I ra n , u n e n c u m b e re d b y t h e w e i g h t o f fo r

e ign interference and pro gress ing tow ard a socie ty based o n laws and per

sona l and pol i t ica l freedoms.

" W h e n M o s s a d e q w a s o v e r t h r o w n i n 1 9 5 3 , 1 w a s c r u s h e d , " M r . G h a s s e m i

said. " I fe lt as if I was p un ch ed in th e s tom ach . I hear d th e A m erican s w ere

i n vo l v e d , b u t I d i d n o t b e l ie v e it . I m e t m a n y A m e ri c a n s i n I ra n t h ro u g h m y

work. They were different from the Bri t ish. They were not arrogant . But i t

t u rn e d o u t t o b e t ru e . "

W h e n t h e S h a h r e t u r n e d f ro m R o m e a n d M o s s a d e q r e tr e a te d i n to a q u i e t

re t ire m ent, th e royal cou rt reasserted i tse l f on the pol i t ica l scene. T h e free

p re s s of t h e M o s s a d e q e ra d r i e d u p u n d e r t h e ro y a l c e n s o r ' s p e n . T h e P a r l i a

m e n t w e a k e n e d , m o v i n g t o w a r d b e c o m i n g a r u b b e r s t a m p f o r t h e S h a h .

O n the cul tura l front, th e S ha h picked u p w he re his father left off,

em bracin g Ferdow si as a sym bol of roya l is t nat iona l is t pride . T h e epic cam e

to serve as not jus t a ce lebrat ion of I ranianness but as a tes tament to Iran 's

affini ty for monarchy. Passages and scenes that promoted kingship were read

o n s t a t e ra d i o a n d t e l e v is io n a l o n g w i t h p a e a n s t o I ra n ' s n o b l e k in g , t h e K i n g

o f K i n gs a n d L i g h t o f t h e A r y an s , M o h a m m a d R e za S h a h .

4S



M A S H HAD

In the 1960 's , M r, G hass em i re treated from nationa l is t po l i t ics , s ti l l

w o u n d e d b y M o s s a d e q ' s fal l. T h r o u g h o u t t h i s p e r io d , t h e S h a h ' s i n c r e a s i n g

a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m d i s t u rb e d M r . G h a s s e m i . B u t h e s ta y e d a w ay f ro m p o l i t ic s .

"SA VAK was no joke ," he sa id , referring to th e S hah 's dreaded secret po l ice .

Q u i e t l y h e s u p p o r t e d t h e N a t i o n a l F ro n t , o n e o f m a n y o rg a n i z ed g ro u p s

o p p o s e d t o t h e S h a h , in c l u d i n g M a r x is t g u er ri l l a s, t h e C o m m u n i s t T u d e h

p a rt y , a n d t h e c l e rg y. N a t i o n a l F ro n t s u p p o r t e rs , h e i rs t o M o s s a d e q , t e n d e d t o

be educated profess iona ls , not the sort of people wi l l ing to go out and butt

heads in the postrevolutionary free-for-a l l . They grew in s ta ture in the 1970s,

but they got pushed as ide after the revolution.

" W h e n t h e m u l l a h s t o o k o v er , I k n e w w e w e r e i n t r o u b l e , " M r . G h a s s e m i

s ai d. " I a d m i re d K h o m e i n i for h i s bra v e ry in s t a n d i n g u p t o t h e S h a h , b u t I

d i d n ' t t h i n k t h e c l e rg y s h o u l d ru n o u r g o v e rn m e n t . "

S h o r t l y a f t e r t h e re v o l u t i o n , I ra n e x p e r i e n c e d w a r . " T h ro u g h o u t t h e w a r

years I t r ied to d o wha t I coul d to h e lp , but 1 was to o old to go to th e wa r front.

Al l I could do was he lp repair bui ldings hi t by Iraqi miss i les . I met many war

v e t e ra n s d u r i n g t h i s t i m e . M y b ro t h e r w a s a d o c t o r . H e h e l p e d w i t h t h e i r

rehabi l i ta t ion. Th eir pain and suffering hu rt m e l ike never before . I fel l in to a

m i l d d e p re s s i o n "

A ro u n d 1 9 9 2 , a s h e t o l d i t, M r . G h a s s e m i — re t i re d , re st l e s s, a n d re c o v e red

from his depress ion—picked up a dusty copy of the

Shahnameh

from his shelf.

He began reading. He immersed himse lf in Ferdowsi 's chiva lrous world of

great k ings and deeds , of princes and maidens , of ogre-faced enemies and

c h e s t - t h u m p i n g h e ro e s , o f g ra n d b a t t l e s a n d g ra n d fa i l u re s , o f I ra n i a n h e ro e s

a n d A ra b o r R o m a n o r T u rk i c e n e m i e s . H e a l s o re a d of f l aw e d h e ro e s a n d

human foib les and ta les of mora l i ty .

"A s I read m ore of the epic , I cam e to rea l ize tha t the wo rk was no t ju s t a

nationa l is t t ract , as some people t r ied to portray i t . I t was a work of great psy

c h o l o g i c a l d e p t h , o n e t h a t e x p l o re s h u m a n n a t u re i n a u n i v e rs a l w a y I t w a s

an extraordinary piece of l i tera ture , and I thought i t was a shame that the gov

ern m ent ba nn ed i t." A ctual ly , the Is l amic R epubl ic never offic ia lly b an ne d th e

Shahnameh,

but i ts ear ly a t tempts to promote Is lamic over pre-Is lamic his tory,

as wel l as th e s t igma a t tach ed t o the Shahnameh as the "favorite" of the

d e p o s e d S h a h , s e n t a c l e a r m e s s a g e t o p e o p l e l i ke M r , G h a s s e m i : t h e

Shah

nameh, with i ts pra ise of I ran 's pre-Is lamic past , is not welcome in the Is lamic

Republ ic of I ran.

4 9



P E R S I A N P I L f JUM A y E S

In 1 9 9 2 t h e I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c m a d e p u b l i c p e a c e w i t h t h e Shahnameh.

President Rafsanjani , a wi ly c leric who must have sensed the discontent with

the ru l ing c lergy seething in socie ty , convened an internationa l conference on

Ferdowsi. He invited scholars from around the world to discuss the poet and

praised Ferdowsi 's work lavish ly

himself.

A s h re w d m o v e , it sa id ; " L o o k , p e o

ple of Iran, we clergy a lso love Ferdowsi."

A t a b o u t th i s t i m e , M r G h a s s e m i d e c id e d t o re c o n v e n e s o m e o f h i s o l d

friends , th e nationa l is t s tud en ts , for weekly Ferdow si readings . "Half of the m

h a d m o v e d t o A m e ri c a a n d E u ro p e , " h e s a id , " b u t I m a n a g e d t o c o n t a c t a few

o f t h e o r i g i n a l m e m b e rs . " H e a d d e d t w o n e w m e m b e rs , a n d t h e y c o n v e n e d

the f irs t meeting of " the new Shahnameh d i s c u s s i o n g ro u p " i n l a t e 1 9 9 2 . T h e y

m e t a b o u t t e n t i m e s a y e a r u n t i l l a t e 1 9 9 9 , w h e n M r . G h a s s e m i to l d h i s w ife

he fe l t a p inch in his heart and passed away before he made i t to the

h o s p i t a l .

O n t h e s e v e n th d a y a ft er h i s d e a t h a c e re m o n y c o n v e n e d t o re m e m b e r

him. In Iran 's Shi 'a t radit ion, fr iends and family mourn on the third , the sev

enth, and fort ie th day after death and, once again, on the year anniversary.

M r . G h a s s e m i ' s w ife, a d e v o u t w o m a n , i n v it e d m e t o t h e

haftom,

the seventh.

She,

I fo u n d l a te r, p ro m p t e d t h e p h o n e ca l l f ro m t h e b a r i t o n e -v o i c e d m a n .

W h e n I re a c h e d t h e i r h o u s e i n a n u p s c a l e p a r t o f T e h ra n , t h e fa m i l y w a s

busi ly prepar ing for th e ceremony. A pair of A fghan servants in b lack baggy

p a n t s a n d b l a c k s h i r t s c arr ie d b o x e s i n si d e t h e h o u s e M rs . G h a s s e m i ' s e y es

wa tered w he n she greeted m e. N earby her thir ty-five-year-o ld dau gh ter

labored feverishly, assembling trays of sweets and fruit, which were wrapped

in p las t ic and t ied to geth er with b lack r ibb on s. T he se w ou ld be offered to

guests a t the memoria l service , and the remainder given to the poor in the

n a m e o f t h e d e c e a s e d . I p i l ed i n t o a c ar w i t h o n e of M r . G h a s s e m i ' s t h re e

s o n s ,

a n d w e h e a d e d o u t t o t h e c e m e t e ry .

In f ro nt o f a m i d -s i z e w h i t e t o m b s t o n e , a c ro w d o f a b o u t o n e h u n d re d

gathe red to pay their respects . M ost of the m en in th e crowd w ore t ies , l ike

M r. G h a s s e m i . A b l a c k -b e a rd e d c l e ri c, y o u n g a n d m u s c u l a r i n a b ro w n f ro ck

c o a t a n d w h i t e s h ir t , a p p ro a c h e d t h e g ro u p . M r . G h a s s e m i ' s e l d e s t s o n w h i s

pered in the c leric's ear. T he crowd hu sh ed .

"M r. G hassem i was tru ly an hon orab le m an / ' the c leric sa id . "H e has served

his nat ion wel l . He has produced three sons and one daughter. He was a man

50



M A S H HAD

w ho l oved his co un try and loved his re l igion. L et us say

tht fatekeh

[ th e M u s

l i m p ra y e r for t h e d e c e a s e d ] . " T h e c ro w d m u rm u r e d t h e p ra y er u n d e r t h e i r

b re a t h . M rs . G h a s s e m i ' s w ife a n d d a u g h t e r cra d l e d e a c h o th e r , t o u c h i n g t h e

t o m b ,

sobbing.

T h e c l e r ic t h e n b e g a n a m o u rn i n g s o n g : " O h , F a th e r , o h , F at h e r, o h , d e a r

Father," he bega n in a m el anch ol y voice . "W hy have you left us , oh , Fa ther ?

T h e re is n o m o re l i g h t in o u r h o m e , d ea r F a t h e r . . . O h h h h , F a th e r, t h e re i s

no more l ight , oh, Fatheerrrrrr ."

A s t h e c l e r ic s a n g , M r . G h a s s e m i ' s s o n s s t o o d e re c t , t h e i r s h o u l d e rs s h a k

i n g ; h i s d a u g h t e r w a s re d u c e d t o a w h i m p e r i n g c h i l d . " M y fa t h e r " s h e c r i e d .

" M y fa th e r M y f at h er " T h e w e e p i n g s p re a d , a s m o r e s h o u l d e r s s h o o k

t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t a n d i n g c r o w d , a n d s e v e r a l w o m e n j o i n e d t h e d a u g h t e r a n d

m o t h e r a t t h e t o m b s t o n e , t o u c h i n g i t, c ry in g , t o u c h i n g , a n d c ry i n g, i n t h e t y p

i c a l l y e m o t i o n a l I ra n i a n s t y l e o f m o u rn i n g .

A s t h e c l e r ic s a n g , t h e A fg h an i s e rv a n t s p a s s e d s w e e t s a ro u n d t h e c ro w d .

J u s t t h e n a g ro u p o f ra g t a g c h i l d re n i n t o rn c l o t h i n g a p p ro a c h e d , t h e i r h a n d s

ou t, asking for th e sweets . T he A fghan low ered th e sweet tray. Th ey grab bed

frantical ly, knocking the tray over, then picked the sweets off the dirt and

grass,

a n d d u m p e d t h e m i n t h e i r s h i r t s a s t h e y ra n a w a y . In I ra n , p o o r c h i l

dren regularly go to cemeteries to be fed.

I t h o u g h t o f M r . G h a s s e m i a s t h e c l e r ic s a n g . I h a d n o t g o t t o k n o w h i m

welt , ju s t a few m eetings in a park with d iscus sion s of poetry and pol i t ics . I

looked around a t the mourners , t rying to f ind some meaning in their faces ,

s o m e t h i n g el se I co u l d r e m e m b e r a b o u t M r . G h a s s e m i t h r o u g h t h e m . I r e c

ognized one of the mourners , a ta i l , th in gray-haired man wearing a b lack t ie ,

hol ding a b lack hat in his han d. W e had m et onc e before , by chan ce, as M r.

G h a s s e m i a n d I t a l k e d i n t h e p a rk . W a l k i n g w i t h h i s g ra n d s o n , w h o l o o k e d t o

b e in h i s ea r l y t w e n t i e s , h e h a d j o k e d w i t h M r . G h a s s e m i : " H e i s a t t h e s a m e

a g e a s y o u w h e n y o u b e g a n c h a s i n g g i r l s. " M r . G h a s s e m i , b r i g h t -e y e d ,

resp ond ed: "Yes, bu t t imes have cha nge d. Be carefu l , yo un g m an , do n ' t get

y o u rs e l f i n t o t ro u b l e . T h i s is the Is l amic R epubl ic after a l l . "

T he m an with the b lack hat no dd ed a t m e, as if to say, "T ha nk yo u for

c o m i n g . " I t o c c u re d t o m e t h a t t h e b a r i t o n e v o i c e o n t h e o t h e r l i n e b e l o n g e d

t o h i m . T h e s m al l c ro w d h u d d l e d a r o u n d t h e t o m b s t o n e . M r s . G h a s s e m i

w e p t . T h e c l e r i c s a n g s o n g s o f m o u rn i n g .

51



P E R S I A N P L L p E U M A f E S

Islam and the Iranian Accom moda tion

W

h e n t h e P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d h e a rd h i s c al l b y A l l a h in

A . D

. 610,

t h e S a s s a n i d s ru l e d I ra n . T h e S a s s a n i d s , a n I ra n i a n d v n a s ry t h a t

e m e rg e d i n t h e t h i rd c e n t u ry

A . D . ,

r e t u r n e d I r a n t o s u p e r p o w e r

sta tus after s ix hundred years of re la t ive ly unaccomplished ru lers in the wake

of A lex ander 's four th- cen tur y B.C. invasion. T he S assanids created a unified

i m p e r i a l s t at e t h a t m a d e t h e m l e g i t im a t e h e i rs t o t h e A c h a e m e n i a n s o f

ancie nt P ers ia . I ran h ad r isen onc e again to be co m e a wo rld power. A s th e S as-

s a n i d s ta t e g re w in p o w e r a n d i n f l u e n c e , B y z a n t i n e R o m e l o o k e d o n w i t h c o n

cern. Inevitably, the two empires batt led, their armies c lashing for land and

glory. R om e invested m uc h t im e and en ergy into a s tra tegy for a P ers ian

defeat . A s th e his torian of Byzantine R om e G arth Fowd en describes it , [E very

one knew that the worthy enemy, the enemy whose defeat would bring true

g l o ry w a s I r a n . . . . T h e I ra n i a n s w e re n o t o n l y a rea l s t a t e a n d a s e r i o u s m i l i

tary power. They w ere a K ul turvoik to o."

B y t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u ry

A . D

. , S a s s a n i d ru l e rs , o n c e v i g o ro u s a n d d y n a m i c ,

h a d fa l l e n i n t o t h e fam i l ia r p a t t e rn o f N e a r E a s t a u t o c ra t s : a m b i t i o u s a n d

effective early kings gave way to later generations of decadent courts, wastrel

kings, an d oppressive policies. T h e spl en do rs of S assanid P ersia had bee n

sque ezed by this time. T h e S assanid rul ers treated their soldiers and the gene ral

popula t ion with disdain, sending them off to ever more use less border wars

with th e Byzantine E mpire . M eanw hile , a corru pt priesdy c lass thai perverted

the original Zoroastrian faith into a rigid system of caste and ritual helped legit

imize S assanid rule, priest and k ing joi nin g ha nd s l ike never before.

1

So as the

P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d p r e a c h e d t h e s im p l e p ie ty o f M u s l i m fa it h in n e a r b y

A ra b i a, t h e S a s s a n i d s p res i d ed o v e r a f ru s t ra t e d p o p u l a c e , d i s e n c h a n t e d w i t h

the re l igion of the Zoroastr ian pries ts and worn out by the heavy to l l of the

Byzantine wars on their t reasury. T h e S assanid rea lm tot tered - r ipe for a t tack.

S t il l , i t required e i ther extrao rdinary ins ig ht or la rge dose s of hu bri s for

t h e I s l a m i c c a l i p h O m a r t o b e l ie v e fo u r y e a rs a ft er t h e P ro p h e t M u h a m m a d ' s

de ath th at h is A rab tr ibes coul d defeat the so l diers of th e st il l h ighly feared

P ers ian E m pire , But P ers ia 's fabled r iches an d the pro spe ct of p l un de r proved

1 Th is Zor oastrian a l l iance betw een k i n g a n d priest f or eshadow ed

the later

a l l iance

betw een

M u sl i m

clergy and k in g b e g i n n i n g in the sixteenth c e n t u r y a n d u n r a v e l i n g in ih e

rwentie th, w h e n the priest emer ged as king.

S2



M A S K HAD

i rres is tib le to O m ar, w ho a l so saw a P ers ian cam paig n as a way to unify th e

m y ri a d s q u a b b l i n g A ra b c l a n s t h a t m a d e u p t h e h o u s e o f I s l a m , T h e c l i m a x

cam e in 637, a t th e Battle of Qadiss iya , w he n th e A rab tr ibes defeated th e

o n c e -m i g h t y P e rs i a n a rm y w i t h re l a t i v e e a s e a n d e n t e re d I ra n a s c o n q u e ro rs .

2

W h e n t h e M u s l i m w i n d b l e w a c ro s s I ra n , a re l ig i o u sl y f ru s t ra t e d p o p u l a

t ion must have apprecia ted the ega l i tarian nature of th is new fa i th , which

c o n t ra s t e d s t a rk l y w i t h t h e r i g i d a n d h i e ra rc h i c a l fo rm o f S a s s a n i d Z o ro a s t r i -

anism in practice a t the t ime. S t i l l , I ranians were unl ike ly to accept the fa i th

of an upstart invader r ight away, even in the spir i tua l vacuum created by the

Zoroastr ian pries t ly tyranny. I ranians remained characteris t ica l ly proud of

their heri tage, wary of the "uncivi l ized" conquerors in their midst , and s t i l l

adhered to the more posit ive aspects of the Zoroastr ian fa i th .

T h e A ra b de fea t o f I ra n w o u l d h a v e e n o r m o u s i n f l u e n c e o n t h e fu tu re fat e

of the Is lam ic fa i th . By co nq ue rin g I ran, th e Bedou in tr ibes of A rabia inh er

i t e d a b u re a u c ra t i c c l a s s a c c u s t o m e d t o ru l i n g a n e m p i re . In m u c h t h e s a m e

w a y t h a t t h e e ar l y A c h a e m e n i a n k i n g s b o rro w e d f ro m B a b y l o n i a n b u r e a u

c ra t s t o h e l p a d m i n i s t e r a n d s p re a d t h e P e rs i an E m p i re , t h e n e w A ra b ru l e rs

o f t h e I s l a m i c re a l m t re m e n d o u s l y b e n e f i t e d f ro m t h e e x p e r t i s e o f S a s s a n i d

a d m i n i s t ra t o rs t o c o n s o l i d a t e t h e i r o w n e m p i re .

T h e I ra n i a n i n f l u e n c e o n t h e e a r l y I s l a m i c e m p i re g a t h e re d m o m e n t u m i n

750, more than one hundred years after the Iranian defeat , when the

A bbasids, a com peting A rab c la imant, defeated the A rab Um ayyad ru le rs of the

Is l a m ic c a l i p h a t e . T h e A b b a s i d s h a d c l o s e t ie s t o t h e I ra n i a n re g i o n o f K h o -

rasan, the province of present-day M ash had . Und er the A bbasids, I ranian influ

e n c e o n t h e c a l i p h a t e g re w d ra m a t ic a l l y . T h e A b b a s i d s w e l c o m e d I ra n i a n

advisers and minis ters , known as vazirs, i n t o g o v e rn m e n t . A K h o ra s a n i fa m il y ,

the Barmecides , became key

vazirs

to th e A bbasids , in the crucia l ear ly years

o f ru l e . T h e A b b a s i d c a p it a l sh i ft ed f ro m A ra b D a m a s c u s t o P e rs i a n B a g h d a d .

T h e A b b a s i d s h a d S a s s a n i d te x t s t ra n s l a t e d i n t o A ra b ic , S a s s a n i d c o u r t t ra d i

t ions revived, and S assanid adm inis tra t ive m eth od s em ul ated . T h e ne w

cal iphs a lso fo l lowed the Pers ian model of es tab l ishing a large s tanding army

beholden to the ru ler ( in this case , the ca l iph). In a move r ich in symbolism,

^ I n o n e o f

history's strange

ironies, the secu l ar nat ional is t Ar ab Saddam H ussein ca l l ed

his 1980

attack

against Iran that b e g a n a n eight-year war "the second Q adiss iya" and A y a

to l lah K h o m e i n i ca l l ed h is I r anian t r o o p s "foot soldiers o f I s la m." T h o u g h Iranians repre

sented

I s l a m a n d the A r ab invader s a secular leader, th e o l d s y m b o l s r e m a i n e d .

53



P E R S IA N P t L f M M A p E S

an A bbasid leader ordered a rock from th e destroyed S assanid P ers ian pa l ace

in C tes i ph on f it ted into on e of the new pa laces of the M us l im ca l iph ate in

B a g h d a d . A s t h e H a rv a rd P e rs ia n i st R i c h a rd F ry e w ri t es , ' A c o m p l e t e m o d e l o f

i m p e r i a l ru l e w a s t h u s p re s e n t e d t o t h e A ra b s by t h e P e rs i a n re a l m , a n d t h e

A ra b s b o rro w e d f ro m S a s s a n i a n I ra n m o re t h a n f ro m a n y o t h e r s o u rc e . "

T h e l a t e -e i g h t h -c e n t u ry A b b a s id l e a d e r H a ro u n a l -R a s h i d d i v id e d h i s

c a l i p h a t e u p o n h i s d e a t h i n t o a w e s t e rn A ra b e m p i re a n d a n e a s t e rn P e rs ia n

one,

giving each of his son s contr o l of on e region. T he P ers ian regio n 's ru ler ,

M a ' m o u n , in vi te d I m a m R e za , a n A r ab M u s l i m a n d t h e ei g h t h S h i 'a im a m , to

visi t h i m in M as hh ad in 816. S hort l y after I m am R eza 's arr iva l , he died, th e

s t o ry g oe s , a t t h e h a n d s o f M a ' m o u n (p o i s o n ed g ra p e s t h e s u p p o s e d c u l p r i t ).

S h i ' a s o u r c e s sa y M a ' m o u n w o r ri e d a b o u t I m a m R e za 's g r o w i n g p o p u l a r i ty

among Iranians after he named him his heir apparent and decided to ki l l h im

before he grew too powerfu l . This might expla in why Imam Reza received

buria l with fu l l honors by the king. Eventua l ly the c i ty took i ts name from

t h i s " m a r t y r d o m / ' M a s h h a d m e a n i n g " ci ty of m a r t y r d o m . "

Despite the growing number of I ranians in key adminis tra t ive posit ions in

t h e c a l i p h a t e , A ra b a s c e n d a n c y d o m i n a t e d t h e h o u s e of I s l a m . A ra b l a n d

rem aine d f isca l ly privi leged, the ca l iphate in th e ha nd s of an A rab ru ler, A ra

bic th e langu age of gov ernm ent, and the A rab garrison to w ns in Iran s ti l l

t reated the loca ls as mere sources of tax revenue or potentia l converts .

A s a resu l t , in I ranian K hor asan , a series of loca l dynasties rebe l led against

t h e A b b a s id s t h r o u g h o u t t h e n i n t h c e n t u ry . T h e K h o r a s a n i r e b e l l i o n c e n t e r e d

on a bid to f ight back the tax co l lec tor and have home ru le but a lso inc luded

an effort to rescu e an Iran ian iden tity in the new A rab order.

For Iran 's edu cated e l i tes , the sev enth -cen tury A rab invasion dea l t a

cru sh ing b low. Un l ik e th e Byzantine e l i tes in R om e's eas tern terr i tories wh o

c o u l d f l e e t o n e a rb y C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , I ra n i a n e l i t e s h a d n o w h e re t o g o , n o fa r

away capital to re treat to . T h e A rab invasion created in these e l i tes wh at the

I ra n i a n s c h o l a r S h a h ro k h M e s k o o b ca l l s " a s e n s e o f a l i e n a t i o n a n d h o m e -

lessness ." M esk oo b, in an essay o n Iranian identi ty , wri t ten short l y after th e

1 9 7 9 re v o l u t i o n , p u t s i t t h i s w ay : " A f te r t h e o n s l a u g h t o f t h e A ra b s a n d t h e

fe l l o f t h e S a s s a n i a n E m p i re (2 2 4 -6 5 1 ) , w e I ra n i a n s w e re i n a s t a t e o f c o n

s ternation, numbness and psychologica l l is t lessness for two centuries ."

T h e K h o ra s a n re b e l l i o n s s p a w n e d a n I ra n i a n n a t i o n a l i s m o f s o r ts . S u c

cessfu l ly a t ta ining vir tua l home ru le s ta tus , these loca l ru lers sponsored a

54



W A 5 H H A D

series of scholar l y w ork s focusing o n Iran 's pre-I s iam ic identity . K ho rasa ni

s c h o l a rs b e g a n w ri t i n g v o l u m e s o f h i s t o ry fo c u s i n g o n m y t h i c a l a n d h i s t o r i

ca l k ings of the Pers ian pre-Is lamic past , rescuing Iranian his tory from the

M usl im view that a l l h is tory before Is lam is jahilUya, t h e a g e o f i g n o ra n c e . A

proliferation of

Shahnamehs

(his tories of kings) appeared in the ninth and

t e n t h c e n t u r i e s , d e p i c t i n g a c o l o rfu l c o l l e c t i o n o f w i s e , h u m a n e , a n d j u s t P e r

s ian kings w ho re igned before I s lam. O n e note d schol ar of th is era , Taba ri ,

wrote a book, t i t led

Annals of

the Apostles

and the Kings,

in 932 in an a t tempt to

re c o n c i l e t h e p re - Is l a m i c k i n g s w i t h t h e M u s l i m p ro p h e t s .

D u ri n g t h i s p e r i o d t h e I ra n i a n l a n g u a g e w a s a l s o t ra n s fo rm e d . I ra n

accepted the A rabic a l pha bet bec aus e it proved to be manifes t ly supe rior to

i ts o w n c u n e i fo rm . A n e w P e rs i a n e m e rg e d , u s i n g t h e n e w A ra b ic s c ri p t b u t

r e ta i n in g a n I r a n i a n n e s s t h r o u g h a d h e r e n c e t o it s I n d o - E u r o p e a n r o o t s . T h i s

new P ers ian imme nse ly benefi ted from the a th le t ic natu re of A rabic script to

deve lop a new lyric Pers ian poetry, which has b loomed into a vibrant and r ich

garden of verse that I ranians revere to this day.

T h e i m p o s i t i o n o f a n e w a l p h a b e t o n a n o l d p e o p l e w a s d i s o r i e n t i n g . T h e

v e ry re a l u n d e rs t a n d i n g t h a t t h e n e w a l p h a b e t w a s fa r s u p e r i o r t o t h e i r o w n

must have been a b low to the psyche of e l i te I ranians of that era . Perhaps that

is wh y Iran ian e l i tes soug ht to ma inta in the r oots of their ow n lang uage, a t

t imes f ighting the infusion of A rabic w ord s and u l t imate l y res is t ing the ful l

A rabization of the ir lang uage.

S h a h r o k h M e s k o o b w ri te s : " O n l y w i t h re s p ec t t o t w o t h i n g s w e re w e I ra n i

ans separate from othe r M us l im s: his tory and l anguage, th e two factors on

which we proceeded to bui ld our own identi ty as a people or nat ion. His tory

was ou r currency, the prov isions for th e way, an d o ur refuge. L ang uag e was t he

foundation, f loor, and refuge for the so ul , a s trong hol d within wh ich we s too d."

B y t h e m i d d l e o f t h e t e n t h c e n t u ry , K h o ra s a n i e l i te s o p e n l y e x p re s se d

pride in their I ranian ness , d ifferentiat ing t he m from t hei r A rab ru lers , tho ug h

t es ti fy in g t o d e v o u t M u s l i m n e s s a t t h e s a m e t i m e . F o r a n e d u c a t e d l a t e - t e n t h -

c e n t u ry m a n l i k e F e rd o w s i , w i t h a m b i t i o u s p o e t i c a s p i ra t io n s t o g o a l o n g

with an Iranian cu l tura l nat iona l ism typica l of the e l i te landed gentry of

w h o m h e w a s a m e m b e r , w r i t i n g a

Shahnameh

of his own seemed a logica l

idea . T he po et spe nt th e next th ir ty-five years wri t ing th e epic w ith th e occa

s iona l f inancia l support of loca l ru lers . I t represented a rescue of I ranian his

tory and language.

55



P E R S I A N P t L P R l M A f E S

O nc e Ferdowsi's work was com ple ted, th e energies of Iran ian scholars tu rne d

away from histories of pre-Is lamic Persia into an embrace of the subtleties of

their new fa ith. I ranian-based scholars contribu ted imm ense ly to early M us l im

scholarship, and Iranian M usl im S ufi mystics and intel lectuals proved ins tru

m ental to the spread of Is lam eastward, especial ly into A sia. For nearly one th ou

sand years after F erdowsi, Iranian scholars revolved a ro un d m e firmam ent of Islam .

All education, even scientific, was conducted in a re ligious milieu, especial ly the

madreseh, t he I s lamic seminary first introduc ed in the e l eventh century. In fact, the

next great scholar to emerge from Ferdowsi's hom etow n of Tou s was the thir teen th-

c e n t u r y I s l a m i c m a t h e m a t i c i a n o f g r ea t r e p u t e k n o w n a s N a s i r a l - D i n T u s i.

By th e twe ntie th century, th e a t temp t by som e secul ar in te l l ec tua ls to

"bypass" Is lam in favor of pre-Is lamic his tory faced the crushing weight of

Iran 's in te l lec tua l , sc ientif ic , and socia l t radit ions rooted in the fa i th . S t i l l , the

p ro m o t i o n o f p re - Is l a m i c P e rs i a b y t h e P a h l a v i k i n g s a n d b y s o m e l e a d i n g

t w e n t i e t h -c e n t u ry i n t e l l e c t u a l s re m i n d e d I ra n i a n s o f t h e i r r i c h h e ri t a g e . T h i s ,

combined with the inf luence of be loved works l ike Ferdowsi 's Skahnamch,

made i t extremely diff icu l t for the new Is lamic revolutionary authori t ies to

neglect Persia in favor Is lam.

M r. G h a s s e m i , a m e m b e r o f t h e e d u c a t e d m o d e m m i d d l e c l a ss , c a m e of ag e

in an era when i t had become fashionable among certa in groups of in te l lec tu

a ls to downgrade the importance of Is lam in Iranian his tory. Today, in Iran, i t

is no t u nc om m on to find m en of a certa in c lass , educa tion, and age, l ike M r.

G hassem i, w ho d o n ot kno w even the basic princip les of Is lam. Indeed, they

would have a hard t ime reci t ing the tradit iona l prayers whispered and spoken

a l l over th e M us l im w orld . O ften, they hold their fai th in barely concea led co n

t e m p t , p ra i s in g t h e T u rk i s h s e c u l a r l e a d er M u s ta fa K e m a l A t a t u rk , w h o s o u g h t

to up ro ot Is lam from society . S hort ly after M r. G hassem i 's funera l , I flew to

M a s h h a d t o v is it t h e sh r i n e s o f F e rd ow s i a n d I m a m R e za .

M ohamm ad's M elon Truck Tour

-rf arr ived in M ash ha d a t m idnig ht . T he f l ight from T ehr an, abo ard a creak-

i ng R u s s i a n -m a d e T u p o l e v , t o o k a n h o u r a n d a half. T he a ir was cool an d

• • s o f t as I em erged in to the no ise of the a irport taxi p i t . A crowd of b lack

m ust ac he s an d jang l ing key cha ins app roac hed m e, saying in Farsi : "Taxi, s ir "

"Where to , s ir?" "P lease , s ir , be my guest ." I was t i red and eager to s leep, so I



M A S H

HAD

accepted the offer of the first driver who addressed me, a thin man in a red

shirt and b lack sanda ls .

O n the way to th e hote l , th e driver, as m ost do, com pl aine d bi t ter ly

a b o u t t h e e c o n o m y a n d t h e cl e rg y . " W e h a v e n o t h i n g . N o t h i n g

1

. N o j o b s .

N o m o n e y . N o m e a n s t o m a k e a b e t t e r l i v in g T h e s e m u l l a h s a re k i l l i ng u s

t have to wo rk e igh teen h ou rs a day, driving this dam n car ju s t to m ake

ends meet ," he sa id , angri ly . " I have a young boyl He is e ight years o ld . I

on ly hope he has a bet ter l i fe than I have."

A s he comp laine d ab ou t r is ing mea t prices and the "corr upt fool s" in

gov ernm ent, I drif ted in and ou t of s leep, w akin g every few m inu tes to th e

ris ing cadence of his dia tr ibe: "worth less tomans," " idiot minis ters ,"

" w re c k e d e c o n o m y . " A t s o m e p o i n t I c a n n o t rec al l , I s h u t m y e ye s a n d n o

lo nger he ard his voice . W h en 1 awoke, the car was park ed outs ide a red

n e o n - l i t h o t e l a n d t h e d r i v e r a n d m y b a g s h a d d i s a p p e a re d .

P a n i c k e d , I ru s h e d o u t o f t h e c a r a n d i n t o t h e h o t e l l o b b y , w h e re I

noticed t he s ign; i t was the sam e hote l a t w hic h I ha d reserved a ro om . I

saw the driver, s i t t ing on a couch by the reception desk, smoking a c iga

rette.

M y bags were neat ly arranged a t h is feet.

"You seemed to be having a good dream," he sa id . " I d id not want to

wake you."

M o m e n t a r i l y f l u s te re d a b o u t h o w ro re s p o n d , 1 t r i e d to gi ve h i m a n

extra tip , bu t h e refused. " I t 's no t necessary," he sa id , ha nd in g th e bi l l s b ack

to me. "You were as leep.

1

needed a c igaret te . Very s impl e ." L ater that n ig ht

I berated myse lf for cheapening his gesture of kindness with money.

The next day I breakfasted on hot f lat bread, feta cheese, and sweet tea

i n t h e h o t e l l o u n g e . I t w a s a m o d e s t h o t e l . M i d d l e -c l a s s I ra n i a n s a s w e l l a s

P akis tani and In dian S hi 'a M us l im s s tayed there , with in s ight of the g l i t

t e r i n g g o l d d o m e s o f t h e Im a m R e z a s h r i n e . I s c a n n e d a n a r t i c l e i n t h e

conservative Tehran Times E n g l i s h da il y o n " Z i o n i s t A t ro c it ie s i n t h e M u s

l im L an d of Pa l es t ine ." T he art ic le , l ike so m any o the rs of i ts k ind in I ran 's

c o n s erv a ti v e p re s s , d r i p p e d w i t h a n i m o s i t y to w a rd Is ra el a n d " G l o b a l A rro

gance" (codeword for the United S ta tes , rep lacing the previous ly used

" G re a t S a t a n " )- J u s t t h e n , a s I re a d a b o u t " Z i o n i s t m e d i a c o n s p i ra c i e s " w i t h

t h e " G l o b a l A r r o g an c e ," a t h i n m i d d l e - a g e d I r a n ia n m a n w i t h h o l l o w

c h e e ks a n d a b u s h y b l a ck m u s t a c h e a p p ro a c h e d m e , s p e a k i n g in b ro k e n

E ngl ish. "H el l o , my fr iend, are you from de P ake stan ?"

57



P E R S I A N P I L G R I M A G E S

Quickly, I responded in Fars i , hoping that i t would send him a message

th at I was n ot a touris t to be hus t le d.

He jerked back. "You were reading an Engl ish newspaper," he sa id , apolo

giz ing. "Usua l ly the Pakis tanis and Indians read the Engl ish newspapers ."

H e b e g a n t a l k i n g , t el l i n g m e a b o u t h i s j o b : n i g h t d e s k w o rk a t a h o t e l

po pul ar am on g P akis tani vis itors . " I have learned so m e Urd u," he sa id , refer

r ing to Pakis tan 's language. "The Pakis tanis love Iran very much, especia l ly

t h e r ic h o n e s , t h e g o l d t ra d e rs a n d t h e b u s i n e s s m e n . T h e y q u o t e o u r p o e t s

Hafez and Saadi . Did you know that their own favori te nat iona l poet , Iqba l , I

th i nk his nam e is, w rote in Fars i?"

I n o d d e d , r e m e m b e r i n g s o m e o f m y o w n e n c o u n t e r s w i t h H a f e z - q u o t i n g

P a k is ta n is a n d t h e e n d l e s s p a e a n s t o M o h a m m a d I q b al I h e a r d i n m y P a k is ta n

trips.

"T he y a lso thi nk Iran is so wo nderfu l beca use they say th at I ran s tands up

to A m erica and the West ," he sa id. "Wel l , at leas t somebody l o v e s t h e s e m u l l a h s

of o u rs . " H e l a u g h e d .

" S o m e t i m e s , I g iv e t o u r s t o t h e r ic h P a k i s ta n i s f ro m D u b a i a n d S a u d i A ra

b i a . T h e y w a n t t o s e e m o r e of M a s h h a d t h a n j u s t t h e s h r i n e , " h e s a id . " T h e y

m a k e a l o t o f m o n e y i n S a u d i A ra b ia . F o r t h e m , I ra n i s v e ry c h e a p . "

I r a n i a n

ta'rof

dictate d tha t I offer him a seat to jo in m e for breakfast- T h e

s a m e ta'rof rou tine impel l ed him to say no, refusing t o "tro ubl e m e."

"Befarmah,"

1 sa id , poin ting to a chair next to m ine . "Be my g uest ."

"Thank you," he said, s itting down, fai l ing to l ive up to his side of the

unwrit ten ta ' rof dea l .

" M y n a m e is M o h a m m a d . J u s t cal l m e M o h a m m a d , " h e sa id . T h e " ju st

c a l l m e " p a r t s i g n a l e d t h a t h e w a s b e i n g p u rp o s e l y i n fo rm a l , u n l i k e m o s t I ra

nians who use their las t names on f irs t greeting.

"I once took two I ta l ians on a tour. They asked me where they could get

som e wine. W e wen t to the h ou se of a friend w ho h as som e w ine. Th ey

b o u g h t t h e w i n e , a n d w e d ra n k i t t o g e t h e r i n t h e p a rk . T h e y t h o u g h t i t w a s

v e ry g o o d w i n e T h e y w e n t b a c k a n d b o u g h t t w o m o re b o t t l e s "

A s h e c o n t i n u e d t a l k i n g a b o u t h i s " s p e c i a l t o u rs " a n d t h e I t a l i a n w i n e

d r i n k e rs a n d t h e P a k i s ta n i p i l g r i m s , 1 g re w t o l i k e h i m . S o m e t h i n g i n h i s

dan cing eyes , m ischievou s sm ile , and breezy cynicism ende ared him to me.

Before I kne w it, I foun d myself accep ting his offer of a city tou r.





P E R S I A N

P I I f f U M A f ES

W e g re e t e d a n d e m b ra c e d l i ke o l d fr ie n d s, M o h a m m a d i n t ro d u c e d m e t o

S a e e d , " t h e t o u r c o m p a n y ' s d r i v e r / ' h i s c o u s i n a n d a l o c a l m e l o n d i s t r i b u t o r

S aeed and I greeted eac h oth er in th e Iranian way, on e h and o n th e chest , a

s l ight bow of the head, and a f lurry of f lowery pleasantries.

"I am very pleased to meet you, ' ' Saeed said, bowing s l ightly.

" T h e p l e a s u re i s m i n e , " I re s p o n d e d , h a n d o n m y c h e s t .

" I am your servant ," he sa id .

" N o ,

I

am your servant ," I rep l ied, appropria te ly .

Saeed was a bu lky fe l low with big tufts of b lack hair waving across his

head. He had sad eyes and a p leasant smile .

" O K , l et 's go , M r . A f sh i n, " M o h a m m a d s ai d, " T h i s w il l b e t h e b e s t t o u r

yo u hav e ever ha d. Firs t , we wi l l go to D oc tor s ' I n tersection , A s a jou rna l is t ,

that area should interes t you."

W h e n w e re a c h e d t h e fo u r-w a y D o c t o rs ' In t e rs e c t i o n , s o n a m e d b e c a u s e

o f i t s p ro x im i t y t o a m e d i c a l s c h o o l , S a e ed s t o p p e d t h e c a r a n d M o h a m m a d

s t o o d u p a m i d t h e m e l o n s , w a v i n g h i s a rm s i n t h e a ir. " S e e t h i s , M r . A fs h in .

T h i s is w h e re t h e s t u d e n t s d e m o n s t ra t e d . M a y G o d b l e s s t h e m , " h e s a id .

In J u l y 1 9 99 s t u d e n t d e m o n s t r a t i o n s ro c k e d t h e c o u n t ry . In T e h ra n ,

M a s h h a d , a n d o t h e r m a j o r c it ie s , I ra n i a n s t u d e n t s p o u re d i n t o t h e s t re e t s t o

p ro t e s t a p o l i c e a t ta c k o n a T e h ra n U n i v ers it y d o rm i t o ry . D u r i n g t h e d e m o n

s t ra ti o n s , s t u d e n t s c h a n t e d s l o g a n s fo r f ree d o m a n d d e m o c ra c y . A u t h o r i t i e s

badly beat many s tudents , a few fa ta l ly

1

re m e m b e r t h e h a rro w i n g s t o r ie s t h e y

t o l d m e o f c h a i n -w i e l d i n g t h u g s w o rk i n g w i t h t h e p o l i c e t o a t t a c k t h e m . T o

t h i s d ay I ra n i a n s ta l k a b o u t t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 9 9 ' s s t u d e n t re v o l ts . M a n y w o n

der when the next big revol t wi l l occur.

H a d M o h a m m a d s e e n t h e s t u d e n t r e v ol t s ? I a s k ed , s t a n d i n g u p to s u r ve y

t h e i n t e rs e c t i o n .

"No." H e l a u g h e d .

U

I was too scared to go near the m . R evol t is for s tu

d e n t s , n o t fo r ol d m e n l i k e m e . O f c o u rs e , I s u p p o r t t h e s t u d e n t s , " M o h a m

mad added, s tanding up to face me. "They are the future of our country. I t is

so sad to thin k that so m e of th em are in ja i l now. S o very sad, I rem em be r the

stu de nt protes ts in 197S and 197 9. T he y too k p lace near th e sam e area . I t is

a s h a m e . T h e re i s a l w ay s s o m e t h i n g o u r s t u d e n t s n e e d t o p ro t e s t . "

T h e c ar j e r k e d b a ck i n to m o t i o n , an d t h e t o u r c o n t i n u e d w i t h M o h a m

mad providing running gossip on the s taff of each hote l we passed: " In that

60



M A S H H A D

h o t e l a d e s k c l e rk w a s c a u g h t w i t h a p ro s t i t u t e . H e l e f t i n s h a m e " ; " T h e m a n

ager of that hote l is addicted to opium"; "The I ta l ians s tayed in that hote l .

O n e n i g h t t h e y d ra n k w i n e w i t h o n e o f t h e h o t e l w a i t ers . H e st il l t al k s a b o u t

that n ight with joy."

A s w e a p p r o a c h e d M a r ty r s ' S q u a r e ( fo rm e rl y S h a h S q u a re ) , M o h a m m a d

asked if I wo ul d l ike to see th e tra in s ta t ion. " I t was bui l t by th e G erm ans," he

s a id , " m o re t h a n fif ty y ea rs a g o. T h o s e G e rm a n s rea l l y k n o w h o w t o b u i l d . "

W e p u l l e d i n t o t h e t ra i n s t a t i o n p a rk i n g l o t . I w a l k e d i n s i d e a n d s a w a

massive ha l l with high cei l ings and wide, empty spaces where people shuff led,

w a i t e d , a n d t a l k e d . T h e re w a s s o m e t h i n g o f 1 9 3 0 s G e rm a n y i n t h e s t a t i o n ' s

d e s i g n , a l l t o w e r i n g c o l u m n s a n d o r n a t e c e i l i ng s a n d i n t r i c a te w h i t e p i a s t e r -

work on the wal ls : order ly , white , and co ld .

M o h a m m a d g a ze d a t it , i m p re s s e d . " L o o k a t t h is , " h e s a i d , a s w e w a l k e d

in the s ta t ion, s taring a t the cei l ings . " I t is beautifu l . We Iranians could never

do such a good job even if we bui l t th is today."

I t was typica l se l f-f lage l la ting Iran ian cynicism, th e sort I hear d a l l over t he

c o u n t ry . R e m a rk ab l y , fo r a p e o p l e w i t h t h e c a p a c it y fo r s o m u c h c u l t u ra l a r r o

gance toward their neighbors , I ranians a lso beat themselves merci less ly as

"inferior" to the West , unable to do anything r ight . In defense , I reminded

him of some of Iran 's extraordinary architectura l achievements .

"T ha t is a il in the past , M r. A fshin, W e do no t kno w ho w to bui ld l ike that

a n y m o re , " M o h a m m a d s ai d . S a e e d n o d d e d h i s h e a d u p a n d d o w n , a s if t o

s h o w h i s g l u m a g re e m e n t .

W e d ra n k a c u p o f t e a a t t h e s t a t i o n as S a e e d a n d M o h a m m a d t a l k e d

about their family and chi ldren. "Life is hard," Saeed sa id. "The economy is

bad. P rices rise every day." It was familiar ta l k, I rania n ta l k, of prices and infla

t i o n a n d e c o n o m i c p a i n .

A y a to l l a h K h o m e i n i o n c e a n g ri l y d i s m i s s ed a n a i d e w h o s p o k e t o o m u c h

o n t h e m a t t e r o f e c o n o m i c s . " T h i s re v o l u t i o n w a s n o t a b o u t t h e p r i c e o f

watermelons ," he sa id . Today, however, the high price of watermelons , meat ,

cars , and housing seems to be a l l I ranians ta lk about.

A fte r s h o r t s to p s at a p a r k a n d a m u s e u m , M o h a m m a d d r o p p e d m e o ff i n

front of m y hote l . W e em bra ced and sa id good-b ye. S aeed a lso em erged from

the driver 's seat to say good-bye. He bowed s l ight ly , hand on his chest .

" I t was very nice to meet you," he sa id . He reached into his car and pul led

61



P E R S I A N P L L p l U M A p E S

out a fa t , ye l low, heavy melon and extended i t to me with two hands. "Enjoy

it, M r . M o l a v i. 1 am at yo ur service. It is o n e of th e finest."

1

t h a n k e d h i m , s l i g h tl y b o w i n g , m y h a n d o n m y c h e s t . I p u t t h e m e l o n o n

the roof of the truck and reached into my pocket , to pu l l out my wal le t and

pay for the thoroughly enjoyable lour.

" N o " M o h a m m a d sa id .

" N o N o " S a e ed s a id .

Here we go again, more ta'rof an d a batt l e to pay the m for their services.

" [ i n c o n v e n i e n c e d b o t h o f y o u , " I said, using the appropriate ta 'rt>/

r

l a n

guage. "1 jus t w an t to give you so m eth ing for your chi l dren," I sa id , h an din g

M oh am m ad a few bil l s . I had l earned a few tr icks of the

ta'rof

trade .

" N o , please, i t is no t w orth y of you to pay," they b oth said, a lm ost in un ison .

"For your chi ldren," I ins is ted. "P lease buy them a nice toy."

S w a y e d b y s u c h a p o w e rfu l a rg u m e n t , t h e y a g re e d , re l u c t a n t l y , t h o u g h

they gave i t on e las t t ry , repe ating th e l ine ab ou t ho w I "em bar rasse d" th em

by paying for such a p leasurable afternoon.

"Tel l your chi ldren that the gif t is from me," I re p e a t e d .

We said good-bye with the tradit iona l k iss on each cheek.

B e fo re l e a v in g , M o h a m m a d s ai d : " G o d w i l l i n g , y o u r p i l g r im a g e t o t h e

Im a m R e z a s h r i n e w i l l b e a c c e p t e d . "

A nyone can go on pi lgrimage; on ly G od can accept the pi lgrimage as worthy.

Saeed agreed, saying, "Inshallah." G o d w i l l in g .

The Sunni/Shi'a Split

O

n A y a to l l a h S h i raz i A v e n u e in M a s h h a d , t h e ro a d l e a d i n g t o t h e I m a m

Reza shrine , an array of shrine-re la ted shops caters to the pi lgrim.

H e re o n e c a n b u y m o u rn i n g m u s i c o n t a p e , p ra y e r b e a d s , ru g s , p l a s t i c

rep l icas of the shrine coated in a fake gold , and an assortment of e lectronics ,

c h e a p c l o t h i n g , l e a t h e r g o o d s , a n d C h i n e s e -m a d e s n e a k e rs .

A s I w a l k e d d o w n t h e a v e n u e , 1 s aw t h e g o l d d o m e s o f t h e s h r i n e a n d t h e

towering b lue fa ience minarets pasted against the gray-t inted b lue sky.

I

s topped a t a frui t ju ice se l ler for a cup of fresh melon juice .

"A re yo u o n pi l grim age? " the fruit ju ice sel ler asked.

Y e s ,

"G od wil l ing, yo ur pi lgrimage wi ll be accepted ," he sa id . "You wil l need

62



AAA5 H A D

some biscuits ," he added, pointing to his se lect ion. "Just h i d e t h e m i n y o u r

b a g . N o fo o d i s a l l o w e d i n t h e s h r i n e / '

A s I app roa che d the shrin e , the crow d thickened- Tiny taxis darted past

pi lgrim s. A w om an beggar, in b lack chador, a s leep ing chi ld in one ar m , an

outs tre tched hand in the other, f loated through the crowd, her eyes g lazed in

a h u n g e r- i n d u c e d h a z e . T h e w e a t h e r w a s h o t , b u t n o t o p p re s s iv e . O u t s i d e t h e

doors of the shrine , b lankets were spread across the concrete as famil ies pic

nicked in the shade of the minarets .

A g u a rd c a su a l l y fr is ke d m e a t t h e e n t ra n c e t o t h e s h r i n e . A 1 9 9 5 t e r ro r i s t

a t tack on the shrine has prompted the extra securi ty . After the fr isking,

I

entere d the f irst of a series of dazz l ing open -air courtya rds . A rched doo rw ays

with intr icate drawings of f lowers and vines led to more sp lendid courtyards .

Beautiful ly curved Is lamic cal l igraphy flowed easily from courtyard to wal l to

minaret . Chi ldren dipped their toes in a massive t i led fountain in the middle

of one courtyard. Ins ide the prayers rooms, red Pers ian carpets covered the

f loors . P ear l chande l ie rs drippe d from th e cei l ings . O n th e cei l ings , t iny bi ts of

cut mirror refracted l ight in thousands of direct ions against the pink, b lue ,

and gold designs on the wal ls , c reat ing a luminous, a lmost heavenly a ir .

L i g h t a n d i l l u m i n a t io n fo r m a n i m p o r t a n t p a rt of I r a n i a n M u s l i m S h i ' a

t ra d i t i o n , a re m n a n t o f t h e c o u n t ry ' s Z o ro a s t r i a n re l i g i o n . In t h e e l e v e n t h

century, an Is lamic phi losopher, Suhrawardi , incorporated a theory of l ight

i n t o a m y s t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y t h a t o c c u p i e s a n i m p o rt a n t p l a c e i n b o t h p o p u l a r

and re l igious tradit io n as wel l as in th e semin ary ed uca tion of a c leric . A t th e

Imam Reza shrine , the intensi ty of l ight and co lor and refract ion increases as

y o u g o d e e p e r i n t o t h e s h r i n e c o m p l e x , c u l m i n a t i n g i n a n i n t e n s e g l o w j u s t

o u t s i d e t h e ro o m h o u s i n g Im a m R e z a ' s t o m b .

T h e c u rre n t b e a u t y o f t h e Im a m R e z a s h r i n e , t h e m o s t e l a b o ra t e S h i ' a

M u s l i m s h r i n e i n t h e w o r l d , h a s m u c h t o d o w i t h it s l o c a t i o n . T h o u g h I ra n is

t h e l a rge s t S h i ' a M u s l i m c o u n t ry i n t h e w o r l d , o n l y o n e o f t h e re v e re d t w el v e

i m a m s l i e s b u r i e d o n I ra n i a n s o i l . Im a m R e z a . H e n c e t h e Im a m R e z a s h r i n e

has received the m ost a t te ntio n of any oth er sh rine in Iran, benefi t ing from

centuries of I ranian art is ts , a rchitects , and kingly patronage. The other ten

imams (the twelf th is be l ieved to be in hiding, to re turn as a messiah) of the

S h i 'a fa it h l i e i n S a u d i A ra b i a , I ra q , a n d S y r ia , a re m i n d e r t h a t t h e S h i ' a -S u n n i

schism of th e eig hth cen tur y was chiefly an A rab versus A rab affair.

I ran came to the Shi 'a way much la ter , beginning in the ear ly s ixteenth

63



P E R S I A N

P I L f R t M A p E S

century, w he n a Th rkish S ufi wa rrior w ith S hi 'a sympathies , Ism ai l , too k over

Iran, es tab l ished the Safavid dynasty, and secured the foundation of Shi ' ism

on I rania n soi l . Before the S afavid em ergenc e, I ran was a majori ty S un ni

c o u n t ry , a l t h o u g h i t s t ra d i t i o n o f m y s t i c i sm , d i st a s te fo r S u n n i p u r i t a n i s m ,

a n d n a t i o n a l i s t d e s i re t o d i st i n g u i s h it se l f f ro m A ra b a n d O t t o m a n T u rk i s h

cul ture a l l c reated fert ile soil for a new fai th to take root . S ha h I smai l and su b

seq ue nt S afavi kings , w ith the he l p of im por ted S hi 'a c lerics from A rab lands ,

embarked on the massive (and successfu l) Shi 'a t izat ion of I ran. S ince then the

s h r i n e o f Im a m R e z a , t h o u g h i t i s n o t t h e m o s t i m p o rt a n t S h i ' a s h r i n e , h a s

benefi ted from i ts continuous location in Shi 'a I ranian borders and the Iran

ian tas te for lavish shrines . (The shrines of Imam Al i and Imam Hossein, cur

rent ly in Iraq, benefi ted from Iranian patronage from the s ixteenth century to

the ear ly twentie th century, but are now t ight ly contro l led by Iraq.)

T h e d i f fe re n c e s b e t w e e n S h i ' a a n d S u n n i h a rk e n b a c k t o I s l a m ' s b e g i n

n i n g s i n t h e s e v e n t h c e n t u ry A .D. T h e P r o p h et M u h a m m a d , w h o d i ed A .D.

632, had no m al e heirs . A fter h is de ath a dispute arose over his suc cess io n.

A c c o rd i n g t o t h e S h i ' a v ie w, A h ib n T a l ib , t h e P ro p h e t ' s c o u s i n a n d s o n - i n -

law and wide ly respected be l iever, expected to be chosen. He was bypassed,

h o w e v e r, i n fa v or o f th re e s u c c e s si v e l e a d e rs : A b u B a k r , O m a r , a n d O t h m a n .

E a c h d e c i s i o n p ro g re s si v el y a n g e re d A l i 's fo l l o w e rs , p a r ti c u l a rl y t h e O t h m a n

a p p o i n t m e n t .

W h i l e A b u B a k r a n d O m a r w e re cl e ar l y p i o u s m e n a n d c o n f i d a n t s o f t h e

P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d , A l l 's A r a b s u p p o r t e r s b el ie ve d t h a t O t h m a n d i d n o t

re p re s e n t I s l a m . A f te r a l l , O t h m a n w a s of t h e U m a y y a d t r ib e , t h e g ro u p t h a t

o rig in al l y o p p o s e d t h e P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d . M a n y M u s l i m s t h o u g h t t h e

Umayyads had accepted Is lam only as an act of po l i t ica l expediency. The

Um ayyads, to A l i 's fo l lowers , had hi jacked t he ca l iphate .

S oo n after , in 656, rebe ls unaffi l ia ted w ith A l i m urd ere d O th m an a t h is

h o m e in M e d i n a , 2 5 0 ki l o m e t e rs fr o m M e c c a . N o t u n t i l t h e n d id A l i b e c o m e

cal iph, bu t he ru led an increasingly factiona l ized co m m unity . A ddit iona l ly ,

m e m b e rs of O t h m a n ' s fa m il y g re w a n g ry t h a t A l i d i d n o t v i g o ro u sl y s e e k re t

ri bu tio n a g a i n s t O t h m a n ' s k il l e r. T h e y fo rc ed A l i o u t o f M e d i n a , a n d h e t h e n

re t re a te d t o R u fa i n I ra q . M e a n w h i l e , in S y r ia t h e l a t e O t h m a n ' s c o u s i n

M u a w i y a h a d b e g u n t o p l o t a g a i n st A l t, p ro c l a i m i n g h i m s e l f c a l i p h in 6 6 0 .

A d h e r e n t s t o o k s i d e s i n t h e c o n fl i ct b e t w e e n M u a w i y a a n d A l i . F ro m t h i s

64





P E R S I A N

P l L £ J UM A p E 5

Mourning and Miracles

A

t the Imam Reza shrine , a l l the co lor and pageantry and divers i ty of

Iranian Is lam parade on disp lay. In front of me, a smal l c rowd of young

men in long-s leeve b lack shir ts and green bandannas (green is the

c o l o r o f I s l a m ) m a rc h e d i n t a n d e m , s i n g i n g a s o n g o f m o u rn i n g fo r Im a m

H u s s e i n a n d b e a t i n g t h e i r c h e s t s i n u n i s o n . " O Im a m H u s s e i n , w h y d i d t h e y

k il l y o u ? " t h e l e a d m o u rn e r s a n g i n a m e l a n c h o l y -f il l e d v o i ce . T h e y o u n g

m e n m a rc h i n g b e h i n d h i m t h e n ra i s e d t h e i r a rm s a n d i n u n i s o n b ro u g h t

t h e m c ra s h i n g t o t h e i r c h e s t s w i t h a l o u d t h u m p , t h u m p .

" W h y d id t h e y d e n y y o u w a t e r? " t h e l e a d m o u r n e r w a il e d , re c o u n t i n g t h e

e v e n t s o f t h e t ra g i c m a r t y rd o m . T h e c ro w d re s p o n d e d : t h u m p , t h u m p , h a n d s

smacking chests . "We sha l l sacrif ice ourse lves for you, O Imam Hossein,"

T h u m p , t h u m p . " O I m a m H o s s e i n . " T h u m p , t h u m p . " O I m a m H o s s e e y y y y y n . "

T h u m p , t h u m p . " H o s s e y y y n d e a r , H o s s e y y n d e a r " T h u m p , t h u m p .

The chest thumping has an entrancing effect . I t is rhythmic and raw and

powerful an d potentia l ly revolutionary. R evolutionary clerics wh ippe d che st-

thu m pi ng crow ds into frenzies in the days leading up to the S hah 's abdication.

T h e y t u rn e d h i m i n t o t h e t y ra n t w h o h a d k i l l e d Im a m H o s s e i n a n d t h e i r s u p

porters into thousands of Imam Hosseins wi l l ing to be martyred for their cause .

T h e I ra n i a n S h i ' a m o u rn i n g c e re m o n y b e a rs a h i g h l y t h e a t r i c a l s t a m p .

T h e y o u n g c h e s t - b e a t i n g m e n s e e m e d w e l l r e h e a r s e d , m a r c h i n g i n t a n d e m ,

t h e i r h a n d s s l a p p i n g t h e i r c h e s t s a t j u s t t h e r i g h t ti m e . O n e b o y i n f ro nt c a r

r ied a s ign w rit ten in red, th e co l or of b l ood , that sa id: o H O S S E IN T H E M A R T Y R

J u s t b e h i n d h i m , a n o t h e r s i g n re a d :

T H E Y O U T H O F [ T H E C I T Y O F ] Y A Z D M O U R N

FOR

IM A M H O S S E I N

. T h r o u g h o u t t h e s h r i n e , o n e r e g ul a r l y r u n s i n t o g r o u p s o f

p i l g r i m s s i n g i n g o r m o u rn i n g t o g e t h e r , w i t h s i g n s p ro c l a i m i n g t h e i r g ro u p

affi l iations or cities. In a sense, the re ligious songs and chest beatings are pub

l i c p e rfo rm a n c e s , a n d t h e h a n d -p a i n t e d s i g n s t e l l t h e w o r l d t h a t t h e s e p a r t i c

u l a r p e rfo rm e rs c o m e f ro m Y azd o r T e h ra n o r t h e N a t i o n a l I s l a m i c E n g i n e e rs

S o c i e t y i n m u c h t h e s a m e w a y t h a t a g ro u p o f p e rfo rm e rs a n n o u n c e t h e i r c i t y

affi l iation or univer sity in A m eric an pa rade s.

In major c i t ies across Iran, prominent Shi 'a ho l idays take on the a ir of an

odd carniva l : groups in b lack, s inging songs of mourning, as crowds socia l ize

a n d m i n g l e a n d h a n d o u t s w e e t s . In T e h ra n m a n y y o u n g p e o p l e t a k e a d v a n

t a g e o f p u b l i c m o u rn i n g c e re m o n i e s a s o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o m i n g l e w i t h m e m -

6 6



M A S H H A D

bers of th e opp osite sex and s tay ou t la te . O th er yo un g peopl e take part in the

m o u rn i n g c e re m o n i e s , b e a t i n g t h e i r c h e s t s w i t h a t h u m p , t h u m p a n d s i n g i n g

t h e o l d s o n g s o f m o u rn i n g for t h e fal l e n i m a m s . O n A s h u ra , t h e a n n i v e rs ary

o f Im a m H o s s e i n ' s m a r t y rd o m , s t re e t p e rfo rm e rs p l a y o u t t h e e v e n t s l e a d i n g

t o h is d e a t h i n e l a b o ra t e a n d c o l o rfu l s h o w s , S h i ' a M u s l i m " p a s s i o n p l a y s ,"

w i d e l y a t t e n d e d fo r b o t h e n t e r t a i n m e n t a n d re l i g i o u s p u rp o s e s .

1 reca l led an A shu ra p lay I had seen the year before in Te hra n. T he actors ,

in s tr iking green and red costumes with mock swords and shie lds , p layed out

t h e e v e n t s o f t h e t ra g ed y b e fo re a l a rg e c ro w d o f m i d d l e - a n d u p p e r -m i d d l e -

c lass Iranians . O n the periphery of th e crowd, yo un g m en and w om en f l ir ted;

two boys kicked a soccer ba l l ; a vendor so ld cotton candy; another vendor so ld

p o s t e rs o f Im a m A l i a n d m i n i a t u re Q u ' ra n s ; o n e p re c o c i o u s y o u n g b o y f i re d a

red beam from a laser gun (a hot toy at the time) at frustrated friends and fam

ily, w ho w ere trying to w atch th e p la y

W h e n t h e m a r t y r d o m s c e n e o f I m a m H o s s e i n a p p r o a c h e d , t h e c r o w d

h u s h e d , t h e s o c c e r b a l l s a n d l a s e r g u n s a n d c o t t o n c a n d y w e re p u t a w a y , a n d

the previous ly f l ir ta tious y ou ng m en an d w om en too k their seats . S udden ly, a

re la tively jovia l and dis tracted cro wd had t ur ne d g l um and a t tentive . A few

p e o p l e w e e p e d q u ie t l y , a n t i c i p a t in g t h e m a r t y rd o m s c e n e . W h e n t h e v i l l a in

Yazid s truck the actor p laying Imam Hossein with his sword, cries and sobs

peppered the audience. Severa l of the men put their heads in their hands,

sho ul der s sha kin g gent ly . A few w om en in th e front row weepe d loudly, ta p

p i n g t h e i r h e a d s w i t h t h e i r h a n d s a n d c ry in g o u t " H o s s e i n H o s s e i n H o s s e i n

dear " In the en d, an actor s tood u p and to ld the crow d: "A nd thu s is the

tragic s tory of Imam Hossein and his group, who were unjust ly s la in by the

vil lain Yazid." A few m in ut es after th e play finished, t h e crow d w en t back to

normal , tears wiped away, eat ing sweets , and mingl ing with the actors .

Westerners who have witnessed the Iranian Shi 'a pass ion p lay are often

taken aback by the s ight of suddenly crying Iranians , but they need not be:

crying is an unwritten part of the play, and in fact, more people put their

heads in their ha nd s in a sho w of pi ty th an actua l ly shed tears . T h e aud ience

know s its ro le : I t know s w he n to chee r and w he n to cry. R egard less of

whether the tears are genuine, the people have a part in the pass ion p lay jus t

as much as the actors do.

S o a s I w a l k e d a m o n g t h e c h e s t -b e a t i n g c ro w d , I t a p p e d m y o w n c h e s t,

p laying my ow n ro le . W h en I mo ved away from th e crowd , I saw s tream s of

$7



P E R S I A N

P l L p J U A W f E S

p i l g r i m s , m o s t l y I ra n i a n s w i t h a s m a t t e r i n g o f A ra b s a n d S o u t h A s i an s , w a l k

i n g t h ro u g h t h e c o u r t y a rd s , m o v i n g t o w a rd t h e h o n e y c o m b o f c h a n d e l i e r - l i t

rooms, smal ler courtyards , and arched doorways that u l t imate ly lead to the

r o o m h o u s i n g t h e I m a m R e za t o m b . A b ig g r o u p c r o w d e d a r o u n d t h e d o o r,

wait ing their turn to enter .

"I t 's bes t not to go now," a young man said as I pushed behind a thick

crowd to enter an inner courtyard, " I t 's too crowded. You wil l not be ab le to

touch the tomb." He wore a b lack shir t and green scarf and had the curved

eyes of a Ce ntra l A sian, an U zbe k per hap s .

"Try to come back a t n ight . After n ine P .M . Y o u m i g h t b e a b l e t o t o u c h t h e

t o m b t h e n . A l s o , t h e m i ra c l e s u s u a l l y t a k e p l a c e a t n i g h t . " H e s t ro k e d h i s

wispy beard as he spoke. " If you go now, you wi l l on ly get frus tra ted."

I t seemed a sensib le idea , so 1 m o v e d a w a y f ro m t h e jo s t l i n g c ro w d a n d

t a l k e d w i t h t h e y o u n g m a n i n t h e b l a c k s h i r t , w o n d e r i n g w h a t m i ra c l e s h e

m i g h t h a v e s e e n .

" T h e re w a s a w o m a n w i t h c a n c e r , " h e s a i d . " T h e d o c t o r t o l d h e r s h e h a d

l i tt l e h o p e . S h e c a m e t o t h e s h r i n e . S h e s l e p t al l n i g h t h e re . A few m o n t h s

la ter her cancer was gone."

He nodded his head and widened his eyes as i f hearing the s tory for the

first time.

" A n d t h e re w a s a l s o a m a n w i t h a b a d c o u g h . E v e ry d a y h e c o u g h e d . H e

c o u g h e d fo r h o u rs . H i s l u n g s w e re c l o g g e d. A s s o o n a s h e e n t e re d t h e s h r i n e ,

h i s l u n g s c l e a re d . H e b e g a n s c re a m i n g a n d c ry i n g a n d p ra y i n g t o Im a m R e z a .

People t r ied to touch him, to benefi t from his mirac le , but I had to s tep in and

h e l p h i m g e t a wa y. T h e re w e re t o o m a n y p e o p l e a ro u n d h i m . "

H e n o d d e d a g a in . " T h e s e m i ra c l e s a re t ru e . W e h a v e

proof.

D o c t o r s ' n o t e s

and X-rays and everything. I work here a t the shrine as a vo lunteer, so I see

m any of the m irac les with m y ow n eyes . W h en I am no t h ere , I am a trader. I

buy and sel l good s. T-shirts . Cups,

S o c ks .

A n y t h i n g . I b u y g o o d s f ro m t h e T u r k

men traders and a lso from Tehran traders , and

1

s el l t h e m i n M a s h h a d , I t is dif

f icu l t to m ake a l iv ing. Tim es are tou gh . T ha nk G od I am c lose to I m am R eza."

A s w e s p o k e , a n e l d e r l y m a n , s t o o p e d , p i n k -s k i n n e d , a n d b a l d i n g ,

a p p ro a c h e d . " M y s o n , " h e s ai d t o t h e y o u n g m a n i n t h e b l a c k s h ir t , " w il l y o u

h e l p m e ? I c a n n o t g e t p a s t t h e c ro w d s . 1 w a n t t o t o u c h I m a m R e za 's t o m b . "

" I a m a t y o u r s e rvi ce ," t h e y o u n g m a n re s p o n d e d , " b u t n o w is n o t a g o o d

t i m e . C o m e b a c k a t n i n e P.M

.

T h e m irac les usua l l y take p lace a t n igh t ."

6$



TOVS

Pilgrimage; Ferdowsi, the Poet

eaving the Imam Reza shrine ( to re turn after n ine), I h ired a taxi and

head ed tow ard the Ferdowsi tomb . M y driver had a gray bear d a nd

meaty red cheeks. He looked to be in his early seventies, a few years

y o u n g e r t h a n M r G h a s s e m i . H e w o re a w h i t e s k u l l c a p a n d f in ge re d t u rq u o i s e

prayer beads as h e drove . W e head ed to the c i ty of Tou s, jus t a f i f teen-m inute

d ri ve f ro m M a s h h a d .

H e h a d j u s t re t u rn e d f ro m M e c c a , h e t o l d m e , a p p a re n tl y d e l i g h t e d w i t h h i s

experien ce in Is lam 's mo st sacred city. "M ecca is so beautiful ," he said, "T he

sacred mosque is so big and so c lean The f loor is a l l marble , and i t s tays cool

even in the heat of the summer. It is marvelous. It is so c lean and so big," he

repeated, as he deft ly downshifted to bypass a chugging moped in front of us.

T h e p i l g r i m a g e t o M e c c a , k n o w n a s t h e hajj, s tands as one of the f ive pi l

lars of the Is lamic fa i th , required of a l l ab l e-bo died M us l im s, both S hi 'a an d

S u n n i , w h o h a v e t h e f in a nc ia l m e a n s t o ca r ry it o u t. N e a r l y t w o m i l l i o n M u s

l ims desc end on M ecca 's twenty squa re miles to perform the sacred r i tes of

this pi lgrimage, unbroken for thir teen centuries . I t is one of the most breath

t a k i n g h u m a n e v e n ts in t h e w o r l d . U p o n t h e i r re t u rn , t h e p i l g r i m s a c q u i re t h e

t i t le Haji , as an honorif ic . In Iran, re turning male pi lgrims are ca l led Haji

A gha (M r. Haji) and females H aji K ha no m (M rs . Haji) . In fact, the t it le Haji is

often used in traditional Iranian settings, such as the bazaar, as a sign of

re s p e ct , w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e p e rs o n a d d re s s e d h a s e v er j o u rn e y e d t o M e c c a .

B e c a u s e t h e w o r l d w i d e M u s l i m p o p u l a t i o n is n e a rl y o n e b il l i o n , e a c h

cou ntry h as a haji qu ot a. M y driver had be en on a fifteen-year w aiting l ist.

"I

h a v e n o i m p o rt a n t f r i e n d s i n t h e g o v e rn m e n t , " h e s a i d , " a n d n o t e n o u g h

m o n e y t o b u y m y w a y t o t h e t o p o f t h e l i s t, s o I t u rn e d t o Im a m R e za , O n e

d ay I w e n t t o t h e s h r i n e , a n d I t o l d I m a m R e za t h a t I w a n t e d t o g o to M e c c a .

The next year my name appeared on the l is t . I t was l ike a mirac le ."

E m erging from th e c log of th e do w nto w n traffic near the shrine , we drove

o n a w o rn h i g h w a y , p a s t t e l e p h o n e l i n es a n d v a st p l a in s of ta n s h r u b s p u n c

tuated by a series of sugar cube factories , some burned ye l low bushes , and the

T u s H o t e l . T h e l a n d s c a p e g re e n e d a s w e a p p ro a c h e d t h e s h r i n e ' s e n t ra n c e .

Two red and green tou r buses b locked t he parkin g lo t. Haji A gha b eepe d

his ho rn l oudly, repeatedly , angrily . T h e bu ses did n ot m ove. Th ey w ere

e m p t y . H e h o n k e d a g a i n , h o l d i n g d o w n t h e h o rn fo r a b o u t a m i n u t e , t h e

$ 9



P E R S I A N

P L L p fc tM A p I S

s t e ad y n o i s e r i n g i n g in m y h e a d . S t il l n o t h i n g . O n t h e b a c k of o n e t o u r b u s , a

s ign read: G O D R EM EM B ER in E ngl ish. O n th e other, i t read o H O S S E I N in both

Engl ish and Fars i .

Haji A gha beep ed his ho rn for a few m inu tes , trying to ho n k and inch h is

w a y i n t o a s m a l l o p e n i n g b e t w e e n t h e b u s e s . A l i n e o f c a rs fo rm e d b e h i n d u s ,

a l l o f t h e m b e e p i n g a n d i n c h i n g i n a ro u g h s y m p h o n y o f a n g ry h o rn s a n d

s l o w -m o v i n g c a rs . In a fe w m i n u t e s , a s m i l i n g , ro u n d -b e l l i e d , b e a rd e d b u s

driver scur ried tow ard the bus , waving a t us in apology, and m oved his veh i

cle out of the way.

W e parked the car, and I asked Haji A gha to jo in m e at th e sh rine. He declined,

not wanting "to t rouble me." I ins is ted. He accepted, smil ing and saying, "But

I w i l l o n l y t ro u b l e y o u . " I b o u g h t t w o t i c k e t s , a n d w e e n t e re d t h e s h r i n e .

The courtyard of the shrine had a l l the symmetry, co lor, and tranqui l l i ty

of a P ers ian garde n on a vast sca le . Tw o long , rectangl u la r foun tain s w ith

s h i m m e ri n g g re e n t i l e d o m i n a t e t h e c o u r t y a rd . B e d s o f t a l l y e l l o w a n d re d

f l o w e rs r i n g t h e s p o u t i n g fo u n t a i n s . B e y o n d t h e fo u n t a i n s a n d f l ow e rs, a m a s

s ive w hite cu be s tan ds a t th e top of a series of s ta irs on a l l four s ides . T hi s w as

t h e m o n u m e n t t o F e rd o w s i , b u i l t i n 1 9 3 5 u p o n o rd e rs o f R e z a S h a h , a n d

re fi n ed b y h i s s o n , M o h a m m a d R e za . T h e m a s s i v e s h r i n e ' s iv o ry e l e g a n c e

inc ludes verses from the

Shaknameh

on each of its four sides.

As we walked in the courtyard, a de l icate scent of roses mingled with the

smel l of saffron-soaked chicke n kabo bs from nearby picnickers . I asked Haji

A g h a w h a t h e t h o u g h t o f F e rd o w s i .

"H e w as a great ma n," Haji A gha sa id. "Ferdowsi t ru ly loved Iran , and h e

w a s a l s o a d e v o u t M u s l i m d e s p i te w h a t s o m e p e o p l e w il l t e l l y o u . M y w i fe 's

c o u s i n i s a s c h o l a r ," h e c o n t i n u e d . " H e re a d s m a n y b o o k s . M a n y , m a n y

b o o k s . H e t o l d m e t h a t F e rd o w s i w a s n o t o p p o s e d t o I s l a m . H e w a s o p p o s e d

onl y to the A rabs ." H e sa id th e las t matter-of-factly , w ith a sh ru g of the sh ou l

ders , as if i t were perfect ly n or m al to b e "opp ose d t o the A rabs ."

" L o o k a t a ll t h e s e p e o p l e w h o h a v e c o m e t o s ee F e rd o w s i , " H a j i A g h a s a i d ,

g l a n c i n g a ro u n d . " D i d y o u k n o w h e w a s a p o o r m a n w h e n h e d i e d ? "

Popular legend has i t that as Ferdowsi po l ished off h is epic in 1010, a new

invader appeared on Iran 's doors tep, a Turkic dynasty, known as the Se l juks ,

th at a t tacked Iran from t he eas t . T h e new S e l juk ru l er saw l i t tle reaso n to

re w a rd F e rd o w s i fo r h i s w o rk , w h i c h b r i s t l e d w i t h a n t i -T u rk i c s e n t i m e n t a n d

h a d b e e n c o m m i s s i o n e d b y t h e p re v i o u s ru l e rs . J u s t b e fo re F e rd o w s i ' s d e a t h

70



TV

in 1020, however, the Sei juk ru ler had a change of heart . Perhaps he rea l ized

the extraordinary achievement of the Iranian poet and did not want to be

rem em be red as th e king w ho fai led to rew ard su ch pro wess . A las , i t was t oo

la te . Jus t as m ou rn er s remo ved Ferdowsi 's dead body from his ho m e, a t ruck

of gold appeared at his door.

S i n c e t h e n few I ra n i a n ru l e rs h a v e i g n o re d F e rd o w s i . T h e M o n g o l s , a f te r

t h e i r c h a ra c t e r i s t i c a l l y d e v a s t a t i n g a n d c o l o s s a i l y m u rd e ro u s t h i r t e e n t h -

cen tury a t tacks on Iran, em bra ced F erdow si, f inancing co lorfu l an d e legant

Shahnameh

v o l u m e s m u c h a s t h e y s u p p o r t e d a r t i s a n s a c ro s s t h e i r n e w l y

c o n q u e r e d l a n d s . T h e y s aw t h e i r p a t ro n a g e of t h e

Shahnameh

a s a m e a n s t o

add legit imacy to their ru le by a t taching themselves to Iran 's revered

p o e t. M o n g o l - e r a

Shahnamehs,

found in m us eu m s and expensive private

c o l l e c t i o n s , d e p i c t I ra n i a n h e ro e s w i th t h e h i g h c h e e k b o n e s a n d a l m o n d -

sha pe d eyes of the artist 's pat ron s. T h e Safavis, I ran 's first S hi 'a dynasty,

c o n t i n u e d i n th e M o n g o l t r a d i t io n , p r o d u c i n g s o m e of t h e w o r l d ' s m o s t

exquis i te Ferdowsi vo l um es, vo lu m es that se l l for seven f igures in S othe by 's

catalogs today.

S i t t ing on the s teps of th e shrin e , I asked Haji A gha if he knew any of Fer

dowsi 's poetry by heart . He thought for a moment, s troked his gray beard,

then began reci t ing a passage from the famous tragic scene when the hero of

t h e e p ic , t h e w a rr io r R o s t a m , m i s t a k e n l y k il l s h is o w n s o n , S o h ra b , o n t h e

batt lefie ld . He reci ted ha l t ing ly , s topping to correct himself, furrowing his

brow in consternation. " I used to know this passage much better ," he sa id ,

apologizing.

His choice of verse came as a surprise . I ranians rare ly refer to these s tan

zas, t h o u g h s t u d e n t s o f E n g l i s h l i t e ra t u re k n o w t h e s c e n e w e l l f ro m M a t t h e w

A rnol d 's exquis i te 1859 rend erin g of i t, in his po em Sohrab andRusium.

" M y u n c l e u s e d t o re a d t o u s f ro m t h e

Shahnameh

w h e n I w a s g ro w i n g

up," Haji A gha sa id. I had g uessed t ha t h e was abo ut seventy years o ld , so t he

Shahnameh

readings m us t have taken p lace in the 1 930s. "H e forced u s t o

m e m o ri z e a p a s sa g e , a n d I d i d t h e o n e a b o u t R o s t a m a n d S o h ra b . I t w a s s o

long ago," he said,

R o s t a m , t h e m y t h ic a l I ra n i a n h e ro re n o w n e d for h is u n w a v e r i n g d e v o t i o n

to Iran against a l l manner of foes , spent on ly one night in the three hundred

years of his l i fe with a woman. The woman, Tahmina, was "a creature love ly

as the moon, radiant as the sun and fragrant in her beauty/ ' She was a lso.

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P E & 5 I A N

P U p J U M A f E S

o m i n o u s l y , t h e d a u g h t e r o f a n e n e m y k i n g . F ro m t h a t u n i o n c a m e t h e b i r t h

of a boy, S ohra b, w ho m R ostam n ever kne w by face becaus e he l ived in

ene m y terri tory. E ven so, S ohr ab l earne d of the g l ory of his fa ther. By the age

o f t w e l ve , S o h ra b h a d b e c o m e a T u ra n i a n w a rr i o r {Turan refers to the la nd of

the Turks , in the eas t) , determined to defeat the Iranian kings , subvert the

Tu ran ian king 's thr on e, and p lace his fa ther, R ostam , a t th e head of the unit ed

land. His dream, however, ended tragica l ly .

In a m a j o r b a t t l e , S o h ra b , w h o t h o u g h y o u n g , a l re a d y h a d t h e m u s c l e a n d

stamina of a seasoned warrior, cha l lenged any Iranian hero who had the

c o u ra g e t o fac e h i m i n h a n d - t o -h a n d c o m b a t . R o s t a m , i g n o ra n t of h i s o p p o

n e n t ' s i d e n t i t y , m e t t h e c h a l l e n g e . S o h ra b s e n s e d t h a t t h e g re a t I ra n i a n w a r

r i o r m u s t b e R o s t a m a n d q u e s t i o n e d h i m a s t h e y p re p a re d t o e n g a g e i n b a tt l e .

R o s t a m a n g r il y d is m i s s e d t h e q u e s t i o n a s i m p u d e n t fro m s u c h a y o u n g w a r

r io r, d e n y i n g t h a t h e w a s t h e fa m o u s R o s t a m , m u c h t o S o h ra b ' s s a d n e s s .

A fter two fu l l days of f ighting, R ostam overcam e the yo un ger warrior,

pierc ing his heart with a sword. S hort l y after v ic tory, R ostam learn ed that he

ki l led his own son. He fe l l to the ground, weeping and tearing a t h is hair .

A rn o l d ' s m a s te rfu l p o e m c a p t u re s a c c u ra t e l y t h e s p i ri t of t h i s s c e n e :

He spoke; but Rustum gazed, and gazed, a nd stood

Speechless; and then he uttered o ne sharp cry:

O boy— thy father—and his voice choked there.

And then a dark cloud passed before his eyes.

And his head swam, and he sank down to earth. . . .

And his sobs choked him; and he clutched his

sword,

To draw it, and forever let life out

The dying Sohrab, however, res tra ins his fa ther from committ ing suic ide ,

b l am ing his dea th on fa te and asking only that h is fa ther take S oh rab 's dying

h e a d b e t w e e n h i s h a n d s ,

. . But it was writ in Heaven that this should be."

So said he, and his voice released the heart

Of Rustum, and his tears broke forth; he cast

His arm round his son's neck, and wept aloud.

And kissed him. . , ,

72



TOVS

I t o l d H a ji A g h a a b o u t t h e M a t t h ew A r n o l d p o e m . f t h o u g h t h e m i g h t b e

imp ressed by the fact that a Ferdowsi s tory had so inspired an E ngl ish poet .

In s t e a d , h e s e e m e d m i l d l y a n n o y e d . " T h o s e E n g l i s h e v e n s t e a l o u r

poetry/ ' he sa id , d isp laying the anti-Bri t ish s tra in typica l of h is generat ion.

W e w a l k ed a ro u n d t h e g ro u n d s of t h e s h r i n e s o m e m o re . A f te r a b o u t a n

ho ur Haji A gha look ed t i red, so we sat do w n o n a ben ch in the shad ow of a

tree near the fountain. He was sweating, and I sco lded myse lf for making him

w a l k so m u c h . I b o u g h t t w o o ra n g e s o d a s f ro m a n e a rb y v e n d o r a n d s a t d o w n

o n t h e b e n c h w i t h h i m .

I o v e rh e a rd a m a n d i re c t i n g a g ro u p t o t h e t o m b o f M e h d i A k h a v a n S a l l e s,

a p ro m i n e n t t w e n t i e t h -c e n t u ry I ra n i a n p o e t w h o , b y re q u e s t , h a d b e e n b u r i e d

near Ferdowsi 's tomb . A khavan S a l les typified the secul ar nat iona l is t poe t

who lamented Iran 's fa l l f rom grace after the Is lamic invasion. He, l ike many

of Iran 's secular-minded inte l lec tua ls , v iewed the disas trous ending of the

Shahnameh,

th e I ranian defeat a t th e ha nd of A rabs , as proof of the dam age

t h ey b e l ie v ed Is l am h a d w ro u g h t o n I ra n . In a 1 9 5 7 p o e m t it l e d " T h e E n d i n g

o f t h e S h a h n a m e h , " A k h a v a n S a l l e s u s e d a h a rp i s t a s t h e s p ea k e r, l a m e n t i n g

h i s i n s t ru m e n t , " b ro k e n a n d o u t o f t u n e , " t h a t o n c e p l a y e d i n t h e g l o r i o u s

empires of pre-Is lamic Pers ia .

T o d a y t h e h a rp c a n o n l y d re a m o f i t s g l o r i o u s p a s t , u n a b l e t o m a k e m u s i c

in the present:

This broken harp, heartsore and impossible dreamer,

the singer of imagina tion's empty sanctuary. . . .

We are conquerors of cities gone with the wind.

In a voice too weak to come out of the chest,

we are

narrators of orgotten tales. . . . .

T h e la m ent is typica l of th e secular in te l l igents ia of A khav an S a l les 's gen

e ra ti o n , m e n a n d w o m e n w h o s e h o p e s fo r a d e m o c ra t i c I ra n w e re q u a s h e d b y

M ossade q 's overthrow . A khavan S a l les viewed the S hah as a s ti fl ing force , a

d a rk c l o u d h a n g i n g o v e r t h e d e m o c ra t i c a n d j u s t I ra n t h a t h e d re a m e d of. O n

another leve l , the lament can a lso be seen as a "cu l tura l marker" noting where

he s tands on the pre-Is lamic versus post- Is lamic his torica l d ivide. In his opin

i o n , 1 9 5 7 I ra n w a s n o l o n g e r w o rt h y o f t h e h a rp t h a t o n c e p l a y e d i n p re -

Is l a m ic I ra n . T h e P e rs ia n L i te ra tu re s c h o l a r A h m a d K a r im i H a k k a k n o t e s .

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P E R S I A N

P U _ ? JU M A f E 5

" A k h a v a n ' s p o e m c o n t ra s t s t h e a n c i e n t g l o ry s a n g in F e rd o w s i ' s h e ro i c

a c c o u n t t o t h e d e g e n e ra t i o n a n d d e c a d e n c e t h a t , i n h i s v ie w , m a rk t h e p re s

ent [1^57] age."

I t h o u g h t a b o u t M r , G h a s s e m i . H e h a d m e n t i o n e d A k h a v an S a l le s o n c e ,

c a l l i ng h i m " o n e o f o u r g re a t es t t w e n t i e t h -c e n t u ry p o e t s ." H a j i A g h a , a m a n

w h o h a d c o m e of a g e in t h e s a m e e ra as M r G h a s s e m i , d id n o t k n o w a n y of

A k h a va n S a l l es

r

s poetry.

" I h a v e h e a r d h i s n a m e , b u t I d o n ' t k n o w a n y t h i n g a b o u t h i m , " H a j i A g h a

said. Haji A gha had no t a t tended th e secul ar scho ol s or jo i ne d the Ferdow si

reading socie t ies , the kinds of p laces where he might have met people who

w o re ti e s a n d re v ere d A k h a v a n S a l l e s a n d h e a rd l a m e n t s fo r a p re - l s l a m i c

g o l d e n a g e . H a ji A g h a , w h o s e a s s o c i a ti o n s re v ol v e d m o re a ro u n d t h e m o s q u e ,

did not th ink that the arriva l of Is lam somehow ruined Iran, as did severa l

leading mid -tw ent ie th -ce ntu ry inte l lec tua l s . Haji A gha prayed every day and

m a d e w i s h e s a t t h e Im a m R e z a s h r i n e , a s s o m a n y o t h e r I ra n i a n s .

B u t h e h a d o n e t h i n g i n c o m m o n w i t h M r . G h a s s e m i : a d i s ta s t e for I ra n ' s

ruling c lergy. "They are thieves," he said, "Just about a l l of them are thieves,

e x c e p t fo r a fe w m a y b e , K h a t a m i a n d K h a m e n e i a n d a few o t h e rs . In g e n e ra l ,

I don ' t l ike them. Their re l igion is d ifferent from mine." I t was a common

viewpoint . In one Iranian vi l lage in the north , v i l lagers to ld me of dis t inct ions

b e t w e e n " o u r re l i g i o n " — a t o l e ra n t , i f s u p e rs t i t i o u s , o n e — a n d " t h e g o v e rn

m e n t ' s re l i g i o n " — o rt h o d o x a n d r i g i d .

H a ji A g h a c o n t i n u e d . " I s u p p o r t e d K h o m e i n i b e c a u s e h e p ro m i s e d u s a

better eco no m ic l i fe, I have been a wo rkin g m an a l l my l ife. M y fa ther s trug

g l e d t o m a k e m o n e y , a n d I s t ru g g l e d t o m a k e m o n e y . I t h o u g h t t h i n g s w o u l d

g e t b e t te r . B u t t h e y d i d n ' t . I d o n ' t b l a m e K h o m e i n i , b u t I b l a m e a l l t h e t h ie v e s

a r o u n d h i m . "

H a j i A g h a 's c l a s s — t h e l a b o re rs , t h e t i l l e rs — m a d e t h e re v o l u t i o n w o rk .

T h e y w e n t o u t i n t o t h e s t ree t s t o p ro t e s t t h e S h a h a n d h i s t i e -w e a r i n g t e c h

no crats w ho p rom ised a r ich bo un ty bu t offered l i t tle to the w ork ingn ian.

" N o w [ sa y, G o d b l e ss t h e S h a h ' s s o u l . T h e e c o n o m y w a s b e t t e r t h e n . I

t h i n k i t ' s t i m e t h a t w e h a v e t h e m e n w i t h n e c k t i e s ru n n i n g o u r g o v e rn m e n t

again," he sa id , us ing a common phrase I heard a l l over Iran: cravat-poosha, t h e

m e n w i t h n e c k t i e s — t h e n o n re l i g i o u s t e c h n o c ra t s .

" I go t o K h o m e i n i ' s t o m b o n p i l g r i m a g e e ve ry y e a r i n T e h ra n , " H a ji A g h a

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T O V S

s a id . " K h o m e i n i w a s a g re a t m a n , I w o u l d a l s o l ik e t o v is it t h e S h a h ' s t o m b [ in

Cairo l one day and say

afateheh

for him."

i t h o u g h t i t o d d , H a ji A g h a ' s p ro fe s s ed a l l e g i a n c e t o b o t h K h o m e i n i a n d

t h e S h a h , b u t i t w a s n o t u n c o m m o n . W o rk i n g -c l a s s I ra n i a n s a l l o v e r t h e

c o u n t ry s a id s im i l a r t h i n g s : " W e m i s s t h e S h a h , b u t w e a l s o l o v e K h o m e i n i . "

As we ta lked, an e lder ly man wearing a medieva l he lmet and carrying a

sword and shield regaled a group of visitors with verses from the Shahnameh,

H e p i c k e d u p a y o u n g b o y f ro m t h e c ro w d a n d c r i e d o u t , i n a p o e t i c i n n o v a

t i o n of h i s o w n : " A n d t h e n t h e g re a t h e r o R o s t a m s a w t h e n e w y o u n g h e ro

and pu t him on his sho ul der s , as his family sna pp ed a ph oto ." T h e fa ther

d u ti fu l l y s n a p p e d t h e p h o t o . T h e c ro w d c h u c k l e d . T h e p o e t ic c h ro n i c l e r

gathered his t ip .

Imam Alt or Rostam?

ational ism is a m od em ph en om en on . I t f irst arose in E uro pe a t the

b e g i n n i n g of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u ry . E u ro p e a n -s t y l e n a t i o n a l i s m

emerged in Iran in the la te nin etee nth and ear ly twentie th cen turies . A t

first, Iranian intel lectuals embraced it as a tool of independence from foreign

exploitation and tyrannical kings. It sparked ta lk of parliaments, a free press, and

individual rights. It helped spawn a revolution of sorts for popular representa

t ion and a writ ten E uropean -s ty le consti tut ion. A c ivil war was fought for these

principles, and a historical period was defined: the C onstitu tiona l R evolution of

1 9 0 6 - 1 1 . A poten t l onging for freedom mixed with new nationa l ism to pro duc e

an exhilarating, if short- liv ed, early victory for dem oc ratic rights. O f cou rse,

E uro pe an nation alism has an ugly face too: ethn ic chau vinism , fascism, war,

genocide. Th is is the nationa l ism that prod uced Hit ler, M ussol ini , and Franco.

Though Iran never p lunged into depths of nat iona l is t darkness and b lood as

many E uro pean nations did, i ts nat iona l ism gradua l ly took o n a chauvinis tic ,

exclusive, hol low tone. A state-sponsored nationalism emerged in the 1960s.

The Pers ian kings Cyrus and Darius were adopted as go lden age icons needed

by a centralized nationalism. The country's Is lamic heritage was largely ignored.

The la te Shah fashioned himse lf as heir to the great o ld Pers ian kings . He

presided over an age of massive industr ia l and economic modernization. The

oi l r iches that poured into Iran with the dramatic 1973 oi l price r ise only

75



P E & S I A N

? 1 L C K I M A P E S

boo sted his confidence. In the o ld t radit ion , he ca l led himse lf K ing of K ings

a n d L i g h t of t h e A ry a n s . H e w a s p ro u d o f I ra n ' s a n c i e n t A ry an ro o t s , p e rh a p s

because i t d ifferentia ted Iran from i ts M iddl e E ast neighb ors , perceived to be

inferior in th e S hah 's (and m an y Pers ian) eyes. T he S hah d rape d his king ship

in pre- ls lamic symbols of the Pers ian past , part icu lar ly g lorif icat ion of Cyrus

a n d D a r i u s . T h o u g h h e p a id l i p s e rv i ce t o p ro m i n e n t M u s l i m h o l i d a y s, t h e

message was c lear to Iranians: The only his tory worthy of their a t tention was

p re - Is l a m i c .

F o r A y a to l l a h R u h o l l a h K h o m e i n i , t h e u n b e n d i n g cl e ric t u r n e d a u t h o r i

t a r i a n ru l e r w h o t e d t h e s t u n n i n g 1 9 7 9 re v o l u t i o n a g a i n s t t h e S h a h , t h e

g o l d e n a g e o f A c h a e m e n i a n P e rs ia w a s a n a t h e m a . H e o f te n s p o k e o f t h e

golden age of Imam Aii , a seventh century A . D . M u s l i m l e a d e r w h o s e p e r

ceived piety and jus t ice were revered by Iran 's S hi 'a fa ithfu l . K hom eini

ignor ed I ran 's pre-I s lam ic his tory of kings and em pire . A fter the 1979 rev olu

t i o n , a t t a ck s o n C y ru s a n d D a r i u s a s " i m p e r i al i s t t y ra n t s " b e c a m e c o m m o n

place . K hom eini , in describing I ranian kings of his tory, sa id tha t "even those

w h o w e re re p u t e d t o b e ' g o o d ' w e re c ru e l a n d v i l e . " In t h e c u l t u re w a rs p re

ceding and after the revolution, there was, in a sense , a bat t le of these due l ing

golden ages .

T h e B r it is h s c h o l a r A n t h o n y S m i t h r e m i n d s u s t h a t " n a t i o n s n e e d h e r o e s

a n d g o l d e n a g e s . " In h i s l a n d m a rk b o o k Nationalism S m i t h w ri t e s : " H e ro e s

exemplify an age of go ld , which embodies the idea ls to which the present-day

leader aspires and which matches the advanced c ivi l iza t ions of the West; and

the golden age assures each generat ion of his dis t inct ive heri tage against the

ass imila t ive pressures and temptations of modernity , which might otherwise

s w a m p t h e m . "

F o r t h e S h a h , t h e I ra n i a n h e ro w a s e m b o d i e d i n t h e k i n g s C y ru s a n d D a r

i u s a n d t h e m y t h i ca l h e ro R o s t a m fro m I ra n ' s e l e v e n t h -c e n t u ry e p i c t h e

Shah

nameh. F o r K h o m e i n i , t h e h e ro t o b e a d m i re d w a s t h e S h i ' a Im a m H o s s e i n

a n d I m a m A l i . T h e S h a h ' s a g g re s si v e n a t i o n a l i sm a n d K h o m e i n i ' s e x cl u s iv i st

Is lam forced Iranians to choose, however, between Imam Al i and Rostam,

b e t w e e n C y ru s a n d H o s s e i n . S e v e ra l p ro m i n e n t i n t e l l e c t u a l s i n t h e S h a h ' s e ra

c h o s e H o s s e i n a n d I m a m A l i, J ai al a l -e -A h m a d , a p ro m i n e n t e s sa y is t a n d

writer in the 1950s and 1960s

F

r idicu led what he ca l led "a mania for honoring

th e anc ien t past , . . for co m petin g an d boa st ing vainglorious ly and s tupid ly

of Cy rus an d D arius , and for basking prou dl y in R ostam 's ref lec ted g lory."



r o v s

T h e r e v o l u t io n a r y a n d p o p u l a r I n t e l l e c t u a l A l i S h a r ia t i s a id : " O u r p e o p l e

re m e m b e r n o t h i n g f ro m t h i s d i s t a n t p a s t a n d d o n o t c a re t o l e a rn a b o u t t h e

p re - Is l a m i c c i v i l i z a t i o n s . . . . C o n s e q u e n t l y , fo r u s a re t u rn t o o u r ro o t s m e a n s

not a rediscovery of pre-Is lamic Iran, but a re turn to our Is lamic, especia l ly

S hi 'a roots ," Today ma ny Ir anian s are disp laying a renew ed interes t in the ir

p r e - I s l a m i c ro o t s , r e p u d i a t i n g A l - e - A h m a d a n d S h a r ia t i.

The revolution of course was only part ia l ly motivated by these competing

g o l d e n a g e s. T h e ra p i d m o d e rn i z a t i o n i n it i at e d by t h e S h a h b ro u g h t I ra n

g re a t p ro s p e r i t y — a n d e q u a l l y g re a t e c o n o m i c d i sp a ri ty . W h e n t h e e c o n o m y

began to sputter in 1977 and the mass of rura l migrants to the c i t ies could no

lo nger f ind jobs , they beg an to l is ten furtively to th e tapes of K hom eini and

his go lden age of ear ly Is lam. Perhaps this idea l of ear ly Is lam might provide

a c h u n k o f b re a d , a j o b , a n d a d e c e n t w a ge , t h e ru ra l m i g ra n t t h o u g h t . I r a n

i a n s t u d e n t s a b ro a d , w h o b e n e fi t ed f ro m g o v e rn m e n t s c h o l a rs h i p s , re t u rn e d

h o m e a n d t u r n e d a g a in s t t h e u n d e m o c ra t i c k i n g w h o h a d s e n t t h e m t o t h e

West for their education. The middle c lass , i ts r is ing expecta t ions fue led by

t h e 1 9 7 3 oi l b o o m , w a n t e d m o re . M e a n w h i l e , t h e S h a h g re w i n c re a si n g l y

a u t h o r i t a r i a n a n d h i s s e c re t p o l i c e , S A V A K , i n c re a s i n g l y i n t ru s i v e . P ro t e s t s

m ou nt ed , th e crow ds swel l ing, everyone prote s t ing for different reas on s:

d e m o c ra c y , I s l a m , M a rx , a c h u n k o f b re a d , e c o n o m i c m o b i l i ty . T h e S h a h

loosened his authori tarian grip , leading to increased publ ic space for protes t .

T h e n c a m e t h e d e l u g e . T h e g o v e rn m e n t fel l , o v e r t h r o w n b y a c o a l i t i o n o f

n a t i o n a l i s t s a n d M a rx i s ts a n d K h o m e i n i s t s a n d l e ft is t s t u d e n t s a n d m i d d l e -

c l a s s d e m o c ra t s a n d t h e u rb a n p o o r . In t h e a f t e rm a t h o f t h e re v o l u t i o n , t h e

K h o m e i n i s t s w o n . A n e w " g o l d e n a g e " w a s im p o s e d f ro m a b o v e . O n c e a g a i n

I ra n i a n s w e re fo rce d t o c h o o s e b e t w e e n R o s t a m a n d Im a m A l i .

I ra n i a n s , fo r t h e i r p a r t , h a d l o n g a c c o m m o d a t e d I ra n ' s p re - Is l a m i c h i s t o ry

within i ts Is lamic tradit ions notwithstanding the e l i te a t tempts to s toke the

d if fe re n ce s. A l e g e n d g re w t h a t t h e " P r i n c e of M a r t y rs, " I m a m H o s s e i n , h a d

married the dau gh ter of th e las t S assanian k ing, Yazdegird, th u s seam

less ly l inking pre- ls lamic Iran with Shi 'a I ran. In coffee shops across ear ly-

twentie th-century Iran, the ce lebrated s toryte l lers wove ta les ce lebrat ing both

Im a m A l i a n d R o s t a m . In t h e z u rk h a n e h s (h o u s e s of s t re n g t h ) , w h e re t ra d i

t iona l I ranian men gather to exercise with heavy wooden p lanks , the pic tures

o n t h e w al l s in c l u d e b o t h Im a m A l i a n d R o s t a m .

In an exquis i te essay, Dr. S eyyed H oss ein N asr, th e dis t inguishe d, I rania n-

77



P E R S I A N P l L f J UM A f E 5

b o rn s c h o l a r of I s l a m i c p h i l o s o p h y , re l i g i o n , a n d c u l t u re a t G e o rg e W a s h i n g

ton Univers i ty , describes the "exceptiona l synthesiz ing power of Pers ian cu l

t u r e ,

made necessary by i ts h is torica l experience in being s i tuated between

variou s cu l tura l worl ds of E ast and West ." H e writes : "P ers ians have never

viewed the more ancient past as something tota l ly re jected by their present-

d a y Is l a m i c c u l t u re . T h e y s u c c e e d e d i n a b s o rb i n g t h e d e e p e s t e l e m e n t s o f t h a t

past in to their Is lamic cu l ture ra ther than re ject ing i t ."

I n o n e of t h e s e z u rk h a n e h s i n T e h ra n , 1 s t u m b l e d u p o n a n e c d o t a l e v i

d e n c e o f N a s r

T

s a s s e r t i o n . I a s k e d a s w e a t i n g , h e a v i n g m u s t a c h i o e d m a n w h a t

h e t h o u g h t o f t h e d u a l i ty b e t w e e n I m a m A l i a n d R o s t a m .

"M y friend," h e said, " let m e te l l you a story I heard in my un cl e 's vil lage.

Im am A l i and R ostam to ok part in a friendly wrest l ing m atch . T he tw o m en w ere

equal ly m atched, and i t was abou t to end in a draw. A t the las t mo m ent, Im am

A l i a s ke d G o d fo r h e l p . G o d h e l p e d h i m a n d Im a m A l i w o n t h e m a t c h a n d t h e

t w o h e ro e s s h o o k h a n d s a n d e m b ra c e d . O n l y G o d c o u l d h a v e t i p p e d t h e b a l

anc e against R ostam. In a ll o the r respects , R ostam was equa l to I mam A l i ."

I had h ear d the s tory before . I t repr esen ted a way for pe opl e l ike Haji A gha

and the tradit iona l wrest ler to reconci le their pride in Ferdowsi and Iran 's

p re - Is l a m i c p a s t w i t h t h e i r re l i g io n . D r . R .K . R a m a z a n i , t h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d I ra n

schol ar a t th e Univers i ty of Virginia puts i t th is way: "T he re is no se nse de ny

i n g t h e I s l a m o -I ra n i c n a t u re o f o u r p e o p l e . B o t h a re i m p o rt a n t . O n e d o e s n o t

t ru m p t h e o t h e r . "

For m ost I ranians , Haji A gha inc l uded , these issues of cu l tura l identi ty ,

th e choice betw een I m am A l i and R ostam , m atter l i t tle to their daily l ives,

w h i c h a re f il l e d w i t h t h e n o rm a l t h i n g s t h a t o c c u p y m o s t p e o p l e : j o b s , m o n e y

worries, friendships, marriages, hopes, dreams, traffic, children, death.

Before I left th e Ferdowsi shrin e w ith Haji A gha, I asked h im wh o he

t h o u g h t m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o I ra n : I m a m R e za o r F e rd o w s i. Im m e d i a t e l y a ft er

uttering the quest ion, I wanted to re tract i t . I t was s tupid and arbitrary and

somewhat manipula t ive , a quest ion that would e l ic i t d ifferent answers from

d i ffe re n t p e o p l e . M r . G h a s s e m i w o u l d p ro b a b l y h a v e sa id F e rd o w s i. H a ji A g h a

s a i d t h i s : " I t h i n k t h e y a re b o t h v e ry i m p o rt a n t , b u t Im a m R e z a m o re s o ,

because he can perform mirac les ."

N e a r l y o n e t h o u s a n d y e a rs a ft er F e rd o w s i c o m p l e t e d h i s m a s t e rp ie c e .

W e s t e rn a n d I ra n i a n s c h o l a rs , l e d b y E h s a n Y a rsh a te r , t h e re v e re d o c t o g e n a r

ian professor of I ranian cu l ture and his tory, are producing an epic of their

7 3



M A S tf

HAD

o w n , t h e Encyclopaedia Iranica. T h e m u l t i v o l u m e e n c y c l o p e di a , m o re t h a n

twenty-five years in the making, wil l chronicle a l l aspects of Iranian history, cul

ture, and heritage in dispassionate scholarship, neither glorifying Imam Ali over

R ostam no r vice versa . For this imp ortan t w ork, Yarshater migh t be seen as a

contemporary Iranian Ferdowsi, us ing scholarship ins tead of poetry to record

the Iranian odyssey. Perhaps most important , the encyc lopedia , through i ts

multiplicity of voices and subjectivities and its exhaustively comprehensive

treatm ent of I ra nian history and cu l ture , wi l l d isarm Iran 's num er ou s o ne-ey ed

h i st o ri c al i n t e rp re te rs w h o d e m a n d a c h o i c e b e tw e e n I m a m A l i a n d R o s t a m .

Global Arrogance and Green Cards at

the Nader Shah M useum

4 t was s ti l l ear ly afterno on w he n we re t urn ed from th e Ferdow si shrin e , so

J I a s k e d H aj i A g h a t o d ro p m e off a t t h e N a d e r S h a h M u s e u m , n o t far

• • f r o m m y h o t e l . N a d e r S h a h re i g n e d from 1 7 3 6 t o 1 7 4 7 a n d in s t i g at e d a

short Iranian revival after years of uncertainty fol lowing the fa l l of the Safavid

d y n a st y i n t h e e a rl y e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u ry . In t e re st in g l y , N a d e r , a S u n n i M u s l i m ,

be l ieved Iranians were suffic ient ly Shi 'a t ized that he took no s teps to "reedu

c a t e " t h e m . In fa ct , h e ev e n c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e e m b e l l i s h m e n t o f t h e I m a m

Reza shrine . His c la im to fame res ts chief ly on his sacking of Delhi and the

m a g n i f i c e n t l y j e w e l e d P e a c o c k T h ro n e h e b ro u g h t b a c k a s b o o t y .

A l a rge p o r t ra i t o f N a d e r S h a h , a m a n o f re d d i s h b ro w n c o m p l e x i o n , p e n

etra t ing eyes, and a long , wavy b lack bear d, s tuck ou t m os t to m e am on g th e

museum's exhibits . He wore a l ight brown conica l cap bejeweled with green

e m e ra l d s a n d re d ru b i e s a n d w h i t e p e a r l s . A ro u n d h i s n e c k h e w o re a h e a vy

g o l d m e d a l l i o n . B y t h e l o o k s o f t h e j e w e l ry h e w o re i n t h i s p a i n t i n g , t h e P e a

c o c k T h ro n e w a s n o t h i s o n l y b o o t y .

At about 1:30 P .M . , as I sa t in the smal l , leafy courtyard of the museum,

eating ice cream an d enjoying a cool breeze, a voice boo m ed over a l ou d

speaker a t tached to a t ree the radio rebroadcast of that week 's loca l Friday

prayer speec h. T h e Is lam ic R epub l ic use s Friday prayer speech es to bro adca st

its political views to the public.

S h o r tl y af te r t h e re v o l u t i o n , A y a to l l a h K h o m e i n i a p p o i n t e d F r id a y p ra y er

leaders across the country. These prayers leaders were se lected based on their

loya l ty to the I s lamic R epubl ic , no t their know le dge of divine law. Th eir ro l e

7 9



P E R S I A N P L L p K l M A £ E S

is to preach the "parry l ine" to the fa i thfu l . The ins t i tut ion of Friday prayer

leaders may have had an unintended effect : i t separated the "pol i t ica l" c lergy

from the "nonpoii t ica l" c lergy, those who refused to take part in the s ta te

app arat us of the Is lam ic R epubl ic (and the re were many ). Before the revo lu

t ion, K hom eini often noted th at al l S hi 'a M us l im c l erics are pol i t ica l , bu t h is

inabil ity to attract leading Shi 'a c lerics to Friday prayer posts left him with a

m i d d l e -ra n k i n g g ro u p o f c l e r i c s w h o w e re m o re e a g e r t o p l e a s e T e h ra n t h a n

to spread their re l igious message. A s a resu l t , I r anian s wide ly acknow le dge th e

Friday prayer sermon as a po l i t ica l too l ra ther than a mode of re l igious

i n s t ru c t i o n , t h o u g h a re l i g i o u s p o r t i o n o p e n s t h e s e rm o n . T h e re l i g i o u s s e c

t ion genera l ly i l lus tra tes a s tory that wi l l la ter bo ls ter the pol i t ica l point .

In 1 9 8 1 , t h e F ri da y p ra y e r l e a d e r i n M a s h h a d , A y a to l l a h H a s a n Q o m i ,

re m a i n e d a n a n t i - I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c vo i ce . H e c r it ic i ze d K h o m e i n i a n d o t h e r

c lerics for being "un-Is lamic," especia l ly in the revolution 's excesses . He dif

ferentia ted himse lf and his t radit iona l is t c lerics from the newly resurgent

middle-ranking pol i t ica l c lerics . He sa id, "The rea l c lergy does not want

p o w e r . . . i t d o e s n o t a p p ro v e o f t h o s e c l e r ic s w h o g o v e rn u s . T h e re al t a s k o f

the c lergy is to advise and en l ighten the people . Rea l Is lam is the re l igion of

forgiving and of compassion."

A y a to l l a h Q o m i w a s n o t t h e o n l y s e n i o r c l e r ic w h o s p o k e o u t a g a i n s t t h e

new c lerica l order, but h is group of t radit iona l is t c lerics was gradua l ly pushed

aside by the Is lam ic R epubl ic , w hic h inserted i ts ow n voices in th e Friday

prayer posts of m ost m ajor c i t ies by th e mid -19 80s . A bsen ce of the trad it ion

a l is ts in Friday prayer sermons became evident by the sermons ' more pol i t i

ca l and s tr ident tone.

The most important Friday prayer, he ld a t Tehran Univers i ty , gets a ired in

ful l o n radio and te levis ion. T h e pol i t ica l po rt io ns of th e serm on s rare ly

change from typica l fare that warns the f lock of "foreign conspiracies" and the

defense of Is lam against Western cu l tura l invasions . Sometimes they lay out a

specific government view—that is , a conservative one—on a hot issue, such as

bord er skirmishes with A fghanis tan or econo m ic reforms. O n this day, th e

M a s h h a d p ra ye r l e a d e r A y a to l l a h E b a d i , s p o k e o f t h e re c e n t s t u d e n t u p r i s in g s .

In his smoky, angry voice , th e ayato l lah rem ind ed h is cong regatio n n ot to

forget th e "c ou p d 'e ta t of 28 M ord ad in the year 1332 ," referring to th e 1953

C I A - b a ck e d c o u p a g a in s t M o h a m m a d M o s s a d e q . " T h e y a r e t ry i ng t o d o s u c h

SO



M A 5 H HA 0

a thing again " he ra i led. "They are a t tacking the dignity of our people? Their

a i m w a s a n o t h e r c o u p d ' e t a t a g a i n s t u s b y m a n i p u l a t i n g o u r s t u d e n t s "

The "they" usua l ly refers to the United S ta tes or Is rae l . I t can a lso refer a t

t imes to die foreign m edia or the W estern worl d in genera l . T hi s " they" cas ts

a wide net .

A s t h e a y a t o l l a h ' s v o i c e b o o m e d f ro m t h e t re e , a g ro u p o f y o u n g w o m e n

at an adjoining tab le ta lked animatedly . Large ly ignoring the speech. I envi

s ioned him s tabb ing the a ir w ith his finger as he pr on ou nc ed the nex t Line:

"Th ey fa iled in their p lo t . T he y sho ul d kno w tha t toda y is d ifferent from

1 3 3 2 .

Today we are devoted to Is lam an d to I mam H osse in Today, we have

t h e veiayat-e-faqih " he sa id . "We are armed with Is lam against any ons laught "

A t t h e n e x t ta b l e , t h e w o m e n b e g a n w h i s p e r i n g a n d l o o k i n g a t m e . I k e p t

w ri t i n g , m y h e a d p u rp o s e fu l l y d o w n , n o t s u re w h y I h a d c a p t u re d t h e i r a t t e n

t ion but not eager to f ind out e i ther. Conversat ions would have to wait ,

I

th ou gh t, t il l I f inished fo l l owing the ayato l lah 's speec h, jo t t in g do w n no tes .

I continued writ ing, t rying to ignore the s tares and whispers , as the aya

t o l l a h l e c t u re d . " T h e y s h o u l d k n o w t h a t I s l am i s a fo rc e m o re p o w e rfu l t h a n

a n y o f t h e i r a rm s , " h e s a i d . " T h e y s h o u l d k n o w w e d o n o t fe a r t h e m . T h e y

s h o u l d — " S u d d e n l y o n e o f t h e w o m e n , o n e w i th a y e l l ow h e a d scarf, s t o o d

just above me.

"Excuse me," she sa id in Fars i , "where did you get that bag?"

S h e p o i n t e d t o m y b a c k p a c k , a J a n s p o r t w i t h t h re e z i p p e rs.

"In A merica ," I sa id .

"T hat 's w hat I to ld my friends," she rep l ied. "C an I see i t?"

" S u re . "

She examined i t c lose ly , as i f i t were a f ine diamond. "This is good qua l

ity," sh e said. "I have nev er see n tha t type her e in I ran." A brief dis cu ssi on of

b a c k p a ck s e n s u e d , o n t h e q u a l it y of t h e E u ro p e a n v e rs u s t h e A m e ri c a n , a s

the ayatol lah's voice fi l led the courtyard: "We wil l not be defeated with such

trickery "

H er thr ee fr iends joi ne d u s . T he y sa t dow n at my tab le , a l l we aring the ir

head scarves co lorfu l ly and re luctant ly , their hair ju t t i ng ou t , their f ingernails

p o l i s he d v a r i o u s s h a d e s o f a q u a a n d e m e ra l d . I l o o k e d a ro u n d for a n y y o u n g

m e n i n b e ard s, t h e m o ra l s p o l i c e , w h o w o u l d f ro w n u p o n s u c h a m e e t i n g .

F o r t u n a t e l y , n o n e w a s a ro u n d .

S t



P E R S I A N F l L C R l M A p E S

T h e a y a to l l a h w e n t o n . " O h , y o u re v o l u t i o n a ry y o u t h , o u r l e a d e rs a re v i g

i l a n t N o n e e d t o w o rry a b o u t t h e s e t r i c k s "

As his voice f i l led the courtyard, we ta lked. The young women were f irs t-

year univers i ty s tu de nts in the arts , they to l d me, vis i ting th e m us eu m for a

c l a ss a s s i g n m e n t . T h e y w a n t e d t o ta l k a b o u t A m e ri c a . O n e h a d a c o u s i n i n

L o s A n g e l e s. A n o t h e r h a d a p p l i ed t o a n A m e ri c a n u n i v e rs i ty t h r o u g h t h e

In t e rn e t , s h e s ai d , a n d h a d y e t t o h e a r a re s p o n s e . A n o t h e r , t h e o n e w i t h t h e

y e l l o w h e a d

scarf,

sa id she did not l ike A merica b ut wa nte d to l ive in E uro pe,

s o m e w h e re l i k e I t a l y o r F ra n c e , s h e s a i d , s o m e w h e re " ro m a n t e e k , " s h e a d d e d ,

t o t h e l a u g h s o f t h e o t h e r t h re e . A n o t h e r p u l l e d o u t a s h e e t o f p a p e r fro m h e r

bag, a one-page form with a passport photo affixed in the r ight corner, t i t led

"G reen Card L ottery." E very year the Un ited S ta tes offers green cards to th e

world on a lottery basis, a lucky fifty-five thousand becoming eligible for

i n s t a n t re s i d e n c y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I h a d s e e n t h i s fo rm n u m e ro u s t i m e s

in Iran, carefu l ly fo lded and reverentia l ly t reated by the green card hopefu ls .

S he asked if I w ou ld he l p her f il l i t ou t , han din g m e he r identi ty card with

a l l t h e e s s e n t ia l i n fo rm a t i o n . A s 1 w ro t e h e r n a m e , d a t e of b i r t h , a n d o t h e r

essentia ls , I could hear the ayato l lah

T

s v o ic e i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d . "G l o b a l A r r o

g a n c e w i l l n e v e r d e fe at u s " h e ra i l e d. " O u r p e o p l e a re d e v o t e d t o t h e m e m o ry

of the im am a nd th e Is lam ic R evol ution " I b lo cked his voice ou t with diffi

cu l ty , t rying to concentra te on the writ ing. The young ladies did i t eas i ly , i t

s e e m e d , c o n v e rs i n g a b o u t c l a s s a s s i g n m e n t s a n d a r t a s I s c r i b b l e d a n d A y a

t o l l a h E b a d i l e c t u re d . A few m i n u t e s l a t e r I h a n d e d h e r t h e f in is he d fo rm .

"L et 's hop e the l uck of yo ur han dw rit ing wi l l benefit me," she sa id . I

w i s h e d h e r w e l l , a n d t h e y o u n g w o m e n s t o o d u p , w i s h i n g m e h a p p y t rav e l s.

A s t h e y w a l k e d t o w a rd t h e d o o r , a w a y f ro m t h e se m i p r i v a t e m u s e u m c o u r t

yard back in to a m ore p ubl ic space, they readjusted their he ad scarves , cover

ing som e of the ir exposed hair . Jus t th en , the ayato l lah cried over th e

l o u d s p e a k e r : " O h , y o u re v o l u t i o n a ry y o u t h , d o n o t w o rry W e sh a l l n e v e r b e

d e fea t ed N e v e r "

Pilgrimage: Imam Reza Tomb

4 n the evening, I re t run ed to th e Im am R eza shr ine . T h e artificial wh ite

l ights mingled with the moonl i t sky and turquoise t i le to give the entry

• • c o u r t y a rd a h a zy b l u e gl o w . T h e c ro w d s h a d t h i n n e d , b u t a s t e a d y s t re a m

2



M A S H H A D

o f p i l g r i m s s t i l l p u s h e d t o w a rd t h e a rc h e d d o o rw a y s l e a d i n g t o t h e i n n e r

c o u r t y a rd s a n d t h e c h a n d e l i e r - l i t ro o m o f t h e Im a m R e z a t o m b .

T o g e t t o t h e t o m b ,

1

h e a d e d t o w a rd D o o r 1 5 , m a rk e d " B ro t h e rs " A t t h i s

d o o r m e n a n d w o m e n , o r i n I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c p a r l a n c e " b r o t h e r s " a n d " s i s

t e r s / ' s e p a ra t e d b e c a u s e t h e re w o u l d b e t o o m u c h j o s t l i n g n e a r t h e t o m b , t o o

m u c h p h y s i c a l c o n t a c t a m o n g p i l g r i m s . I h a n d e d m y s h o e s t o t h e s h o e k e e p e r ,

a n e l d e r l y m a n w h o g a v e m e a n u m b e r a n d p l a c e d m y s h o e s i n a c u b b y h o l e .

N e a r t h e s h o e ra c k , a y o u n g m a n s p ra y e d t h e a i r w i t h a n a e ro s o l c a n .

C l a d in m y s o c k s , I t u r n e d i n t o a l u m i n o u s r o o m w i t h re d P e rs i a n c a rp e ts

a n d a y e l l o w -w h i t e gl o w . M a s si v e c h a n d e l i e rs d r i p p e d f ro m t h e c e i l in g . E l e

gant ly arched doorways with f lowing ca l l igraphy of Quranic verses led to a

ro o m w i t h p e a r l a n d g l a s s c h a n d e l i e rs , re d c a rp e t s , a n d c u t m i rro r w o rk o n

the wal ls . Tw o boys chased eac h othe r across th e floor, near ly knock ing m e

over as I gazed a t the cei l ing, overwhelmed by the ce les t ia l g low. I was begin

n i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d w h y A r t h u r P o p e r e m a r k e d t h a t " n o o t h e r g r o u p of b u i l d

ings in the world gives such an effect of opulence."

T h e m a s s i v e d o o rs l e a d i n g t o t h e Im a m R e z a t o m b , e n c l o s e d i n g l a s s a n d

about f if teen feet h igh, towered over me, bright with gold and carved with

Q u ra n i c v e rs e s . In t h e c e n t e r o f t h e g o l d d o o r , a d e e p b l u e d i a m o n d -s h a p e d

c a n v a s d i s p l a y e d m o re Q u ra n i c w ri t i n g s .

I waited am id a thick cro wd of pi lgrims, to get a chanc e to en ter the ro o m

t h a t h o u s e s t h e t o m b . I w a i t e d m y t u rn p a t i en t l y for u p t o t e n m i n u t e s b e h i n d

a se a o f p e o p l e . O c c a si o n al l y , s h a rp -e l b o w e d p i l g r im s s q u i rm e d p a s t t h e w a i t

ing crowd and surged into the tomb room. I t became fa ir ly obvious that

patient wait ing w oul d no t get m e any c loser to th e tom b. W ith a firm p us h,

s o m e b o d y t w i s t i n g , a n d a fe w w e l l -p l a c e d e l b o w s , I m a n a g e d t o e n t e r t h e

e d g e o f t h e ro o m h o u s i n g t h e t o m b . C ra n i n g m y n e c k a b o v e t h e s u rg i n g p i l

g r i m s , I c a u g h t a g l i m p s e o f t h e g o l d g r i l l e e n c l o s u re s u rro u n d i n g t h e t o m b .

I t was scat tered w ith flowers and a few ria l no tes . A bove th e gol d gri l le , a wid e

blue and white band of Quranic verses f lowed. A bouquet of f lowers perched

a t o p t h e e n c l o s u re .

T h e c ro w d p u s h e d a n d s h o v e d a n d p ra y e d a n d s o b b e d , re a c h i n g o u t t o

t o u c h t h e t o m b . O n e l i t tl e b o y si m p l y cra w l e d o n t o p o f p a c k e d s h o u l d e rs

toward the tomb, kissed i t , and crawled back, to the de l ight of his fa ther, who

sm othe red th e boy in kisses . A no the r m an offered his todd le r to the c row d,

w h o h a n d e d h i m f ro m s h o u l d e r t o s h o u l d e r u n t i l h e re a c h e d t h e t o m b . A f t e r

8 3



F E R 5 I A N P 1 L C JU M A C E S

t o u c h i n g t h e t o m b , t h e to d d l e r , l o o k i n g a b i t s h a k e n , w a s h a n d e d b a c k s h o u l

der to shoulder to his happy fa ther.

O n t h e o t h e r s id e o f t h e t o m b

T

behind a c lear g lass wal l , I could see b lack-

c l a d w o m e n p ra y i n g a n d s c re a m i n g a n d p u s h i n g t o g e t c l o s e r t o t h e t o m b .

N e x t t o m e , a y o u n g m a n , a l a b o re r, it s e e m e d , ra is e d h i s ca l l o u s e d h a n d s

toward th e to m b. Tears ro l led dow n his s tubbl ed face as he prayed. N earby, a

ra i l - thin o ld man with ye l lowing skin sa t in a whee lchair , h is hands ra ised,

p ra y i n g si l en tl y , o b l i v i o u s o f t h e c ro w d s s u rg i n g a ro u n d h i m . A n A fri ca n m a n

s t o o d n e a r t h e w h e e l c h a i r , h o l d i n g o n t o i t s b a c k , o b s e rv i n g t h e c ro w d , o c c a

s i o n a l l y re a d i n g f ro m a m i n i a t u re Q u ra n . In a d d i t i o n t o t h e I ra n i a n p i l g r i m s ,

I s aw A ra b a n d A s i a n a n d e v en a c o u p l e of E u ro p e a n - l o o k i n g fa ce s, m a n y

drenched in a wondrous l ight of re l igious pie ty , o thers b lank and l is t less and

visib ly ann oyed by th e pu shi ng and shov ing.

I decided to move away from the tomb and pushed my way out of the

c ro w d . I w a n d e re d b a c k t o w a rd m y fa v or it e s p o t , t h e p u b l i c p e rfo rm a n c e

a re a , a n d n o t i c e d a c ro w d a s s e m b l i n g a ro u n d a l a rg e w re a t h a n d t h e p h o t o

g ra p h o f a y o u n g m a n , p e rh a p s o n e o f t h e m a n y y o u n g I ra n i a n s o l d i e rs w h o

d ie o n t h e c o u n t ry ' s e a s t e rn b o rd e rs b a t t l i n g d ru g s m u g g l e rs . T h e g o v e rn

m e n t c a l l s t h e m m a rt y rs , a n d s o m e a re g i v e n e l a b o ra t e b u r i a l c e re m o n i e s .

How ever, a c loser l ook, specifica l ly a t their c l othes , ra ised d ou bts . T h e m en

w o re w e l l -c u t b l a c k s u i t s a n d ce l l p h o n e s s t ra p p e d t o t h e i r b e l t s. T w o y o u n g

m e n w o re b l a c k R a y -B a n s u n g l a s s e s w i t h t h re e -d a y b e a rd g ro w t h s , e f fe c t i n g

t h e l o o k of m o u rn i n g ro c k st a rs . T h e w o m e n w o re c h i c b l a c k C h a n e l h e a d

scarves and lacy b lack vei ls . Th is family o bvious ly h ad m oney. I t was n ot th e

sort of family tha t w oul d h ave a yo un g m an sent off to f ight on a remo te bo r

der. This family , i t seemed, would have the money to pay off the r ight people ,

get i ts son out of mi l i tary service or perhaps a cushy posting guarding a

m us eu m . By th e lo ok of the ir c lo thes , 1 m igh t a lso have been ab l e to gues s

their po l i t ics , not a diff icu l t th ing to do once your eye gets accustomed to

Iran. T h e designer labe ls w ere a sign of th e W esternized e l i te , th e sort of I ra

n i a n s w h o s p e a k a b i t o f E n g l i s h , s u p p o r t re fo rm o r o u t r i g h t c h a n g e o f t h e

system, and probably resent the socia l res tr ic t ions imposed on them by the

g o v e rn m e n t . S u re l y , t h i s w a s n o t a g ro u p t h a t s u p p o r t e d t h e I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c .

M y i n it ia l i n st i n c t s t u r n e d o u t t o b e r i g h t . T h e y h a d c o m e t o m o u rn t h e

s o n o f a w e a l t h y b u s i n e s s m a n w h o h a d " c o n n e c t i o n s i n E u ro p e , " I w a s t o l d .



M A S H H A D

He had been ki l led in a car accident , and they buried him in a tomb near the

Imam Reza shrine reserved for the extremely pious or extremely r ich. Later , I

a sk e d a f ri en d w h o k n e w t h e M a s h h a d b u s i n e s s c o m m u n i t y w e l l a b o u t t h e

b u s i n e s s m a n . I fo u n d o u t t h a t h e w a s a w e l l -c o n n e c t e d t ra d e r , a W e s t e rn i z e d

Ira n i a n w h o m o v e d i n p o w e rfu l c i rc l e s b e fo re t h e re v o l u t i o n a n d w h o q u i c k l y

adap ted to po strevo lu tion l i fe . A s my fr iend pu t it , "Before the revo lu tion, he

k n e w w h o s e h a n d s t o l i n e w i t h c a s h , a n d a f t e r t h e re v o l u t i o n , h e l e a rn e d t h e

new hands he had to pay. I t made no difference to him, though he preferred

the socia l freedoms of the Shah

T

s e ra / '

In t e re s t i n g l y , d e s p i t e h i s W e s t e rn i z e d e x t e r i o r , t h e b u s i n e s s m a n s t i l l

sought the most re l igious ly important buria l s i te for his son: a cemetery near

t h e Im a m R e z a t o m b . T h o u g h it m i g h t b e a rg u e d t h a t h e c h o s e t h e c e m e t e ry

a s a " a s t a t u s s y m b o l , " m u c h l i k e r i c h C h r i s t i a n s i n t h e W e s t m i g h t c h o o s e a n

aff luent cem etery for the ir own loved ones , I saw nu m er o us ex amp les of

W e s t e rn i z e d , s e c u l a r-m i n d e d I ra n i a n s s u d d e n l y b e c o m i n g v e ry re l i g i o u s i n

moments of cris is (not un l ike secular Chris t ians or Jews in the West) .

I re c a l l e d a n o t h e r W e s t e rn i z e d I ra n i a n , a n e l d e r l y d o c t o r w h o m I h a d m e t

a few w e e k s b e fo re m y M a s h h a d t r ip . H e h a d w a rn e d m e t o " n o t s p e n d t o o

m u c h t i m e w i t h t h e m u l l a h s a n d Is l a m . Y o u m u s t re a d F e rd o w s i . H e i s a t ru e

Iranian hero " I had to ld him that I p lanned to vis i t the Ferdowsi shrine and

t h e Im a m R e z a t o m b . " S p e n d m o re t i m e a t t h e F e rd o w s i s h r i n e . I t w i l l b e

m o re i m p o rt a n t fo r y o u r w ri t i n g , " h e h a d s a i d , d i s m i s s i n g t h e Im a m R e z a

shrine as "a p lace of supers t i t ion."

S hort ly before my tr ip to M ash had , I ca l led him . H e was fee l ing a bi t anx

ious . His wife was in the hospita l with f lu l ike symptoms that would not go

away.

"S he is very o ld . I am wo rried. A re you s t il l goin g to th e I m am R eza

s h r i n e ? " h e a s k e d .

"Yes."

"Please say a prayer for my wife."

I a s s u r e d h i m I w o u l d .

A s t h e m o u rn i n g c e re m o n y fo r t h e y o u n g m a n c o n t i n u e d , I s a i d a p ra y e r

for him. I a lso made good on my promise to say a prayer for the doctor 's wife .

In his name, I dropped a few bi l l s in a chari ty box, saying the appropria te

prayer as the bi l l s fe l l . I wa lked away, in to a smal l prayer room nearby. There ,

$5



P E R S I A N P L L f K l M A f E S

a group of s inewy laborers with sun-baked feces were s tre tched out on the

carpet , s leeping. Tired from a long day of walking in the sun, I lay down with

them, c losed my eyes , and drif ted to s leep, lu l led by the quie t whisper of an

A fr i c a n p i l g r i m re a d i n g f ro m t h e Q u ra n .

3 6



i l l

The Politics of Personal Appearance A "Blasphemous" Play "fc

Dance Party Campus Politics Hard-Liners and Green Cards

Elites and Masses The Road to Neishapour Notes on a Pilgrimage:

Omar Khayyam, the Poet The Spke Men of the Bazaar The Pilgrimage:

Om ar Khayyam Tomb Moh sen, the Student, and Hassan,

the War

Veteran

4*

Martyrs'Cemetery

4*

Cities: Tehran, Neishapour

The Politics of Personal Apearance

A

l i Reza, l ike many s ixteen-year-o ld boys, had a pimple problem. "Too

much chocola te ," he sa id , expla ining i t away a t the t ime. So he s topped

eating chocola te entire ly , even scraping the chocola te sauce off h is

mother 's specia l cream puffs , "But the pimples did not go away," he sa id

glumly, "for two years " By th e t ime he tur ne d e igh teen , he grew serious ly

c o n c e rn e d a n d c o n s u l t e d a d o c to r . "1 d i d n ' t l i k e t h e p i m p l e s . 1 fe l t that many

p e o p l e l a u g h e d a t m e b e h i n d m y b a c k . I tried every m edic ine, but it did n o t

w o rk . E v e ry m o rn i n g , I w o k e u p a n d p ra y e d b e fore l o o k i n g i n t h e m i rro r , b u t

the pimples were s t i l l there ."

O n e d ay h e j u s t s t o p p e d s h a v i n g . " I t h o u g h t t h a t a b e a rd w o u l d h i d e t h e

acne unti l i t went away for good." Univers i ty c lasses were to begin in a

m o n t h . H e w o u l d h a v e a c l e a n sl a t e , a n e w g ro u p o f p e o p l e w h o d i d n o t k n o w

the o ld pimply Al i Reza. A few weeks before the univers i ty began, he had

grown a re la t ive ly bushy beard.

A t the univers i ty A l i R eza faced som e unex pecte d o pp osit io n to his new

l o o k . A few o f h i s h i g h s c h o o l c h u m s t e a s e d h i m . " H a v e y o u b e c o m e o n e o f

them?" A g ir l f ro m h i s n e i g h b o rh o o d s a w h i m o u t s i d e t h e u n i v e rs i ty a n d

e xc l ai m ed : " M y G o d , A l i R e za , y o u r b e ar d W h a t w i l l p e o p l e t h i n k ? " H i s f e l

l o w a r t s s t u d e n t s e i t h e r s h u n n e d h i m o r l o o k e d a t h i m w i t h c o n fu s i o n .

$7



P E R S I A N P U C JU M A C E S

He laughed, ref lec t ing on the s tory as he to ld i t to me two years la ter .

" M a n y p e o p l e t h o u g h t I h a d b e c o m e H e z b o l l a h i ," h e sa id , u s i n g a t e r m

wide ly used by Iranians to denote a radica l re l igious conservative who sup

p o r t s t h e c o n s e rv a t i v e w i n g o f t h e I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c . " T h a t ' s w h y t h e y re a c t e d

so negatively."

E v e r s i n c e t h e P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d w o r e a b e a rd i n t h e s e v e n t h c e n t ur y ,

Is l a m i c tra d i t i o n h e l d t h a t p i o u s m e n w o u l d d o t h e s a m e . In A fg h a n i st a n ,

where Is lamic extremists known as the Ta l iban terrorized i ts c i t izens for f ive

years from 1996 to 2001 in a twis ted, thuggish vers ion of Is lam, the lack of a

b e a rd o f a p ro p e r l e n g t h w a s p u n i s h a b l e b y l a s h i n g . I ra n h a s n o ru l e s o n

b e a rd s , n o r d o a n y o t h e r M u s l i m c o u n t r i e s , b u t a fte r t h e c o u n t ry ' s 1 9 7 9 re v

o l u t i o n , m a n y o f t h e re l i g i o u s -m i n d e d re v o l u t i o n a r i e s g re w b e a rd s , a n d i n

m a n y M u s l i m c o u n t r i e s , t h e b e a rd re m a i n s a s y m b o l o f p ie ty .

T o d a y n o n e o f A l i R e z a' s f r i en d s — l i b e ra l -m i n d e d a r t s s t u d e n t s — w e a rs a

beard. They view i t as a symbol of the hard- l ine s tudents on campus, the

"Hezbol lahi" types that t ry to impose their socia l mora l i ty on others , the ones

w h o l a s h o u t a t fe m a l e s t u d e n t s w h o s h o w t o o m u c h h a i r f ro m t h e i r h e a d

scarves or sn eer a t w hat they deem to be "W estoxicated," jean s-w eari ng s tu

d e n t s l i k e A l i R e z a .

The Hezbol lahi types often are members of the co l lege Basij i associa t ion.

The Basijis , first created as a volunteer fighting force in the Iran-Iraq War,

p ro v e d i n s t ru m e n t a l i n I ra n ' s w a r e f fo r t t h ro u g h t h e w i l l i n g n e s s o f t h e s e

m o s t l y w o rk i n g -c l a s s u rb a n a n d ru ra l y o u t h s t o " m a rt y r" t h e m s e l v e s fo r t h e

c a u s e . K e y c h a i n s w ra p p e d a ro u n d t h e i r n e c k s — t h e k e y s t o h e a v e n — s o m e

Basij is c leared minefie lds in acts of re l igious devotion, crying out to Imam

H o s s e i n , t h e S h i ' a m a r t y r, as e x p l o s i o n s t o re t h e i r b o d i e s. O f c o u rs e , n o t a l l

Basi jis foug ht in th e nam e of Is l am; m an y foug ht ou t of nat iona l is t im pul ses .

M orever, toda y no t a l l Basij is are hard- l ine H ezbo l l ahi types; in fact, the

m a j o ri ty a re n o t , i n c l u d i n g n u m e ro u s B asijis w h o m I m e t w h o p ro v e d t o b e

s o m e o f t h e m o s t g e n e ro u s a n d n o b l e p e o p l e . I ra n i a n j o u rn a l i s t s n o t e t h a t

m o s t B as ijis s u p p o r t P re s i d e n t K h a t a m i a n d re fo rm , t h o u g h t h e y t e n d t o

focus m or e o n political reform a nd less on issues of social freedom.

Just about every Iranian city has a local Basiji organization, volunteers

who act a l ternate ly as socia l service providers , publ ic re l igious ceremony

o rg a n i z e rs , a n d — m o re o m i n o u s l y — m o ra l s p o l i c e . I t i s t h i s l a s t ro l e o f t h e

Basijis , as public purveyors of morality, that turns off Ali Reza and his friends

a s



T E H R A N

and so many Iranians , tarnishing the reputat ion of a l l Basi j is . The mora ls

pol ice pu nis h you ths for a t te nd ing m ixed sex part ies , for l is tening to W estern

music , for walking in a park with unre la ted members of the opposite sex.

E nfo rcem ent of the se " law s" varies from lax to severe . In th e la te sum m er of

2001 the mora ls po l ice , backed by Iran 's ru l ing conservatives , went on a ram

page,

publ ic ly f logging youths for such offenses as drinking a lcohol or going

t o p a r t i e s , a n d d e m a n d e d t h a t re s t a u ra n t o w n e rs re fu s e e n t ry t o w o m e n n o t

wearing "proper" Is lamic coverings .

In 1988 Iran 's conservative ru l ing c lergy decided to se t up co l lege Basij i

organizations to f ight a cu l tura l and pol i t ica l war on campus against what

they viewed as creeping "Westoxication" and potentia l s tudent agita t ion

against the government. Basij is gained eas ier acceptance to the univers i ty

than before . Basij i groups, l inked to conservative leaders , cropped up on co l

l e g e c a m p u s e s . T h o u g h t h e y re p re s e n t a m i n o r i t y of s t u d e n t s , t h e y c a rry

h e a vy w e i g h t b e c a u s e o f t h e i r h ig h - l e v e l c o n n e c t i o n s u p t o t h e S u p re m e

L e a d er , A y a to l l a h K h a m e n e i , a n d t h e i r i n fo rm a l l i n k s w i t h t h e s e c u r i ty s e rv

i c e s a n d p o l i c e . D u r i n g t h e 1 9 9 9 s u m m e r s t u d e n t p ro t e s t s , s o m e m e m b e rs o f

the Basijis jo i ne d with po l ice to que l l th e upris ing .

Al i Reza continued. " I don ' t b lame my fr iends ' reactions ," he sa id . " I

w o u l d p ro b a b l y t h i n k t h e s am e . I d o n o t l i k e t h e y o u n g m e n w i t h b e a rd s , t h e

Basij is with the Hezbol lahi look and a t t i tude. They are too se l f-r ighteous, and

they are confrontat iona l ."

The Hezbol lahi look is famil iar to Iranians . I t consis ts of a s imple , non-

fashionable , co l lared shir t (Hezbol lahis should not be interes ted in Western

fashion), p la in s lacks (never jean s), and p la in b lack sh oes o r sl ippers . Th e

s h i r t m u s t n e v e r b e t u c k e d i n t o t h e p a n t s . A l s o , a H e z b o l l a h i m i g h t w e a r a

b l ack -an d-w hite P a les t inian-s ty le scarf in the winter , a sym bol of I ran 's wa r

with Iraq and so l idari ty with the Pa les t inian cause. He a lmost a lways has a

beard or a t least a three -day grow th. N o t a l l Basi jis effect the He zbo l l ahi loo k,

but those that do are often the ones who re l ish their ro le as mora ls po l ice .

A l i R e za w e n t o n . " I t h i n k I c o n fu s ed p e o p l e b e c a u s e I w o re j e a n s a n d n i c e

shirts and fashionable b lack shoes , yet I had this Hezbol lahi beard," he sa id ,

l a u g h i n g . "1 k n e w s o m e o f m y fe l l ow a r t s s t u d e n t s w e re u n c o m fo r t a b l e w i t h

it . M a n y o f u s h a v e h a d b a d e x p e r i e n c e s w i th H e z b o l l a h i t y p e s . I t h o u g h t t h a t

m a y b e I coul d grow a S ufi bear d, wh ich is d ifferent from t he He zbo l l ahi

beard," he sa id . The Sufi (mystica l) beard tends 1o cur l a t the mustache area

8 9



P E R S I A N F L L £ i U M A £ E S

and flow more freely, even recklessly. It is a beard favored by Sufi mystics as

wel l as art is ts and writers .

"But I had grown t ired of my bearded look anyway so I decided to shave

it ," he sa id , today disp laying his th i n , acne-c lea red cheek s . "O n e day th e p im

ples ju s t d isapp eared S om etim es I get a few, bu t no t l ike before ."

A l i R e z a 's b e a rd e x p e r i en c e t a u g h t h i m a n i m p o r t a n t l e s s o n i n I ra n ' s p o l

i t i c s o f p e rs o n a l a p p e a ra n c e . In I ra n t h e c l o t h e s y o u w e a r a n d h o w y o u c u t

yo ur ha ir or beard often define your pol i t ics. E ven if they do n ' t , as in A l i

R e z a ' s c a s e , t h e p e rc e p t i o n s re m a i n .

In an authori tarian government that in terferes in the persona l l ives of i ts

c i ti z e n s, a s d o e s t h e I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c , c l o t h e s b e c o m e a n i m p o r t a n t s y m b o l o f

pol i t ics . M r. G hass em i 's t ie was a po l i t ica l s ta tem ent, as are th e c lo thes of a

H e z b o l i a h i . ^

Women are on the front l ine of th is po l i t ics of persona l appearance

b e c a u s e o f t h e

hijab,

t h e m a n d a t o ry I s l a m i c c o v e r i n g p l a c e d u p o n t h e m . A s a

re s u l t , t h e w o m a n d ra p e d i n a b l a c k c h a d o r , t h e m o s t s e v e re fo rm o f hijab, has

b e c o m e t h e m o s t v is ib l e s y m b o l o f t h e I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c t o t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d .

A fter P res id ent K hata m i 's fi rs t e lec t ion in 199 7, w he n the veils s tarted to s l ip

a n d t h e m a k e u p b e c a m e m o r e p r o n o u n c e d a n d c o l o r f u l , d i p l o m a t s a n d p o l i t

ica l observers saw i t as defiance of the revolution. There seems to be an unde

fined "vei l -o-meter" that gauges the mood of the country and i ts leaders by

looking a t the re la t ive adherence to the vei l . Bright toenai l po l ish in

o p e n - t o e d s a n d a l s h a s a l s o b e c o m e p a r t o f t h e " v e i l -o -m e t e r" g a u g e . In fa c t , I

h e a rd a m u l l a h i n a T e h ra n m o s q u e ra il fo r m o re t h a n f ifte en m i n u t e s a g a i n s t

th e tem pta tio ns of bright ly pol ished toenai ls . I t wa s sad to m e to hear this

m a n o f t h e c l o t h , o n e w h o re p re s e n t e d a n o l d a n d n o b l e fa i t h , re d u c e d t o

w o rr i e s a b o u t t o e n a i l p o l i s h .

A y a to l l a h K h o m e i n i w as a p r o u d a d v o c a t e o f t h e

hijak

H e o n c e r e m a r k e d

that i f nothing e lse , the vei l ing of women was a great v ic tory for the revolu

t ion. The issue of

hijab

i s c o m p l i c a t e d . S o m e I ra n i a n w o m e n a d h e re t o i t v o l

untari ly and would do so even if i t were not the law of the land. There are

others , a s ignificant number, who see forced

hijab

as a blatant violation of

t h e i r m o s t b a s i c civ il r ig h t s . T h e Q u r a n , I s l a m ' s h o l y b o o k , is a m b i g u o u s o n

t h e m a t t e r. I t re c o m m e n d s o n l y t h a t w o m e n d re s s m o d e s t l y , w i t h o u t c l e a r

s p e c if i c at i o n s o n w h a t t h a t m e a n s . T h e v e il , s o m e Is l a m i c s c h o l a rs p o i n t o u t ,

is an accret io n from pre-I s lam ic Byzantine R om e or S assanian P ers ia , soci-

90



T E t t K A N

e t ie s t h a t v e il e d t h e i r n o b l e w o m e n . O t h e rs p o i n t out t h a t the p a t r i a rc h y of

t radit iona l socie t ies

has as

m u c h

to do

with vei l ing

as

does re l igion. Whatever

the case may be, female vei l ing has c o m e to be s e e n as an i n t e g r a l e l e m e n t of

the faith, and early Is lamic jurists , acting after the d e a t h of the P r o p h e t

M u h a m m a d , w r ot e

it

i n t o

law.

W o m e n d r e s se d

in

hijab

are the

most visible

r e m i n d e r t h a t the I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c is stil l in power.

A s a r e s u l t of this po l i t ics of p e r s o n a l a p p e a r a n c e , I r a n i a n s h a v e c o m e to

refer

to

three types

of

w om an , defining their po l i t ics

by the

c lothes they wear:

t h e c h a d o ry , the m a n t e a u y , and the

maghna'eh-poosh.

The c h a d o r y w o m a n

w e a rs the most severe covering in layers of b l a c k t h a t re q u i re a h a n d to h o l d

the c loth from

the

i n s id e , t h u s p re v e n t i n g

the

c h a d o ry w o m a n f ro m w o rk i n g .

T h e c h a d o r y t e n d s

to be

social ly conservative

and

less inc l ined

to

s u p p o r t

socia l reforms.

The

widespread Iranian view

in the

pol i t ics

of

p e r s o n a l

a p p e a ra n c e l u m p s c h a d o ry w o m e n w i t h I ra n ' s ru l i n g c o n s e rv a t i v e s , t h o u g h I

found severa l exceptions to this ru le . Rare ly , however, did I find a c h a d o ry

who agita ted

for

m e a n i n g fu l s o c i a l re fo rm .

In c o n t ra s t , the m a n t e a u y w o m a n w e a r s the l o o s e -f i tt i n g m a n t e a u , o f te n

fashionably with

a

co lorfu l , loose ly t ied head

scarf. She

g e n e ra l l y s u p p o r t s

b o t h p o l i t i c a l and socia l reform. The m a n t e a u y w o m a n m i g h t s p e a k f o r e i g n

l a n g u a g e s , is u s u a l l y e d u c a t e d , and t e n d s to h a i l f ro m I ra n ' s m o d e rn m i d d l e

and upper c lasses .

In

Iran 's po l i t ics

of

p e r s o n a l a p p e a r a n c e ,

the

m a n t e a u y

w o m a n is believed to be e i t h e r o p p o s e d o u t r i g h t to the I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c or

favoring

the

r e fo r m m o v e m e n t .

T h e maghna'eh-poosh l i es s o m e w h e re b e t w e e n

the two. She

w e a r s

a

loose-fi t t ing manteau that frees her a r m s for w o r k b ut a t ight-f i t t ing scarf th at

covers all her hair. She t e n d s to be m o r e l i b e ra l t h a n the c h a d o ry but l e s s t h a n

t h e m a n t e a u y . O f t en

she

hails from

the

more socia l ly conservative tradit iona l

middle c lasses . She is an act ive part ic ipant in the w o r k p l a c e and g e n e ra l l y

favors

the

re fo rm s

of

P r e s i d e n t K h a t a m i .

Interes t ingly ,

the

r e l i g io u s - m i n d ed m a n t e a u y w o m a n

(and

t h e r e

are

m a n y ;

o n e m u s t not c o n fu s e o p p o s i t i o n to the government with irre l igion) often

d o n s

the

c h a d o r w h e n

she

visits

the

s h r i n e s

of

S h i ' a s a i n t s . I ra n ' s y o u n g e r

m a n t e a u y w o m a n m u s t w e a r

the

maghna'eh,

the

t i g h t e r h e a d

scarf, in the

w o rk p l a c e and on the u n iv e rs it y c a m p u s . M a n y m a n t e a u y y o u n g w o m e n

carry

the

maghna'ehs w i t h t h e m ,

in

their bags ,

and

re l u c t a n t l y p l a c e t h e m

on

t h e i r h e a d s as they enter univers i ty grounds.



P EP . 5 LAW P I L f K l M A f ES

R e g a rd l e s s o f w h e t h e r a w o m a n c h o o s e s t o b e a c h a d o ry , m a n t e a u y , o r

magkna'eh-pooik, she has no right to discard some form of veil a l together.

M an y W estern scho la rs of I ran say the veil is no t the issue. I t is the laws that

d o n o t g ra n t w o m e n e q u a l r i g h t s o r t h a t d o n o t g ra n t t h e m e v e n t h e s a m e

protections they had before the revolution- The scholars have a point , but

w h a t m o re b a s ic h u m a n r i g h t is t h e re i n t h e t w e n ty -f irs t c e n t u ry t h a n c h o o s

ing how you want to dress? If the law on hijab were l i f ted, wh o kn ow s how

many Iranian women would unvei l entire ly , but i t seems to me they deserve

t h e s a m e r ig ht a s w o m e n i n o t h e r M u s l i m c o u n t r i e s , e x c l u d i n g S a u d i A ra b i a,

who have the lega l option to choose (of course , patr iarcha l socie t ies and fam

i ly pressures in many Is lamic countries make that lega l r ight meaningless) .

B y m a k i n g t h e

hijab

suc h a cri tica l part of the I s lam ic R epubl ic 's p ro pa

ganda, however, there appears to me l i t t le way that i t could be discarded

entire ly. T h e rep ubl ic has bo xed itself in. L ifting the

hijab

would s igna l a

severe defeat for i t, a repu diat ion of A yato l l ah K hom eini . W hile the cons erva

t ive ru l ing c lergy has made room for ta lk of l imited democracy, i t is certa in ly

no r ready to give up i ts "G od- give n" r ight to veil its w om en .

A Blasphemous Play

W

h i l e I w a s i n M a s h h a d , a c o n t ro v e rs y h a d e ru p t e d i n T e h ra n o v e r

a s t u d e n t p l a y t h a t a l l e g e d l y i n s u l t e d t h e H i d d e n Im a m , S h i ' a

Is lam's tness iah- l ike f igure who had gone into hiding 1 ,125 years

ago and whom the fa i thfu l expect , l ike any messiah, to re turn and bring jus

t i c e t o t h e w o r l d . H a rd - l i n e rs i n t h e g o v e rn m e n t a t t a c k e d t h e p l a y , b l a m i n g

the newly l ibera l ized press for creat in g "a c l im ate of b l asp hem y/ ' R eformists

c o u n t e re d t h a t I ra n ' s h a rd - l i n e rs w e re re c k l e s s l y c re a t i n g a n a t i o n a l c r i s i s

o v e r a m i n o r s t u d e n t p u b l i c a t i o n . T h e c o n t ro v e rs y e ru p t e d i n t o t h e l a t e s t ro w

between the two s ides , breath less ly reported in the newspapers .

The s tudent 's script—it had never made i t to the s tage—was actua l ly a

s a t ire o n I ra n ' s t o u g h c o l l e g e e n t ra n c e e x a m i n a t i o n s . In t h e p l a y a y o u n g m a n

m e e t s t h e i o n g -a w a i l e d H i d d e n Im a m , w h o i n fo rm s h i m t h a t h e h a s b e e n

s e l e c t e d t o h e l p b r i n g j u s t i c e a n d o rd e r t o t h e w o r l d . T h e y o u n g m a n b a l k s .

He has co l lege entrance exams the next day, he te l l s the imam. He has s tud

ied obsess ive ly , he expla ins , and cannot afford to miss them. He then turns to

t h e i m a m a n d a s k s : " C a n ' t w e s av e t h e w o r l d n e x t w e e k ? "



T E H R A N

I ra n ' s y e a r l y c o l l e g e e n t ra n c e e x a m s o v e rw h e l m I ra n i a n t e e n a g e rs a n d

the ir families with anxiety. O f th e 1,500,000 Iranians who sat for the exams in

2 0 0 0 , o n l y 1 3 0 , 0 0 0 w e re a c c e p t e d . T h e e x a m re s u l t s n o t o n l y d e s i g n a t e i h o s e

who gain or lose dear spots in the univers i ty but a lso determine a s tudent 's

future course of s tudy and therefore his l i fe . The young man in the p lay, l ike

m o s t y o u n g I r a n i a n s , c o u l d t h i n k o f n o t h i n g e l s e — n o t e v e n r e d e m p t i o n a n d

a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o s a v e t h e w o r l d .

I d e c i d e d t o h e a d b a c k t o T e h ra n , t o b re a k a w a y m o m e n t a r i l y f ro m m y

n e x t p i l g r i m a g e — t h e t o m b o f t h e e l e v e n t h -c e n t u ry p o e t , a s t ro n o m e r , a n d

m a t h e m a t i c i a n O m a r K h ay y am i n t h e n e ar b y c it y of N e i s h a p o u r — i n o r d e r t o

l o o k i n t o t h e m a t t e r o f t h e " b l a s p h e m o u s " p l ay . T h e c o n t ro v e rs y s e e m e d re l

evant to my next pi lgrimage beca use K hayyam a lso ange red re l igious pu ri tan s

for p o e t ry d e e m e d " b l a s p h e m o u s . " O n e c o n t e m p o ra ry cr it ic c a l l ed h is p o e m s

"beautifu l snakes , outw ardl y a t tract ive , but inw ardly po iso no us a nd deadly to

t h e H o l y L a w "

F o r t h e I ra n i a n w ri t e r , w h e t h e r a b u d d i n g s t u d e n t p l a y w ri g h t o r a l e g

endary e leventh-century poet , the re l igious puri tan has been a frequent cri t ic .

Today in Iran jou rna l is ts and writers routine l y confront a ccus ation s of

" i n s u l t i n g Is l a m i c s a n c ti t ie s ." O v e r so m a n y I ra n i a n w ri t e rs t h r o u g h o u t h i s

tory, the re l igious ly orthodox cri t ic has cas t a long shadow. I t grew even

l o n g e r a f t e r t h e 1 9 7 9 re v o l u t i o n , w h e n t h e c l e r i c u s u rp e d t h e S h a h , w h o h i m

se lf had quashed free thought.

I b o o k e d a fl ig ht b a c k t o T e h ra n . D u r i n g t h e o n e - a n d -a -h a l f -h o u r f l ig h t,

1 cau ght u p on new s re la ted to the controversy. T h e s tu de nt p l aywright a nd

t h e e d i t o r o f t h e s t u d e n t p u b l i c a t i o n t h a t p u b l i s h e d t h e s c r i p t l a n g u i s h e d i n

ja i l pending tr ia l - Hard- l iners s tepped up their a t tacks on Iran 's minis ter of

c u l t u re an d Is l a m i c g u i d a n c e , A t a ol l a h M o h a j e ra n i , w h o v ig o ro u sl y s u p

po rted free speech. M ohaje rani fought back , te l l ing on e reformist new spape r:

" T h e s e a t t e m p t s t o c o n t ro l i n fo rm a t i o n a re fu t i l e . Y o u c a n n o t p u t t h e c h i c k

back in the egg."

T he reformist an d conservative power s truggle hea ted u p. T h e la tes t row

ref lected an important s truggle taking p lace in Iran: the batt le for free speech

and, even m ore im por tant , free wi l l . I a lso th ou gh t i t w ou ld m ake for a goo d

newspaper s tory for the Washington Post, th e p aper I w rote for a t the t ime.

Hard- l iners ca l led the p lay b lasphemous, "an insu l t to Is lamic sancti t ies ."

Such harangues are a imed a t wri ters , of course , but a lso a t anyone who

9 £



P ER S IA N ) P U p I U M A £ E S

c ro s s e s a l i n e t h a t t h e h a rd - l i n e rs d e e m u n c ro s s a b l e . T h e y a s s u re I ra n ' s

youths , who are lega l ly prohibited from dancing, mingl ing with members of the

opposite sex, or l is tening to Western music , that these acts are " insu l ts to

Is lamic sancti t ies / ' I on ce asked a c lergyman in Qo m , Iran 's ho ly c ity , abo ut this

issue (one of the hard- l ine c lergyman, mind you): "There is no free wi l l / ' he

said. "T here are only laws of the Is lam ic R epubl ic . T h e yout h m ust obey them ."

B u t m o s t y o u n g p e o p l e d o n ' t b u y i t a n d c o n t i n u e t o d o w h a t t h e I s l a m i c

R e p u b l i c t el l s t h e m n o t to . S o m e h a v e t u r n e d a w ay f ro m re l i g i o n a s a re su l t

o f t h e s t r ic t p ro h i b i t i o n s . O t h e rs , a l a rg e n u m b e r , h a v e t u rn e d t o S u f l s m , a

m o r e m y s ti c a l a n d p e rs o n a l p a t h t o w a rd G o d a n d o n e w i t h a l o n g h is t o ry in

M u s l i m l a n d s , e s pe c ia l l y I ra n .

I decided to pay a vis it to th e leafy c am pu s of A m ir K abir Univers ity ,

w h e re t h e a l l e ge dl y b l a s p h e m o u s p l a y w ri g h t s tu d i e d . I w a n t e d t o s e e h o w h i s

friends an d fe l low stu de nt s fe lt ab ou t his jai l in g, ask th em w ha t issues the play

raised, I a lso w ant ed to learn m ore ab ou t th e s tude nt , perh aps to find a mo tive

in his p lay. A l l these qu est io ns intr ig ued me. T h e answ ers lay in Teh ran .

But f irs t the phone rang.

Dance Party

fshin, we are havin g a big party o n Th ur sda y E veryone wil l be

t h e r e M u s i c D a n c i n g E v e n M r . J o h n n i e W a l k e r m i g h t s h o w u p

Y o u m u s t c o m e "

T h e e x c i t ed v o i c e o n t h e o t h e r e n d o f t h e l i n e w a s M e h r a n , a

t w e n t y -f i v e -y e a r-o l d T e h ra n re s i d e n t w h o a l w a y s s e e m e d t o b e t h ro w i n g " a

big party."

"We wil l have a DJ. M an y gir ls I t wi l l be great. You have been spe nd ing

t o o m u c h t i m e w i t h m u l l a h s a n d p o l i t i c s a n d y o u r b o o k s . Y o u n e e d t o s h a k e

your hips a l i t t le b i t You need to party Tehran-s ty le "

M e h r a n l iv es m a ff l ue nt N o r t h T e h r a n , s c e n e o f s o m e of t h e m o s t r a u

c o u s y o u t h p a r t ie s . A N o r t h T e h r a n y o u t h p a r t y i s t h e I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c ' s

w o rs t n i g h t m a re : h i p - s h a k i n g b o y s a n d g ir l s, s o m e t i m e s d ru n k , d a n c i n g t o

W e s t e rn m u s i c b l a r i n g f ro m s o p h i s t i c a t e d s o u n d s y s t e m s , s n u b b i n g t h e i r

nose a t the conservative va lues imposed from above.

I arrived la te to M eh ran 's party . "C om e in ," he sa id , smil ing, s l ightly

buzzed. "Join the fun "

9 4



T E H R A N

The party was rocking. Boys in ge l led hair and jeans , g ir ls in t rendy b lack

pants and s l inky dresses and red l ips t ick, moving and swaying on a large red

P e rs ia n c a rp e t -c u m - d a n c e f l oo r, w i t h L a t in p o p s e n s a t i o n R i ck y M a r t i n ' s

v o i c e b o o m i n g .

R icky M art in sang: "G o, go, go

Aikz

r

alkz, alkz

Here w e go

Alkz, alkz, alkz "

T h e D J , a t w e n t y -y e a r-o l d n a m e d K e y va n , e x h o r t e d t h e p e o p l e o n t h e

cou ches to get up and jo in the fun, "E veryon e I w ant to see everyone on th e

dan ce f loor," h e ye l led. "C 'm on . G o, go, go "

T h e y o u t h w a v e d t h e i r h a n d s i n t h e a i r . "Alkz, alkz, alkzl"

K e yv an re s p o n d e d : " H e re w e g o "

T h e g r o u p : "Alkz, alkz, aikzr

R ic ky M a r t i n 's L a t in p o p h i t p r e ce d e d M a d o n n a , a s a m p l i n g of E u r o p e a n

dan ce hi ts ("jus t released in Paris ," K eyvan prou dl y to ld m e), and I ranian po p

s o n g s f ro m L o s A n g e l e s . T h e d a n c e f l o or t h u m p e d .

L e i l a , a t w e n t y -o n e -y e a r-o l d u n i v e rs i t y s t u d e n t , e x c l a i m e d l o u d l y : " I l o v e

you, K eyvan You are the best DJ "

H am id, wh o was danc ing w ith L eila, reach ed out to give K eyvan a high five.

A m i d t h e n o i s e a n d d a n c i n g , M e h ra n t o o k m e a s i d e a n d o ffe re d m e a

beer. "M r. Jo hn ni e W alker coul d n ot m ake i t," he sa id apologetical ly . "M aybe

n e x t t i m e . T h i s T u rk i s h b e e r i s n o t b a d , t h o u g h . "

M ehr an buys his a lcohol , as do man y Iranians , from A rm enian C hris t ians in

Tehran. A rme nians are a l lowed to have a lcohol in their hom es, so a few en tre

pren eurs have used this privilege to sel l to their thirsty M usl im com patriots.

" T h e A rm e n i a n s a id h e is o u t of J o h n n i e W a l k e r, " M e h ra n s a id .

L e i l a , a p h i l o s o p h i c a l y o u n g l a d y , w o n d e re d w h a t a l l t h e fu s s w a s a b o u t

J o h n n i e W a l k e r . "I d o n ' t d r i n k m u c h , b u t I thi nk wine is th e best drin k," s he

said, wip ing away dance sweat from he r brow. "O ur great poets dr ank w ine

and wrote their beautifu l l ines with their bra ins soaked with wine. Wine

m a k e s m e t h i n k d e ep l y . W h y is t h e re n o w i n e h e r e ? "

" T h e A r m e n i a n h a d o n l y b e e r an d

aragh,"

M e h ra n s a id , re ferr in g t o a v o d

ka l ike drink that was a favori te of an o lder generat ion of I ranian men.

"Besides, you are a l ready intoxicated with you r love for Ham id." H e la ugh ed.

L e il a re d d e n e d . H a m i d , w i t h i n e a rs h o t , sm i l e d . K e y va n , t h e D J , s p u n a ra p

song.

The party progressed, with more dancing and f l i r t ing, severa l requests to

me for he lp to "get ou t of th is coun try," and a specia l t reat : DJ K eyvan s inging

95



P E R S I A N rLpJUMAE

one of his own songs, a heart- tugging love ba l lad. I t was a re la t ive ly tame

party: no drug s , no dir ty dan cing, n ot m uc h drinkin g, no kissing, ju s t a gro up

o f t w e n t y s o m e t h i n g s d a n c i n g a n d l a u g h i n g .

" A re y o u h a v i n g fu n , A fs h i n ? " M e h ra n a s k e d , a l w ay s t h e a t t e n t iv e h o s t .

"You see , we kn ow how to have fun in I ran "

S u d d e n l y t h e re w a s a b u z z i n g s o u n d . I t w a s re p e t i t i v e , a g i t a t e d . S o m e o n e

w a s a t t h e d o o r . T h e g ro u p h u s h e d . K e yv an s t o p p e d i n m i d -b al l a d . A few y o u n g

w om en scurried upsta irs. "O h, my G od," L eila sa id. " I ho pe i t 's not the m ."

Yes, i t was "them," the mora ls po l ice .

M e h ra n a n d t h e o t h e r p a rry h o s t w a l k ed a c ro s s t h e c o u r t y a rd o f t h e i r

h o u s e . I fo l l o w ed . T h e y o p e n e d t h e d o o r . A y o u n g m a n w i t h a b e a rd , w e a r i n g

a green jacket , h is motorcyc le leaned up against the wal l , smiled.

"M y fr iends , are yo u hav ing a party ?" he sa id .

P o k er -f ac ed , M e h r a n s a i d: " N o , w e a r e n o t . M y c o u s i n is h e r e fr o m G e r

many . W e pu t on a l i t t le m us ic to ce lebrate h er arriva l . T ha t 's a l l . "

The young pol ice officer looked unconvinced.

" H e re i s a l i t tl e s o m e t h i n g for y o u , " M e h ra n s a i d , h a n d i n g h i m a few b i l l s.

"Thanks for your vigi lance. We wil l lower the music ."

"Yes,

definitely lower it," the police officer said, "and give my regards to

your cousin," he sa id sarcast ica l ly

When they c losed the door, they smiled, raised their hands for a high five.

They walked back into the house. Everyone was quie t , perhaps wondering if

the vans awaited them outs ide , the vans that would take them to a detention ce l l

for the night, charged with "insulting Is lamic sanctities in a depraved party."

M e h r a n s m i l e d . T h e r o o m l et o u t a s ig h of

relief.

"W her e is everyon e?

This is a party "

H e t u r n e d t o K e y va n , n o d d i n g . T h e D J i n s e r t e d a C D . R i ck y M a r t i n ' s

v o ic e b o o m e d : " G o , g o , g o " T h e w o m e n c a m e r u n n i n g d o w n s t a i rs , a few s t il l

wearing the head scarves they had placed on their heads in fear of a raid.

" C ' m o n , e v e ry o n e " D J K e yv an s a id . " D a n c e "

Campus Politics

M

hran and his fr iends occupy the e l i te s tra ta of I ranian youth. They

g r e w u p i n w e a l t h y N o r t h T e h r a n , w a t c h i n g M T V o n t h e i r s at e l

l i te d ishes , p laying the la tes t v ideo games, l is tening to Western

96



T E H R A N

m u s i c . T h e y h a v e c o u s i n s w h o l ive in t h e U n i t e d S t a te s a n d E u ro p e . T h e i r

parents make sneering references to akkoond-ha, the ru l ing c lerics . Th ey speak

fairl y g o o d E n g l i s h . T h e y o c c a s i o n a l l y t rav e l o u t s i d e t h e c o u n t ry , t o E u ro p e ,

to A merica , to p laces w he re dan cing is no t a crime.

A bbas , th e ja i led s tud en t p l aywright , hai ls from a different ba ck gro un d,

the m ore socia l ly conservative tradit iona l m iddle c lass , wh ich largely sup po rted

K hom eini in his efforts to topp le the S ha h. A bba s never we nt to mixed dan ce

parties, did not drink, and p rayed regul arly. Yet he , l ike M eh ra n a nd h is friends,

v o t e d fo r P re s i d e n t K h a t a m i a n d s u p p o r t s t h e id e a of I ra n i a n d e m o c ra c y .

A b b a s j o i n e d a n I s l a m i c a s s o c i a t i o n w h e n h e e n t e re d t h e u n i v ers it y . T h e

g r o u p , A n j o m a n - e - E s l a m i , s u p p o r t e d P r e s id e n t K h a t a m i ' s d e m o c r a t i c

re fo rm s . I t s p o n s o re d l e c t u re s b y p ro m i n e n t re fo rm i s t s o n c a m p u s , i n c l u d i n g

t h e h i g hl y c o n t ro v e r si a l a n d p o p u l a r I s l a m i c p h i l o s o p h e r A b d o l K a r im

S o ro u s h , w h o a rg u e s , a m o n g o t h e r t h i n g s , t h a t c l e rg y p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n p o l i t i c s

has pol lu ted the Is lamic fa i th .

H a r d - l i n e r s h a v e a t t a c k e d S o r o u s h o n n u m e r o u s o c c a s i o n s w h e n h e t r i e d

to speak. O n e of tho se t imes, A mir, a fr iend of A bbas 's , got ca ugh t u p in t he

fighting. H e described th e sce ne this way: "T he y cam e in and s tarted th ro w

i ng c h ai rs. T h e y ru s h e d t o w a rd t h e s t a g e t o a t t a c k S o ro u s h , S e v e ra l of u s ra n

t o t h e s t a g e t o p ro t e c t h i m . W e m a d e a h u m a n c h a i n a ro u n d S o ro u s h a s t h e y

b e a t u s w i t h t h e i r f is ts a n d c l u b s . T h a n k s t o A l l a h , S o ro u s h m a d e i t o u t t h e

d o o r u n s c a t h e d . "

T h e g r o u p t h a t at ta c ke d S o r o u s h i s k n o w n a s t h e A n s a r - e - H e z b o l l a h

(Hel pers of the P arty of G od). I t is a smal l fr inge group, per hap s on e h un d re d

T e h ra n m e m b e rs a t m o s t , y e t i t s k i r t s t h e n o rm a l ru l e s o f t h e l a w b e c a u s e o f

i ts shady l inks with pol ice and securi ty services and high- leve l conservative

c lerics . In fact, th e A nsar 's a t tack on a s tude nt do rm itory in 1 9 9 9 precipita ted

the nationwide summer s tudent protes ts that rocked the country. In effect ,

the A nsar consis ts of hired hi tm en , and i ts cu rre nt p atro n is a smal l c l ique of

extremely hard- l ine c lerics , merchants , and offic ia ls , who view reform as a

grave threat to their power and their access to Iran 's o i l wea l th .

1

M a n y b el ie ve

t h a t ev e n I ra n ' s s u p re m e l e ad e r, A y a t o l l a h K h a m e n e i , d o e s n o t c o n t ro l t h e

1 R e p o r t s surfaced that

w i l y

P resident R asfanjani p aid the A n sa r to

attack

h is o w n d a u g h

ter's

pa r l i am e nta ry c a m pa i gn

i n

1996. Why?

H e

k n e w

a n

A n s ar attack

w o u l d

m a k e

her

more popular, given

the distaste

w i t h w h i c h

th e

A n sa r

is

he ld

i n the

p o p u l a t i o n.

It

w o r k e d ,

p r o p e l l i n g

th e

already formidable Faezeh Ha sh em i

to the top

vote

getter in

1996.

97



P E f l - S l A N P l L f M M A C E S

A nsar, on e of the few areas he can no t flex his musc l e . T h e A nsa r is on e piece

of the security force that gives hard-liners the abil ity to act with re lative

impunity , the others being the mil i tary, the pol ice , some e lements of the Inte l

l igence M inis try , and so m e of the H ezbol lah i B asij is .

2

' A b b a s i s a re l i g io u s y o u n g m a n / ' A m i r ex p l a i n e d a s w e s at , c ro ss - l e g g e d ,

o n t h e f l o o r i n t h e c a m p u s offic es o f t h e A n j o m a n -e -E s l a m i . " H e c e r ta i n l y d id

not mean b lasphemy. The p lay was a sa t ire on the pressure of the konkur," he

said, referring to the co l lege entrance examinations .

I looked around the smal l room: a computer, a printer , a teapot , and a te le

ph on e, a l l on the carpeted floor. A mir pou red m e a cup of tea and con tinu ed.

"T his is ju s t a po l i tica l m ov e by the conservatives . Th ey d on ' t care abou t th e

play. T he y are ju st trying to create political crises so they can un de rm ine

K hatami and the reformists. If they create eno ug h chaos, maybe K hatami wil l seem

to be los ing contro l and maybe they can s tep in with a coup d 'e ta t / ' he sa id .

" A n j o m a n - e - E s l a m i will f ight for the democratic reform of Iran, The

A nsar- e-H ezb oi l ah tr ies to int imida te us , bu t we are no t afra id. We do not

accept i ts in terpreta t ion of Is lam. I t is us ing Is lam to mainta in power. Is lam is

a p e a c e - l o v i n g re l i g i on . I t i s d e m o c ra t i c . T h e P ro p h e t M u h a m m a d a l w ay s

re l ied on co ns en sus to so lve dispu tes . W e bel ieve in M r. K hatam i. We be l ieve

in civil society, in dialogue. We do not believe in violence."

1 re m i n d e d h i m g e n t l y t h a t t h e A n j o m a n -e -E s l a m i d i d n o t a l w ay s t h i n k

this way.

T h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 8 0 s t h e A n j o m a n l o o k e d a b it l i ke t h e h a rd - l i n e rs t h a t

o p p o s e t h e m t o da y . B a ck t h e n A n j o m a n m e m b e r s w e re h a r d - l i n e r e v o l u t i o n

a r ie s , c a m p u s m o u t h p i e c e s fo r K h o m e i n i a n d c o n s erv a ti v e re l i g i ou s o p i n i o n .

T h e y b e a t s t u d e n t s w h o d i s a g re e d w i t h t h e m a n d i n t i m i d a t e d o t h e rs i n t o

s i l e n c e . S e v eral A n j o m a n m e m b e rs t o o k p a n in t h e A m e ri c a n h o s t a g e t a k i n g .

"W e have evolved s ince the n," A mir smiled.

T h e e a rl y m e m b e rs of t h e A n j o m a n -e -E s l a m i fo rm e d p a r t o f t h e ra d i ca l

I s l a m i c le ft t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d K h o m e i n i ' s i n n e r c i rc l e . T h e y c o m p e t e d fo r

at tention in that c irc le with the radica l Is lamic r ight , a group of c lerics and

merchants less interes ted in lef t is t rhetoric of anti- imperia l ism and more

interes ted in conservative , mora l i ty , economic privi lege, and the preservation

2 It

JS

widely believed that rank-and-file soldiers in ihe military and rank-and-file Basijis

support K hatami and reform. The leaders of these groups, however, are still on the conser

vative side.

H



T E H R A N

o f p o w e r , t h e g ro u p t h a t l arge l y ru n s I ra n t o d a y A f te r K h o m e i n i ' s d e a t h , i n

1 9 S S , the Is lamic r ight gradua l ly took over the re ins of power, pushing the

Is l a m i c l eft as id e . S o m e A n j o m a n m e m b e r s w e n t t o j ai l o n t ru m p e d - u p

charges.

In the ear ly 1990s many of those disempowered Is lamic Left is ts regrouped

a n d fo rm e d i n t o t h e c o re o f t h e p ro d e m o c ra c y m o v e m e n t rh a t e m e rg e d

voca l ly in 1997 . T he A njo m an- e-E s l am i, s t i l l lef tist in its eco no m ic views, has

become avowedly democratic in i ts po l i t ica l out look.

" M o s t of u s in t h e n e w g e n e r a t i o n of t h e A n j o m a n - e - E s l a m i b e g a n

c h a n g i n g o u r v ie w s a ro u n d 1 9 9 4 , " A m i r s ai d . " T h e o l d A n j o m a n i d e as w e re

n o L o nger re l e v a n t. T h e Is l a m i c R e p u b l i c w as b e c o m i n g t o o a u t h o r i t a r i a n ,

a n d w e m o v e d i n t h e d i re c t i o n o f d e m o c ra t i c re fo rm / '

I asked hi m wh y so la te , s ince th e auth ori ta rian ism had s ho w n i tsel f early

after the revolution.

H e s m i l e d , " W e l l , m a y b e s o m e o f t h e o l d e r m e m b e rs k n e w i t b e fo re b u t

were not wi l l ing to act on

it"

He said he had a c lass to a t tend. We said good-bye. He wished me luck in

my report ing, urged me to contact h im if I needed anything. I s tro l led the cam

pus. Black banners hung from trees , a s ign of mourning. The banners , however,

were m ou rn ing n ot th e ja iled s tud ent bu t the a l leged insu l t against th e H id de n

I m a m , W E M U S T D E F E N D I S LA M A G A I NS T A L L FO E S , o n e b a n n e r re a d , THE LINE

O F T H E IM A M [KH O M E IN I]

is

T H E O N L Y W A Y

p

a n o t h e r s c re a m e d i n d ra m a t i c re d

l e t t ers . " T h e L i n e o f t h e Im a m " m e a n s t h e p a t h o f K h o m e i n i , a t e r m w i d e l y

used by conservatives to denote a po l i t ica l and re l igious orthodoxy.

The co l lege Basij i associa t ion, a group of re l igious ly conservative s tu

dents , had draped the campus with these banners . "We created the s igns las t

night ," on e Basij i s tu de nt w ith a pea ch fuzz bear d and a b la ck- and -w hite

Pa les t inian-s ty le scarf to ld me. "We did i t to show our deep disgust with the

s t u d e n t w h o w ro t e t h a t b l a s p h e m o u s s c r i p t. T h e B as ijis o f A m i r K a b i r a re

committed to protect ing Is lam," he sa id , "and we sha l l f ight a l l those

opposed," he added, rephrasing a l ine from the s ign f lapping above us .

T h e B a sij is , h o w e v e r, h el d a m i n o r i t y o p i n i o n o n c a m p u s . A t A m i r K a b ir

s t u d e n t s w a l k e d t h e s t o n e p a t h w a y s t o c l a s s, s i p p e d o ra n g e s o d a s o n b e n c h e s ,

g a t h e re d t o d i s c u s s c l a s s a s s i g n m e n t s , a n d g e n e ra l l y i g n o re d t h e b l a c k b a n

n e rs b l a n k e t i n g t h e c a m p u s a n d t h e B a s i j i s w h o c o n g re g a t e d a ro u n d t h e m .

"I think it is s i l ly," said Ali, a nineteen-year-old jeans-clad student with wide

9 9



P E R S I A N P l L p M M A p E S

eyes and a splash of premature gray hair, referring to the controversy over the

play. "1 consider myself a devout M us l im, bu t

1

do not fear the effects on our

re l igion of a mino r s t ude nt p lay." A few n earby he ads no dd ed in agreem ent,

S u d a b e h , a t w e n t y - t w o -y e a r-o l d m e d i c a l s t u d e n t w i t h g l a s s e s a n d a w h i t e

head scarf covering very l i t t le of her hair, interjected: "But it wasn't even a

b l a s p h e m o u s p l ay l i t w a s a s a ti re o n t h e p re s s u re of t h e k o n k u r l " M o r e h e a d s

n o d d e d .

"T his is ju s t po l i t ics ," she sa id , ech oin g a wid espread view of mo st s t u

dents who rea l ized the rea l reason behind the conservative protes t , po l i t ica l

g a m e s m a n s h i p .

Iran 's conservatives , bes ieged by the country 's popular reformist move

m e n t , c o n s t a n t l y s e a rc h e d for p o i n t s o f a t ta c k . A " b l a s p h e m o u s " s t u d e n t p l a y,

t h e y t h o u g h t , t w i st e d e as il y i n t o a g e n e ra l a rg u m e n t t h a t P re s i d e n t K h a t a m i ' s

pres s freedom s ha d ope ne d the f loodgates t o vice an d b l asphem y. A co n

c e r t e d a t t a c k a g a i n s t t h i s t h re a t c o u l d p o s s i b l y re e n e rg i z e t h e c o m m i t t e d

troops, perhaps win a few new backers , and send a chi l l ing message to a l l

I ranian s tudents who wrote p lays , art ic les , and s tories .

O n e of the Basiji s tud en ts ap pro ach ed m e. "T he re is a ra l ly against the

s tudent p laywrights a t Tehran Univers i ty . I can take you there i f you l ike . I t

might be good for your report ."

Yes,

i t w o u l d .

W e w a l k ed a c ro s s c a m p u s t o g e t h e r , t a l k i n g . I n o t ic e d g l a re s from A h , S u d -

abeh, and others I had spoken with ear l ier*

In s i d e t h e t ax i t h e y o u n g h a rd - l i n e r , w h o s e n a m e t u rn e d o u t t o b e A b d u l l a h ,

ta lked about the s tudent p laywright controversy. " I don ' t know if he is gui l ty ,

but we must be vigi lant . We must not a l low such transgress ions . I f we do, a

f lood of vice wi l l be unl eash ed. We are a t radit ion a l peop le . W e are a re l igious

p e o p l e . W e s h o u l d n o t a l l o w p e o p l e t o i n s u l t o u r fa it h ."

1 a s k e d h i m w h a t h e t h o u g h t a b o u t t h e p ro d e m o c ra c y s t u d e n t s w h o

flooded the s treets in sup po rt of K hatam i an d reform a nd increased freedom s.

"I voted for K hatam i too," he sa id . "1 th in k we shou l d reform ou r pol i t ica l

system, but we m us t m ainta in ou r socia l sys tem. We m us t f ight vice. T ha t is

the only way."

D id he rea l ize that som e of tho se s tud en ts had voted for K hatam i be cause

of the socia l freedoms they be l ieved would be coming?

100



T E H R A N

"Yes, [ kn ow t ha t , but if tho se peopl e wan t th os e kind s of freedom , th ey

s h o u l d m o v e t o E u ro p e . T h a t i s n o t w h a t t h e m a j o r it y o f I ra n i a n s w a n t . "

I asked if he had taken a pol l , to see what the majori ty of I ranians wanted.

" W h a t ? "

A p o l l , f i e l d re s e a rc h , s o m e t h i n g .

"I do n ' t ne ed a po l l . I know what we want," he sa id dismissively . "You h ave

c o m e fro m A m e ri c a . Y o u d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e t h i n g s . "

I t o l d h i m t h a t I h a d s p e n t a c o n s i d e ra b l e a m o u n t o f t i m e t ra v e l i n g a c ro s s

I ra n , t a l k i n g t o t h o u s a n d s o f p e o p l e a l o n g t h e w a y I h a d n o f ix ed c o n c l u

s ions , I sa id , but was wi l l ing to ta lk to everyone. I would be doing more trave l

in the future . Perhaps we could discuss some of my findings sometime.

W

I know what you are f inding," he snapped. "You are f inding that everyone

i s c o m p l a i n i n g a b o u t j o b s a n d c o m p l a i n i n g a b o u t t h e c l e r i c s a n d c o m p l a i n i n g

a b o u t t h e e c o n o m y a n d e v e ry t h i n g .

1

know that . I hear i t too. But the revolu

t ion res tored o ur dignity . M y m oth er a nd s is ter now have dignity w he n the y

walk on the s treets , wearing the chador. This is the dignity of our revolution."

B u t t h e y w e re n o t fo rb i d d e n f ro m w e a r i n g t h e c h a d o r b e fo re t h e re v o l u

tion, I said.

" I k n o w , b u t t h e y h a d t o w a l k a ro u n d n e a r p l a c e s t h a t s o l d a l c o h o l a n d

u n d e r n e a t h b i l l b o a rd s a d v e r t is i n g m o v i e s w i t h w o m e n i n b ik i n is . I t w a s t o o

m u c h . N o w t h e r e a r e n o m o r e b i l l b o a r d s a n d n o m o r e s to r e s s e l l in g a l c o h o l .

That is the vic tory of our revolution."

That was i t?

" T h a t ' s e n o u g h , " h e s a i d .

W e arrived a t Te hra n Univers ity . W h e n I paid th e taxi driver, I cam e to the

realization that it was probably the first taxi ride I 'd had in weeks in which the

driver had not launched into a t i rade against the government. He had

r e m a i n e d q u i e t t h r o u g h o u t t h e rid e. W h e n I h a n d e d h i m t h e m o n e y , A b d u l

lah had a l ready s teppe d ou t of the car. T he driver tu rn ed back to me and sa id,

"Your friend is a fool," and drove away,

Hard-Liners and Green Cards

T

h e h a rd - l i n e rs ' ra l l y a t t ra c t e d a s m a l l a u d i e n c e , n o m o re t h a n o n e h u n

d re d p e o p l e , t r i v i a l i n c o m p a r i s o n t o t h e t h o u s a n d s o f s t u d e n t s w h o

regular ly agita ted for freedom of the press and democracy. Severa l

101



P E R S I A N P t L p R l M A p E S

y o u n g b e a rd e d m e n i n b l a c k s h i r t s s t o o d a t o p a s t a g e , p a s s i n g a ro u n d a b l u e

l o u d s p e a k e r A s l i m y o u n g m a n w i t h a d a rk b e a rd , s p o r t i n g a g re e n h e a d b a n d

e m b ro i d e re d w i t h " O H u s s e i n / ' w r i t t e n in F arsi , y e l l e d in t o t h e l o u d s p e a k e r :

"R eform m ean s assaul t on o ur re l igion. T h e p laywrights m us t die "

T h e c ro w d c h e e re d ,

" R e f o r m m e a n s b l a s p h e m y "

T h e y c h e e re d l o u d l y .

The speaker had soft eyes , but he did his best to summon ferocity by

frowning and furrow ing h is eyebrow s wh enev er he m ad e a po int .

" D e a t h t o t h e p l a y w ri g h t s / ' h e s c re a m e d .

T h e s m a l l , f i s t -p u m p i n g a u d i e n c e r e s p o n d e d : " D e a t h t o t h e p l a y w r ig h ts "

" D e a t h t o t h e m i n i s t e r o f c u l t u re w h o a l l o w s s u c h b l a s p h e m y , " h e c r i e d .

T h e a u d i e n c e : " D e a t h t o t h e m i n i s t e r o f c u l t u re w h o a l l o w s s u c h b l a s

p h e m y "

" D e a t h t o A m e ri c a " h e y e l l e d .

" D e a t h t o A m e r i c a "

" D e a t h t o a l l t h o s e o p p o s e d t o t h e velayat-e-faqih Iru le by c lerics] "

" D e a t h t o a l l t h o s e o p p o s e d t o t h e

veJuyat-e-faqikV

S u d d e n l y a m o m e n t o f s i l e n c e b ro k e h i s re c i t a l ; p e rh a p s h e h a d ru n o u t

of people to kil l .

A s t a l k y y o u n g m a n b ro k e t h e s i l e n c e a f t e r g ra b b i n g t h e m i c ro p h o n e .

" D e a t h t o I s ra e l "

A h , y e s , " D e a t h t o I s ra e l " t h e c ro w d c h a n t e d .

A n u m b e r o f fo re i g n j o u rn a l i s t s s t o o d i n t h e c ro w d . C a m e ra s ro l l e d ,

z o o m i n g i n o n t h e a n g ry a n d c o n t o r t e d fac es o f t h e c h a n t e rs . A g ro u p o f

a b o u t t w e n t y w o m e n , d ra p e d i n s e v ere b l a c k c h a d o rs , j u s t t h e i r e ye s s h o w i n g ,

chanted loudly for the cameras , quie t ing down when the cameras lef t . Foreign

re p o r t e rs , t h e i r I ra n i a n i n t e rp re t e rs a t h a n d , j o t t e d n o t e s . I w o n d e re d w h a t

t h e y m a d e o f t h i s . L o o k i n g d o w n a t m y o w n n o t e b o o k , I s p o t t e d t h e w o rd

"death" f ive t imes on a s ingle page.

T h e fo re i g n a n d d o m e s t i c re p o r t e rs o n t h e s c e n e , n u m b e r i n g a b o u t t h i r t y ,

m a d e fo r ro u g h l y o n e re p o r t e r p e r t h re e h a rd - l i n e rs . Fifty o r s o s t u d e n t s h u n g

a ro u n d t h e e d g e of t h e h a rd - l i n e c ro w d , w a t c h i n g . T h e y w o re fa s h io n a b l e

c lo thes , jea ns , and sungl asses . T h e boys had shaved recent ly; thei r shir ts were

tuck ed in . T h e gir ls w ore co lo rfu l , loose ly t ied hea d scarves . T he y op enl y

s m i rk e d a t t h e s c e n e b e fo re t h e m .

102



T E H R A N

O n e s t u d e n t o n t h e e dg e , a y o u n g m a n i n s u n g l a s s e s , a p p ro a c h e d m e a s I

j o t t e d n o t e s . " A re y o u a j o u rn a l i s t ? " h e a s k e d .

Yes.

A t firs t, he wa s friendly. H e tho ug ht 1 w ork ed for an Ira nian reform ist

p a p e r . W h e n h e fo u n d o u t I w o rk e d fo r a W e s t e rn n e w s p a p e r , h e b e c a m e a g i

ta ted and angry. "You Western journa l is ts record these fanatics on camera,

a n d t h e n v o u s h o w t h e m t o t h e w o r l d a n d t h e w o r l d t h i n k s w e a re a l l fa n a t -

ics. It is not fair " He walked away, huffing.

T h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s l o w e d . T h e fo re ig n t e l e v i si o n c a m e ra s h a d p a c k e d u p

and left. After the final death threat, the s l im, soft-eyed leader stepped off the

podium. I approached htm. I to ld him my name and affi l ia t ion and asked if he

would ta lk .

"You are from A m eric a?" he sa id , som ew hat incredul ous l y . "You write for

a n A m e r i c a n n e w s p a p e r ? "

A c r o w d s u r r o u n d e d u s . I n o d d e d .

"Tou wil l not print w hat I say. A l l the foreign new spape rs are in th e ha nd s

of the Zion is ts ," he sa id defiant ly , w ith an u pt ur n of his chi n. T he crowd n od -

dedn

H e s m i l e d . H e d id n o t l o o k t h re a t e n i n g , j u s t a r ro g a n t .

1 s h o u l d n o t w o rk w i t h t h e s e p a p e rs , h e s ai d . H e c o u l d c o n n e c t m e w i t h a

conservative daily . Hi s adm irers laug hed and no dd ed ,

1 m u m b l e d a p o l i te re s p o n s e . T h e n I a s k e d h i m if h e rea l l y t h o u g h t t h e

y o u n g p l a y w ri g h t s h o u l d b e k i l l e d .

"Wel l , these matters are complicated," he sa id . " If they are found gui l ty ,

then yes."

H e a l ready tho ug ht they were guil ty . I sa id , jud gin g by his s loga ns .

"T hes e are s logans , ju s t s l ogans ," he sa id .

S l o g a n s c a l l in g fo r s o m e o n e ' s d e a t h ?

"Yes," he said, "just s logans."

I h a d h e a rd t h i s a rg u m e n t b e fo re . S l o g a n s m a k e u p a n i m p o rt a n t p a r t o f

I ra n i a n p o l i t i cs , o r s o J w a s t o l d . " D e a t h t o s o -a n d -s o " s h o u l d n o t b e t a k e n

l i tera l ly . In fact, the "D eath to A m erica" s igns in Fars i usua l l y receive th e

t ra n s l a t i o n o f " D o w n w i t h t h e U S A . " S t il l , t h e P e rsi a n w o rd u s e d ,

marg,

m e a n s " d e a t h " i n l i t e ra l t ra n s l a t i o n . C e r t a i n l y , I c a n u n d e rs t a n d t h e i m p o r

tance of s logans in Iranian s treet po l i t ics , and I unders tand that the s logan is

not l i teral ly a ca l l to kil l A m ericans , b ut w he n it is d irected a t one pers on , l ike

t h e p l a y w ri g h t i n q u e s t i o n , t h e s l o g a n t a k e s o n a m o re o m i n o u s t o n e . S u re l y

103



P E R S I A N F I L p i U M A f ES

t h e U n i t e d S t a t es of A m e ri c a n e e d n o t w o rry a b o u t t h e p e t ty s l o g a n e e r i n g o f

a s m a l l b a n d o f b a s i c a l l y h a rm l e s s s t u d e n t h a rd - l i n e rs ( t h e re a l t h re a t e n i n g

types , l ike the perpetra tors of the World Trade Center ki l l ings , do not chant

s l o g a n s i n t h e s t re e t s— t h e y p l o t d e s t ru c t i o n i n w h i s p e rs ) , b u t t h e y o u n g p l a y

wr ight , s i t t ing a lo ne in a ja il ce l l , m ight have cau se for worry.

"L ook, wh y don 't w e discuss this later?" th e hard-liner said. "C om e to the u ni

versity, an d we can have a tea together. M aybe I can get these A m erican ideas ou t

of your head." He walked away, trai led by a group of young, bearded admirers,

I c o n t i n u e d t a l k i n g w i t h y o u n g m e n i n t h e c ro w d . N o n e w a s i n t e re s t e d i n

o n - t h e -r e c o rd i n te rv ie w s a b o u t t h e p l a y c o n t ro v e rs y . T h e y c l a m o re d for t h e

i n fo rm a t i o n I h a d a b o u t A m e ri c a .

"How is l i fe there?"

" H o w l o n g h a v e y o u l i v e d t h e re ? "

A s t h e c ro w d d w i n d l e d , o n e o f t h e h a rd - l i n e s t u d e n t s a p p ro a c h e d m e , a

fel l o w w h o m I h a d n o t i c e d e a r l i e r a s o n e o f t h e m o re v i g o ro u s " D e a t h t o

A m e ri c a " c h a n t e rs . G l a n c i n g a b o u t fu rtiv el y , h e t o o k m y a rm a n d a s k e d ,

" H o w c a n I g e t a g re e n c a r d ? "

Elites and Masses

A

m o n g S h i ' a M u s l i m c l e ri cs , t h e re is a d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n khawass

(elites) and

awwam

(m a s s e s ) . T h e

khawass

are re l igious scholars and

clerics. C erta in thin gs m ay be said in front of th e e lites bu t no t the

masses . These things usua l ly involve complex re l igious discourse , the sort of

ta lk that m ight confuse "th e s im pl e be l iever." T he re are a lso som e thi ng s that

e l i tes might have l icense to say in publ ic , but the masses do not . For example ,

a cleric can que st io n the m ysteries of G od, bu t a "s imp le be l iever" cann ot.

Tak en to a go ver nm ent level , i t m ean s this : P res id ent R afeanjani can s tand

u p in front of a crow d of rep orter s an d say openl y, "N inety p erce nt of w hat

we do in the Is l amic R epub l ic is un-I s l am ic," an d get away with i t , as he did

during his pres idency. I f someone e lse , not considered an e l i te , sa id the same

w ord s in front of repo rters , the re cou ld be serious rep ercu ssion s .

T h e Is l a m i c R e p u b l i c , t ru e t o t h is t ra d i t i o n , d i st i n g u i s h e s b e t w e e n i n s i d

e rs a n d o u t s i d e rs . T h e i n s i d e r i s a re v o l u t i o n a ry w h o s id e d w i t h K h o m e i n i

a n d t h e o t h e r re l i g i o u s re v o l u t i o n a r i e s , n o t t h e l e ft is ts o r d e m o c ra t s o r M a rx

ists.

P re s i d e n t K h a t a m i is a n i n s id e r. T h a t ' s w h y t h e o t h e r i n s i d e rs a l l o w e d

104



T E H R A N

him to run for office in the first place. His conservative foes are a lso insiders.

T h e cur ren t s truggle between reform ists and conservatives remains , th us fer,

an ins ider-only s truggle . Few outs iders—secular nat iona l is ts or l ibera l democ

rats or opp on ent s of th e Is lamic R epubl ic— have a publ ic voice in the debate . A

conservative e lect ion supervisory body s tymies outs ider a t tempts to run for

P a r l i a m e n t b y d e n y i n g t h e m i n s i d e rn e s s .

B u t P re s i d e n t K h a t a m i a n d o t h e r i n s i d e r re fo rm i s t s h a v e fo u n d a b re a ch

i n t h e l i n e , o r s o t h e i r c o n se rv a ti v e o p p o n e n t s o f t en c o m p l a i n . K h a t a m i t a l k s

too direct ly to the people , " the s imple be l ievers ." He "confuses" them with

these ideas of democracy and c ivi l socie ty . Some conservatives whisper that

K hata m i may no t even be a t ru e insider, that h is ideas o n dem ocracy seem to

go too far . Severa l former ins iders , l ike the revolutionary turned invest igative

j o u rn a l i s t A k b a r G a n ji , h a v e b e e n b o o t e d o u t o f t h e c i rc l e . G a n ji i s c u rre n t l y

in jai l on charge s of " ins u l t ing Is l amic sancti t ies" and "defam ing publ ic offi

cia ls" for his boo k a nd artic les criticizing w hat he dee m s as th e "re lig ious

fascism" of conservatives. In today's Iran the circ le of insiders shrinks as

opp osit ion grows. A s m ore reformists speak ou t vigorous ly and bold ly , co n

servatives cry "betraya l ," and yet an ot he r ins id er beco m es an ou ts ider. A s th e

circ le shrinks , i t wi l l become increasingly untenable for the ins iders to s i lence

the outs ider voices crying for change.

T h e u l t i m a t e p u b l i c p ro p o n e n t o f t h i s awwam/khawass idea is the har d- l ine

and powerfu l c leric A yato l lah M esb ah YazdL He onc e sa id: " I t do esn ' t m atter

w h a t t h e p e o p l e t h i n k . T h e p e o p l e a re i g n o ra n t s h e e p . " T h i s v i e w p o i n t w a s

ref lected in the you ng har d- l iner 's assert ion that h e does not need a pol l to

g a u g e p e o p l e ' s o p i n i o n s . T h e h a rd - l i n e r d i d n o t c a re a b o u t p e o p l e ' s o p i n i o n s .

V i ce s h o u l d b e s t o p p e d . T h a t i s t h e w a y it s h o u l d b e . T h e o p i n i o n s o f " s i m

ple be l ievers" do not matter . They are sheep.

T h i s

awwam/khawass

dis t inction, on a more subt le leve l , refracts the com

plex l ines between private and publ ic space in Iranian socie ty . High wal ls sep

a ra t e t ra d i t i o n a l I ra n i a n h o m e s . S o m e o f w h a t g o e s o n i n s i d e t h e h o m e

sho ul d not occu r outs ide . A cross socia l classes, I ranians con stant l y assert , in

effect, "N ot in front of th e guests ." O f course , m ost t rad it iona l socie ties erect

these wal l s of secrecy a ro un d th eir private l ives. T he y are necessary. T h e

Is lamic Republ ic , however, sought to disrupt th is age-o ld system. By knock

ing on people 's doors , to check for dancing couples or a lcohol ic drinks , the

new system knocked down private wal ls fort if ied by centuries of use .

105



P E R S IA N P l L p iU M A £ E S

I w o n d e r e d w h a t O m a r K h a y y am , t h e e l e v e n t h - c e n t u r y p o e t , m i g h t t h i n k

of today 's I ran. He might have seen some famil iari ty to his own era . In

N e i s h a p o u r , w h e re K h a y y am w a s b o rn i n 1 0 4 4 , t h e T h rk i s h S e l j uk s ru l e d . A

powerfu l a nd a l ien tr ibe from Cen tra l A sia , they need ed legit imacy to bols ter

their ru le in newly conquered Iran, They sought this legit imacy in t radit iona l

S u n n i M u s l i m o r t h o d o x y , w h i c h h a d r is en a s a c o u n t e r t o S h i ' a v ic t o ri e s

a c r o ss th e M u s l i m w o r l d i n t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e o r t h o d o x S u n n i c l er ic

bec am e a co ur t fixture. S un ni c lerics derided an d often kil led phi l oso phe rs .

T h e S e l ju k e ra v e x ed sp e c u l a t iv e m e n l i k e K h a y y a m , w h o re a c h e d b e y o n d t h e

simple t ruths provided by ru lers or orthodox c lerics .

S t il l , K h a y y am w a s a m e m b e r o f t h e khawass, an e l i te . H e ga rnere d great

re s p e c t a s a c o u r t a s t ro n o m e r a n d m a t h e m a t i c i a n . H i s c a l e n d a r , b a s e d o n t h e

s u n ' s m o v e m e n t a n d h i s i n t e rp re t a t i o n o f t h e w e a t h e r t h ro u g h t h e m o v e m e n t

o f t h e s t a rs, d e m a n d e d a t t e n t i o n . W h a t ' s m o re , h e c o u l d e n g a g e w i t h o t h e r

members of the re l igious

khawass

on d eep issues conce rni ng the fa ith . T ha nk s

to such exploits , the ru l ing e l i tes granted K hayyam his private space to p hi l os

ophize, criticize, and even display skepticism toward re ligion. The Persian l i t

e ra t u re e x p er t A h m a d K a r im i H a k k a k p u t s i t t h i s w a y : " K h a y ya m w a s a l l o w e d

to say things a normal man could be hanged for. He had a certa in l icense that

most men do not . He was to ld , however, to keep his poetry and phi losophiz

ing to himse lf and c lose associa tes . I t should not invade the publ ic space."

F o r n e ar l y e i g h t c e n t u r ie s , K h a y y a m ' s p o e t ry re m a i n e d i n t h e w o r l d ' s p r i

vate space unti l a m in or Victorian po et , E dw ard FttzG era ld , t rans l a ted in free

v e rs e t h e K h a y y a m q u a t ra i n s , w i n n i n g fo r h i m s e l f— a n d K h a y y am — a p l a c e i n

t h e p a n t h e o n o f w o r l d l i t erary m a s t e rp ie c e s . F i tz G e ra l d 's t ra n s l a t i o n s a l s o

renew ed interes t in K hayyam a m on g Iranians . Today inte l lec tua l s an d free

spiri ts flock to K hayyam 's tom b, large ly ignored ju s t a cen tury ago, I f lew back

t o M a s h h a d t o r e s u m e m y p i l g ri m a g e j o u r n e y w i t h O m a r K h a yy a m .

The Road to Neishapour

V

p o n m y re t u rn t o M a s h h a d , I c o n t a c t e d H a ji A g h a , m v d ri v er t o t h e

Ferdow si shrin e , to ask if he w oul d drive m e to N eish apo ur, Th e next

d a y a t t h e a p p o i n t e d h o u r o f o u r m e e t i n g , h i s w h i t e P a y k a n s p u t

tered tow ard me. H e had a load of passeng ers ins ide . T hr ee ch i ld ren and a

106



b l a c k c h a d o r-c l a d w o m a n s m i l e d a t m e f ro m t h e b a c k s e a t . " T h i s i s m y fa m

i l y" Haji A gha sa id as I sa t dow n in the front, " I hop e yo u do n ' t m ind th at I

b r o u g h t t h e m t o o . "

H a j i A g h a ' s w ife, a p i n k -c h e e k e d , p l u m p w o m a n w h o h a d p re p a re d

pa ntr ies of food for the trip, offered m e bisc uits and tea from a th er m os as th e

car jer ke d to a start. S hor tly the reafter a pl ate of s l iced juic y pears, tart

oranges , and crunchy grapes came forward from the back seat , a long with the

requis i te apologies for such "h um bl e hospita l i ty ." T h e chi l dren, two gir ls and

a boy, smil ed an d giggled as I exchang ed p le asantries with their m othe r. E ven

before 1 a te th e las t grape, Haji A gha 's son , a seven-y ear-o l d spo rt ing th e red,

green, and white shir t of the Iranian nationa l soccer team, proffered a p la te of

sunf lower seeds (a seventy-year-o ld man with a seven year-o ld son. What

viril i ty P erha ps the re was so m eth in g in th e seeds). T h e girls , e leven and thir

teen, w ore black head scarves an d had red paint ed fingernails . W h en

1

spoke

to their mother, they looked away and giggled.

M e rc e d e s d i es e l t ru c k s , c o l o rfu l b u s e s , a n d s p e e d i n g P a y k a n s c h o k e d t h e

n a rro w , o n e - l a n e h i g h w a y f ro m M a s h h a d t o N e i s h a p o u r . C a rs s w e rve d i n a n d

o u t , p a s s i n g s l o w -m o v i n g t ru c k s a n d b u s e s . H a j i A g h a

T

n o t m u c h o f a r i s k

taker, res ted in the s low lane, content to amble a long behind a bus with a s ign

saying G O D R EM EM B ER pasted on the back window.

"Firs t , we sha l l go to Qa da m ga h," Haji A gha sa id as he drove and

m u n c h e d o n g ra p e s a n d s p i t s u n f l o w e r s e e d s h e l l s o u t t h e w i n d o w , " a n d t a k e

o u r l u n c h t h e re , a n d t h e n w e c a n p ra y a t t h e m o s q u e t h e re . " Q a d a m g a h w a s

a shrine dedicated to Imam Reza. In fact , Qadamgah means "the p lace of

fo o t p ri n t. " L e g e n d h a s i t t h a t w h e n Im a m R e za t rav e l e d t o K h o ra s a n i n t h e

eighth century, he dismounted from his horse and s topped for water a t the

s i te of the shrine . S ince i t was the f irs t spot Imam Reza 's ho ly foot touched,

the loca ls preserved th e soi l . Today pi lgrim s to the shrin e kiss a clay tab l e t

with a huge footprint be l ieved to be long to Imam Reza. Bui l t in 1643 by the

Safavid S ha h S ul e im an, th is famil iar shri ne greets m ost re l igious pi lgrimage

tours in the northeast .

O n t h e ro a d t o N e i s h a p o u r , t h e t a n a n d d ry a n d ro c k y l a n d s c a p e o c c a

s iona l ly burs t in to patches of green and ye l low trees . Every so often a

dust-c o l ored vil lage appe ared on a hi l l s ide in th e dis tance . A s the ro l l ing

brown hi l l s in the dis tance turned c lay red, we drove by a f ie ld of ta l l , long

107



P E R S I A N

P i l £ R l M A p E S

y e l l o w s u n f l o w e rs . I ra n i a n s c o n s u m e t h e i r b l a c k s u n f l o w e r s e e d s a l m o s t

obsessive ly at p icnics and a t ho m e. T h e sunf low ers we passed a l l droop ed

downward, as i f t i red from providing Iranians their source of p leasure .

W e a rr i v e d a t Q a d a m g a h , a s m a l l , e l e g a n t b l u e -d o m e d m o s q u e a t t h e t o p

of a hi l l surrounded by ta l l , th ick trees . Up the s ta irs leading to the shrine , a

gr ou p of shir tless boys sp lashed ins ide the green-t i led foun tains . A t the top of

th e s ta irs a smattering of I ranian, A rab, In dian, and P akis tani p i lgrims crowded

a ro u n d t h e d o o r t o t h e s h r i n e . I t s b l u e d o m e s p a rk l e d i n t h e s u n .

In s i d e , a l i g h t h e a r t e d c ro w d s u rro u n d e d Im a m R e z a ' s fo o t p r i n t , j o s t l i n g t o

to uc h an d kiss i t. A few boys marve l ed a t th e s ize of th e footprin t , spreading

their ha nd s across it . T h e arche d foot with gigantic toe s enve l oped the ir t iny

h a n d s : p e rh a p s a si ze fo u r t e e n o r s ix t e e n b y A m e ri c a n s t a n d a rd s , a S h a q u i l l e

O ' N e a l - s i z e d fo o t.

O u t s i d e t h e s h r i n e I c h a t t e d w i t h a y o u n g A ra b S h i ' a M u s l i m c l e r ic f ro m

B a h ra i n . H e h a d a s h o r t , w e l l - t r i m m e d b l a c k b e a rd a n d w o re a f l o w i n g b ro w n

frock coat and shiny b l ack shoes . A fter we had exc hanged greetings in A rabic,

I as k e d h i m a b o u t t h e l e g e n d o f t h e fo o t p r in t . H e re s p o n d e d i n A ra b ic , b u t

my comprehension creaked with rus t , so I asked him if he spoke Fars i . He

did, in an A rabic accent , som ew ha t difficu l t to fo l low. A sm al l c ro wd gathered

as he explained the story.

" I m a m R e za w a s o n h i s w a y t o K h o ra s a n , " h e s a id . " H e c a m e t o t h i s s p o t

to do

namaz

[p rayers]. H e step ped off his hor se h ere. A fter he step ped off his

h o rs e , s o m e o n e t o l d h i m t h a t t h e re w a s n o w a t e r fo r wuzu [preprayer ritual

w a s h i n g ] .

I m a m R e za t h e n c re a t e d w a t e r f ro m t h e g ro u n d . T h a t ' s t h e s to ry ."

H e s m i l e d . T h e c r o w d n o d d e d .

I thought this mirac le of water a more sa int ly act than mere ly s tepping off

a horse . "Why," I asked the c leric , "was the creation of water not ce lebrated in

t h e n a m e o f t h e s h r i n e ? " L o o k i n g a m u s e d , h e sh r u g g e d h i s s h o u l d e r a n d

repea ted an A rabic phras e loose ly t rans l a ted as " I t is bes t not to que st ion

mysteries . I t wi l l on ly mystify you." He looked around a t the gathered crowd,

w h o d id n o t u n d e r s t a n d h i s A ra b i c re s p o n s e .

L ater, af ter the crow d had d ispersed, he tur ne d to m e an d sa id: " I t is bes t

n o t t o a s k u n c o m fo r t a b l e q u e s t i o n s i n f ro n t o f s i m p l e p i l g r i m s . S u c h m a t t e rs

are best left to khawass. Your quest ion could disrupt the fa i th of a pi lgrim," the

c leric to l d m e. "S t i l l , i t is a va l id que st io n, on e that can be discu ssed am on g

s c h o l a rs o f I s l a m . " H e g a v e m e h i s t e l e p h o n e n u m b e r i n B a h ra i n .

10 S



N E I 5 H A F 0 V R

"You are m os t wel com e at m y ho m e if you visi t B ah rai n/ ' he sa id . "1 wi l l

t a k e y o u t o o u r m o s q u e . W e c a n d e b a t e i s s u e s w i t h o t h e r S h i ' a s ch o l a rs . I a l s o

w a n t t o s h o w y o u t h e p l i g h t of S h i ' a M u s l i m s i n B a h ra i n . W e a re n o t

respected there. Here, in Iran, I feel free."

He then excused himse lf to wash his hands before leading his group of

pi lgrim s in prayer, Haji A gha ca l led m e over to a spot un de rn ea th a large tree .

His wife and three chi ldren sa t cross- legged in front of a mat decked out with

bread and yogu rt and frui t . O nc e we 'd enjoyed the frui t and yogu rt , H aji's

fam i l y u n c o v e re d a p o t w i t h s t e a m i n g sa ff ro n -s o a k ed c h i c k e n . H a j i K h a n o m

fi l led my p la te with r ice and chicken and bread.

"You have embarrassed me/ ' I sa id s incere ly .

" W h a t e m b a rr a s s m e n t ? Y o u h a v e h o n o re d u s , " s h e s a id .

W e a t e

in

t h e c o o l s h a d e o f t h e s h r i n e ' s b l u e d o m e a n d t h i c k g re e n t re e s .

A fter we had f inished eat ing, Haji K ha no m offered the rem ain de r of the frui t

to fe l low pi lgrims, and w e got back in th e car. We drove for abo ut o ne m ore

hour. The heavy meal made me doze off . When I awoke, I heard giggl ing from

the back seat . The boy had begun a game of poking my ear with a feather.

E v e n H a ji A g h a w a s a m u s e d , l a u g h i n g w h e n I g r u m b l e d a w a k e .

W h e n w e a rr i v ed at m y h o t e l i n N e i s h a p o u r , t h e w h o l e fam i l y e m e rg e d

fro m t h e c a r t o b i d m e g o o d -b y e . I e m b ra c e d H a j i A g h a ' s l i tt l e bo y . A c c o rd i n g

to the custom of a t radit iona l re l igious family , I d id not reach out my hand to

t h e w o m e n . In s t e a d I p u t m y h a n d o n m y c h e s t a n d b o w e d s l i g h t l y in

good-bye to his wife and her two daughters . They smiled and did the same. I

asked Haji A gha to walk with m e to th e hote l recep tion desk s ince i t might

have been in poor tas te to exchange money in front of his wife and chi ldren.

H and ing h im a few bi l l s beyond ou r agreed price, I tha nk ed him imm ense ly .

He refused, vowing to accept on ly the agreed price .

I tr ied the l ine abo ut bu yin g gif ts for his chi l dren, b ut he refused to bu dge .

T h i s w a s n o t s i m p l e ta'rof H e s e e m e d d e t e rm i n e d t o s t i c k t o o u r d e a l .

He pushed the extra money back in my pocket . "You wil l need i t when you

get married " he said. It amounted to five thousand tomans, the equivalent of

about e ight dol lars , I wob bled, no t sure wh ether to pus h harder. Being a younge r

m an, perh aps I woul d wo un d Haji A gha 's pride .

Ta'rof

m atters are co mp lex.

Fina l ly , I urged him to take the money and give "some of i t" to the Imam

Reza shrine and pray for me. He agreed re luctant ly , and we embraced and sa id

good-bye.

109



P E R S I A N

P l L f fc l M A f E S

Notes on a Pilgrimage: Om ar Khayyam , the Poet

F

i t zG e ra l d 's t ra n s l a t i o n s o f K h a y y a m ' s q u a t ra i n s s t a n d a s a s i n g u l a r

achievement in the rendering of the poet 's spir i t in free verse . Though

cri tics may argue that Fi tzG era ld 's

Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam

exagger

a ted, rom antic ized, and W esternized K hayyam 's phi l osoph y, oth er specia l is ts

argue that Fi tzG era ld captu red t he essence of the K hayyam spiri t in his

poe m s. T h e I ranian cri t ic M asu d Farzad p ut s it th is way: "A cen tury ago a ray

of inspira t ion from the po em s of K hayyam fel l on th e w hite pages of FitzG er

a ld 's mind, and from this contact sprang one of the great l i terary masterpieces

o f t h e E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e . "

F i t z G e ra l d ' s K h a y y a m , a s p o r t ra y e d i n t h e

Rubatyat

free verse translations,

comes across as a "seize the day" agnostic phi losopher, burdened by worries

about the shortness of l i fe and the ins ignificance of the human in the grand

c o s m o s a n d re t re a t i n g t o t h e E p i c u re a n p l e a s u re s of w i n e a n d b e a ut ifu l

w o m e n i n re s p o n s e . S o m e r e l ig i ou s I r a n i a n s a r g u e t h a t K h a y ya m ' s m o m e n t s

of " intoxication" in the origina l poems were a Sufi conceit , the intoxication of

t h e re l i g i o u s w o rs h i p e r w i t h t h e D i v i n e B el o v e d. O t h e r I ra n i a n c r i ti c s d i s m i ss

th e S ufi arg um en t as bu nk a nd proc l a im K hayyam a freethinker in an age of

or tho do xy {admittedly, m os t I ran ian s side w ith the freethinker view).

Whatever the case may be, as with a l l s ignificant I ranian poets , debates

wil l a lways rage abo ut the tr ue m ean ing of th e wo rk: W as K hayyam a S ufi

intoxicated w ith love of G od or a freethinker mere l y intoxica ted? M an y ask

t h e s a m e q u e s t i o n o f t h e fo u r t e e n t h -c e n t u ry p o e t H a fe z , p e rh a p s t h e g re a t e s t

in Iran 's chest of poetic marve ls .

R e g a rd l e s s , F i t z G e ra l d ' s K h a y y a m m e t w i t h a t ep i d re s p o n s e w h e n f irst

p u b l i s h e d i n 1 8 5 9 . S h o r t l y a ft er F i t zG e ra l d 's d e a t h , in 1 8 8 3 , a g ro u p o f

a d m i r i n g E n g l i s h c r i t i c s re s u rre c t e d h i s t ra n s l a t i o n s . T h e re fo l l o w e d a m i n o r

K h a y y a m c raz e a m o n g t h e W e s t e rn l i t e ra ry s e t. F i t z G e ra l d ' s K h a y y am c a p t i

vated a generat ion of young Western poets and freethinkers , with verses l ike

the fo l lowing:

Why, all the Saints and Sages who discuss'd

Of the Two Worlds so learnedly, are thrust

Like foolish Prophets forth; their Words to Scorn

Are scatter'd, and their Mouths are stopt with Dust.

110



N E 1 S H A P 0 V R .

Oh,

come with old Khayyam , and leave the Wise

to

Talk; one thing is certain, that Life flies;

One thing is certain, and the Rest is Lies;

The Flower that once has blown for ever dies.

W h i l e F i tz G e ra l d 's re n d i t i o n o f t h e K h a y y am i c q u a t ra i n s i n t ro d u c e d t h e

poet to the world , i ronica l ly , i t a lso re introduced him to Iranians , who had

l o n g i g n o re d t h e N e i s h a p o u r i p o e t . A s a re s u l t of F i t z G e ra l d ' s w o rk , I ra n i a n

i n t e l l e c t u a l s t o o k a c l o se r l o o k a t K h a y y a m . In 1 9 3 4 o n e o f I ra n 's m o s t

p ro m i n e n t w ri t e rs , S a d e q H e d a y a t , w ro t e a b o o k t i t l e d Songs of Khayyam,

w h i c h s h a p e d t h e w a y a g e n e ra t i o n o f I ra n i a n s v ie w e d t h e N e i s h a p o u r i p o e t .

T he Hed ayat pic tu re of K hayyam differs from FitzG era ld 's : He daya t 's poe t is

less the "seize the day," w ine -drin kin g, agnostic phi l oso ph er and m ore an

a n t i -A ra b n a t io n a l i s t f re e t h in k e r w h o d e e p l y re s e n t s t h e s e v e n t h -c e n t u ry

A.D, A ra b i n v a s i o n t h a t b ro u g h t I s l a m t o I ra n . H e d a y a t n o t e s t h a t K h a y y a m

" fro m t h e b o t t o m o f h i s h e a r t d e s p i s e s t h e A ra b h i g h w a y m e n [ Is l a m ic

i n va d e rs ] a n d t h e i r b a s e t h o u g h t . " H e g o e s o n t o sa y t h a t K h a y y a m ' s " s y m p a

t h y l i es w i t h I r a n w h i c h h a d b e e n t r a p p e d i n t h e m o u t h o f t h i s

seventy-headed dragon and which f layed i ts arms and legs convuls ive ly ."

In m a n y re s p e c ts , F i t zG e ra l d 's K h a y y am re s e m b l e s t h e o r i g in a l m o re t h a n

Heday at 's po l i t ic ized "anti- A rab" K hayyam . Hed ayat was himse l f a nat ion ais t

w h o re s e n t e d t h e s e v e n t h -c e n t u ry A ra b in v a s io n . H e a t t r i b u t e d s o m e of h i s

o w n v ie w s t o K h a y y am . S t il l , H e d a y a t ' s K h a y y a m h e l d a s p ec ia l i m p o rt a n c e

for me because i t shaped the his toriography of the poet , the way Iranians per

ceive him today. H eday at 's w ork led to othe r expl orat ion s of K hayyam 's p er

ceived character: h is re l igious indecis ion, h is defiance of conventiona l

orthodoxy, and his a t tempts to speak free ly in a repress ive environment. A

p i c t u re o f K h a y y a m e m e rg e d i n t h e p o p u l a r m i n d : a f re et h in k e r , u n c o n v e n

t iona l , a qu est io ner of e terna l m ysteries . T h e P ers ian l i terary schola r M ichae l

H t l l m a n e x p re s s e s it ni ce l y : " In t w e n t i e t h c e n t u ry I ra n , K h a y y am h a s b e e n

mythol ogized into a f igure qu ite different from w hat the k no w n facts ab ou t

his biography imply. But no matter , the view is that he bucked the t ide of re l i

gious orthodoxy and dared to say what many Iranians fee l in the heart of their

h e a r t s : t h a t a n s w e rs w h i c h g o v e rn m e n t s g iv e a b o u t h u m a n a n d s o ci a l

progress buttressed with technology and sc ience and the answers offered by

re l igion neglect to account for that occasiona l or perhaps frequent f lash of

111




ins ight to the effect that the only meaning to human l i fe l ies in the individua l

l ives of human beings ."

T h o u g h K h a y y a m ra re l y rat e s as h i g h a s t h e fo u r g re a t p o e t s o f I ra n ' s c l a s

s ic a l p e r i o d — F e rd o w s i , S a a d i, H a fez , a n d R u m i — h e s ti l l o c c u p i e s a n i m p o r

t a n t p l a c e in I ra n i a n l i t e ra t u re a n d t h e I ra n i a n p s y c h e . M o re i m p o rt a n t t o m y

m i n d , K h a y y a m re p re s e n t s a s t ru g g l e I ra n i a n s c o n t i n u e t o d a y : free e x p re s si o n

and free wi l l in the face of orthodoxy.

The Spice M en of the Bazaar

efore vis it ing th e K hayyam tom b, I decided to look arou nd N eishapour, to

get lost in the crowds and not think about the pilgrimage ahead. It was

my first visit, and like any traveler at a new destination, my heart quick

ened. I was eager to see wh at my jou rne y w oul d bring. A s in m ost provincial

Iranian c it ies, the m ain road took K hom eini 's nam e. Im am S treet . A long i t, I saw

news vendo rs , booksho ps, neon-l i t c l o thing s tores , bread bakers , tea house s , and

vegetable sel lers, of the sort seen on every provincial Iranian Imam Street.

TU rning off I m am S treet , I w and ered into th e spice bazaar s i tuated next to

t h e c o m m u n a l F r id a y m o s q u e . T h e r e t h e g a p - t o o t h e d o l d m e n of t h e s p i c e

bazaar smiled as I browsed in their s tores , overf lowing with massive s traw

bales of red and ye l low and green spices . In one of the s tores , a group of

gray-h aired m en in ta t tered sweaters sat cross- legged o n a P ers ian ca rpet ,

leaning up against bags of spices, drinking tea. Inevitably they offered me a

cup. Thirs ty and needing a caffe ine jo l t , I accepted.

S i t ti n g o n t h e f l oo r w i t h t h e m , I t o l d t h e m I s o u g h t a b o t tl e o f ro s e w a t e r

s y ru p . T w o o f t h e s p i c e m e n d i s a g re e d v i g o ro u s l y o n w h i c h o n e I s h o u l d b u y

"T he best rose water syrup is from K asha n," on e sa id , referring to a cen

tra l Iranian city.

" R i d i c u l o u s

1

. T h e best rose wa ter is from S hiraz ," th e othe r cou nte red , f in

g e r j a b b i n g t h e a ir . A h e a t e d d e b a t e a b o u t t h e b e s t ro s e w a t e r e n s u e d .

N o t w a n t i n g t o o ffen d e i t h e r s id e , I b o u g h t t w o b o t t l e s — o n e f ro m

K ashan , th e othe r from S hiraz— and pro m ised to offer my ow n verdic t la ter.

O n e of t h e o l d e r m e n , w h o w o re a b l u e s w e a t e r a n d h a d b l u e e ye s, s u d d e n l y

p i p e d i n: " W h y d o y o u w a n t t o d r i n k r o s e w a t e r a n yw a y ? O u r o w n

sharbat-e-rivas

is much better ," he sa id , referring to a drink popular among

112



N e i s h a p o u r i s . T h e c o m m e n t w a s m e t w it h v i g o r o u s h e a d n o d d i n g a n d a p p r e

cia tive smiles . T he b l ue-s w eater ed

r

b lue-eyed man looked sa t isf ied, as he kept

re p e a t i n g h i s l i n e : " O u r

sharbat-e-rivas

is much better ."

Sharbat is essentia l ly a purified syrup form of plants, f lowers, fruits , or veg

etab les that are mixed with co ld w ater to pr od uc e refreshing drin ks . S ou r

cherry syrup,

sharbat-e-albaloo (sharbat

m e a n i n g " s y r u p " a n d

albako

m e a n i n g

"so ur ch erry"), is a part icu lar favorite in I ran, b ut I was no t famil iar w ith rivas.

When I to ld them of my unfamil iari ty , the o lder men dispatched a young

clerk to fetch some cold water. He placed the water in front of me, and the shop's

proprie tor poured the brown syrup essence of the

sharhat-e-rivas

into the cold

water, s tirring vigorously, the spoon making a c l inking sound against the glass.

" N o w , t ry t h i s / ' h e s a i d .

T h e m e n o f t h e s p ic e s h o p g a t h e re d a ro u n d . H o w w o u l d t h e I ra n i a n f ro m

A merica , th e reporte r fu ll of que st io ns and a lways writ ing in his n ote bo ok ,

l ike their dri nk ? I dra nk with a smal l gu lp . T h e tas te , s l ightly meta l l ic and less

s w e e t t h a n t h e ro s e w a t e r , c o u l d n ' t m a t c h

sharbat-e-albaloo.

"Very good," I said, polite ly.

T h e y s e e m e d p l e a s e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e m a n w i t h t h e b l u e e y e s i n t h e b l u e

sweater . " I to ld you our sharhat-e-rivas is the best ." L ater, lo okin g in m y

F a rs i-E n g l i s h d i c t io n a ry , I fo u n d o u t t h a t

rivas

m e a n s " r h u b a r b . "

"Take this ," th e propri e tor sa id , ha nd ing m e th e bott le of th e sharbat h e

had po ure d for me. " I t is a g if t. G o and w rite in yo ur ne ws pap er th at th e b est

sharbat Is from N e i s h a p o u r . " H e p o u re d m e a n o t h e r c u p of t e a .

A l l t h ro u g h t e a , t h e m e n d e b a t e d s p ic e s a n d s w e e ts . N o o n e a rg u e d w h e re

t h e b e s t g re e n s c a m e f rom : N e i s h a p o u r , of c o u rs e . F o r s affron , M a s h h a d h a d

an edge. The best

nabat

r

crysta l l ized sugar, a lso happened to hai l from

N e i s h a p o u r . " G o n e x t d o o r a n d t r y t h e nabat/' t h e b l u e -e y e d m a n s a i d , " y o u

wil l see what I mean about i ts exce l lent tas te ."

N e x t d o o r , a t t h e nabat s h o p , I w a t c h e d a s a l a rg e m a n w i t h t h i c k fo re a rm s

and a cur l ing b lack mustache cooked massive bowls of gooey sugar over an

open f ire by s t irr ing i t with a baseba l l bat-s ize mixer. The b lue-eyed man had

fol lowed me into the

nabat

s h o p . H e a p p ro a c h e d t h e s t o re c l e rk a n d s a i d :

" O u r f ri en d h e re i s a j o u rn a l i s t . H e t h i n k s o u r

sharbat-e-rivas

is the best. Take

care of o u r friend,"

T h e u s u a l p l e a s a n t r i e s p a s s e d b a c k a n d fo r t h . I h a d " h o n o re d " t h e s t o re -

i

115



P E R S I A N

P l L f f UM A p E S

owner, he was "a t my service" in his "humble" s tore . For my part , I was "trou

b l i n g " t h e s t o re o w n e r a n d h o p e d t h a t h e w a s " n o t t o o t i re d " f ro m h i s l o n g

day a t work.

His shop produced the tradit iona l rock candy of ye l low crysta l l ized sugar,

w h i c h w h e n b o i l e d i n h o t w a t e r h e l p s s e t t l e s t o m a c h s o r w a rm c h i l l e d I ra n i

ans in th e winter . A no the r pro du ct , hai l -s ize suga r bal ls , a t tracted chi ldren

e s p e c i a l l y T h e y l i k ed t o e a t t h e m w i t h t h e i r m o rn i n g t e a . T h i s

nabat

shop, I

l e a rn e d f ro m t h e c l e rk , b e l o n g e d t o C e n t ra l A s ia n i m m i g ra n t s , w h o h a d

m i g ra t e d t o N e i s h a p o u r i n t h e 1 9 3 0 s, w h e n t h e S o v i e t s y s t e m h a d ru i n e d

their business ,

" P e o p l e d i d n o t h a v e m o n e y t o b u y

nabat''

the shop 's c lerk sa id , "and

sugar was given away for free. So the owners of the shop left and sett led in

N e i s h a p o u r , w h e re t h e y c o u l d m a k e a b e t t e r l i v in g . B u s i n e s s h a s b e e n g o o d

in Iran, "he sa id ," but i t was much better before the revolution. Before the

revolution, everything was better ," he sa id g lumly. "We had more money,

more jobs , everything."

T h e p h ra s e " b e fo re t h e re v o l u t i o n " p e p p e rs s o m u c h o f I ra n i a n t a l k .

Ghabi

az engkelab, "before the revolution," the toman was s trong, seven to the dol lar;

gfiabl az

enghelab, beef was cheap, apartments were affordable , and Frank Sina

tra gave a concert in Tehran.

"C om e with m e," th e c lerk sa id , leading m e to a back office. H e op ene d a

draw er and pul led o ut a receipt dated 1356 (1977), a year before th e rev olu

t ion. Carefu l ly unfo lding the twenty-three-year-o ld receipt , he showed i t to

me.

It said in Farsi: "o ne kilo of nab at = 235 ria ls ."

"T he sam e kilo costs four t ho us an d r ia ls today. T he re h as bee n infla t ion,"

he sa id , "and you may think that the higher prices are good for us , the shop

owners . But i t is not ," he sa id .

H e seeme d defensive, per hap s hop ing to eradicate a view that s ho p o w n

ers in the bazaar lau ghe d a l l the way to the ba nk as prices rose . "T ha t same

four thousand r ia ls is not even near ly worth the two hundred and thir ty-five

ria ls of goods we could buy in the Shah 's t ime," he sa id . In economic terms,

he tr ied to expla in tha t the rea l , inf la t ion-adjusted price of

nabat

had fa l len, so

t h e s h o p o w n e r a c t u a l l y s u ffe re d j u s t a s m u c h a s , i f n o t m o re t h a n , t h e c o n

sumer. "Al l the too ls and materia ls we buy have gone up in price ."

H e t a l k e d m o re o f h i s e c o n o m i c t ro u b l e s . In I ra n , c o m p l a i n i n g a b o u t t h e

114



N E t 5 H A P 0 V f c

e c o n o m y h a s b e c o m e a n a t i o n a l p a s t i m e . F o r s m a l l a n d m e d i u m - s i z e b u s i

n e s s e s , n o t t o m e n t i o n c o m m o n w a g e e a rn e rs , s u c h c o m p l a i n t s a re w e l l

justified.

T h e c l e rk t h e n t u rn e d t o m e a n d s a id : " D i d y o u k n o w t h a t i n th e t i m e o f

t h e S h a h o n e d o l l a r c o u l d b e b o u g h t w i t h se ve n t o m a n s ? G o d r e st t h e S h a h ' s

s o u l "

I bought a few bags of nabat as d u s k a p p r o a c h e d . 1 h e a rd t h e m u e z z i n , t h e

Is lamic ca l l to prayer, emanating from the nearby mosque. I walked back to

my hote l , s topping in a few bookstores a long the way. I bought a lavish ly i l lus

t ra te d c offe e t a b l e b o o k w i t h O m a r K h a y y am ' s p o e m s w ri t t e n i n E n g l i s h ,

F re n c h , a n d F a rsi . T h e p i c t u re s i n c l u d e d s e n s u o u s w o m e n , th e i r c u rv e s w e l l

defined, eyebrows arched, the sort of p ic ture that conservatives s truck out of

magazines or newspapers . Somehow, Iran 's censors never bothered to use their

re d p e n s o n i l l u s t ra t e d p o e t ry b o o k s , m a n y o f w h i c h i n c l u d e i d e al i z e d ,

c l e a v a g e -b u s t i n g m a i d e n s s u rro u n d i n g a n o l d e r , g ra y -b e a rd e d , d re a m y -e y e d

m a n re l i s h i n g f ru i ts a n d w i n e . A s I l e afed t h ro u g h t h e b o o k , I t h o u g h t o f m y

friend A hm ad , an art is t chast ised for drawing " lewd" portra i ts of fashion m o d

els. P e rh a p s h e m i g h t b e ab l e t o u s e h i s s ki l l s t o i l l u s t ra t e K h a y y am b o o k s .

The Pilgrimage: Om ar Khayyam Tomb

T

h e n e x t m o r n i n g I h i t c h e d a r i d e t o t h e K h a y y am t o m b w i t h a

t h i r t y - t w o - y e a r - o l d v e t e r a n o f t h e I r a n - I r a q w a r , H a s s a n , a n e w

a c q u a i n t a n c e . S o o n t o b e a g r o o m , H a s s a n , l ik e m a n y N e i s h a p o u t i s ,

wo ul d seal the w edd ing vows with a vis it to the K hayyam to m b for go od for

tune and—if no one looked and he had paid off the r ight people ahead of

t im e — a b i t o f m i x e d -c o u p l e s d a n c i n g . I t h i n k K h a y y a m w o u l d h a v e re v el e d i n

this dancing tradit ion, g iven his s ta ted penchant for p leasurable pursuits . I

th ink he would a lso have taken p leasure in knowing that res idents of

N e i s h a p o u r re m e m b e re d h i m , a ft er h e h a d b e e n l a rge l y i g n o re d for c e n t u r i e s

after his death.

In a f ine la te-nineteenth-century trave l narra t ive t i t led

Khorasan and Seis-

tan

f

a n E n g l i s h c o l o n e l re l a t es h is v is it t o t h e K h a y y a m t o m b i n t h e 1 8 9 0 s,

a n d n o t e s h i s c o n s i d e ra b l e d is t re ss t h a t fe w N e i s h a p o u r i s e v e n k n e w w h o

K hayyam was. H e scoffed to hea r his I ran ian g uide "grave ly tu rn and ask if

115



P E R S I A N

P U f K i M A f E S

O m a r K h a y y am w a s a C h r i s t i a n , a s e v ery Farangi (W esterner), and especial ly

e ve ry E n g l i s h m a n , h e s a id , w h o c a m e t o N e i s h a p u r , w e n t o n p i l g r i m a g e t o h is

tomb"

T h e Farangis a n d t h e E n g l i s h m e n , d a zz l e d b y F i t z G e ra l d ' s K h a y ya m ,

w a n t e d t o p a y t h e i r re s p e c t s t o t h e P e rs i a n p o e t t h a t s e n t t h e m d a y d re a m

i n g o f t h e e x o t i c E a s t f ro m t h e i r C a m b ri d g e d o rm i t o r i e s o r t h e i r ra i n -

soak ed W elsh h om es. Co lo ne l Yates, on e of tha t breed, chafed a t the I ranian

t re a t m e n t o f K h a y y a m ' s t o m b . H e w ro t e , w i t h s o m e m e a s u re o f a n g er , t h a t

"the tomb is u t ter ly neglected by the Pers ians and is in fact t reated with

d i s d a i n / '

W h e n K h a y y am d i e d , i n 1 1 2 3 , c o u r t p h i l o s o p h e rs m o u rn e d h i s p a s s i n g a s

the loss of a kindred spir i t . But most orthodox theologians must have

t h a n k e d G o d t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n i n g p o e t h a d c e as e d t r o u b l i n g t h e m . S i nc e

K h a y y a m k e p t h i s p o e t ry t o c o u r t el i te s, h i s n a m e m e a n t l i t tl e a m o n g t h e

largely i l l i tera te masses , w hich tran sm itted poetry oral ly . T h e peop le probab ly

k n e w h i m o n l y as a m a n o f s c ie n c e. M o s t N e i s h a p o u r i s w h o k n e w K h a yy a m 's

verse aura l ly died in e i ther an earthquake in 1145 or the Turkoman invasion

o f N e i s h a p o u r i n 1 1 5 5 . T h e d e v a s t a ti n g M o n g o l i n v a si o n o f t h e t h i r t e e n t h

c e n t u ry d e s tro y e d N e i s h a p o u r a n d a d d e d a n o t h e r l a y er t o t h e h a zy m e m o ry

o f t h e q u a t ra i n s . A s a re s u l t , s c h o l a rs s p e n d a c o n s i d e ra b l e a m o u n t o f t i m e

grap pl ing with the veracity of po em s a t tr ibu ted to K hayyam.

T o d a y N e i s h a p o u r i s k e e p K h a y ya m ' s t o m b w e l l t e n d e d a n d s u r r o u n d e d

b y fer ti l e g a rd e n s . T h e t o m b h a d a n n e x e d t h e g a rd e n s , b u il t fo u r c e n t u r i e s

after h is death, from a loca l Shi ' i te sa int 's tomb. In the twentie th century, Reza

S ha h, the firs t P ahlavi king, ord ered th e res torat io n of a l l the tom bs of I ran 's

g re a t p o e t s , i n c l u d i n g K h a y y a m . T o d a y a ta ll n a rr o w o v al b l u e -a n d -w h i t e

s tru ctu re , sprinkle d with K hayyam 's verses , covers the tom b. L ike so man y of

I ra n ' s s h r i n e s , t h e b l u e d e n o t e s a n o t h e rw o r l d l y q u a l i t y .

L e a v i n g m e a l o n e t o a p p ro a c h t h e t o m b , H a s s a n s l i p p e d a w a y t o t h e t e a

house adjoining the gif t shop in the far corner of the shrine . Off to one s ide

o f t h e t o m b , a s m a l l c ro w d g a t h e re d a ro u n d a s q u a t c o ffe e -s k i n n e d o l d m a n

w h o w o re t h e s i m p l e c l o t h e s o f a n a g r i c u l t u ra l w o rk e r . H e a n i m a t e d l y re l a t e d

the great legends of K hayyam in a heavy N eish apo uri accent: "T he G reat

K hayyam w as learned in a l l fields " he bo om ed l ike a vaudevil le actor. "S cience

P h i l o s o ph y ] R e l ig io n L a w A n d , o f c o u rs e , p o e try " S u d d e n l y t u rn i n g si l e n t, h e

closed his eyes and p ut his ha nd on h is ear, as re ligious m en d o w he n reciting

116



N E 1 S H A P 0 V R .

v e rs e s from t h e Q u ra n . H e b e g a n re c it i n g p o p u l a r K h a y y am p o e m s . T h e

crowd, nodding in apprecia t ion, was rapt with a t tention as he sang.

A fter he f inished, th e crowd dwindl ed, han din g hi m smal l b il l s , whi le a few

stayed on to ta lk. He claimed day laborer as his profession, whenever he could

find a jo b. W ork ing or n ot, every day he rod e a m op ed from his vil lage to th e

nearby tom b. H e said he had l earned K hayyam 's poetry from h is father, a c leric.

"He was the c leric of our vi l lage. He read a lo t of poetry, and he taught a l l

of us , h is chi ldren, to read poetry too,"

W h y h a d n ' t h e g o n e i n t o t h e re l i g i o u s s e m i n a ry t o s t u d y ? s o m e o n e a s k e d .

"I

a m n o t g o o d a t l y i n g ," h e d e a d p a n n e d , c ra c k i n g a s m i l e a s t h e s m a t t e r

ing of l is teners chuckled.

I

h a n d e d h i m a few b il l s a n d w a l k e d t o w a rd t h e t o m b , w h e re a y o u n g m a n

w r o t e i n a sm a l l n o t e b o o k . I s t r u c k u p a c o n v e rs a t io n . H i s n a m e w a s M o h s e n ,

and h e was a stu de nt in optom etry , his "forty-fifth cho ice," he said rueful ly.

O n t h e u n i ve rs it y e n t ra n c e e x a m s , a p ro s p e c t i v e s t u d e n t i s e x p e c t e d t o n a m e

h i s o r h e r p re fe rre d c h o i c e o f s t u d y a n d l o c a t i o n . O n l y t h e t o p s t u d e n t s

n a t i o n w i d e g a i n t h e i r first o r s e c o n d c h o i c e s . M o h s e n h a d m a rk e d m e d i c i n e

in fifteen different cities, chemistry in fifteen more, and so on. He'd ended up

gett ing op tom etry a t a univers i ty in a no rt he rn I ranian c i ty , hu nd re ds of mi les

from his family in Tehran.

"W he n I read K hayyam, I fee l an a lm ost re l igious inspira t ion," he sa id ,

"a l m ost th e same fee l ing as w he n I read K afka." I w asn ' t su re ho w K afka

inspired re l igious inspira t ion, but I le t h im go on. "So I decided to make a pi l

g r i m a g e t o K h a y y a m ' s t o m b a n d ref l ec t o n h i s p o et ry . M y m o t h e r a rg u e d w i t h

me.

S he sa id a visi t to a po et 's tom b does no t co un t as a pro per pi lgrimage.

S he is so fu l l of t radit io ns in her h ead tha t she can ' t see beyo nd th em .

K h a y y a m h a s m e a n t s o m u c h t o I ra n i a n i n te l l e c t u a l s . H e d e s erv e s o u r re v e r

e n c e a n d o u r p ra y e rs a n d o u r p i l g r i m a g e . A l m o s t a t h o u s a n d y e a rs a g o h e w a s

fighting the same fight for freedom of expression that we fight today. I wanted

to co m e to th e tom b a nd tel l h im that w e carry on his legacy. T hi s is my l i fe

and these are my pi lgrimages and nobody can te l l me otherwise ."

His rea l pass ion was l i tera ture , though he did not th ink i t a "practica l"

fie ld of s tudy. "There are bare ly enough jobs in the sc iences , le t a lone in l i ter

a ture ," he sa id . H e f lew from his univers ity to meet his family in M ash ha d,

w h e re t h e y v i si te d t h e I m a m R e za s h r i n e . T h e I m a m R e za s h r i n e b o re d h i m ,

however, so he had boa rded a bu s for a visi t to K hayyam 's tomb . Twenty years

117



P E R S I A N P ; i _ p l U M A £ E S

o l d , b o rn o n e y e a r a f t e r I ra n ' s re v o l u t i o n , h e fo n d l y q u o t e d t h e n u m e ro u s

P e rs i a n a n d W e s t e rn a u t h o rs h e re a d .

I a s k e d M o h s e n w h a t h e t h o u g h t a b o u t t h e c u r re n t b a t tl e fo r f re e d om o f

express ion.

"W e are f ighting, b ut I am n ot so optimis t ic . O u r peop le are

bee-farkang

[w i t h o u t c u l t u re ] " , h e s a id . " L o o k a r o u n d y o u , " h e s a i d , s n e er i ng - " L o o k a n d

s ee h o w m a n y p e o p l e a re at t h i s K h a y y am t o m b . " I c o u n t e d a b o u t t h i r ty p e o

ple.

" H o w m a n y p e o p l e g o t o t h e t o m b s o f u n k n o w n S h i ' a s a i n t s e v e ry d a y ?

M i l l i o n s . T h i s is n o t a c o u n t ry re a dy for d e m o c ra c y a n d f re e d o m of e x p re s

sion. We are sti l l ful l of superstitions."

1 ha d he ard this argu m en t before, often from disaffected yo ut hs l ike

M o h s e n . S o m e t i m e s , it s o u n d e d a rt if ic ia l , a s if t h e y w e re re p e a t i n g s o m e t h i n g

they had read in the books of Sadeq Hedayat , a g if ted mid-twentieuVcentury

w ri t e r w h o s e w o rk s o f t e n l a m e n t e d h i s c o m p a t r i o t s ' t e n d e n c y t o w a rd w h a t h e

viewed as re l igious supers t i t ion, and regular ly excoria ted Iran 's c lerics .

"He dayat is a great wri ter , on e of ou r best ever," M oh se n to ld m e. "1 have

a co l lec t ion of a l l of h is works ."

1 asked M oh se n to focus less o n w hat he sees is wro ng with Iran and te l l

m e w h a t h e h o p e d fo r I ra n .

" I w a n t o u r c o u n t ry t o w a k e u p .

1

want us to enter the twenty-firs t century

as the great people we are . But everywhere I look, I see problems. 1 see cor

ru pti on a nd I see i l l -educa ted professors a t universi t ies an d I see these back

w ard c lerics ru nn in g u s and I see the wo rld p ass ing us by. E very day

new spape rs are being c losed a nd jou rna l is ts are being ja i led s impl y for wri t

i n g t h e i r be l ie fs . I j u s t h o p e m y g ra n d s o n c a n c o m e t o t h i s t o m b o n e d a y a n d

te l l K hayyam tha t we have w on t he f ight for free expre ss ion."

He leaned down, p laced two fingers on the tomb, and sa id xhefatehek, the

M us l im prayer for th e dead. Jus t then , a crow d of Iranian w om en in heavy

black chadors approached the tomb. Part of a tour group of famil ies of "war

martyrs ," they vis ited N eis ha po ur as part of a pi lgrimage tour. Th ey crow ded

ar ou nd the to m b, a sea of b lack rob es . T h e to ur leader, a w om an in large

g l a s s e s t h a t o v e r l a p p e d w i t h h e r t i g h t l y b o u n d h e a d

scarf,

covering a l l her

hair and c hin, gave th e gr ou p a quic k sketch of K hayyam 's l ife.

" O m a r K h a y y a m , " s h e sa id " w as a g re a t S u fi p o e t w h o l o v e d G o d a n d h i s

re l i g io n . M a n y o f y o u k n o w h i s p o e t ry a l re a dy . L e t u s s ay zfateheh f or O m a r

K h a y ya m . "

118



N E I S H A P O V F .

T h e w o m e n k n e l t a ro u n d t h e to m b , w h i s p e r i n g v e rse s from t h e Q u r a n .

M o h s e n s e et h ed i n t h e b a c k g r o u n d — o n t h e gr a ss n e a r t h e r o s e g a r d e n —

bare ly ab le to c on tain his disgust . "K hayyam w as no t a Sufi ," he sa id , k icking

th e grass. W e wal ked toward th e tea shop , to find H assa n.

M ohsen, the Student, and Hassan, the W ar Veteran

j l re you ready to go ?" H assa n said to m e, after 1 brief ly intro du ced

\ h i m t o M o h s e n . H a s s a n h a d p r o m i s e d t o t a k e m e t o t h e m a r t y r s '

+ ^ - c e m e t e r y of N e i s h a p o u r . T h e " m a r t y r s " b u r i ed i n t h e s e c e m e te r ie s

are not poets or sa ints , phi losophers or c lerics but are most ly young men who

died in Iran 's devasta t ing 19S O -88 w ar with I raq, w hic h too k 300,0 00 Ira nian

l ives . T h e Iran-I raq war hau nt s the lan d, havin g left or ph an ed chi l dren, w id

owed women, and the deaths of a generat ion of I ranian youth in i ts wake,

I ra n ' s g o v e rn m e n t h a s s o u g h t t o p o r t ra y t h e s e y o u n g m e n w h o d i e d a s m a r

tyrs in a ho ly war. T h e war is used in the cu rren t gov ern m ent s truggle . "Th e

martyrs fought for Is lam and the revolution," the conservatives often say, "not

for democracy."

"Wil l you join us for a vis i t to the martyrs ' cemetery?" Hassan asked,

" I ' m n o t i n t e re s te d , " M o h s e n s ai d b ru s q ue l y , b a rel y m a k i n g e y e c o n t a c t

w i t h H a s s a n a n d t h e n re s u m i n g h i s c o n v e rs a t i o n w i t h m e .

F o r m a n y y o u n g p e o p l e l ik e M o h s e n , t h e w a r is a d i s t a n t m e m o ry , a

m o m e n t i n t h e i r c h i l d h o o d w h e n b a d t h i n g s w e re t a k i n g p l a c e , b u t t h e y

k n o w n o t w h a t . T o d a y M o h s e n a n d m a n y y o u n g p e o p l e l ik e h i m —

prodem ocracy, l ibera l , secul ar— resent th e war. T he y opp os e th e use of i ts

m e m o ry i n c u rre n t p o l i t i c s a n d d o n ' t m u c h c a re fo r t h e v e t e ra n s t h e y s e e o n

T V w h o t a l k o f m a r t y rd o m a n d re l i g i o u s z e al . P e o p l e l ik e M o h s e n e s pe c ia l l y

resent the eas ier univers i ty p lacement for war veterans and the famil ies of

martyrs . T he y a lso associa te the w ar negative ly with the ha rd - l ine Basij is w ho

stif le them on campus,

H assa n, however, was no t the sort of veteran w ho fit ted th e offic ia l co n

servative l ine depicted on te levis ion and in newspapers , the young man fue led

by re l igious fervor. W h e n I asked h im abo ut the w ar, he sa id: "I wen t to w ar

t o p ro t e c t t h e h o n o r o f o u r I ra n i a n s o i l .

I

never be l ieved in the re l igious pa r

adise s tuff and the ta lk of defend ing Is lam . I am a re l igious m an , bu t

1

believed

119



P E R S I A N P I L p l U M A p E S

t h a t I ra n w a s s a c re d a n d t h a t I ra q i d o g s s h o u l d n o t o c c u p y a s i n g l e i n c h o f

i t " He s tressed the word "dogs."

M o h s e n d i d n o t k n o w t h is , a n d w h e n h e m e t H a s s a n , h e t u r n e d c o l d . I

g o t t h e i m p re s s i o n t h a t i n a b o u t a m i n u t e M o h s e n h a d si ze d u p H a s s a n — a

war veteran, a beard, wants to vis i t the martyrs ' cemetery—and decided he did

not l ike him. Traces of arrogance crept in to his tone when he spoke to Has

s a n . A g u y l ik e M o h s e n d o e s n o t m i x w i t h m a n y w a r v e t e ra n s . P re s i d e n t

K hatam i often ta l ks ab ou t "dia log ue of c ivil iza tions ," bu t from m y experience,

I ra n i a n s n e e d e d s o m e c o a c h i n g i n " d i a l o g u e o f I ra n i a n s . " I t s e e m e d , a t t i m e s ,

as if W estern jou rna l is ts w ere the only on es ta l king to a l l s ides .

Hassan seemed to sense the chi l l and moved away from us to wrap up his

ta lk with a friend in the tea shop,

M o h s e n t u rn e d t o m e , l a u g h i n g . " W h y d o y o u w a n t t o g o t o t h e m a r t y rs '

c e m e t e ry ? D o n ' t y o u h a v e a n y t h i n g b e t t e r t o d o ? "

I t o l d h i m t h a t I m a d e a p o i n t o f w a l k i n g t h ro u g h m a rt y rs ' c em e t e r i e s i n

every city I visited. It was a n im po rta nt pa rt of my travels, I left i t at that . I did

n o t e l a b o ra t e . I d i d n o t t el l h i m t h a t t h e w a r s o m e h o w h a u n t e d m e , t h a t I

p l aced f lowers o n the to m bs of th os e fresh-faced yo un g me n I never knew,

who, had they l ived, wo ul d be ju s t ab ou t my age now . I d id no t te l l h im that

t h e ro w s o f t o m b s a n d f l o w e rs a n d p h o t o s o f y o u n g m e n i n t h e i r p r i m e p ro

d u c e d a n u m b i n g m e l a n c h o l y i n m e . I d i d n o t t e l l h i m t h a t s o m e t i m e s I s p e n t

w h o l e a f t e rn o o n s i n m a r t y rs ' c e m e t e r i e s w a t c h i n g w e e p i n g m o t h e rs w a s h t h e

t o m b s o f t h e i r s o n s as S h i ' a M u s l i m s o n g s of m o u rn i n g e c h o e d i n t h e ai r.

W h e n H a s s a n re t u rn e d , h e t u r n e d t o M o h s e n a n d s a id : " W e l l , if y o u a re

no t interes ted in the m arty rs ' cemetery, m aybe yo u wou ld l ike to jo in u s to

v i s i t t h e ru i n s o f a n e i g h t -h u n d re d -y e a r-o l d v i l l a g e ? "

M oh se n l ooked a t me. I t was th e firs t I had h ear d of th is chan ge in p lans .

" O K , " h e s ai d , w i t h a s h ru g o f t h e s h o u l d e rs . " I 'l l j o i n y o u "

A s H a s s a n d ro v e , I s a t i n t h e f ro nt a n d M o h s e n i n t h e b a c k , sa y i ng l it tl e .

W h e n M o h s e n d id ta l k , h e ad d r e s s e d o n l y m e , a s k in g q u e s t io n s a b o u t W e s t

ern writers , a subject that Hassan, who had never gone to co l lege, might not

k n o w m u c h a b o u t .

Hassan drove the car off the road amid the craggy rocks and shrubbery,

t o w a rd t h e d u s t -c o l o re d ru i n s . H e s t o p p e d t h e c a r a n d l e a p e d o u t . H e h a d

j u m p e d o u t t o s h o w u s a f i e l d o f m e l o n s .

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N E I S H A P O

V K

"C om e w ith m e, A fshin," he sa id excitedly , "an d yo u too , JVIohsen," he

added less enthusias t ica l ly . He leaped into ta l l weeds that came to our chests ,

and we fo l lowed s lowly behind him. We los t s ight of him amid some ta l ler

weeds. He came back carrying what looked l ike three baby melons .

"We ca l l these

sofrheh"

h e s a i d . " O n l y fo u n d i n N e i s h a p o u r . T h e y a re

s m a l l m e l o n s . W e e a t t h e m l i ke c u c u m b e rs . P l e a s e, b e m y g u e s t ."

A m i d t h e t a l l p l a n t s w e m u n c h e d o n t h e

sofcheh.

M o h s e n d e cl i n e d , o p t i n g

t o s m o k e a c i g a re t t e i n s t e a d . S u d d e n l y H a s s a n j u m p e d b a c k i n t o a c t i o n , h u r

ry in g u s a l o n g . M o h s e n , c i g a re t te d a n g l i n g f ro m h i s m o u t h , j o g g e d b e h i n d u s .

We got back in the car, w hic h bu m pe d a l ong a rocky dir t road tow ard th e

ruin ed vi l lage. O nc e the re H ass an leaped ou t of th e car again and scu rried up

t o a s q u a t t a n h o u s e . W e w a l k e d o n t h e ro o f t o p s of t h e ru i n e d h o u s e s ,

j u m p e d f ro m h o u s e t o c r u m b l i n g h o u s e . A t o p o n e h o u s e , w e s at d o w n .

M o h s e n l i t a n o t h e r c i ga re tt e . H a s s a n t h re w a ro c k a t a n a p p ro a c h i n g l i za rd ,

sending i t hurrying away.

"S ee over there ." H ass an poin ted to w ha t looked l ike a smal l cave in o n e

o f th e ru i n s . " M a n y p e o p l e g a t h e r t h e re a t n i g h t a n d d o h e ro i n , " h e s a i d

g l u m l y . " T h e re a re m a n y w a r v e t e ra n s a m o n g t h e m t o o . "

" M o h s e n i s of c o u r s e t o o y o u n g t o k n o w , " h e s ai d, l o o k i n g a t M o h s e n ,

"but the war was so awful . We saw our fr iends get shot up and b leed to death

and fal l on m ines that ju s t b lew th em apart . Ca n you im agine yo ur fr iend

screaming as he dies and you can do nothing about i t? After the war, the gov

e rn m e n t h e l p e d u s , b u t t h e m o n e y i t g av e u s w a s s m a l l . S o m e of u s , w h o h a d

g o o d c o n n e c t i o n s , g ot u n i v e rs i ty s l o t s, a s M o h s e n k n o w s . B u t I d id n o t h a v e

s u c h c o n n e c t i o n s . " H e th r e w a g l a n ce at M o h s e n , w h o c o n t i n u e d s m o k i n g ,

not looking a t Hassan as he spoke. "You cannot expla in war," Hassan sa id.

" S o m e p e o p l e c o u l d n o t g e t t h e w a r o u t o f t h e i r h e a d s . T h e y t u rn e d t o h e ro i n

to forget the war,"

M o h s e n l o o k e d u p f ro m h i s c i g a re t te a n d as k e d : " D o e s t h e g o v e rn m e n t

h e l p t h e w a r v e t e ra n h e ro i n a d d i c t s ? " H e a s k e d t h e q u e s t i o n i n a n o rm a l

tone, polite ly.

" N o t h i n g t h e g o v e rn m e n t c a n d o c a n c u re a n a d d i c t ," H a s s a n s a id .

M oh sen n od de d and offered Ha ssan a cigaret te , perh aps a gesture of peace.

Ha ssan refused, saying: " I 'm gett ing marr ied in two wee ks. I prom ised my

fiancee

1

w o u l d n o t s m o k e . S h e i s a l re a d y c o n t ro l l i n g m e " H e l a u g h e d .

121



I V

The Silenced Sa tirist 4* Red Lines Narges and the Censoring of

Milan Kundera Wliy a Fourteenth-Century Poet Speaks So Eloquently to Con

temporary

Iranians

Pilgrimage:

Tfie Tomb of Hafez, the

Poet -fr

Mrs.

Teimouri's Wedding The Case ofAkbar Ganji: Journa list,

Prodemocraey Advocate, P risoner 4-

Cities: Tehran, Shiraz

The Silenced Satirist

T

here is an Iranian short s tory/parable that te l l s of a man cheated of his

weal th and p ossess io ns by a pow erfu l loca l d ignitary. T h e newly im pov

e r i s h e d m a n , G h o l a m A l i , re s p o n d s b y sp re a d i n g l o u d l y th e t al e of t h e

dignitary 's t reache ry in the bazaar, the publ ic m arketp l ace . T he dignitary,

i n c e n s e d w h e n h e h e a rs o f G h o l a m A l l 's p u b l i c a c c u s a r i o n s , u s e s h is c o n n e c

t i o n s t o h a v e h i m a rre s t e d . T h e n e x t d a y l o c al a u t h o r i t i e s p u b l i c l y f l og G h o

l a m A l i .

T h e fo l l o w i ng d a y G h o l a m A l i p re s e n t s h i m s e l f i n t h e b az aa r. T h i s ti m e h e

w e a rs t h e g u i s e o f " a v i l l a g e m a d m a n " w h o h a s g o n e " m a d " b e c a u s e o f t h e

terrib le injus t ices he has suffered. To make his point , the "vi l lage madman"

re la tes the ta le of his woe in the form of a melancholy song and dance. Every

o n e i n t h e b a z a a r k n o w s t h i s " v il l a g e m a d m a n " i s G h o l a m A l i . T h e y a l s o

know who has caused his woes , the loca l d ignitary. This t ime the pol ice are

p o w e r l e s s t o i n t e rv e n e : T h e l o c al b a z a a ri s w il l d e fe n d G h o l a m A l i , c i ti n g t h e

lack of a prohibit ion against song and dance shows.

S o t h e d i g n i t a ry t u rn s t o t h e l o c a l m u l l a h , a n d u rg e s h i m t o i s s u e a re l i

g i o u s e d i c t b a n n i n g s o n g a n d d a n c e p e rfo rm a n c e s . T h e m u l l a h c o m p l i e s , a n d

G h o l a m A l i i s fo rc ed o u t o f t h e b a z a a r a g a i n .

A fe w d a y s l a te r G h o l a m A l i t u r n s u p a t t h e b a z a a r a t h i rd t i m e , n o w w e a r-

1 2 4



T E H R A N

ing the disguise of a re l igio us m ou rne r. In a publ ic squ are nea r the bazaar, h e

beats his chest in the fashion of a Shi 'a re l igious mourner, crying out against

th e evil ac t ion s of Yazid an d S hem r, noto rio us S hi 'a v i l la ins universa l ly

despised by re l igious Iranians . Everyone in the bazaar knows the identi ty of

t h e re l i g i o u s m o u rn e r a n d t h u s u n d e rs t a n d s t h e s u b t e x t : T h e l o c al d i g n i t a ry

is Yazid an d S hem r, th e ep itom e of evil .

A gain th e dignitary tu rn s to the mu l la h. Th is t ime, for a fee, the m ul la h

issues a re l igious edic t tha t ban s any on e from imp licat ing pious M us l im s ( i.e,

the loca l d ignitary) with no to rio us S hi 'a v i l la ins. G ho l am A l i is forced ou t of

the bazaar again.

U n d a u n t e d , h e a p p e a rs o n c e m o re , a c a t p e rc h e d o n h i s s h o u l d e r . In f ro n t

of th e assemb le d cro wd, G ho l am A l i berate s his pet ca t for a l i th e injust ices i t

h a s c o m m i t t e d a g a i n s t h i m a n d d e m a n d s j u s t i c e f ro m t h e h a n d s o f s u c h a

d i s h o n o ra b l e c a t .

T h e p a ra b l e , p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 8 8 b y t h e sa t ir i st a n d w ri t e r A l i A k b a r S a 'i d

S i rj an i, e l ic it s c h u c k l e s o f u n d e rs t a n d i n g f ro m m a n y a l i t era ry I ra n i a n . M o s t

t w e n t i e t h -c e n t u ry I ra n i a n w ri t e rs o f s o m e re p u t e h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d e i t h e r

government repress ion, represented by the pol ice and the dignitary, or c leri

c a l - i n s p i re d re p re s s i o n , d e p i c t e d b y t h e l o c a l m u l l a h . A s a re s u l t , a l l I ra n i a n

w ri t e rs h a v e a b it o f G h o l a m A l i in t h e m : t h e a b il i ty t o te l l t h e t ru t h i n d i s

guise , to wri te b etwe en the l ines . A l legory, sym bol ism , sa tire : a l l a re too ls

e sp e ci al l y i n d i s p e n s a b l e fo r t h e I ra n i a n w ri t er . A s t h e p ro m i n e n t , re c e n t l y

exi led Iranian writer Faraj Sarkuhi puts i t , " I have learned to write between

t h e l i n e s fo r p e o p l e w h o h a v e l e a rn e d t o re a d b e t w e e n t h e m . "

S i r j a n i , S a rk u h i , a n d m a n y o t h e r w ri t e rs s a w g re a t p ro m i s e i n I ra n ' s 1 9 7 9

re v o l u t i o n . A ft er a l l , t h e S h a h h a d m a d e few M e n d s i n t h e l i t e ra ry s e t. T h e

cen sor 's red pen s l ashed ou t offensive l ines , and t he threa t of priso n a lways

lo om ed. Just before the revolu tion, leading poets gathe red for nigh ts of

antig ove rnm ent poetry in a Te hra n ins t i tute . A s wo rd spre ad of the defiant

poets , th e crow ds swel led to the tho us an ds . A few days after the revol ution,

t h e m o o d a m o n g w ri t e rs e x c e ed e d j u b i l a n t ; o n e p a m p h l e t , d i s t r i b u t e d w i d el y ,

noted that "2,500 years of censorship have f ina l ly been l i f ted."

H o w e v e r , t h e re v o l u t i o n p ro v e d a fal s e d a w n . W h e n a n a u t h o r i t a r i a n g o v

e rn m e n t ru l e d b y c l e r i c s fo rm e d f ro m t h e d e b r i s o f t h e p o s t re v o l u t i o n p o w e r

struggle , , the two tradit iona l op pre sso rs of free tho ugh t— cl erg ym an and

king—became one. The new revolutionary order se t a low cei l ing on cri t ic ism

125



P E R S I A N

P l L f JU M A f E 5

of the government. What 's more, the offending writer , by his mere pol i t ica l

d i s s e n t , s u d d e n l y b e c a m e a n u n b e l i e v e r , a b l a s p h e m e r , " a n e n e m y o f I s l a m . "

S e v e ra l p ro m i n e n t w ri t e rs f l e d t o t h e W e s t , w h e re t h e y w ro t e w re n c h i n g

p o e m s o f e x i l e s e p a ra t i o n i n s m a l l a p a r t m e n t s i n E u ro p e . T h e g o v e rn m e n t

ki l led a few on broad, grandiose charges , l ike "spreading corruption on

earth ." O the rs , w ho s tayed beh ind and survived, l ike S ir jani , to l d the ir ta les of

w oe in different guises , l ike G ho l am AU.

S i rj an i h i m s e l f m a n a g e d t o p l a y t h e G h o l a m A H ro l e w e l l for s e ve ra l y e a rs

after the revolution. Through sat ire and a l legory, he daringly cri t ic ized the

Is lam ic R epub l ic for w hat h e saw as i ts auth ori ta rian ism , re l igious hypocrisy,

and obtrusive m edd l in g in peopl e 's pers ona l l ives. His essays, framed loose ly

a s s t o r i e s b u t re s e m b l i n g p e rs o n a l e p i s o d e s a n d re m e m b ra n c e s , o f t e n t a r

g e t e d I ra n ' s c l e r i c s , d e p i c t i n g t h e m a s p o w e r-h u n g ry a n d d e v i o u s . In o n e o f

h i s " re m e m b ra n c e s , " h e t e l l s t h e s t o ry o f a l o c a l c l e r i c a n d a l a n d o w n e r w h o

c o n s p i re t o se l l a b a t c h o f w a t e rm e l o n s a t d o u b l e t h e u s u a l p r ic e . T h e c l e ri c

te l ls a l l the vi l lagers of a dream he has had that their loca l shrine was b lessed

b y I m a m R e z a, t h e e i g h t h S h f a i m a m . T h e n e x t d ay t h o u s a n d s o f v il l a g ers

d e s c e n d o n t h e s h r i n e , w h e re t h e w a t e rm e l o n s e l l e r , w i n k i n g a t t h e c l e r i c ,

w a i t s fo r t h e m . A l l t h e w a t e rm e l o n s s e l l a t d o u b l e t h e p r i c e .

E ventua l ly , inevitab ly , S irjani began to ru n afoul of auth ori t ies . T h e f irst

o p e n c o n fro n t a t i o n a ro s e fo l l o w in g a b o o k h e p u b l i s h e d i n 1 9 8 9 , a c o l l e c t i o n

of his satirical essays, s tories, and parables, t i t led You of Shortened Sleeves. T h e

t i tl e o f t h e b o o k e m a n a t e s f ro m a p r o m i n e n t p o e m b y t h e re v ere d f o u r t e e n t h -

c e n t u r y p o e t H a fe z t h a t c h i d e s I ra n ' s M u s l i m c l e rg y for m e d d l i n g in t h e p e r

son a l l ives of fel low M us l im s. T he th em e was part icu lar ly sa l ient to S ir jani 's

c o n t e m p o ra r i e s b e c a u s e o f g o v e rn m e n t a t t e m p t s t o re s t r i c t t h e p u b l i c a n d

pers ona l l ives of I ra nians . In the co l l ec t ion of essays , w hich bec am e a nationa l

best se l ler, Sirjani employed al l his satirical skil l in the service of his one aim:

a vigorous quest ioning of the pol i t ica l and socia l repress ion of the Is lamic

R e p u b l i c .

T h e firs t print in g so ld ou t in days. A la rm ed by the bo ok 's po pulari ty ,

I ra n ' s M i n i s try of C u l t u re a n d Is l a m i c G u i d a n c e , t h e g o v e rn m e n t a g e n c y t h a t

carries the red pens of censorship, banned i ts second print ing. I t a lso p laced

a b l anke t ba n on oth er S ir jani boo ks. N o t surpris ingly , S ir jani 's p opul ari ty

e x p l o d e d t o p re vi o u sl y u n i m a g i n e d h e i g h t s . M i m e o g r a p h e d c o p i e s o f t h e f irst

p r i n t i n g c i rc u l a t e d a m o n g u n i v e rs i t y s t u d e n t s a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l s .

126



T E H R A N

In re s p o n s e t o t h e b a n , S i r j a n i i n i t i a t e d a l e t t e r -w ri t i n g c a m p a i g n ,

d e m a n d i n g t h a t a s e c o n d p r i n t i n g b e re l e a s e d . I ra n ' s S u p re m e L e a d er , A y a

t o l l a h

AH

K h a m e n e i , l e t it b e k n o w n t o t h e w ri t e r t h r o u g h i n t e rm e d i a r i e s t h a t

he would have to ha l t h is wri t ings and his protes ta t ions . S ir jani 's next s tep

proved fa ta l : He unc loaked his protes t and direct ly assai led the Is lamic

R e p u b l i c i n a n o p e n l e t t er . S h o r t l y t h e re a f te r a u t h o r i t i e s i n c a rc e rat e d h i m

d e s pi te n u m e r o u s a p p e al s f ro m i n t e r n a t i o n a l h u m a n r i g h t s g r o u p s . A h m a d

K a r im i H a k k a k , t h e I ra n i a n s c h o l a r , n o t e s t h a t " t h e l e t te r se a l e d t h e a u t h o r ' s

fa te in a way that n o prev ious w rit ing of his— be i t ane cdo ta l essay, po l i t ica l

a l l eg o ry , o r o p e n a p p e a l — h a d d o n e . " A few m o n t h s l a t e r a l e t t e r s u p p o s e d l y

writ ten by S ir jani h imse lf admitted to a range of crimes against the s ta te . He

d i e d u n d e r m y s t e r i o u s c i rc u m s t a n c e s i n h i s p r i s o n c e l l .

I ranians watching the S ir jani case saw an example of art ref lec t ing rea l i ty .

In one of his most memorable essays in the banned book, S ir jani describes a

fic t iona l ized episode of mis taken identi ty that leads the writer/narra tor to an

office ins ide Iran 's notorious Evin Prison in order to c lear his name. Before

the narra tor of the s tory goes to the prison, he te l l s h is wife not to worry, that

he wi l l be back short ly , but he notes :

If for any reason—G od forbid— tomorrow evening you decide to turn on this

abandoned TV set of ours, and happen, instead of such extremely edifying shows

of pious preachers and illuminating lamen tations [for the fallen Shi'a imam s]

f

to

see my image

on

your screen, sitting

erect

upon a stool, in the

presence

of

the

grand

mufti [cleric] . . . engaged in the act ofwhat our zealous youth have termed

"revealing secrets" of my own treachery and c rimes, recoun ting all the lies I have

been delivering to the God-fearing Muslims, confessing the secret contacts I have

had with [foreign diplomats], ami detailing all the money I have received in return for my

spying .,. you must promise m e here and now that you will not turn against me, saying

such things as: you hypocrite hackl You were receiving all these pounds and dollars, and

still

made

us live

life

in

such abject misery.

T h o u g h S i r j a n i h i m s e l f n e v e r m a d e t h e s o r t o f " p u b l i c " t e l e v i s i o n c o n fe s

sion he detailed in his essay, the satirist 's pen never crossed the Is lamic

R epub l ic again. Bey ond the ob viou s and se l f-evident in jus t ice of his ja i l ing,

Sirjani, i t might be said, made a tactical error. He strayed from the accepted

ru les of the game, which grudgingly a l lowed a l legorica l cr i t ic ism read by an

127



P E R S I A N FI I f f U M A f IS

educated e l i te ( the populari ty of his book might have been his f irs t "crime").

The ru les do not a l low for direct opposit ion and open le t ters to newspapers

q u e s t i o n i n g t h e S u p r e m e L e a de r . W h e n S i rj an i c ro s se d t h a t l in e , h e m o v e d

from writer and thinker to rebe l . He had become a pol i t ica l ac t ivis t , a freedom

seeker, jo i nin g the ranks of oth er twe ntie th-c entu ry activis ts w ho openl y

d e f i e d a u t h o r i t a r i a n g o v e rn m e n t s a n d w h o , fo r t h e m o s t p a r t , p a i d a d e a r

price for it in the end.

W h e n S i rj an i c h o s e t h e t it l e of h i s b o o k ,

You of Shortened Sleeves,

h e k n e w

his readers would see the immediate re levance of that phrase from Hafez 's

fo u r t e e n t h -c e n t u ry p o e m . H a fe z ' s w a rn i n g t o fa l s e l y p i o u s c l e r i c s i n " s h o r t

e n e d s l e e v e s " w h o s o u g h t t o i m p o s e a n a rro w s o c i al c o d e o n o t h e rs s im i l a rl y

co m m en ted on his t imes. W h en S ir jani publ ished his essays , h e be l ieved that

his readers would see the theme of "fa lse pie ty" and "re l igious orthodoxy" as

not an abstract ion, but as one that affected their l ives direct ly as they s trug

g l e d u n d e r t h e w e i g h t o f a g o v e rn m e n t m u c h c o n c e rn e d w i t h t h e p e rs o n a l

lives of its subjects.

By invokin g H afez, I ra n 's m ost revered po et , S irjani drew a powerfu l

s w o rd . H a fe z c a s t s a n e n o rm o u s s h a d o w o v e r I ra n i a n l i t e ra t u re a n d c u l t u re ,

Ira nians widely regard him as th e greates t P ers ian poet . N ot surpris ingly , he is

a lso the m ost popu lar . I n Fars i, I ra nians say: " In every Iranian ho m e, you wi l l

f ind a t leas t two books: the Quran. Is lam's ho ly book, and the

Divan

of

Hafez."

M y next pi lgrimage, to the to m b of Hafez, was to take me back to S hiraz ,

the poet 's b ir thplace and be loved c i ty , which serves as a backdrop to so much

of his poetry. In a sense , S ir jani and other Iranian writers and poets a l l a re

chi l dren of Hafez. L ike th em , Hafez faced t he du a l cen sors , k ing and c lergy.

W h a t ' s m o re , j u s t a b o u t e ve ry p ro m i n e n t t w e n t i e t h -c e n t u ry I ra n i a n l i te rary

figure has expressed admirat ion for Hafez 's immense l i terary ta lents .

O f co urs e , w ri ters a lon e do not so le ly apprecia te th e gif ts of Hafez. A ver

age Iranians , inc luding the less educated, sprinkle Hafez 's poetry l ibera l ly into

t h e i r c o n v e rs a t i o n s . A w e l l - t i m e d H a fe z q u o t a t i o n i n a c o n v e rs a t i o n s e rv e s a

s imilar purpose as a bib l ica l proverb or a l ine from Shakespeare in the West .

A d d i ti o n al l y , a p o p u l a r I ra n i a n p a s t i m e , k n o w n a s

fal~e-Hafez,

involves for

t u n e - t e l l i n g b y o n e ' s ra n d o m l y o p e n i n g t o a p a g e i n t h e Divan a n d t h e n i n t e r

pret ing th e verse . A ren dit io n of th is pas t im e is p layed o ut in s treets across

Iran: A caged bird, perched on the finger of its trainer, for a small fee selects

)

128



T E H R A N

a Hafez verse from a basket of bits of paper. The ensuing verse is ment to be

prophetic . Hafez s ta tues and Hafez s treets mark every Iranian c i ty . Po l i t ic ians

qu ote Hafez. W riters qu ot e him. Te levis ion persona l i t ies qu ot e him . Hafez

surpasses the t i t le of mere poet: He is a cu l tura l icon.

Yet Hafez, un l ike K hayyam an d, la te ly, Ja la ladin R um i ( the thir t ee nth -

c e n t u ry I ra n i a n m y s t i c p o e t w h o h a s n u m e ro u s W e s t e rn fo l l o w e rs , f ro m

C h ri s t i a n m y s t ic s t o t h e p o p s i n g er M a d o n n a ) , h a s n e v e r d e v e l o p e d a W e s t

e rn fo l l o w i n g . H e re m a i n s p r i m a r i l y a n I ra n i a n p h e n o m e n o n . D e s p i t e s o m e

g o o d t ra n s l a t i o n s o f h i s p o e m s i n E n g l i s h a n d F re n c h , s o m e h o w , H a fe z d o e s

not speak to the Western reader. To the Iranian, however, Hafez comes as

c lose as possib le to dis t i l l ing a common experience, and he does i t—at leas t

m o s t I ra n i a n s w o u l d a g re e — w i t h a n e x t ra o rd i n a ry a e s t h e t i c f l o u r i s h .

Red Lines

M

y vis i t to Shiraz was to reunite me with Davoud. Being a writer , an

essayis t , and a t rans la tor faced with the sorts of problems Hafez

might have faced if he were a l ive today, Davoud seemed an appro

p r i a t e c o m p a n i o n fo r m y v i s i t t o t h e H a fe z t o m b . E a c h t i m e D a v o u d c o m

ple ted one of his t rans la t ions , a mixture of sa t is fact ion and anxiety se t in . The

m o r e c o m p l e x W e s t e rn n o v e l i s ts re q u i re d l o n g p e r i o d s o f s u s t a i n e d c o n c e n

t ra t i o n . H e re a d e a c h b o o k t w i c e , s e e k i n g t o u n d e rs t a n d b o t h t h e p ra c t i c a l

essen ce and th e spir i t . T he n he m ethod ica l l y trans l a ted, groping for th e r ight

word or phrase . "When I am done, my brain is exhausted," he sa id . " I fee l an

e n o r m o u s relief. I a m p ro u d t h e w o rk i s d o n e . "

T h e n c a m e t h e a n x ie ty . W h e n t h e w o rk w a s c o m p l e t e d , h e h a n d e d i n t h e

m a n u s c r i p t t o t h e M i n i s t ry of C u l t u re a n d Is l a m i c G u i d a n c e . T h e re i t fel l

under the pens of I ran 's censorship board, which ru les the fa te of every Iran

i a n w ri t e r o r t ra n s l a t o r . " W h e n t h e b o o k g o e s t o E rs h a d [ th e M i n i s t ry of C u l

t u r e ] , I fe e l a t e r r i b l e u n c e r t a i n t y , " D a v o u d t o l d m e , " I w o n d e r w h a t t h e y

might object to . I hope that a l l my labor has not been done in vain. I hope 1

managed to avoid the red l ines ."

E v e ry g e n e ra t i o n o f I ra n i a n w ri t e rs h a s u n w ri t t e n re d l i n e s b e y o n d w h i c h

the writer goes at his peri l . Sirjani leaped past the red l ines and paid a price

for i t . For the prerevolution writer , the obvious red l ines tended to be the

q u e s t i o n i n g o f S A V A K , t h e S h a h ' s d re a d e d s e c re t p o l i c e , a n d d i re c t a t t a c k s o n

139



PEK.51AJJ F U C R i M A C E S

the Shah. Today the red l ines are the quest ioning of ru le by c lerics and direct

a t t a c k s o n t h e S u p re m e L e a d er , A y a to l l a h A l i K h a m e n e i . R e d l i n es ca n al s o b e

more arbitrary, decided upon by a s ingle c leric or a group of government offi

c ia ls in reaction to a work. They may range from passages that " insu l t" Is lam

to sexual ly explicit materia l to "political ly subversive" writings or even to the

oft-used charge "confusing publ ic opinio n."

S om etim es the review process of a s ingle book coul d take years . T he longer

the process , the higher the tension for Dav oud . H e began to second -gu ess his

w o rd c h o i c e . " S h o u l d I h a v e u s e d d i ffe re n t, m o r e a m b i g u o u s w o rd s ? W a s I

t h o ro u g h e n o u g h i n m y o w n s e l f -c e n s o rs h i p ? W h a t a b o u t t h e k i s s i n g s c e n e

or the passage that cri t ic ized Chris t ian pries ts? Every possibi l i ty goes through

m v m i n d . "

In 1 9 9 7 a n e w m i n i s t e r of c u l t u re , A t a o l l a h M o h a j e ra n i , s h o o k u p t h e

organization, in ject ing a breath of free speech into the ha l ls of the minis try .

H e d e m a n d e d t h e b o o k re v i e w p ro c e s s b e s p e d u p . H e l i c e n s e d h u n d re d s o f

re fo rm i s t n e w s p a p e rs . H e re g u l a r l y s p o k e o u t a g a i n s t c e n s o rs h i p . S o o n p o l i t

i c a l b o o k s p ro l i fe ra t e d ; t h e y i n c l u d e d s o m e p ro m o t i n g d e m o c ra c y a n d o t h e rs

e x p o s i n g c o rru p t i o n i n I ra n ' s g o v e rn m e n t . T ra n s l a t i o n s o f W e s t e rn n o v e l s

t h a t h a d b e c o m e m u s t y a n d w o rn f ro m y e a rs s i t t i n g o n t h e c e n s o r ' s d e s k s u d

denly surged into th e publ ic , away from th e tyran ny of the censor. M any

banned writers ( the Fars i phrase is t rans la ted as "a prohibited pen") publ ished

n e w w o rk s . M o h a j e ra n i h a d s e e m i n g l y e ra s e d t h e re d l i n e s.

T h i s e ra o f o p e n n e s s , w h i c h s p a w n e d a t h re e -y e a r I ra n i a n n e w s p a p e r a n d

p u b l i s h i n g re n a i s s a n c e , e v e n t u a l l y c a m e t o a c ra s h i n g e n d . I ra n ' s h a rd - l i n e rs

ra l l ied their bureaucrat ic power to outmusc le the l ibera l cu l ture minis ter .

Th ey c losed new spapers , ja iled jou rna l is ts , and pressed writers back into a l l e

g o ry a n d s y m b o l i s m . M o h a j e ra n i re s ig n e d h i s p o s t in f ru s tra t i o n , t h o u g h h e

c o n t i n u e d t o s u p p o r t a free p re ss . S t il l , w h e n D a v o u d h e a rd o f t h e c u l t u re

minis ter 's res ignation, he decided to s top work on his la tes t project , a t rans

la t ion of a Spanish author. He did not want to face the pain of the censorship

process again.

O n e c a n a l m o s t d ra w a c o n t i n u o u s l i n e o f c e n s o r s h i p f ro m t h e t im e o f

K hayyam an d Hafez to S irjani an d D avo ud . In fact, on ly rarely has Iran be en

free of cen sors hip. E arly in the twentie th century, for severa l years , th e p ro

gress ive pol i t ica l movement for a l ibera l consti tut ion, known as the Consti tu

t i o n a l R e v o l u t i o n o f 1 9 0 6 - 1 1 , spawned a f lurry of l ibera l newspapers , but the

130



T E H R A N

m o v e m e n t s p u t t e re d a f te r t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R e v o l u t i o n ta i l e d , a n d it d i ed

w h e n R e z a S h a h t o o k p o w e r i n 1 9 2 5 a n d c r u s h e d m o s t p r e s s f r e e d o m s . D u r

ing the confused c l imate of World War 1I

T

w h e n t h e B r i ti s h d e p o s e d R e za

S ha h in favor of his son , M oh am m ad R eza, wri ters breath ed re la tively freely

o n c e a g a i n — t h a t is , u n t i l 1 9 5 3 , w h e n t h e C I A h e l p e d o v e r t h r o w M o s s a d e q

a m i d t h e p a ra n o i a of t h e C o l d W a r. T h e u n c e r t a i n y o u n g S h a h , h i s t h ro n e

regained after th e M ossa deq affa ir, decide d th at he w oul d to le ra te no op po si

t ion, and journa l is ts and writers re lapsed into the o ld fears .

In t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 6 6 a s m a l l g ro u p o f I ra n i a n w ri t e rs g a t h e re d a t a p o p

ular l i terary cafe in Tehr an to d iscuss crea t ion of a wr i ters ' un io n. "A bove a l l ,

to defend freedom of express ion," the consti tut ion of the f ledgl ing organiza

t ion proc l a im ed. O f course , th is f ledgl ing u ni on ra n afoul of th e auth ori t ies .

P o l i c e p ro h i b i t e d m e e t i n g s i n p u b l i c h a l l s ; i n t e rn a l s e c u r i t y a g e n t s c o n s p i c u

o u s l y fo l l o w e d p ro m i n e n t m e m b e rs a n d a rre s t e d s e v e ra l fo r w o rk s d e e m e d

" t re a s o n o u s . " T h e d e a t h o f t h e u n i o n ' s fo u n d e r a n d l e a d i n g l i g h t , n o v e l i s t

and essayis t Jala l A l- e-A hm ad in 1969, led to com petin g factions— chief ly

C o m m u n i s t v er s u s n o n - C o m m u n i s t — a n d s q u a b b l i n g o v e r p o w e r , l e a d e r

s h i p , a n d t h e d i re c t i o n o f t h e u n i o n . B y 1 9 7 0 t h e u n i o n h a d c e a s e d t o fu n c

t ion, dying under the weight of fact iona l ism and government repress ion.

In 1 9 9 8 t h e n e w c l i m a t e of o p e n n e s s i n i ti a te d b y P re s i d e n t K h a t a m i ' s

reforms led a few writers to discuss reviving the defunct union. The poets

M o h a m m a d M o k h t a r i an d M o h a m m a d Jafar P o u y a n d e h w e re t ir ed of "w r i t

i n g b e t w e e n t h e l i n e s ' ' a n d s e l f -c e n s o rs h i p . W ri t e rs n e e d e d p ro t e c t i o n , s o l i

darity . A u ni o n wo ul d be the perfect vehic le . Th ey ta lked a bo ut th e idea w ith

friends.

I n D e c e m b e r 1 9 9 8 , h o w e v e r, t h e s e h o p e s d i e d o n c e a g a i n . A c t i ng a t t h e

behest of a shadowy group of hard- l ine c lerics , a smal l group of Inte l l igence

M i n is t ry a g e nt s kil l e d b o t h M o k h t a r i a n d P o u y a n d e h . T h r e e m o r e a ss as si na

t ions fo l lowed, inc luding thos e of the secular nat iona l ists D ariush and P arvaneh

Forouhar, as wel l as the disappearance of the poet M ajid Sharif.

" E v e n b e fo re t h e t a l k o f t h e u n i o n , w e w e re m a rk e d m e n , " a p ro m i n e n t

I ra n i a n w ri t er to l d m e . " P e rh a p s t h e u n i o n t a l k j u s t s p e d u p m a t t e rs. " H e

d e s c r ib e d a b u s r id e i n 1 9 9 7 , w h e n t w e n t y - o n e I ra n i a n w ri t e rs w e re e n ro u t e

to a conferen ce in A rm enia . T he bu s driver, in a c lear a t te m pt to ki l l th e w rit

ers,

nearly steered off a cliff, diving ou t of the vehic le ju s t as it careen ed toward

the edge of the thousand-foot free fa l l . Fortunate ly , the bus hi t a boulder and

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F I L C M M A f E S

s topped. The driver ran away, [f the p lan had been successfu l , twenty-one of

Ir an 's "pesky w riters" wo ul d h ave met the sam e fa te as m any of their c ou n

terparts over th e years : an early death u nd er m ysterious c ircum stances .

Narges and the Censoring of M ilan Kundera

arges , a th ir ty-year-o ld l i tera ture teacher, a lways knew that censorship

was a fact of l i fe in Iran. When she s tudied l i tera ture a t Shiraz Uni

versity, she took it for granted t l iat certain books were not available,

others were not wri t ten, and a few were banned. This was not new. Her o lder

p ro fe s so rs t o l d h e r t h e s a m e ru l e s a p p l i e d d u r i n g t h e S h a l l ' s e ra J u s t w i t h dif

ferent red lines.

Her favori te poet was Forough Farrokhzad, the 1960 's I ranian female poet

whose work represented both extraordinary art is t ic achievement and a brave

fe m i n i st c o n s c i o u s n e s s . N a rg e s al s o re a d P e rs i a n t ra n s l a t i o n s o f W e s t e rn n o v

els . S h e pa r ti c ul a r l y a d m i r e d t h e w o r k of M i l a n K u n d e r a .

N arges vis i ted the U nite d S ta tes for the firs t t im e in 19 98. S he a t ten ded a

few c o n fe re n c es o n I ra n t h a t w e re s p o n s o re d b y W a s h i n g t o n t h i n k t a n k s . S h e

did no t l ike wha t she heard , especia l ly wh at sh e described as "A merica 's love

a ffa ir w i t h K h a t a m i . " S h e a rg u e d v e h e m e n t l y w i t h j o u rn a l i s t s a n d s c h o l a rs a t

the conferences . "They a l l th ink that I ran is a democracy now," she sa id .

"T he y do n ot rea l ize th at we are far from i t . T he y go to I ran for two weeks and

m eet a few jou rna l i s ts and po l i t ic ians and t hin k they kn ow everything abo ut

t h e c o u n t ry . T h e y d o n o t u n d e rs t a n d t h e i n d i g n i t i e s w e fa c e a s w o m e n . T h e y

do n ot kn ow the indign it ies we have faced o ver the years ." T he re was m or e

th an a t race of bi t terness in her ton e, bu t it wa s a to ne th at I had been a cc us

tomed to in Iran, Deep wel ls of anger, borne of dai ly humil ia t ions and psy

chologica l wounds, bubbled a t the surface of the Iranian psyche, an anger and

pain th at N arg es says are too eas ily dismissed by W estern vis i tors w ho spe nd

too much t ime with reformist po l i t ic ians and too l i t t le t ime with the people .

"W he n I w as in col l ege in the late 19S 0's, my friends w ant ed to give m e a

birthday party . They surprised me in my dorm room with gif ts , but because

we were not a l lowed to p lay any music , we used a Walkman and passed i t

a ro u n d t h e ro o m . E v e ry o n e l i s te n e d t o t h e W a l k m a n for a few m i n u t e s , a s t h e

o t h e rs t a l k e d . S o m e t i m e s , t w o o f u s w o u l d p u s h o u r h e a d s t o g e t h e r t o l i s t e n

at the sam e t ime. W h en I th i nk back on i t , 1 get very angry. I mean, how dare

1

132



t h e y t e l l m e I c a n ' t h a v e m u s i c a t m y o w n b i r t h d a y p a r t y W h a t a p a t h e t i c

scene i t was

r

f ive gir ls sharing one Walkman, a l l of us afra id to pul l the p lug

o n t h e h e a d s e t t h a t w o u l d h a v e m a d e t h e m u s i c b ro a d c a s t l o u d e r I t is fin e t o

m a k e n i c e -s o u n d i n g p h ra s e s a b o u t d e m o c ra c y a n d c i v i l s o c i e t y , b u t y o u j o u r

na l is ts who come here for a few weeks don ' t unders tand the indignit ies we

face. You ju st do n' t get it "

W h i l e i n A m e r i c a , N a r g e s p ic k e d u p a n E n g l i s h - l a n g u a g e c o p y o f M i l a n

K u n d e r a ' s n o v el Identity. S h e h a d a l re ad y re a d t h e P e rs i an t ra n s l a t i o n a n d

consid ered i t on e of her favori te bo oks. W h en she bega n reading the E ngl ish

vers ion, she rea l ized that severa l key passages had been omitted in the Pers ian

trans l a t ion . A n entire sect ion had b een tota l ly de le ted. " I fe l t cheate d and vi o

la ted w he n I read the E ngl ish vers ion. I t seem ed s o unfair. I fel t l ike I co ul d

never read a nove l in Pers ian again."

H e r re a c t i o n w a s i n tr i g u i n g . S h e s a id s h e fel t " c h e a t e d ." W h a t s h e t h o u g h t

was a fa i thfu l Pers ian trans la t ion in rea l i ty was a gutted vers ion of the origi

na l . In a sense , the ce nso rship was sophis t ica ted s ince i t "fool ed" N arges , wh o

held a master 's degree in l i tera ture . Perhaps the fact that she was deceived

a n g e re d h e r j u s t a s m u c h a s t h e c e n s o rs h i p

itself.

P e rh a p s t h i s s o n o f c e n s o r

s h i p i s e v e n m o re d a m a g i n g t h a n t h e o p e n a n d b l a t a n t c e n s o rs h i p o f t o t a l i

tarian states.

Conservative Iranian c lerics often say that they are not opposed to West

e rn i d e as . T h e y s i m p l y w a n t t o p i c k a n d c h o o s e fro m a m o n g t h o s e t h e y

be l ieve sho ul d be a l lowed to enter th e arena . Th at 's w hy they fear sa te l l i te

dishes; after a l l , on e ca nn ot b lo ck the a ir waves . In t he case of K und era 's

n o v e l , s o m e o n e f ro m t h e M i n is t ry of C u l t u r e ( o r p e r h a p s t h e t r a n s l a t o r h i m

se lf in an act of se l f-censorship) decided that certa in passages were not sui t

ab le for th e arena. Th is "c lever censo rsh ip" creates a dec ept ion of freedom.

B u t d o es it w o r k ? N o . T h o u g h N a r g e s a n d t h o u s a n d s o f o t h e r l i t er ar y I r a

n i a n s w h o re a d t h e b o o k w e re fo o l ed b y t h e c l ev er c e n s o rs h i p , N a rg e s e v e n

tua l ly found out and has spoken often about i t to her other l i terary fr iends . In

fact , many l i terary Iranians p lay a game of "matching" the trans la t ion to the

origina l .

T h e Is l a m i c R e p u b l i c of I ra n d o e s n o t o f te n b a n b o o k s , b u t t h o s e i t d o e s

d e c i d e t o b a n b e c o m e i n s t a n t h i t s o n t h e u n d e rg ro u n d b o o k c i rc u i t . In fa c t ,

i t h a s b e c o m e a t ru i s m t h a t b a n n e d i d e a s a n d b o o k s b e c o m e m o re p o p u l a r

t h a n t h e y m i g h t o t h e rw i s e b e . T h e S h a h ' s re p re s s io n o f C o m m u n i s m i n t h e

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P E R S I A N F L L £ i U M A £ E S

1970 s gave th e ideology a certa in m od ish pa na che . T h e conservative c lerical

repress ion of democratic ideas has done the same. In the end, nei ther type of

censorship works . I t on ly gives the repressed ideas an aura of mystica l power

P e rh a p s t h a t ' s w h y I ra n i a n s re v e re t h e i r g re a t p o e t s s o m u c h . T h e i r p o e t s ,

part icu lar ly Hafez, have often been ab le to te l l t ruths that o thers have feared

to d iscuss . N arg es pu ts it th is way: "Hafez speaks to al l I rania n poe ts and to

a l l I ra n i a n s w i t h s u c h a s u b t l e a n d b e a u t i fu l v o i c e t h a t h e h a s m a n a g e d t o

transcend pol i t ics . I , as a poet myself, and Iranians , as a people , are a l l

indebted to Hafez."

N a rg e s ' s s e n t i m e n t w a s fairl y c o m m o n . S o m e h o w , H a fez re m a i n e d — p e r

hap s— I ran 's mo st wide ly respecte d cu l tura l f igure . M y next pi lgrimage, to th e

shrine of Hafez in Shiraz , would explore both Hafez the poet and the Iranian

re a c t i o n t o h i s w o rk . A n y n a t i o n ' s c u l t u ra l i c o n s re ve a l s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e

p e o p l e . T h e a l m o s t u n i v ers al p ra i s e o f H a fez s ay s s o m e t h i n g i m p o rt a n t a b o u t

Iran ians . I w ent to S hriaz to explore w hat th at m igh t be .

W hy a Fourteenth-Century Poet Speaks So

Eloquently to Contemporary Iranians

I

n S h i raz , I c h e c k e d i n t o t h e P a rk H o t e l , a p l e a s a n t e s t a b l i s h m e n t w i t h

c lean rooms, hearty soups, and a decaying garden veranda in the front . In

t h e m o rn i n g I w a i t e d fo r D a v o u d i n it s c o u r t y a rd . A s m a l l , a l g a e -r i d d e n

fo u n t a i n i n w h i t e m a rb l e g u rg l e d q u ie t l y n e arb y . L o n g a n d w o rn re d ro s e s

swayed g ently in the m or ni ng breeze. I sat in a w hite pl astic chair, f l ipping

t h r o u g h a m o rn i n g n e w s p a p e r I s p o t t e d a n ar ti cl e d e s c r i b i n g a n u p c o m i n g

i n t e rn a t i o n a l c o n fe re n c e o n H a fez 's p o e t ry t o b e h e l d i n S h i ra z. U N E S C O ,

t h e U n i t e d N a t i o n s ' c u l t u ra l a rm , w a s s p o n s o r i n g t h e c o n fe re n c e . I ra n ' s m i n

is ter of cu l ture was expected to open the event . " Internationa l scholars wi l l

d iscuss the mult ifaceted layers of our greates t poet ," the newspaper sa id .

D a v o u d a p p ro a c h e d , c a rry i n g a l o n g s t r i p o f t h e h o t f l a t b re a d k n o w n a s

barbari . He wore a co l lared tan shir t ro l led up to his e lbows and t ight-f i t t ing

black jeans , a long with a wide smile .

"Salaaaaaam" he said, rol l ing his a's in a sarcast ic tone, then mockingly

a d d i n g i n E n g l i s h , " A re y o u t h e g re a t s i r D r . A fs h in M o l a v i , t h e g re a t O r i e n

ta l is t scho la r of P ers ian l i tera ture , from the great land of A m erica? I am yo ur

h u m b l e s e rv a n t . " H e l a u g h e d , s l a p p i n g m e o n t h e b a c k , l o o k i n g a t m e , m o v -

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S H I R A Z

ing his head up and down, as if he were sizing me up for a suit. "You have

gotten fa t , my fr iend. Your aunties in Tehran are feeding you wel l , eh?" I

l a u g h e d , s el f -c o n s c io u s l y p u l l i n g in m y s t o m a c h . N o t i c i n g m y va ni ty , h e

smacked my s tomach with an open pa lm. "Re lax," he sa id , " i t is a s ign of suc

cess. Eat more." He tore off a piece of the barbari and handed i t to me.

W e h a il e d a t ax i o u t s i d e t h e h o t e l . A h e a v i n g , s p i t t in g h u n k of w h i t e m e t a l

s topped a t the curb, and the driver invited us in . The driver, an e lder ly man

with neat ly combed white hair , looked in much better shape than his car .

The driver made smal l ta lk , the r is ing price of meat , the recent press

crackdown, the weather. He asked us i f we needed a driver for the whole day.

There were many s ights to see besides the Hafez tomb, he sa id , and he would

b e " m o s t p l e a s e d " t o s h o w u s . W e p o l i te l y d e c l i n e d .

" T h e re i s a c a v e i n S h i ra z w h e re a s m a l l c a n d l e h a s b e e n b u rn i n g fo r h u n

dreds of years ," he sa id , t rying to pique our interes t , " I can take you there ."

I t h o u g h t o f t h e o l d Z o ro a s t r i a n f i re t e m p l e s a n d t h e i r e t e rn a l f l a m e s .

"Where is i t?" I asked.

He paused for a moment as his car wheezed into a lef t turn. "Wel l , you

see, the candle is no longer burning. They extinguished i t a few years ago."

" E x t i n g u i s h e d ? T h e y ? W h o ? "

H e t u rn e d a ro u n d , s h o w i n g u s h i s p rof il e . L o n g g ray h a i rs p o k e d o u t

from his ear. "It m us t have be en th e British," h e said matter-of-factly, na r

rowly miss ing an oncoming truck as he turned back ( to our re l ief) to look a t

the road . D av ou d sm iled and p oked m e in the r ibs with his e lbow. We bo th

marve led a t the extraordinary crimes a t tr ibuted to the Bri t ish a i l across Iran.

" A n d w h y w o u l d t h e B r i t i s h d o t h a t ? " D a v o u d s a i d .

" H o w d o I k n o w ? I a m j u s t a w o r k i n g m a n . T h e y a r e s o c u n n i n g t h a t t h e y

probab ly had a reas on to d o i t . T he y m us t have ha d a p lan." Yes, the Bri t ish

a lways had a naqshek, a p l a n , a n d t h i s p l a n w a s o f t e n t o o c u n n i n g a n d d e v i o u s

fo r t h e a v e ra g e m a n t o u n d e rs t a n d .

"Yes." Davoud said, winking a t me and address ing the driver, " i t must

have been a very devious p lan." The driver nodded.

W e t u r n e d o n t o G o l e s t a n (R o s e G a rd e n ) S t re e t , a n d t h e c a r ' s e n g i n e ,

whirring loudly, reached a crescendo as the driver downshifted. I t sounded as

if every meta l p iece un de r th e hood had dis lodged an d beg un d anc ing an d

c l a n k i n g a n d s m a s h i n g i n t o o n e a n o t h e r a s w e m a d e l e f t t u rn s .

"T he re it is ," th e driver sa id , "o ur g reates t poet ."

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P E R S I A N P l L f f U M A C E S

W e g o t o u t o f t h e c a r a n d b a d e h i m g o o d -b y e a s h e s t ro k e d h i s d a s h

boar d, l ike a mo the r caress ing a crying baby. T he car seeme d to resp on d, i ts

h i g h -p i t c h e d w h i r s l o w i n g t o a d u l l w h i m p e r .

W e h a d t o c ro s s a n a v e n u e o f h i g h -s p e e d c a rs, A g re e n , c o a l -s t a i n e d M e r

c e d e s t ru c k ru m b l e d b y, e m i t t i n g b l a c k s m o k e c l o u d s i n t o t h e a i r T w o c h i l

dren in bright orange backpacks raced across the s treet , narrowly avoiding

t h e o n c o m i n g t r u c k .

O n t h e o t h e r s i d e , w h i t e m e t a l g at e s a n n o u n c e d t h e e n t ra n c e t o t h e s h r i n e

and, behind them, a sp lendid garden with ta i l , e legant , s l im cypress t rees . The

E ngl ish trave ler Jo hn Fryer cal led th e S hiraz trees "the l ofties t cypresses in the

universe/ ' The cypress t ree regular ly shows up in medieva l Pers ian poetry as

a s y m b o l o f f re e d o m . D a v o u d t o l d m e a p o p u l a r s t o ry a b o u t t h e c y p re s s t re e :

The cypress was once asked why i t d id not bear any frui t . "The tru ly free are

poor," the tree responds.

" T h i s m i g h t b e y o u r m o s t i m p o rt a n t p i l g r i m a g e / ' D a v o u d s a i d a s w e

a p p ro a c h e d t h e s h r i n e , " b e c a u s e s o m a n y I ra n i a n s re v e re H a fe z . H e i s s o u n i

versa l . There is ac tua l ly l i t t le debate on his greatness . A few have s tepped for

ward to criticize medieval Persian poetry, but it has never stuck. Hafez

r e m a i n s a n i c o n / '

O ver th e past few week s I had been engaged in a fever of Hafez read ing

and Hafez discussions . I met with specia l is ts , ta lked to Iranians , read and

r e r ea d h i s w o r k . O n e q u e s t i o n b u r n e d i n m y m i n d : W h y w o u l d a f o u r

t e e n t h -c e n t u ry p o e t s p e a k s o e l o q u e n t l y t o I ra n i a n s ?

Here 's a poss ib le answer.

L"

H a fe z, n e S h e m s u d d i n M o h a m m a d , w a s b o r n i n S h i r a z i n 1 3 2 0 . H e l i ve d in

a g i ta t e d ti m e s . B y t h e t i m e h e w a s b o r n , t h e M o n g o l h o rd e s h a d j u s t s w e p t

across Iran, leaving charred homes and pyramids of heads in their wake.

E m b e rs re m a i n e d w h e re l i b ra r i e s h a d o n c e s t o o d ; w h o l e v i l l a g e s w e re m a s s a

cred, loca l ru l ers impal ed; th e earth i tsel f w as scorc hed . A n Iranian w ho

w o r k e d w i t h t h e M o n g o l g o v e r n m e n t , H a m d a l l a h M u s ta w f i Q a z w in i , p u t it

t h i s w a y : " T h e re i s n o d o u b t t h a t t h e d e s t ru c t i o n t h a t h a p p e n e d o n t h e e m e r

g e n c e of t h e M o n g o l s t a t e a n d t h e g e n e ra l m a s s a c re t h a t o c c u rre d a t t h a t t i m e

wil l not be repaired in a thousand years , even if no other ca lamity happens."

S h i ra z , m o r e fo r t u n a t e t h a n m o s t I ra n i a n c i ti e s, b o re l e s s p a i n f ro m t h e

M o n g o l i n v a s io n b e c a u s e o f a l o c a l ru l e r w h o w a s q u i c k t o c o m p ro m i s e w i t h

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t h e M o n g o l c h ie ft ai n G e n g h i s K h a n . L a te r, a fte r t h e M o n g o l a r m i e s h a d

re t u rn e d t o w e s t e rn C h i n a , S h i ra z , w i t h it s m e a n d e r i n g a n d p re t ty R u k n a b a d

River and i ts sp lendid gardens , became a coveted prize in the family feuds

a m o n g t h e s o n s o f G e n g h i s K h a n . A s a re s u l t , o f t e n a p a w n i n t h e i n t e rn a l

wars of th e M ong ol heirs , S hiraz experienc ed few perio ds of peace, in H afez 's

day. By the t ime Hafez reached middle age, he had seen a success ion of for

e i g n ru l e rs r i s e a n d d i e by t h e s w o rd . G e r t ru d e B e ll , t h e m o s t a b l e t ra n s l a t o r

of Hafez 's poems into the Engl ish language, puts i t n ice ly: "His de l icate love

s o n g s w e re c h a n t e d t o t h e ru d e a c c o m p a n i m e n t o f t h e c l a s h o f a rm s , a n d h i s

dreams must have been interrupted often enough by the nip of famine in a

b e l e a g u e re d t o w n , t h e i n ru s h o f c o n q u e ro rs , a n d t h e f l i g h t o f t h e d e fe a t e d . "

T h e M o n g o l s h a d c o n v e r t e d t o I s l a m , a n d o n c e t h e in i ti a l d e s t ru c t i o n

e n d e d , se v era l M o n g o l l e a d e rs se rve d a s g re a t p a t ro n s o f t h e a r t s . T h e e a s t e rn

I ra n i a n c i t i e s — B u k h a ra , S a m a rk a n d , a n d B a l k h ( i n p re s e n t -d a y U z b e k i s t a n ) ,

H e r a t (in p r e s e n t - d a y A f g h an i st an ) , M a s h h a d , a n d N e i s h a p o u r — h a d b e c o m e

f l o u r i s h i n g c u l t u ra l c e n t e rs . T ra d i t io n a l P e rs ia n a r t fo rm s i n c o rp o ra t e d E a s t

e rn t e c h n i q u e s f ro m C h i n a t o p ro d u c e s o m e o f t h e m o s t e x t ra o rd i n a ry

mosques and shrines . Shiraz , Hafez 's b ir th c i ty , had a lso emerged as a cu l tura l

center by the t ime of his bir th .

H a fe z c a m e o f a g e a m i d a g ro w i n g S u f i m o v e m e n t . S u f i a d h e re n t s s o u g h t

the trut h of G od in pers ona l experien ce and D ivine love. S ufism, origina l l y a

reaction against the world ly fa i th of the ear ly Is lamic ru lers , takes i ts name

fro m t h e w o rd

su f

m e a n i n g " w o o l , " o r t h e c o a rs e w o o l e n g a rm e n t s w o rn b y

t h e ea rl y , s e l f -d e n y i n g M u s l i m m y s ti c s. S o m e c o n t e m p o ra ry s c h o l a rs t h i n k

that S ufism got a boo st in Iran after the M on go l invasion because of the

inevitab le quest ionings that fo l low massive ca lamities ; people seek a l terna

t ives to a be l ief sys tem th at has led only to de ath an d de struc tion . O th er s

argue that the increasing re l igious puri tanism and l i tera l ism of Se l juk ru lers

i n t h e t e n t h t o t w e l f t h c e n t u r i e s re p e l l e d t h e m o re p h i l o s o p h i c a l I ra n i a n s a n d

planted seeds of the Sufi way, a striving to see beyond daily l ives and laws into

a higher spir i tua l rea lm.

L egend has i t that Hafez firs t to ok to verse in ord er to com pl ete a S ufi

poem that h is unc le grappled with unsuccessfu l ly . The Sufis used poetry to

e x p re s s th e i r l o v e o f G o d . H a fe z n o t o n l y c o m p l e t e d h i s u n c l e ' s p o e m b u t

began to write his own. In a short t ime he mastered the Pers ian lyric poem, a

genre that often e levates s ty le over substance. The young Hafez c lear ly pos-

137





S H I R A Z

when no one is looking. Hafez regular ly disparaged fa lse ly pious c lerics , as in

"You of S ho rten ed S leeves," th e Hafez poe m th at S ir jani used as a t i tle for h is

o w n w o rk . In H a fe z ' s c o n t e m p o ra r i e s , w h o s t ru g g l e d u n d e r t h e w e i g h t o f

such fa lse ly pious c lerics , h is words must have s truck a chord.

L ike K hayyam before him , Hafez expresses in som e poe m s a "seize th e

day" nihi l ism : We a ll sha l l d ie one day, we are ins ignificant bi ts in the cos m os,

the mysteries of l i fe are beyond our reach, so bring on the wine and the p leas

ures . T hi s is an of t-quo ted verse;

The wheel of ortune's sphere is a marvelous thing;

Wha t next proud head to the lowly dust will it bring?

Tumult and bloody battle rage in the plain:

Bring blood-red wine and fill the goblet again

Beyond i ts carpe diem natu re , the verse a lso appea ls to Ira nians on an oth er

leve l . For a peopl e wh o l ived in a lm ost c on sta nt fear and awe of the ir k ings , i t

i s s t a r t l i n g — a n d p e rh a p s q u i e t l y s a t i s fy i n g — t o re a d a p o e m re m i n d i n g t h e m

t h a t t h e w h e e l o f fa t e k n o w s n o d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e " p ro u d h e a d " o f t h e

s h a h o r t h e p e a s a n t .

Hafez, however, was not immune to f la t tering kings or wea l thy benefac

tors .

S t i l l , he wrote the minimum of panegyrics required of a poet of his

s ta ture . I ra nians rarely quo te thos e poe m s. M or e l ikely , an Ira nian wil l quo te a

verse in wh ich Hafez cri tic ized ru lers w ho disp leased him . O ne ru ler who pa r

t ic u l a rl y r a n k l e d H a fe z w a s t h e p ri n c e M u b a r i z u ' d - D i n M u h a m m a d , w h o

reign ed from 1 35 3 to 13 57 . U nl ike his l iberal , laissez-faire pred ecesso r,

M u b a r i z u ' d - D i n M u h a m m a d r u l e d a s a h a r s h , s t e r n a s ce ti c w h o e x p ec te d t h e

s a m e of h i s s u b j ec t s a n d p o e t s . A s tr ic t S u n n i M u s l i m u n e d u c a t e d i n t h e s u b

t le t ies of Sufi wisdom, he c losed a l l of Shiraz 's wine taverns and demanded a

s t r i c t re l i g i o u s o r t h o d o x y f ro m t h e p o p u l a t i o n . In a p o e m t h a t e a rn e d t h e

ru ler 's wrath, Hafez wrote bi t ter ly of those days:

Drink not wine to the strains of

the

harp, for the constable is a lert.

Hide the goblet in the sleeve of the patchwork cloak,

For the time, like the eye of the decanter, pours forth blood.

Wash your dervish cloak from the wine stain with tears.

For it is the season of piety and the time o f abstinence.

139



P E R S I A N P U p I U M A C E S

They have closed the doors of the wine taverns; O God, suffer not

That they should open the doors of the house of deceit and hypocrisy

If they have closed them for the sake of the heart of the self-righteous zealot.

Be of good heart, for they will reopen them for God 's sake

A l l o f H a fe z ' s c o n t e m p o ra r i e s w h o re a d o r h e a rd t h e p o e m k n e w h i s t a r

get , inc luding the target himself. B u t H a fez , l i k e G h o l a m A l i , p l a y ed b y t h e

ru les . He did not direct ly impl icate the king; he named no names.

Clearly, Hafez's perceived abil ity to te l l the truth, and get away with it ,

u n d e r h a rs h c i rc u m s t a n c e s h a s t i c k l e d t h e fa n c y o f I ra n i a n s a c ro s s t h e c e n

turies . S o has his open c on te m pt for false piety . Hafez 's oc casiona l K hayyamic

"seize the day" s tanc e a lso appea ls to Ira nians , w ho g enera l ly m us t hide e pi

c u re a n i s m fro m t h e g o v e rn m e n t i n t o d a y ' s I ra n a n d f ro m " t h e n o s y n e i g h

b o r s "

i n t r a d i t i o n a l I r a n i a n s o c i e t y . H i s p h i l o s o p h i c a l f r u s t r a t i o n a t

unders tanding some of the mysteries of l i fe , the crue l whee l of fa te , speaks to

a b ro a d e r a u d i e n c e , t o a n y o n e w h o b e l i e v e s t h e w h e e l h a s g i v e n h i m a p a r t i c

u lar ly bad turn.

S t il l , o n e cann ot red uce Hafez 's popu lar i ty to suc h socia l and pol i t ica l

issues em ana ting from his poetry. M an y of his po em s do not fal l so neat ly

into categories l ike a t tacks on fa lse pie ty , ruminations on fa te , subt le jabs a t

ru lers , or "seize the day" songs of p leasure . These other poems have spawned

n u m e ro u s d e b a t e s o n t h e p o e t ' s w o r l d v i e w .

A s w i t h a n y p o e t s o re v e re d , i n t e rp re t a t i o n s a b o u n d . F o r e x a m p l e , w h e n

H a fez w ri t e s o f w i n e a n d i n t o x i c a t i o n a n d t h e b e l o v e d , t h e d e v o u t M u s l i m

interprets the verses as the drunken s ta te experienced by coming c lose to the

Divine Beloved (G od), a co m m o n con ceit used in S ufi poetry. S t il l , o th er

readers smile and say that the wine Hafez spoke of was a l l too rea l , as was the

b e l o v e d h e w ro t e a b o u t .

In this fashion, Hafez interpreta t ions abound. The re l igious man f inds

verses to support h is view of Hafez the Devout. The antire l igious can f ind

verses to sup po rt h is c la im of Hafez the A gnostic . S om e see Hafez th e Free-

T h i n k e r a n d H a fe z t h e S u fi a n d H a fe z t h e L i b era l . In d e e d , a l i b e ra l o p p o n e n t

of Hafez w oul d even coul d con str uc t a case against Hafez the R eactionary.

Hafez offered I ranian s poetry in a beautifu l package tha t a l ternate ly

a p p e a rs a n t i -a u t h o r i t a r i a n , re l i g i o u s l y d e v o u t , o r h e d o n i s t i c a l l y d e f i a n t

depending on the perspective of the reader or , indeed, of the poem

itself.

W i t h

140



T h e t o m b

o f

C y r u s

the G reat .

P as argad,

I ran.

P h o to

credit:

A fs hin

M o l a v i



V i e w of Persepolis. Photo

credit:

S asan Afsoosi



T h e

a u t h o r a n d

Ha ji A gh a

in front of the

Fe rdowsi

shrine-

T o u s ,

Iran.

Workers

u n l o a d i n g

S aeed's

m e l o n

t ruck.

M a sh ad ,

Iran.

P h o t o

credit:

Afshi n M o l a v i



T h e fa rm er w h o recites O n w K h a y

y a m poetry

s tanding

in front of the

O m a r K h a y y a m s h r i n e . N e i s h a p o u r ,

Iran.

P h o t o

credit: A f s hi n M o l a v i

T h e

c o m b of the poet Hafez, Shiraz

H

Iran, P h o t o credit: A f sh i n

M o L v i



T h e

breathtaking

gra nd square of

Isfahan.

P h o t o

credit:

S asan A fsoosi

Wall painting in the palace o f

A H

Q a p u , Isfahan,

Iran.

P h o to credit: A fshin M o l a v i



T e h r a n coffee shop gathering where

y o u n g

boys a n d girls

min g l e ,

flirt, and furtively

e x c h a n g e p h o n e n u m b e r s . P h o t o credit:

U l l a

K i m m i g



Interview with conservative M u s l i m cleric Haji A g ha A b u Torabi , former pr isoner of war

i n Iraq.

T e h r a n , Iran.



A w o m a n a n d y o u n g boy p l a y i n g a h a n d d r u m duet . T e hra n. P hot o credit: N a hi d A fsoosi

A y o u n g w o m a n i n t h o u g h t after a boating trip. K a raj , I ran. P h o to credit: N a hi d A fsoosi



The author with village boys in Ardebil, northwest

Iran.

P h o to

credit;

A fshin M o l a v i

V i l l a g e g i r i h o l d i n g h e r b r o t h e r

M a h a b a d p I r a n . K u r d i s h r e g i o n . P h o t o

c r ed i t : A f s h i n M o l a v i



Tehr an 's s l eepy

carpet

bazaar, where merchants regular ly c o m p l a i n a b o u t g o v e r n m e n t

c o m p e t i t i o n

in the

carpet

m a rk e t. P h o t o

credit:

Sasan A f soosi

F

Fr ui t market m er chant . Tehr an. P ho to

credit:

S a s a n A i s o o s i



P ay i n g

respects

at the m artyrs' cemetery in S hiraz, o n e of hun dre ds of gov ernm ent-f und ed

cemeteries that c o m m e m o r a t e Iran's a p p r o x i m a t e l y 300,000 dead from the 1980-88 war

wi t h Iraq.

A

y o u n g

m a n study ing for the hot ly contes ted col lege entrance e x a m i n a t i o n s . P h o t o

credit: S as an A fs oos i



I r anians c r ow din g ar ou nd new sstands. Fr om 1997 to 2000, the n ew stan d

became the most cr ow ded p l ace in Iran as Iranians gathered to read the latest

from n e w l y

freed

press. A conservative crackdown on the

press

i n A p ri l

2000

h a s s l o w e d sales at the newsstands. P ho to

credit:

U l l a

K i m m i g

Y o u n g m e n d a n c i n g t o t h e latest m u s i c fr om L os A ngel es- based I r anian po p

singers. Cassettes a n d C D s o f p o p u l a r " T e h ra n g e l e s" s i n g e r s— t h o u g h t e c h n i

cally i l legal—are

w i d e l y

sol d o n the I ranian black market. Th e "m oral s pol ice "

pe r i odi c a l ly

crack

d o w n

on the black market cassette sel lers. P ho to credit:

Ul la

K i m m i g



S H U A Z

harsh foreign ru lers and tyrants a t the he lm for centuries , I ranian poets had

t o d e v e l o p a l a n g u a g e r i c h i n a m b i g u it y . N o o n e d e v e l o p e d t h i s m o re g r a c e

fu l ly than Hafez. This ambiguity of language, according to Harvard Univers i ty

s c h o l a r R o y M o t t a h e d e h , " a l l o w e d t h e m t o k e e p a d i s t a n c e f ro m t h e g e n e ra

t ions of rapacious and paras i t ica l ru lers , I ranian as wel l as non-Iranian, who

had he ld power by s tanding on the necks of their I ranian subjects ."

In fact , Hafez reve led in the ambiguity , openly proc la iming "I am a reci ter

o f t h e Q u ra n i n o n e g a t h e r i n g a n d a w i n e d r i n k e r i n a n o t h e r" I ra n i a n s c a n

i m m e d i a t e l y s y m p a t h i z e w i t h t h a t s e n t i m e n t . I t re c a l l s t h e c o m p l e x l i n e s a n d

different faces betw een p ubl ic and private space, trad itio n and des ire, th e law

andjust ice that many Iranians traverse dai ly . Herein l ies an important reason

for Hafez 's populari ty . The poet does not demand of his readers a s ingle

worldview. H e acknow led ges that d ifferent faces co rre spo nd t o a wo rld of

com pl ex socia l in teractio ns and m edd l eso m e c lerics and pol i t ica l leaders . You

c a n s h a m e l e s s l y b e a w i n e d r i n k e r i n o n e g a t h e r i n g a n d a Q u ra n re a d e r i n

another.

P erha ps the Hafez l ine goes dee per tha n that . T h e P ers ian l i terary scho la r

A h m a d K a r im i H a k k a k a r g u e s t h a t H a fe z d id n o t j u s t p l ay a c a t - a n d - m o u s e

game with his princip les to avoid scrutiny from authori t ies . "He may have

genuine ly fe l t the heavy weight of phi losophica l ambiguity that confronts

most men who think deeply," he remarked to me in an extensive interview.

M u c h l i ke t h e t o r m e n t e d s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y M u s l i m a r ti st s i n I s f ah a n w h o

drew beautifu l portra i ts during the day and washed their hands in their tears

a t n i g h t fo r t ra n s g re s s i n g t h e M u s l i m ru l e of p o r t ra y i n g t h e h u m a n i m a g e ,

Hafez may have suffered from deep internal conflict as one who believed in

his fa i th but who a lso s truggled to come to terms with some of i ts exoteric

rules.

K arimi H ak ka k pu ts it th is way: "W he n Hafez says th at he reci tes th e

Quran in one gathering and drinks wine in another, i t is often seen by many

Ira nians as the variou s faces tha t on e m us t do n in order to survive. We can a l l

re la te to that . In my opinion, however, Hafez might a lso be saying that he is

ju s t as confused as th e next guy. I f we l ook a t the who le of Hafez 's oeuv re , we

can make a va l id argument that the verse may ref lect h is own inner torment,

h i s o w n s t ru g g l e a b o u t r i g h t a n d w ro n g . T h i s i s a s t ru g g l e t h a t w e a l l — Ira n i

ans or not—have experienced."

This act of donning different faces seems often to Westerners as the

141



P E R S I A N P L L f R I M A f E S

heig ht of th e hypocrisy th at Hafez so criticizes. It a lso lead s to an un fo rtu na te

Ira nian charac ter t ra i t , a rema rkab le abil i ty to b e evasive, te l l h a l f- truths , and

l i e o u t r i g h t . I ra n i a n s ra re l y d i s c u s s t h i s i s s u e , b u t n u m e ro u s W e s t e rn t ra v e l

w ri t e rs a n d j o u rn a l i s t s h a v e re m a rk e d o n i t . T h e e a rl y t w e n t i e t h -c e n t u ry

British foreign min is ter and l i fe long P ers ianis t L ord Curz on— a colonia l is t

and racis t , m ind you — on ce wrote: " [s jp lendide me nda x [m endacity] m ight

b e t a k e n a s t h e m o t t o fo r t h e P e rs i a n c h a ra c t e r . " A m o re c o n t e m p o ra ry W e s t

ern observer, th e as tute jou rna l is t and far m or e sym pathetic I ran w atch er

E l a i n e S c i o l i n o , c o n c u rs , w r i t i n g i n h e r b o o k Persian Mirrors: "A n u m b e r o f

Ir anian s J have me t over th e years kno w h ow to be sp lendid l y deceptive ," A

c o n s e rv a t iv e P a r l i a m e n t m e m b e r re v e al i n gl y t o l d S c io K n o : "I f y o u d o n ' t s p e a k

of everything so openly it 's better. Being able to keep a secret even if you have

to mis lead is considered a s ign of maturi ty . I t ' s Pers ian wisdom. We don ' t have

to be idea l peopl e . E verybody l ies . L et 's be good l iars."

A W este rn bu sin essm an fr iend, exasperated by a to ug h set of nego tia t ions ,

once launched into an angry t i rade against I ranians a t a Tehran party . "You

are a l l l iars," he said, s l ightly drunk from the bootlegged whiskey. "I think it

s tarts w ith yo ur poetry, w hich you interp ret in five different ways A nd the re

i s y o u r

ta rof,

a l l th at fluffy ta lk you Ira nians say bu t don ' t rea l ly m ean W ha t

bul lo cks S aying yo u are each othe r 's ' servan t ' or p led ging to serve each

other, when you are rea l ly s tabbing each other in the back "

A few Iranians , l is tening to the t i rade, smiled and nodded appropria te ly ,

giving hi m a "yes, how un fo rtu na te" l ook. A fter he walk ed away, o ne I ranian

tu rn ed to m e and sa id: ' 'W hat a fool that m an is . H e is ju s t u pset b ecau se we

do n' t be l ieve his ow n l ies. H is ow n country, E ngl and , is fu l l of the sm oo th est

liars I 've ever seen."

W h e n t h e d ru n k B ri t re t u rn e d , h e a p o l o g i z e d , s a y i n g t h a t m a y b e h e h a d

s p o k e n o u t o f l i n e . T h e I ra n i a n s n o d d e d , a s s u r i n g h i m t h a t h i s c o m m e n t s

were fine.

T h e b u s i n e s s m a n ' s re m a rk s h o l d a n u n fo r t u n a t e d e g re e o f t ru t h , b u t p e r

haps the rea l reason that I ranians have deve loped a faci l i ty in ly ing has , I

th ink, less to do with

ta'rof

or the tradit ion of ambiguity in poetry than with a

his tory of autho ri tarianis m a nd foreign invasion. T h e auth ori tar ian leader

forces you t o l ie in ord er to survive. T h e foreign inva der forces you to l ie in

ord er to adapt or refra in from ad apting. A s th e revered thir te en th- cen tur y poe t

Saadi notes , " If you cannot cut the hand of the king, then i t is bes t to kiss i t ."

142



T h ro u g h o u t h i s t o ry , I ra n i a n s h a v e d e v e l o p e d a re m a rk a b l e a b i l i t y t o a d a p t

t o n e w c i rc u m s t a n c e s . In s o m e re s p e c t s , I ra n h a s w e a t h e re d t h e s t o rm s o f

invasion and entrapped i ts invaders with i ts cu l ture , k iss ing the king 's r ight

h a n d w h i l e g u i d i n g h i s l e f t h a n d t o w a rd w h a t i t re a l l y w a n t s . E x a m p l e s

a b o u n d . A l e x a n d e r a n d s o m e of h i s g e n e ra l s t o o k o n a t t r i b u t e s o f P e rs i a n

kings.

Iran acc epted the A rab fa ith bu t not the A rab cu l tu re , whi l e s ignifi

c a n tl y c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e c u l t u ra l d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e ea rl y M u s l i m w o r l d .

F r o m t h e t e n t h t h r o u g h t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n tu r y , b o t h t h e C e n t r a l A s i an T u r k

i n v a de r a n d t h e e a s t e rn M o n g o l i n v a d e r w e re c a u g h t i n t h e a t tra c ti v e w e b o f

I ra n i a n c u l t u re , o rg a n i z i n g t h e i r c o u r t s i n t h e P e rs i a n m a n n e r , b u i l d i n g P e r

s ian-s ty le c i t ies a top those they destroyed, and embracing Ferdowsi, the poet ,

as the ir own. P ers ian becam e th e cou rt lan guage in bo th dynasties , and the

Pers ian poet emerged as the favored court ier The Iranian Safavi dynasty,

though Turkic in origin, protected Iran 's borders l ike devoted nationa l is ts ,

w h i l e b a t t l i n g t h e O t t o m a n T u rk s . P e rs ia n i n f l u e n c e e v en s p re a d b e y o n d I ra n .

B y t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y t h e t h re e d y n a s t i e s o f s ig n i fi c an c e i n t h e M u s l i m

w o r l d ( t h e O t t o m a n s i n T u rke y , t h e M u g h a l s i n In d ia [P e rsi a ns of o r ig i n ] , a n d

the Safavis in Iran) a l l used Pers ian a t their courts ( though, i ronica l ly , i t took

a hu nd re d years for the Safavis to do so). T h e Iran ian architectu ra l s tam p o n

M u g h a l In d i a c l e ar l y s h i n e s i n t h e T aj M a h a l , b u il t b y a n I n d i a n k i n g o f I ra n

ian ancestry.

Iranians deve loped a pattern in dea l ing with foreign invaders : accept them

re luctant ly , take the best from their cu l ture , continue a quie t (kiss ing hands)

res is tance, and u l t imate ly , I ranize them. Certa in aspects of ancient I ran have

c o n t i n u e d t o t h i s d a y d e s p i te n u m e r o u s i n v a s i o n s : t h e a b s o l u t e p o w e r o f t h e

king ( today 's k ing wears a turban) and the associa ted patr iarchy, the idea l ized

s e n s e of j u s t i c e , a n d t h e w o rs h i p o f b e a u ty . T h e l a t te r t w o re m a i n s t ro n g c u l

tura l characteris t ics , whi le the f irs t , absolute power, wavers . I ranians often

take pride in othe r aspec ts of t h e nati on 's c u l tura l c ontinu ity , especia l ly th e

surviva l of th e P ers ian lang uage after the A rab invasion.

D e s p i t e t h e s e e x a m p l e s o f c u l t u ra l c o n t i n u i t y , t w e n t i e t h -c e n t u ry I ra n i a n s

d i s p l a y e d a m a rk e d c u l t u ra l d i s o r i e n t a t i o n . T h ro u g h o u t t h e c e n t u ry I ra n i a n s

a l t e rn a t e l y c o n d e m n e d Is l a m a s t h e s o u rc e o f a l l t h e i r p ro b l e m s a n d p ra i s e d

Is l a m a s t h e s o l u t i o n t o a l l t h e i r p ro b l e m s ; t h e y p l e d g e d t o i m i t a t e a l l t h i n g s

W e s t e rn a n d t o defy a l l t h i n g s W e s t e rn ; t h e y s t e p p e d fo rw a rd t o w a rd m o d e r

nity and pul led back in the face of t radit ion.

143



P E R S I A N

P I L p R I M A f E S

The reason for each of these s teps usua l ly had something to do with

"identi ty" issues . T h e I ranian w ho arg ued for defiance of a l l th in gs W estern

often did so in th e na m e of preservin g Iranian identi ty . T h e Iranian w ho

stepped forward to condemn Is lam a lso did so often in the name of Iranian

identi ty , arguing tha t Is lam cam e from A rabs w ho forced i t on the m . In th e

e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u ry o n e p ro m i n e n t I ra n i a n t h i n k e r c a l l e d fo r a d ra s t i c

cha nge in the Ira nian identi ty . "We ne ed to be com e E uro pea nize d to our very

b o n e m a rro w / ' h e s a i d .

This quest ion of an Iranian identi ty e l ic i ts much discussion even in this

c e n t u ry . T h e i s s u e s u p p o r t s a sm a l l b o o k i n d u s t ry . O n e re c e n t b e s t s el l e r w a s

a pol i t ica l sc ience book by an Iranian professor t i t led

Who We are and What We

Have Become.

A n o t h e r b r i s kl y so l d b o o k w a s ti t l e d s i m p l y

Iranian Identity.

S tat e-r un (conservative) te levision regular ly pro du ces pro gra m s on Iranian

i d e n t i t y . In t h e m i n d s o f T V p ro g ra m m e rs , t h e i d e a l I ra n i a n g e n t l e m a n i s

A

p i o u s , h a rd w o rk i n g , b e a rd e d m a n w h o re s p e c t s h i s e l d e rs , re v e re s K h o m e i n i ,

obeys his government, and eats his dinners on the f loor in the o ld manner.

M u c h re v o l u t i o n a ry d i s c o u rs e o f t h e 1 9 6 0 s a n d 1 9 7 0 s rev o l ve d a ro u n d

identi ty issues . L eading inte l lec tua l s , a larm ed by th e grow ing W esternization

in Iran, urged a re turn to t radit ion, to re l igion. Al i Sharia t i ca l led on Iranians

t o e m u l a t e t h e e x a m p l e o f Im a m H o s s e i n , p re s e n t i n g t h e m a r t y re d i m a m a s

the pi l la r of S hi 'a I ranian identi ty . Ja la l A l-e -A hm ad, a leading writer a nd

essayist, wrote often on the subject of return, criticizing the "Westoxication"

of Iranians and urging a re turn to the tradit ions of Shi 'a Is lam, to s imple ,

r u r a l v a l u e s . I n m a n y w a y s, A l - e - A h m a d

T

s own l ife typified Iran's cultural dis

o r i e n t a t i o n . E v e n w h i l e h e c o u n s e l e d a v a g u e re t u rn t o S h i ' a I s l a m , h i s o w n

re l igious fa i th was weak; he decried "Westoxication" but preferred quoting

W e s t e rn p h i l o s o p h e rs ; h e j o i n e d t h e C o m m u n i s t T u d e h p a rt y , o n l y t o re t re a t

i n t o t h e e m b ra c e o f re l i g i o n . U l t i m a t e l y h e c a m e t o q u e s t i o n i f h e c o u l d p o s

sess any real religious faith at all.

A psychologis t fr iend once to ld me that h is compatriots suffered from a

case of cu l tura l schizophrenia in the twentie th century. "We are not sure who

we are, and every few years someone steps forward to define us. Half the

c o u n t ry a g re e s w i t h t h a t p e rs o n a n d w a v e s p a m p h l e t s a b o u t t h e re a l I ra n i a n

identi ty , and the other ha lf d isagrees and writes i ts own pamphlets ."

I v iew the Iranian cu l tura l schizophrenia as an inevitab le reaction to a suc

cession of political Leaders who sought to define an Iranian identity on their

14.4



StfifcAZ

o w n a rb i t ra ry t e rm s . T w e n t i e t h -c e n t u ry I ra n s a w tw o e x t re m e s : t h e S h a h ' s

re legation of re l igion and embrace of a chauvinis t ic Pers ian nationa l ism, and

short ly thereafter , the Is lamic R epub l ic 's proc l am ation of a "rea l " I r ania n

identi ty—revolutionary, anti- imperia l is t , socia l ly conservative , and overt ly

Is lamica l ly pious . Both s ides had their pamphlets , and the other ha lf of the

p o p u l a t i o n q u i e tl y w r o t e i ts o w n .

A mid the se shift ing winds of cu l tura l identi ty , Hafez s tand s apart . His

p o e t ry d o e s n o t d ra w c l e a r , u n b re a k a b l e l i n e s a b o u t i d e n t i t y a n d c u l t u re . H e

a l l o w s fo r t h e a m b i g u i t i e s t h a t r i p p l e t h ro u g h I ra n i a n c u l t u re . In t h a t re s p e c t ,

H a fe z d i d w h a t s o m a n y P e rs i a n p o e t s h a v e d o n e . H e e x p re s s e d , a c c o rd i n g t o

M o t t a h e d e h , t h a t " t h e a m b i g u i t y t h a t w a s a t t h e h e a r t o f I ra n i a n c u l t u re l i ve d

m o s t f re e l y a n d o p e n l y . . . w a s n o t a n e n i g m a t o b e s o l v e d b u t a n e n i g m a t h a t

w a s u n s o l v a b l e . "

Hafezian ambiguity a l lows for shades of gray in a world where authori ty

figures constant ly demand b lack or white . Hafez 's poetry, i t seems to me, a lso

might serve the private mind of the thinking Iranian who, faced with so many

c o m p e t i n g t ru t h s f ro m d i f fe re n t w o r l d s a n d d i f fe re n t ru l e rs , h a s s o m e h o w

lost fa i th in the power of absolute t ruth and se t t led only on the certa inty of

enigma and fa i th in the aes thetic .

Pilgrimage; The Tomb of Hafez, the Poet

A

long the s tone walkway to the tomb f lanked by ta l l red roses , people

p a c k e d t h e g re e n p a rk b e n c h e s . A g ir l in a l i g h t b l u e m a n t e a u a n d g ra y

head scarf sketched th e Hafez to m b in penci l . A family of four dr an k

b o t t l e s o f Z a m Z a m , a s w e e t C o c a -C o l a s u b s t i t u t e m a d e i n I ra n . S t ra i g h t

a h e a d , t h e w h i t e s t a i rs l e d t o a m u l t i c o l u m n e d p o r t a l w h e re t h e t o m b o f

H a fe z re st e d . D a v o u d a n d I w a l k e d t o w a rd t h e t o m b , p a s t t w o l o n g b l u e

re fl e c ti n g p o o l s a n d b e d s o f y e l l o w a n d re d ro s e s. T h e t o m b s t o n e , a d e e p

white and cream marble , sang with Hafez verses e tched on the s tone. The

t o m b it se l f t o o k s h e l t e r u n d e r a n u n a d o rn e d b l a c k d o m e . O n t h e in s i d e of t h e

dome, a profusion of co lor—gold r ims, ce les t ia l b lue background, and red

a n d b l a c k d i a m o n d s a n d s t a rs — s u rro u n d e d p o e t i c v e rs es f ro m H a fez .

D a v o u d a p p ro a c h e d t h e t o m b re v e re n t i a l l y . A s m a l l c ro w d s t o o d b y t h e

t o m b s t o n e . F o l l o w i n g t ra d i t i o n , e a c h p e rs o n p l a c e d t w o f i n g e rs o n t h e m a r

b l e a n d s a id a p ra y e r fo r t h e d e c e a s ed . O n e y o u n g m a n w i t h l o n g b l a c k h a i r

145



ft SIAN P l L £ R l M A f E 5

and a soft , cur ly b lack beard c losed his eyes , gent ly rocking back and forth ,

s e e m i n g l y i n a S u r l - l i k e t ra n c e . L a t e r I fo u n d o u t h e w a s a w a r v e t e ra n . " T h e

wo rld is ug ly ," he to ld m e, " I am at peace onl y w he n I read Hafez." N earby a

father read verses from Hafez to his son. T h e female ske tch artist from t he

b e n c h h a d a p p ro a c h e d fo r a c l o s e r l o o k .

A f te r m o v i n g aw a y f ro m t h e t o m b , w e w a l k e d a m i d t h e l e m o n a n d o ra n g e

trees in the courtyard. 1 a s k e d D a v o u d w h y h e t h o u g h t I ra n i a n s re v ere H a fe z

s o m u c h .

"Every Iranian sees in the Divan of Hafez l ike seeing in a mirror," he said.

" H e w ri t e s a b o u t s o m a n y a s p e c t s o f t h e h u m a n c o n d i t i o n t h a t y o u c a n f i n d

yo ur ow n p l ight or sadness or joy squee zed betw een two lush and beautifu l

l i n e s o f v e rs e . H e a l s o l a b o re d u n d e r s o m e t i m e s h a rs h ru l e rs , a n d i t s h o w s i n

his poetry. Every Iranian knows the diff icu l t ies of l iv ing under absolute and

sometimes harsh ru lers and empathizes with Hafez 's own p l ight ," he sa id .

We sat down on a bench in the shade of a bandari orange tree . The

o ra n g e s — g re e n , r i p e , a n d h e a v y — p u l l e d t h e b ra n c h e s t o w a rd t h e g ro u n d . I

re t r i e v e d m y n o t e b o o k a n d a s k e d D a v o u d s o m e m o re q u e s t i o n s .

How would he compare Hafez to the other great c lassical poets of Persia?

"I th ink Hafez is exceptiona l ," he sa id . "There is both depth and beauty in

h i s p o e m s . H e i s a l s o q u i n t e s s e n t i a l ^ I ra n i an , a n d I t h i n k t h a t is w h y h e d o e s

n o t h a v e t h e s a m e n u m b e r o f a d m i re rs o u t s i d e I ra n a s d o e s O m a r K h a y y a m o r

S aadi or even R um l. H e does not t rans l a te wel l , both l i tera l ly and cu l tural ly ."

I p re s s e d h i m o n t h a t p o i n t .

" H i s p o e m s are m o r e c o m p l e x i n m e a n i n g t h a n t h e o t h e rs . K h a y y a m , a s

popular ly known, is an agnostic skeptic s truggl ing with the mysteries of l i fe

w h o u rg e s p e o p l e t o d r i n k w i n e a n d m a k e L ove. O f c o u rs e , s o m e m i g h t a rg u e

against that depict ion. S t i l l , the view that has come to be a t tr ibuted to

K hayyam is easi ly un de rs to od by a l l . S aadi , for his part , has s im ple m ora l ta les

that anyone can unders tand, though he was a lso a s ty l is t ic genius l ike Hafez.

R um i is m ore co m pl icated, bu t his mystica l poe m s of love for G od can b e

unders tood by many. Hafez, however, works on so many different leve ls and

s e e m s t o s p e a k a p r i v a t e l a n g u a g e t h a t o n l y a n I ra n i a n c a n u n d e rs t a n d . H a fe z

is a lso the m ost gifted w ith the P ers ian language. I have read som e Hafez

t ra n s l a t i o n s i n E n g l i s h . T h e y a re s t i l t e d . T h e y d o n o t m o v e m e a t a l l , b u t

when I read the origina l Fars i , sometimes I fee l a s t i rr ing in my s tomach a t the

beauty of the verse."

146



S H I R A Z

He continued, "There are so many different views of Hafez: as mystic , as

epicurean, as rebei against authori ty .

I

s o m e t i m e s l i k e t o v ie w h i m a s a n i n t e l

lec tua l . I t is important for I ranian inte l lec tua ls to continue to think and write

a n d e x p re s s t h e i r v ie w s. T h e s e c o n t r i b u t i o n s w i l l se rv e t h e I ra n i a n p e o p l e / ' h e

said.

I p o i n t e d o u t t h a t s o m e m i g h t a rg u e t h a t I ra n ' s l a t e - t w e n t i e t h -c e n t u ry

i n t e l l e c t u a l " c o n t r i b u t i o n s " a d d e d u p t o l it tl e m o re t h a n a j u m b l e o f M a rx i st

a n d C o m m u n i s t a n d l e f t i s t u t o p i a n i s m , w h i c h u l t i m a t e l y d i d n o t s e rv e I ra n i

ans very wel l .

H e smil ed. "Yes, the re are som e wh o th in k th at way/ ' he sa id quie t ly ,

a lmost sad ly .

H e t o o k a b re a t h , se e m i n g l y p a i n e d b y m y s t a t e m e n t . " Y ou k n o w , A fs h in ,

I h a v e b e e n s t ru g g l i n g w i t h t h i s q u e s t i o n myself, b u t y o u h a v e t o u n d e r s t a n d

th e perspective of a wri ter in th e 197 0s. W e l ived un de r a mi l i tary dic ta to rship

sup por ted by th e W est , especia l ly th e U nited S ta tes . W e saw great d ispari ty in

w e a l t h , t re m e n d o u s c o rru p t i o n a m o n g t h e e l i t e . In t h o s e d a y s w e d i d n o t

u n d e rs t a n d t h e fa i l u re s o f t h e S o v i e t s y s t e m , a n d t h o s e a m o n g u s w h o d i d

b l a m e d n o t t h e s y s te m b u t t h e p ra c t i t i o n e rs of t h e s y s t e m . W e w a n t e d t o c re

ate an ideal, c lass less ega litarian society. W e we re idealistic, an d I do no t th in k

t h e re i s a n y t h i n g w ro n g w i t h t h a t . "

H e s p o k e m o re i n re s i g n a t i o n t h a n i n d e fe n s e . H e l o o k e d d o w n a s h e

s p o k e . H i s v o ic e l o w e re d a s h e w e n t o n , " M o s t o f t h e w ri t e rs t h a t I g rew u p

reading h ad leftist v iews. M any were M arxis ts , and m an y were s incere in their

desire to improve Iran," he sa id , "Perhaps l i tera ture should not have been

use d in this way, b ut s ince we had no new spap ers , i t wa s our onl y way of

express ing our views."

M arxis t and leftist ideas suffused Ir ania n nove ls and sh or t s tories of the

1960s and 1970s. For many, the qua l i ty of a book rose with i ts commitment

t o M a rx i s t re v o l u t i o n . O n e w ri te r a t a T e h ra n c o n fe re n c e i n 1 9 7 7 p u t it t h is

way: "T he p hi l osop hica l perspective of an artis t is derived from socia l ism,

M a r x is m , a n d e x is te n ti al i s m ." M a n y t h o u g h t t h a t l i t er a tu r e m u s t b e r e v o l u

tionary to be great.

" I d o n o t t h i n k w e c a n b l a m e t h a t g e n e ra t i o n ' s i n t e l l e c t u al s , " D a v o u d s a id .

" T h e y s a w t h e p ro b l e m s w h i l e t h e re s t o f I ra n i g n o re d t h e m . P e rh a p s t h e i r

so lut ions were not idea l , but a t leas t they saw that a l l was not wel l and tr ied

t o d o s o m e t h i n g . " H e c o n t i n u e d . "I think if we look a t our inte l lec tua ls today.

147



P E H 5 1 A N

P U f f U M A C E S

however, they seem to h a v e a b e tt e r p e rs p e ct i v e o n t i l i n g s . T h e y o u n g e r g e n

e ra t i o n

o f

i n t e l l e c t u a l s a n d w ri t e rs , w h e t h e r re l i g i o u s

o r

secular, is less dog

m a t i c a n d m o re o p e n t o d ia l o g u e . T h e y a re n o t i n t e re s t e d i n t h e M a rx i st a n d

Utopian

c liches of the past," he said. "1 think that this is a good sign." He

breathed in heavily, as if he were trying to gulp the air I expected him to go

o n , b u t h e s t o p p e d a n d looked away. W e l ingered for a whi l e on the be nc h,

w a t c h i n g t h e c ro w d s .

A g ro u p o f b e a rd e d y o u n g m e n , b l a c k -a n d -w h i t e P a l e s t i n i a n -s t y l e s c a rv e s

w ra p p e d a ro u n d t h e i r n e c k s , w a l k e d i n t o t h e s h r i n e a rea . T h e s c a rv e s w e re a

dead giveaway They were Basij is . As they walked toward the shrine , I noticed

a few young women t ighten their head scarves and walk away from them.

N o t e b o o k i n h a n d , I a p p ro a c h e d t h e m . T h e y h a d b e e n o n a p i l g ri m a g e

to ur of martyrs of the I ran-I raq war. Th ey h ad vis ited im po rtan t bat tlef ie lds in

the south and paid their respects to martyrs ' famil ies and cemeteries across

the region.

" W h y h a v e y o u c o m e t o th e H afez t o m b ? "

1

asked one of them, a thin boy

of no more than twenty, with soft eyes and a wispy beard.

" H a fe z w a s a g re a t p o e t a n d a d e v o u t M u s l i m , " h e s ai d . " W e s h o u l d p a y

ou r respects to this great M us l im poet . W h en I read his poetry, I fee l great

re l igious inspira t ion."

Soon enough a smal l c rowd of Basij is had gathered. Typica l ly , the inter

v i e w t u rn e d a ro u n d , a n d t h e q u e s t i o n s s t a r t e d c o m i n g a t m e : " W h a t d o y o u

t h i n k o f I ra n ? H o w is l ife i n A m e ri c a ? W h y d o t h e W e s t e rn m e d i a h a t e I ra n ? "

O ne you ng m an s tepped to the front of the boys. H e s tood ta l l and s l im w ith

brown eyes and a hawklike nose and a black, scraggly beard. He leaned forward

a n d a s k ed m e : " W h a t d o t h e A m e ri c a n p e o p l e t h i n k a b o u t t h e B a s ij is ?"

" M o s t A m e ri c a n s d o n o t k n o w w h a t a B as iji i s, " I re s p o n d e d c a nd i dl y .

" F ra n k l y , m o s t A m e ri c a n s d o n o t k n o w m u c h a b o u t I ra n i an s . "

H e se e m e d c o n fu se d b y t h e a n s w e r A fte r al l , m o s t I ra n i a n s s p e n d a l o t of

t i m e t h i n k i n g a b o u t A m e r i c a an d A m e r i c an s . W h y w o u l d n ' t A m e r i c a n s d o

t h e s a m e ? " M a n y A m e ri c a n s s t il l h a v e a n e g at iv e i m a g e o f I ra n , " I e x p l a in e d .

" T h e y re m e m b e r t h e h o s t a g e s a n d a l l o f t h e ' D e a t h t o A m e ri c a ' s l o g a n s a n d

the f lag burning."

A few more Basijis strol led over.

1

s tood on the s teps of the Hafez shrine ,

leaning against a co lumn. "But after I ran 's reform movement and the inf lux of

Iran ian f ilms in the Un ited S ta tes , th e A m erican percep tion of I ran has soft-

T4S



SK IKKZ

e n e d

T

"

I

sa id . A few more young Basij is s traggled in , creat ing a smal l c irc le as

I s p o k e . B y n o w m y l e c t u re h a d t w e n t y p e o p l e i n t h e a u d i e n c e . " P e o p l e

around the world are watching c lose ly Iran 's s truggle for freedom/' I sa id .

"A lm ost every day there are art ic les in W estern new spape rs abo ut I ran."

T h e y o u n g m a n w i t h t h e h a w k l i k e n o s e i n t e rru p t e d m e . H e s e e m e d l i k e a

g ro u p l e a d e r. T h e o t h e rs d e ferre d t o h i m . " W e s u p p o r t f re e d o m a n d re fo rm

t o o / '

he sa id , "as long as i t is within the l ine of the Imam."

S e v e ra l y o u n g m e n n o d d e d . O n e a d d e d , "Y es, a n d a s l o n g a s t h e re fo rm i s

s u p p o r t e d b y A g h a . " T h e l i n e of t h e I m a m

(khat-e-Emam),

t h e p a t h of K h o m e

ini ,

w as th e ph rase u sed by conservatives to den ote a conservative pol i t ica l

and re l igious orthodoxy. Agha, in this case , was an hono rif ic te rm us ed to

m e a n I r a n ' s S u p r e m e L e a de r , A y a to l l a h K h a m e n e i .

I t o o k a b re a t h a n d c o n t i n u e d , " P e rh a p s t h e re v o l u t i o n a ry a g e m i g h t b e

w i n d i n g d o w n i n t o n e w re a l i t i e s , " I s u g g e s t e d , t h o u g h I t h i n k I g a rb l e d t h e

Far si, m a k i n g i t s o u n d h a r s h e r t h a n I i n t e n d e d , s o m e t h i n g l i k e " T h e r e v o l u

t ion has ended." I knew i t was a bad mis take (even I practiced the art of

s e l f -c e n s o rs h i p ) , b u t I p l o d d e d o n . " P e rh a p s t h i s i s a n e w a g e , a n d I ra n n e e d s

new ideas . You have ju s t spen t th e past few days vis i ting shrines of I r an 's w ar

martyrs . T he y deserve to be resp ected," I sa id , s incere ly . " I have visi ted S ha -

l a m c h e h

myself,"

I sa id , referring to a prominent war veterans ' shrine .

I bega n to sweat . M y voice cracked. H ow h ad I got myse lf involved in this

pol i t ica l sermon on the s teps of the Hafez shrine? Forty eyes f ixed intent ly on

m e , a w a i t i n g m y n e x t s t a t e m e n t , a s I s t u m b l e d o n . " T h e re i s n o l o n g e r a n y

need for war. I know that some of you might be involved in campus pol i t ics .

S o m e o f y o u m i g h t e v e n b e o p p o s e d t o t h e s t u d e n t s w h o s u p p o r t d e m o c ra c y ,

b u t p e r h a p s — "

T h e y o u n g m a n w i t h t h e h a w k l i k e n o s e , t h e g ro u p l e a d e r , i n t e r ru p t e d m e

again. "W e are no t involved in pol i t ics . W e bel ieve in th e l ine of th e I m am and

i n t h e velayat~e~faqih. T his is w hat a l l I r anian s bel ieve in . T hi s no t ju s t a po l i t

ical view. It is our re ligion." A few boys nodded in agreement.

A t t h e b a c k of t h e c ro w d , I s p o t t e d D a v o u d . H e l o o k e d w o rr i e d . H e n o d

ded s l ight ly , indicating that I should ha l t my impromptu discourse . I t ra i led

off, wishin g a l l th e yo un g m en wel l on the ir next pi lgrim age. T he y shoo k m y

hand and wished me wel l on my journeys , "We are a t your service ," a few of

them said perfunctori ly .

T h e t a l l o n e w i t h t h e h a w k n o s e s m i l e d a n d s h o o k m y h a n d a n d t o l d

149



P E R S IA N P l l p I U M A f E S

everyone to meet by the bus in ten minutes .

"I

hope you enjoy the res t of your

s tay in Iran/ ' he sa id

T

s t a r i n g a t m e fo r l o n g e r t h a n w a s a p p ro p r i a t e . H e t u rn e d

and walked away.

After they left , Davoud laughed and s lapped me on the back. "You are

going to get us into troub l e on e d ay " He w alked away and l i t a c igarette . I

snapped a few photos of the shrine and watched a young sketch art is t t race

t h e o u t l i n e s o f a l o n g - s t e m m e d re d ro s e . S u d d e n l y , I n o t i c e d fo u r o f t h e c o l

lege Basijis rus hi ng tow ard m e. I tens ed u p and ins t inctive ly c l ench ed m y

fis ts . T h e y s t o p p e d , p a n t i n g . " M r . M o l a v i , " o n e of t h e m s a id , h a n d i n g m e a

b l a c k - a n d - w h i t e scarf, "please accept this as a gift from our Basiji association

t o y o u a s a fe l l o w I ra n i a n w h o h a s re t u rn e d t o h i s h o m e l a n d a n d w h o c a re s

abo ut ou r m artyrs ." T he scarf was the Basiji sym bol of war. H e spo ke rapid ly ,

breath less ly . "We apprecia ted your taking the t ime to ta lk with us , and we

u n d e rs t o o d y o u r w o rd s w e l l . " H e p a u s e d . 1 fe lt as if he h ad p au sed for dr a

m atic effect, so I m ight f ind so m e me an ing in his las t sen tenc e: "we un de r

s t o o d y o u r w o rd s w e l l . "

"We hope you have a safe and happy journey. P lease take this a lso," he

said, ha nd ing m e a tan prayer s tone, "as a pers ona l gif t. R em em ber th e m ar

t y rs , a n d re m e m b e r I ra n w h e n y o u p ra y w i t h t h i s s t o n e . " D e e p l y t o u c h e d , I

s h o o k t h e i r h a n d s . A m e s s a g e u n d e r l a y t h i s h u rr i e d g e s t u re . T h e y ra n b a c k

o u t t o t h e b u s , p e rh a p s h o p i n g t h a t t h e t a l l y o u n g m a n w i t h t h e h a w k n o s e

h a d n o t s e e n w h a t t h e y h a d j u s t d o n e .

Mrs. Teimouri

f

s Wedding

ater that afternoon, Davoud re turned to Tehran. Before he left , he sug

g e s t ed t h a t I m e e t w i t h M rs . T e i m o u ri , a w o m a n w h o s e l o v e o f H a fe z

m a t c h e d h i s o w n . M rs . T e i ro u r i . h o w e v e r, w a s m o re i n t e re s t e d i n re ca l l

i n g h e r w e d d i n g d ay . " L e t m e te l l y o u a b o u t m y w e d d i n g n i g h t , " M rs . T e i m o u ri

said. " I t may interes t you." W e sat in the l iv ing roo m of he r large apartm ent in

S hiraz with her hu sb an d. We had ju s t f inished dinner, saffron and le m on

chicke n with white r ice and coo ked cherries . T he re w as a smal l g lass beaker

of ho t cherry juice extract , w hic h we po ur ed on th e r ice and th e chic ken,

a d d i n g a s w e e t t a n g t o t h e b u t t e re d a n d s a l t e d r ic e . " D o n o t p o u r t o o m u c h / '

M r s .

T e i m o u ri w a rn e d . " Y o u r r ic e w i l l b e c o m e ru n n y . " H e r p a i n t i n g s , s h o w i n g

gray-haired Sufi men surrounded by apricot-eyed maidens , dotted the wal ls .

150



S H I R A Z

M rs .

Te im our i had o l ive skin an d b lack eyes and d usty rose cheeks . T h e

skin on her face was smooth, unblemished except for smal l c irc les under her

eyes . Jus t be lo w o n e of the c irc les , she h ad a smal l bro w n m ol e . I t lo oked l ike

a p e rm a n e n t t e a r .

"M y we ddin g wi l l te l l yo u a l i t tle abo ut o ur c ond it ion ," she sa id , her face

a p i c t u r e o f g l o o m . S h e w a s a m e l a n c h o l y w o m a n . S m i l e s d i d n o t c o m e e a s

i ly to her. H er face seeme d to rebe l w he n sh e smiled , two l ines app earin g in

t h e m i d d l e o f h e r c h e e k s , p u s h i n g t h e s m i l e b a c k d o w n .

A tal l and l anky twelve-year-o ld boy, M rs . Teim ouri 's son, entered t he

room, carrying a t ray of honey-glazed sweets . He p laced them on the chipped

wo od coffee tab le . H e wo re wh ite N ike sneakers with a b l ue swo osh s ign. T h e

sneakers looked rea l , not l ike the Chinese-made fakes that f looded the country.

The Shiraz apartment was tas tefu l ly decorated. In the ki tchen there was a

state-o f-the -art refrigerator. T h e N ike sneaker s, very expensive by I rania n s tan

dards, and the refrigerator were the only overt s ign that the Teimouris had a bit

of mo ney. M rs . Teim ouri loo ked a t her son and t i l ted her head s l ightly , a lm ost

imperceptib ly , b ut th e message wa s c lean S i t dow n, my son; l is ten to this .

H e sa t dow n, offering m e sweets. M r. Teim ouri lo oked o n, shif t ing in his

chair, as if s ti l l upset by the th ou gh t of his w edd ing nigh t . H e had a b lack m u s

tache and wavy black hair, with traces of gray emerging at his temples. He was

slim and fit and quiet and mostly deferred to his wife to lead the conversation.

"We decided to get married in the fa l l of 1987," she said. "It was a bad

t i m e . W e w e re l i vi ng in T e h ra n . T h e I ra q i s h a d b e g u n b o m b i n g T e h ra n . E v e ry

nig ht for two week s we he ard m iss iles an d s irens . We wer e so scared. H ave

you heard the sound of a ir s irens? I t is a terr ib le sound.

" W e a l l a g re e d t h a t w e s h o u l d p o s t p o n e t h e w e d d i n g . I p ra y e d t h a t t h e re

w o u l d b e n o m o re b o m b i n g o f t h e c it ie s . I w a n t e d a pe a ce fu l w e d d i n g . Y o u

may think i t sounds se l f ish to pray for such things when our boys were dying

b y t h e t h o u s a n d s a g a i n s t t h e I ra q i s o n t h e b o rd e rs , b u t w h a t c o u l d w e d o ?

S h o u l d w e s t o p l i v i n g ? "

Her husband interrupted, pointing a f inger in the a ir angri ly as he spoke.

"A nyway, the war sho ul d hav e end ed in 19 83 T h e Iraqis were ready for a

cease-fire W e had regaine d ou r los t terr i tory] T he S audis w ere ready to give

us bi l l ions of do l lars in reparat ions on beha lf of I raqi There was no reason to

c o n t i n u e f i g h t i n g , b u t a l l w e h e a rd o n t h e d a m n T V a n d ra d i o w a s Jang,

jang

ta piruzf

[War, war, un til victory]

1

."



P E R S IA N F I L p M M A f E 5

H e d i d n o t s e e m c o m fo r t a b l e s p e a k i n g , t h o u g h h e l o o k e d a s if h e w a n t e d

to go on, to c i te more facts about why the war should have ended, but he

tra i led off , mumbling about the Saudis and bi l l ions of do l lars . His tory wi l l

w r i t e t h e l e g a c y o f I ra n ' s p o s re v o l u t i o n l e a d e rs , b u t p e rh a p s t h e m o s t d e v a s

ta t ing indic tment might be that they needless ly ki l led thousands of their own

y o u n g m e n b y re fu s i n g t o a c c e p t w h a t w o u l d h a v e b e e n a n h o n o ra b l e

cease-fire.

"Yes,"—M rs. Teim ouri p icked u p the s tory— "m y fa ther always sa id th at

we m us t co nt inu e to l ive . H e a lways gathe red th e w hol e family tog ethe r every

Friday for a bi t of food and music and poetry. Sometimes he served wine. He

wo ul d n ot accept any excuses . T h e kids w oul d p lay in the garden of his

h o u s e , b e h i n d t h e w al l s , a n d w e w o u l d s p e n d a few h o u r s i n e s c a p e, p re t e n d

ing that a war and a revolution were not destroying our l ives ."

M r s .

T e i m o u ri , l i k e m a n y u p p e r-m i d d l e -c l a s s I ra n i a n w o m e n , t u rn e d

against the revolu tion on th e day that K hom eini ma nda ted the use of the

kijab. S h e t o o k p a r t i n t h e T e h r a n p r o t e s t s d e n o u n c i n g t h e

hijab.

O n l y a few

w e e k s a ft er t h e a n n o u n c e m e n t , M rs . T e i m o u ri re m e m b e rs t h e g ro ce ry s t o re s

and the p las t ic head scarves that appeared a t th e front of th e s tore , w ith the

sign: PLEASE OBSERVE ISLAMIC DRESS WHILE SHOPPING. She refused to use the

disposable plastic head scarves.

"I t was the sam e p l as t ic used in t ras h bags " she sa id , "O ne day, whi l e I

w a s s h o p p i n g , a b e a rd e d y o u n g m a n a p p ro a c h e d m e . H e s a i d h e w o u l d t h ro w

acid o n my face if I d id no t com pl y with th e ru les . O f cou rse I d id .

"A t m y fa t h e r' s ga t he r in g s ," '— M rs . T e i m o u ri c o n t i n u e d — " w e w o u l d w a l k

in his courtyard unvei led. He had ta l l wa l ls to protect us . I t fe l t good to fee l

m y h a i r b l o w i n g i n t h e w i n d . I had forgotten what that fe l t l ike . Sometimes we

wo ul d s i t by th e fou nta in and l is ten to him recite poetry after l un ch. H ts

favorite was Hafez. He would recite l ines of Hafez, and strangely, they would

have meaning for our own l ives today.

" M y fa t he r i n s i s te d t h a t w e h a v e a p ro p e r w e d d i n g , w i t h m u s i c a n d d a n c

ing. He invited a s inger who was charging double his going ra te because of

the r isk of get t ing caught. In those days the

Komiteh

ra ids on homes that were

having part ies were common. I t ' s not l ike today, where you can jus t pay the

police off so easily," she said.

T h e n e i g h b o r h o o d Komiteh w a s I ra n ' s v e rs i o n of t h e l o c a l C o m m u n i s t

commissar. I t had the power to intervene in the persona l l ives of I ranians if

152



S H I R A Z

t h e y b ro k e t h e Korniteh ru l e s : N o m i x e d p a r ti e s, n o a l c o h o l , n o g a m b l i n g , n o

publ ic disp lays of affect ion, no antigovernment speech, and respect for the

conservative dress code. Today the Korniteh h a s b e e n d i s b a n d e d , m e l d e d i n t o

the pol ice force . M an y of its m em be rs n ow w ork as po l ice patro ls , adva nce

squads on motorbikes , ready and eager to take bribes , l ike the one who

k n o c k e d o n t h e d o o r a t M e h r a n ' s p a r ty .

M rs . T e i m o u ri w e n t o n , " E v e ry o n e h a d g a t h e re d i n m y fa t h e r' s h o u s e . W e

h a d c o m p l e t e d t h e w e d d i n g c e re m o n y e a r l i e r i n t h e d ay . T h e h o u s e w a s fu ll

of wh ite f lowers , l i l ies. W he n I wal ked in wearing my we ddin g dress , everyone

c lapp ed for m e. 1 was am azed t o see al l the wal ls draped in white b l ankets .

L a t e r I fo u n d o u t t h a t m y fa th e r h a d d o n e t h a t i n o rd e r t o m u ff l e t h e s o u n d

of the music . He bought twenty white b lankets a t the bazaar. The sad thing is

t h a t t h e m e rc h a n t k n e w w h y h e n e e d e d t h e m .

"M y fr iends and family a l l were there , th ou gh a few m ade excuses an d did

no t com e. I d id not b la me th em . I t was a bad t im e to thr ow a party . T h e s inger

was s inging a po pu l ar son g, yo u kn ow th e on e that ca l ls for the groo m to kiss

th e bride . Vali [her husb an d] leaned in and kissed me, and everyon e l aug hed

a n d c l a p p e d . I t w a s a t yp ic a l w e d d i n g , y o u k n o w w h a t I m e a n , " s h e s ai d . M i d -

d l e -a n d u p p e r-m i d d l e -c l a s s I ra n i a n w e d d i n g s a re u s u a l l y v i b ra n t a n d l o u d

with dancing and, often, drinking.

"M y fa ther wanted to offer a l cohol to the guests , bu t we convince d him

not to . I t was too r isky in those days . He agreed, on ly re luctant ly . A few guests

left early , before ten p .m . T he y were pe rha ps h app y that they had no t got

c a u g h t . T h e y c o u l d g o h o m e a n d s l e e p e a s i l y . "

A s she sp oke, he r son s tared inten t ly a t her, lea ning forward in his chair ,

ro c k i n g b a c k , h i s b r i g h t w h i t e N i k e s n e a k e rs p u s h i n g d o w n o n t h e g ro u n d , a s

if he were about to leap up from his chair any minute . He seemed to know

the ending of this s tory. So did

1 .

1 h a d b e e n i n I ra n l o n g e n o u g h t o s e n s e a n

u n h a p p y e n d i n g .

" M y fa t h e r s ta y e d fo r o n l y o n e d a n c e . H e s t o o d o u t s i d e t h e d o o r , o n

the s treet , constant ly checking to see if the

Korniteh

w a s c o m i n g . H e h a d

a pocket ful l of ria ls in case they came, though it was much riskier to try a bribe

in th os e days. I kep t look ing for him , but everyon e sa id tha t he was ou ts id e

wait ing for the Korniteh, E v e n t u a l l y t h e y d i d c o m e . H e t r i e d h a n d i n g t h e l e a d e r

a few bi l l s . T h e l eader refused and to l d my fa ther that everyone m us t l eave

the ho us e im m ediate ly I sha l l never forget the look on m y fa ther 's face

153



P E R S I A N P L L C M M A f E S

w h e n h e e n t e re d t h e ro o m a m i d a l l o f t h e s i n g i n g a n d d a n c i n g . I h a d n e v e r

seen him afra id , but that n ight I saw a fr ightened man,

" H e w h i s p e re d t o t h e s in g e r. T h e m u s i c s t o p p e d . Im m e d i a t e l y p e o p l e

assumed the worst , and women ran upsta irs in search of their head scarves .

M y fa t h er w e n t t o t h e m i c ro p h o n e . H e t o l d e v e ry o n e t h a t t h e re w a s n o n e e d

to worry, though his face showed a lo t of concern. I f they a l l went home now,

th e Komiteh w o u l d n o t t a k e t h e m t o t h e s t a t i o n . A few p e o p l e c u rs e d t h e

Komiteh q u ie tl y , b u t m o s t j u s t n e rv o u s l y g a t h e re d t h e i r c o a t s . T h e y d i d n ' t e v e n

p ro t e s t . T h e w o m e n w ra p p e d t h e i r h e a d s c arv es t i g h t e r t h a n u s u a l . T h e y

wal ked ou t in to th e s treet , got in their cars , and drove away. T h e s inger asked

if there was a back door.

" M y fa t h er t o l d m e t h a t h e h a d t o fil l o u t s o m e p a p e r w o rk a t t h e s t a t i o n .

H e w o u l d b e h o m e s o o n . H e d i d n o t c o m e h o m e t h a t n i g h t . H e w a s c h a rg e d

w i t h a t t e m p t e d b r i b e ry a n d s p o n s o r i n g a " d e p ra v e d g a t h e r in g . " M y fa t h e r

s tayed overn ight in ja i l . O n m y we ddin g night , the mo st specia l n ig ht of my

life,

I c r ied a l l n ight . We wondered if one of the ear ly depart ing guests had

informed the pol ice . Perhaps i t was an o ld business feud or family feud or jus t

a n a t t e m p t t o g e t o n t h e g o o d s i d e o f t h e

Komiteh.

P e o p l e d i d s t ra n g e a n d b a d

thin gs in th os e days. T he n ext m or nin g we bai led m y fa ther ou t of ja i l ."

H e r s o n k e p t s t a r i n g in t e n t l y at h i s m o t h e r . M r T e i m o u ri s h if te d i n h i s

chair , s ighing and occasiona l ly rubbing his temples .

"You see , M r. A fshin, I am no t saying that th i s wa s a terr ib le t ragedy and

t h a t e v e ry o n e s h o u l d w e e p fo r u s . T h a n k G o d w e h a v e o u r h e a l t h a n d w e a re

c o m fo r t a b l e e c o n o m i c a l l y . S t il l , s o m e t i m e s y o u j o u rn a l i s t s fo rge t t o c h ro n i c l e

these l i t t le but important th ings . In your rush to interview pol i t ic ians and

jou rna l is ts , yo u forget th e res t of us . O n e of the sw eetes t n ights of my l i fe , m y

wedding, was taken away from me. Sure ly , you can f ind some tragedy in that ."

The Case ofAkbar Ganji: Journalist,

Prodem ocracy Advocate, Prisoner

ack in Tehran, I received a te lephone ca l l f rom a co l league in the Iran-

ian press . "G anji h as bee n ja i led," he sa id . "T hi s is th e be gin nin g of a

^ / c r a c k d o w n . B e c ar ef ul w h a t y o u w r i te . " H e b a d e m e a h u r r i e d g o o d - b y e

a n d h u n g u p t h e p h o n e .

A k b a r G a n ji , a w i l dl y p o p u l a r p ro d e m o c ra c y j o u rn a l i s t , h a d g ro w n l e g -

154



T E H R A N

endary for his scathing a t tacks on Iran 's powerfu l conservatives and hard l iners .

M o s t w h o fol l o w e d h i s c a s e e x p e c te d h i s i m p ri s o n m e n t . N o o n e c o u l d s p e a k

out so bold ly with impunity and go free . S t i l l , news of the ja i l ing sent a chi l l

t h r o u g h I ra n ' s re fo rm i s t j o u rn a l i s t s a n d t h e p ro d e m o c ra c y m o v e m e n t . G a n ji 's

bravery l i fted t he m ov em en t to a high er leve l . W he re wou l d i t go n ow ?

I knew G anji on ly s l ightly , havin g interviewed h im a few week s before . We

h a d m e t i n t h e n e w s p a p e r- l i n e d b a s e m e n t o f a n a p a r t m e n t b u i l d i n g i n

Tehran. Yel lowing copies of the weekly

Rak-e-Now

( N e w P a th ) — G a n ji 's n e w s

p a p e r p r i o r t o i t s b e i n g s h u t d o w n b y I ra n ' s h a rd - l i n e j u d i c ia ry — fo rm e d n e a t

s t a ck s a l o n g t h e w h i t e c o n c re t e w a l l s . W h e n I e n t e re d , h e s a t a l o n e , re a d i n g a

book in the carpeted room. He turned away from his book and sprang to his

feet , a smal l man with a l ight brown beard and brown, dancing eyes . I con

cea led a t inge of surprise . I suppose one expects nat iona l heroes to be ta l l .

H e greeted m e warml y, em bra cing m e as if I were an o l d fr iend. "W el

come," he sa id , smil ing. " I t is n ice to meet you."

A s m a l l s t a c k o f h i s b e s t -s e l l i n g b o o k Darkroom

of the

Ghosts leaned against

some newspapers . In the book he brands Iran 's conservative c lerics "re l igious

fascis ts" and l inks a smal l c l ique of hard- l ine c lerics and inte l l igence agents to

assass ination s of up to e ighty diss idents an d writers s ince 198 8. T h e chi l l ing

book a lso contains brave passages defending free speech and democracy.

G a n ji p i o n e e re d a n e w j o u rn a l i s m i n I ra n : b ra s h , a g gre ss iv e , i n t e l l e c t u a l ,

fear less . He crossed red l ines routine ly He received death threats from gov

ernment-affi l ia ted th ug s a lm ost dai ly. W he n we m et, I fou nd to my su rprise

t h a t n o n e o f t h e u s u a l h a n g e rs -o n o r s e c u r i t y t y p e s s u rro u n d e d h i m . H e t a r

ried a lone in a basement office, reading a book, despite the fact that a few

m o nt hs ear l ier h is fr iend an d co l l eague Saeed Hajjarian had taken a bul le t in

the head. He offered me a seat a t a long, rectangular brown tab le . " I am not

lo oking t o b eco m e a martyr," he said. "I have a family, an d I enjoy l ife. How ever,

I real ize th at som etim es in life one m us t be prepared to f ight and p ay the co n

sequences, if necessary. If we real ly want democracy in Iran, we must be wil l ing

to light for it. There has been a great deal of talk in this country. It is time to act."

He then ta lked a t length about the revolution. He sa id i t was a f ine exam

ple of a vigorous and determined act by the Iranian people , but i t u l t imate ly

fai led. "O ur revo lu tion was an act for freedom , b ut we did no t fo l low th ro ug h

proper ly . W e end ed u p with tyrann y and fascism. We Iran ians have b een

fighting for freedom in one form or another s ince the beginning of the twen-

155



P E R S I A N P U f f UM A C E S

tieth century. Today, as we enter the twenty-first century, we sti l l have not

tas ted long periods of freedom. We s t i l l see

a

free press as a privilege, rather

t h a n a r ight . We s t i l l see a popular government as a privi lege, ra ther than a

right. 1 h o p e t o s e e I ra n i a n s o n e d a y c o m e t o e x p ec t t h e s e t h i n g s / '

G anji, l ike m an y of today 's reformists , cam e to these views after th e rev o

lut ion. In the ear ly days of the revolution he would have turned his nose up

at the t ide of democrat . He then be longed to a radica l Is lamic left is t fact ion,

t h e s o r t o f p e o p l e w h o t o o k A m e ri c a n s h o s t a g e . A v e h e m e n t a n t i - i m p e r i a l i s t

and vigorous pamphleteer, he wrote often of foreign exploita t ion in Iran. He

saw so lut ions in Is lam, in a re turn to a nat ive identi ty , even though he

ackn ow le dged , th en a nd now , th at I ran ha s severa l identi t ies . H e fough t in th e

war with I raq. L ater he joi ne d I ran 's in te l l igence service .

" A ro u n d 1 9 8 4 o r 1 9 S 5 I w a s b e c o m i n g d i s il l u s i o n e d , " h e s a id . " I sa w a

pseudo fascism and pol i tica l tyranny emerg ing in Iran. A nyo ne w ho asked

q u e s t i o n s w a s b ra n d e d ' a n t i re v o l u t i o n a ry ' a n d ' a g a i n s t I s l a m . ' In m y o p i n i o n ,

Is lam was being abused by a fascis t sys tem."

H e h a rp e d o n t h i s t h e m e o f t e n . A p e rs o n a l l y re l i g i o u s m a n , h e fo u n d t h e

abuse of his fa i th in the service of tyranny unacceptable . "A certa in fact ion in

Iran," he sa id , referring to conservatives , "has turned re l igion into ideology,

fa i th into fascism. I t promised us heaven, but i t c reated a he l l on earth ," The

las t l ine wa s a G anji t rad em ark , on e that was often q uo ted . "E very re l igion

h a s h a d i t s d a rk m o m e n t s w i t h i n q u i s i t i o n s a n d n a rro w -m i n d e d p re j u d i c e , "

G anji sa id , "bu t th is m om en t we have had in I ran goes against th e spir i t of

Is lam and al l major faiths."

D i d h e a g re e w i t h t h e I s l a m i c p h i l o s o p h e r S o ro u s h t h a t p o l i t i c s p o l l u t e s

re l igion? As a coro l lary to this thought, d id he be l ieve in the need for the sep

a ra t i o n o f m o s q u e a n d s t a t e ?

" M o s t o f t o d a y ' s re l i g io u s i n t el l e c t u a l s " h e s a i d , " g re a tl y a d m i re S o ro u s h ,

but he is a phi losopher, and we must dea l with practica l po l i t ica l rea l i t ies . We

bel ieve that I ran must embrace the princip les of po l i t ica l modernity: c ivi l

society, free pre ss, dem ocracy , rule of law. T he se are princ ipl es of secu la riza

t i o n . " H e u s e d t h e E n g l i s h w o rd w i t h

a

P e rs i a n a c c e n t : " s e k u l a re e -z a s e e o n . "

H e d i d n o t a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n s o u t r i g h t , a n d I d i d n o t p re s s h i m . T h e y

w ere red l ine qu est io ns , and a t a f irst mee ting , he may have fel t un co m fo rt

a b l e a d d re s s i n g t h e m .

1 5 6



T E H R A N

H e c o n t i n u e d . " M o s t o f u s , t h e re l i g i o u s in t e l l e c t u a l s , b e l ie v e i n a P o p p e r-

ian view of the world ."

T h e A u s t r ia n p h i l o s o p h e r K a rl P o p p er , a u t h o r o f t h e l a n d m a r k p o l i t ic a l

s t u d y

Open Society and Its Enemies,

was a favorite of Ir an's reform ists. P op pe r

makes a powerfu l defense of democratic l ibera l ism and a devasta t ing cri t ique

o f t h e p h i l o s o p h i c u n d e rp i n n i n g s o f t o t a l i t a r i an s y s te m s . L i k e m a n y I ra n i a n

inte l l ec tua ls of G anji's gene rat ion, P opp er in his yo uth was a M arxis t . By

1 9 4 5 , w h e n h e p u b l i s h e d

Open

Society, d e s c r i b i n g h o w M a rx i s m a s a t h e o ry

soon fa i led on the weight of empirica l evidence and degenerated into pseu-

d o s c ie n t if i c d o g m a i n t h e d e fe n se o f t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m , h e h a d a b a n d o n e d M a rx

ism. G anji saw para l le l s in P opp er 's view of M arxis t h is tory and th e e vol ution

of Iran 's Is lamic government.

" In a s e n s e t h a t i s w h a t h a p p e n e d w i t h o u r I s l a m i c re v o l u t i o n , " h e s a i d .

" W e h a d a t h e o ry — t h a t I s l a m i c g o v e rn m e n t c o u l d p ro v i d e u s w i t h j u s t ru l e —

b u t t h e n t h e re w a s a g re a t d e a l o f p s e u d o - Is l a m i c d o g m a a d d e d i n d e fe n s e o f

tota l i tarianism."

His voice paused , as if to go on , but the p ho ne interrup ted us . T h e G erm an

embassy waited a t the oth er end. O ne of G anji 's a ides hand led the ca l l . G anji's

visa was ready, he was told. He could pick it up when he wanted.

" T h e re is a c o n fe re n c e i n B e rl i n o n o u r re fo rm m o v e m e n t , " G a n ji

e x p l a i n e d t o m e . " I ' m n o t s u re w h a t i t' s a b o u t , b u t I s h al l m a k e m y p o i n t s ," h e

said, smil ing. "Why don ' t you drink some tea?" He leaped up from his chair ,

cat l ike , but I ins is ted that he not t rouble himself. W e w o u n d u p o u r c o n v e r

sat ion with ta lk of my trave ls in Iran. "Have you been taking pic tures? We

have som e beautifu l s i tes, do n ' t w e? "

T h e f o l l ow i ng w e e k G a n ji w e n t t o G e r m a n y . T h e c o n f e r e n c e t u r n e d i n t o

pol i t ica l dyn am ite for tho se Iranians w ho a t ten ded . I rania n opp osit io n f igures

in E uro pe c am e to the event, w here they openly r idiculed the ru l ers of the

Is lamic R epubl ic an d attacked G anji and othe r reformists as lackeys of the Is lamic

Republ ic , t rying to preserve the system through reform ins tead of t rying

to defeat it th ro ug h revo lu tion. A t t imes th e conference dege nerate d in to a

c i rcu s . O n e w o m a n , p ro t e s t i n g t h e v e il , t o o k off a l l h e r c l o t h e s a n d s t o o d

n a k e d i n f ro n t of t h e I ra n i a n d e l e g a t e s. A m a n , a l s o m o v e d t o u n c l o t h e , j o i n e d

h e r . A n o t h e r w o m a n g o t u p a n d s t a r t e d d a n c i n g i n p ro t e s t a g a i n s t t h e p ro h i

bit ion on the publ ic disp lay of dancing in Iran.

157



P E R S IA N P I L f l UM A p E S

W h e n G a n ji re t u r n e d f rom B e r l i n , c o n s e rv a t iv e n e w s p a p e rs s l a m m e d h i m

for a t tending a conference s ide by s ide with opposit ion f igures that sought to

o v e r t h ro w t h e g o v e rn m e n t a n d " m o ra l l y l a x " l a d i e s w h o r i d i c ul e d I s l a m i c t ra

d i t io n s . U n d a u n t e d , G a n j i c o n t i n u e d h i s o p e n o n s l a u g h t a g a i n s t I ra n 's

hard- l iners and his vigorous advocacy of democracy. He pul led few punches .

T h r o u g h o u t h i s r is e t o l e g e n d a ry j o u rn a l i s t , G a n ji a m a z e d I ra n i a n s w i t h h i s

bravery. He did not smile , k iss the leader 's hand, and say things behind his

back. He said them openly, brazenly, defiantly. He fe lt no need to hide his

views behind ambiguous language, a l legory, symbolism, or sa t ire . He did not

w a n t t o b e G h o l a m A l i.

E v e n t u a l l y h a rd - l i n e rs h a d h e a rd e n o u g h . O n e o f t h e c h a rg e s l ev el e d

against h im was his a t tendance a t the Ber l in conference. After a show tr ia l

t h a t G a n j i d i s m i s s ed o p e n l y a s " i l l e g i t i m a t e " t h e j u d g e h a n d e d h i m a s e n

ten ce of f ifteen years on Janu ary 12, 2 00 1.

158



V

& (slum and

Democracy

The Shi'atization of [ran

•**

Sensual Isfahan

The Bazaar and the Mosque Pilgrimage: Mullah Mohamm ad Easier Majlesi

and the R ise of the Shi'a Cleric

*fr

Mr Mohseni, the Young Cleric

4 -

Cities: Tehran, Isfahan

Islam and Dem ocracy

A

kbar G anji 's senten ce cam e from an Is l amic ju dg e in c lerica l robes , an

orthodox f igure of the sort that f i rs t became famil iar in Iran a thousand

years ago with the invasion of th e Se l juks , the S un ni Turk ish tr ibe t hat

t o o k o v e r t h e c o u n t ry u n t i l t h e M o n g o l s d e v as t a te d it i n t h e t h i r t e e n t h c e n

tury. I ran 's 1979 revolution e levated re l igious judges to posi t ions of power

un see n in his tory. N o t on ly did they ru l e the pul pi t , b ut for the f irst t ime in

Iranian his tory, they ru led the s ta te . In both the era of the e leventh-century

K h a y y am a n d t h e fo u r t e e n t h -c e n t u ry H a fez , t h e o r t h o d o x re l ig i o u s j u d g e w a s

a S u n n i M u s l i m , w h o s e re l a ti ve p o w e r d e p e n d e d o n t h e k i n g ' s re l a ti v e re l i

giosity . A fter the s ixteen th- to the e ig hte ent h-c en tury S afavid dynasty su c

c es sful l y i m p l a n t e d S h i ' i s m o n t h e I ra n i a n so i l , S h i ' a j u d g e s re p l a c e d S u n n i

ones , b ut as in the past , they derived the ir pow er from th e kings , w ho often

gave th em broa d leeway to form social laws. T h o u g h the S hi 'a t radit i on

a l lowed for a more vibrant debate over interpreta t ions of the Quran than the

S u n n i d i d , t h e o r t h o d o x l i te ra l is t j u d g e m u c h c o n c e rn e d w i t h d e t e c t i o n s of

heresy s t i l l re ta ined a prominent p lace in the seminary.

T h e s to ry o f S h i ' a M u s l i m c l e ri ca l p o w e r t h a t c l i m a x e d i n 1 9 S 1 , w h e n a n

Is l a m i c R e p u b l i c ru l e d b y S h i ' a M u s l i m c l e r i cs ro s e f rom t h e a s h e s of th e re v

o l ut ion , begins five centurie s ago in the S afavid era . M y next pi lgrimage, to

159



P E R S I A N

P t L C R L M A f E S

t h e s h r i n e o f a s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y S a fa vi d- er a c l e ri c, M u l l a h M o h a m m a d

Bagh er M aj les i, w oul d take me to Is fahan, the sp len did seat of th e S afavid

E mp ire . M ajles i rep resen ted to me the f irst suprem el y powerfu l S hi 'a c leric ,

a n d i n t h a t s e n s e h e w a s a p re c u rs o r t o K h o m e i n i a n d I ra n ' s o t h e r ru l e r c l e r

ics,

i n c l u d i n g t h e j u d g e w h o s e n t e n c e d A k b a r G a n ji .

Ever s ince the s ixteenth-century r ise of the Safavid dynasty, I ran 's Shi 'a

M u s l i m c l e ri cs (w h o t rav e l e d t o I ra n f ro m S h i ' a c o m m u n i t i e s i n A ra b l a n d s)

have wie lded tremendous inf luence in nationa l affa irs , often act ing as the

most potent opposit ion force to the a l l -powerfu l k ing. Shi 'a c lerics often cri t

ic ized kings as unfi t to ru le and, s tart ing in the la te seventeenth century, occa

s iona l ly s tood in open defiance of the king on socia l and sometimes pol i t ica l

issues . In the nineteenth and ear ly twentie th centuries , under an a l l iance of

convenience between king and pries t , the Shi 'a c lerics granted legit imacy to

the king and the king granted the c lergy sway over primary education and the

courts , though the a l l iance sometimes frayed as the c lergy became more

assert ive in their denunciat ions and defiance of I ranian kings in the la te nine

t e e n t h c e n t u ry . B o t h i n s t i t u t i o n s — p ri m a ry e d u c a t i o n a n d t h e c o u r t s — l a t e r

b e c a m e t a rg e t s o f R e z a S h a h , w h o s o u g h t t o w re s t t h e m fro m t h e c l e rg y i n

t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u ry . D u r i n g h i s re i g n t h e t ra d i t i o n a l a l l i a n c e b e t w e e n

t h e o r t h o d o x c l e r i c a n d k i n g w e a k e n e d .

E v e n b e fo re R e za S h a h b e c a m e I ra n ' s k in g in 1 9 2 5 , a g ro w i n g g ro u p o f

nationa l is t c lerics fou nd fau l t with Iran 's k ings , w ho se misru le frustra ted a l l

segments of socie ty . In 1S90, a Qajar king had granted a foreign company a

w i d e -ra n g i n g t o b a c c o c o n c e s s i o n t h a t w a s w i d e l y p ro t e s t e d b y I ra n i a n m e r

chants and nationa l is ts as an affront to Iranian economic sovereignty. In

re s p o n s e , a l e a d i n g T e h ra n c l e r i c a n n o u n c e d a re l i g i o u s d e c l a ra t i o n b a n n i n g

the use of tobacco. He led a revol t against the concession, which la ter was

re t ra ct e d . D u r i n g t h e f irst t w e n t y - t w o y e a rs o f t h e re ig n o f M o h a m m a d R e za

S hah (19 41-6 3), th e leading c lerics, th e grand ayato l l ahs , res tored the o ld

king-c lergy a l l iance, th ou gh i t bega n to fray after the death of A yato l lah Bo ru-

jerdi , a powerfu l c leric who advocated a re treat from pol i t ics . In the 1960s and

1970s, c lerica l opposit ion to government peaked. Shi 'a c lerics , located in

every c i ty and vi l lage across Iran, were ins trumenta l in a t tract ing the masses

t o t h e s t re e t s . N o i n t e l l e c t u a l M a rx i s t o r d e m o c ra t i c n a t i o n a l i s t (al s o k e y re v

o l u t i o n a ry s t ra i n s o f t h o u g h t ) c o u l d w h i p t h e m a s s e s o f u rb a n w o rk i n g

c lasses and rura l res idents into a frenzy as the c lerics could—and did.

160



TEHRAN

T h o u g h M u s l i m c l e ri cs i n I ra n h a v e e x e r te d s ig n i fi c an t s o ci a l a n d p o l i t i

cal inf lu ence o n l eaders for up to a tho us an d years , th e no tio n of c lerica l ru l e

of the s ta te espou sed by th e la te A yato l lah K ho m ein i in fact departed radica l ly

f ro m t h e tra d i t i o n a l S h i ' a M u s l i m t h i n k i n g t h a t h e l d a l l g o v e rn m e n t s to b e

p ro fa n e . In t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e m e s s i a n i c H i d d e n Im a m , t h e a rg u m e n t w e n t ,

p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n g o v e rn m e n t w a s t a n t a m o u n t t o b l a s p h e m y T o t h i s d a y m o s t

senior S hi 'a c lerics in Iran hol d th at view, a lbei t quiet ly . O f the fourteen gran d

ayato l lahs l iv ing in Iran, on ly one has publ ic ly advocated c lerica l ru le (and

t h a t o n e , A y a t o l l a h M o n t a z e r i , t o d a y l e a d s a d i s s i d e n t fa c ti o n ). O f t h e f iv e

t h o u s a n d re c o g n i z e d a y a t o l l a h s i n I ra n , a m e re e i g h t y w o rk i n g o v e rn m e n t .

The nongovernmenta l c lerics are the ones left s tranded on the s ide of road

for hours by taxis that refuse to pick them up; the government c lerics have

chauffeurs.

S o t h e q u e s t i o n a r is e s: W a s K h o m e i n i a n a b e rra t i o n ? H i st o ri c al l y , ye s, b u t

a c lose look a t the tra jectory of I ranian Shi 'a c lerica l h is tory revea ls an a lmost

t icking inevitabi l i ty to a c lerica l b id for po l i t ica l l eadership. I f no t for K h o

m e i n i , s o m e o n e e l s e m i g h t h a v e d o n e i t .

D u r i n g K h o m e i n i ' s r is e t o p o w e r , h e re g ul a r l y s p o k e o f I m a m H o s s e i n ,

t h e s e v e n t h - c e n t u r y m a r t yr e d S h i ' a i m a m . I n o n e of K h o m e i n i ' s m o s t m e m

orable s logans , he popularized and pol i t ic ized an o ld Shi 'a saying: "Every day

is A s h u ra a n d e v e ry p l a c e is K a rb al a . " A s h u ra m a rk s t h e d a y Im a m H o s s e i n

was m artyred in the Iraqi ci ty of K arba la . T h e s ta te m ent im pl ies th at I rania ns

s h o u l d b e c o m e m i l l i o n s o f Im a m H o s s e i n s , r i s i n g u p a n d re a d y t o m a r t y r

t h e m s e l v e s a g a i n s t t h e S h a h , w h o b y i m p l i c a t i o n s h o u l d b e s e e n a s t h e v i l l a i n

Yazid, I m am H osse in 's m urde rer.

H o s s e i n ' s " m a r t y r d o m , " a w a t e r s h e d e v e n t i n S h i ' a M u s l i m h i s t o r io g r a

phy, gave the previous ly pol i t ica l Shi 'a movement a decidedly re l igious tone.

A s G e rm a n s c h o l a r H e i n z H a l m n o t e s , p o l i t ic s m o t i v a t ed t h e o r i g in a l s u p p o r t

fo r Im a m A l i , H o s s e i n ' s fa t h e r . T h e m a r t y rd o m o f H o s s e i n , h o w e v e r , s p a w n e d

a n o p p o s i t i o n m o v e m e n t t h a t t o o k o n a re l i g io u s t o n e . N o l o n g e r c o u l d s u p

p o r t e rs o f A l i a c c e p t t h e fa it h o f t h e p e o p l e w h o k i l l e d H o s s e i n , t h e g ra n d s o n

of t h e P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d . T h e d e a t h of H o s s e i n , H a l m s ay s, " m a r k e d t h e

big bang that created the rapid ly expanding cosmos of Shi ' ism and brought i t

i n t o m o t i o n . " In o t h e r w o rd s , t w o p e o p l e s s e p a ra t e d b y t h e d e a t h o f H o s s e i n

d e v e l o p e d tw o d if fe re n t c o s m o s , w i t h t h e S h i ' a c o s m o s t h e s m a l l e r o n e t h a t

re m a i n e d i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e l a rg e r S u n n i c o s m o s o f t h e w i d e r M u s l i m

161



P E R S I A N P I L C E U M A C E S

w o r l d . T h e c o s m o s i m a g e f i t s w e l l w i t h w h a t h a p p e n e d i n s i x t e e n t h -c e n t u ry

Ira n . A m a j o r p l a n e t a ry re a l i g n m e n t o c c u rre d i n t h e s i x t e en t h c e n t u ry w i t h

th e r ise of th e Safavid dynasty, p l antin g the seeds for K hom eini 's m eteoric r ise

a n d t h e e s ta b l i s h m e n t o f t h e I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c .

I w en t to Is fahan to look into th e Safavid legacy, th e S hi 'a t izat ion of I ran,

an d th e rise of the Ira nian M us l im cl eric. But first, I paid a visit to the p resi

dentia l pa l ace in Teh ran, wh ere s i t ting on a L oui s XIV chair . 1 me t with a

re fo rm -m i n d e d M u s l i m c l e r ic in a n o rn a t e , c h a n d e l i e r - l i t ro o m . W e s p o k e o f

democracy, Is lam, and the r is ing t ide of antic lerica l ism.

In a d if fe re n t a g e M o h a m m a d A l i A b t a h i , t h e s m i l i n g re fo rm i s t c h ie f of

s taff to P res iden t K hatam i (no w vice pres id ent) , might h ave led a qu ie t l ife of

re l igious ins truction and persona l p ie ty . He might have pres ided a t weddings ,

offered re ligious guidance to the faithful, and studied the finer points of

Is l a m i c l aw . In s t e a d , t h e s t o u t M u s l i m c l e ri c in w h i t e t u rb a n a n d c l o se l y

tr immed b lack beard works in p lush offices in a pa lace bui l t by the la te Shah.

He confers with vis i t ing minis ters and ambassadors . He enterta ins foreign

j o u rn a l i s t s . H e h a s a c e l l p h o n e a n d a fa x m a c h i n e . W h e n w e f i rs t m e t , h e

toi led in the midst of arrangements to leave for Paris to accompany his boss ,

M o h a m m a d K h a t a m i , al s o a M u s l i m c l e ri c, o n a s t at e v is it .

I waited for him in an ornate , g i lded room in the pres identia l pa lace ,

m u n c h i n g o n p i s t a c h i o s l a i d o u t o n e x p e n s i v e w h i t e b o n e c h i n a p l a t e s .

The exquis i te ly designed cei l ings f lowed into an upper wal l decorated with

white f lower moldings, effecting a faintly French, fin-de-siecle air. This

p lush room with i ts b ig windows, de l icate antiques , and f ine s i lk carpets

ho us ed m eetings with dignitaries . I fel t unco m fortab le w ith the formal i ty of

t h e ro o m .

"I am sorry to be la te ," A btah i sa id , wh isking into the r oo m , breath l ess .

"T he re is so m uc h t o do," he sa id , expl a ining his ha lf ho u r de lay, "an d so l i t

t le t ime." He wore a brown frock coat and e legant b lack shoes . He had a

round, p leasant face and soft b lack eyes . He sa t down on cream-colored

L ou is XIV sofa and rearran ged h is c loak, fo lding i t over his gir th . H e tap ped

his foot as he spo ke, with th at hurrie d a ir d isp layed by a ides to im po rta nt m en

a r o u n d t h e w o r l d .

"I

u n d e r s t a n d t h a t y o u h a v e c o m e fro m A m e ri c a , " h e s ai d . " Is a n y o n e e l s e

c o m i n g ? " h e a s k e d .

"I do n ' t th in k so," I sa id , ho pin g I ha dn ' t l os t my exc lusive interview.

162



T E H R A N

" F i n e. T h e n w e c a n b e g i n / ' h e s a id .

H i s b u s i n e s s l i k e m a n n e r s t a r tl e d m e . In m y i n te rv ie w s I h a d c o m e t o

e x p e c t s o m e ta'rof smal l ta lk , the exchange of p leasantries , the wishes for each

oth er 's family 's hea l th . C au gh t off guar d, I asked a ram blin g ques t ion ab ou t

the future of I ran 's reform movement.

H e l a u n c h e d i n t o a w e l l - re h e a rs e d l e c t u re . " T h e re a re s e v e ra l a n g l e s t o

t h i s m a t t e r . F irstl y , w e m u s t r e m e m b e r t h a t t h e v o t e fo r K h a t a m i w a s a l o u d

vot e for dem oc rac y an d civil society. S econdl y, i t w as an affirmation of th e

re v o l u t i o n , t h o u g h a c al l fo r re form w i t h i n t h e re v o l u t i o n . T h i rd l y , M r .

K h a t a m i h a s c o m e t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t d e m o c ra c y is o u r o n l y p o s si b l e n e x t

s tep,

a n d t h e p e o p l e s e e m t o a g re e / '

Iran's c lerics have a habit of answering questions in l is ts: first ly, secondly,

third ly . For the most part , they are ski l led and unf lappable publ ic speakers , an

art taught in the seminary, where they debate f iner points of Is lamic law for

h o u rs d u r i n g t h e d a y a n d o f t e n t u rn t o p o l i t i c s i n i n fo rm a l c o u r t y a rd d i s c u s

s ions a t n ight .

S t i l l , I hoped a "fourth ly" and "fif th ly

1

' d isserta t ion would not keep us for

too long away from the quest ion I i tched to ask: h is view of Iran 's c lerica l

class.

A l l over Ira n, antic lerica l ism perc ola ted and grew whi l e frus tra ted and

economica l ly s trapped c i t izens grumbled loudly about their qua l i ty of l i fe and

Ira n ' s s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l re p re s s i o n . A t c ro w d e d p ro d e m o c ra c y d e m o n s t ra

t ions ,

I regular ly heard people chanting: "The c lerics l ive l ike kings whi le we

l ive in poverty " W orkin g-c l ass I rania ns la m ente d c l erica l we a l th in th e face of

their own poverty . S tories about the Swiss bank accounts of leading c lerics

c i rc u l a t e d o n T e h ra n ' s ru m o r m i l l . F o rm e r P re s i d e n t R a fsa n ja n i h a d a c k n o w l

e d g e d h i s o w n S w i s s a c c o u n t p u b l i c l y , n o t i n g t h a t h e w o u l d b e " p l e a s e d " t o

use it for the country if necessary. Cleric jokes, usual ly referring to greed, were

wide ly to ld .

Seeing an opening in between "third ly" and "fourth ly ," I ra ised the subject

of antic lerica l ism.

"I n on e respect , i t is natu ra l ," A btahi sa id , no t pau sing t o thin k, as if he

h a d h e a rd t h i s q u e s t i o n m a n y t i m e s , "A g ro u p o f c l e r ic s h a v e n o t p ro p e r l y

interp reted Is lam . Th ey have interprete d i t as op pre ss io n and l imit ing free

d o m , a n d t h i s h a s n a t u ra l l y f rus t ra t e d t h e I ra n i an p e o p l e , w h o t h e n b l a m e a l l

th e c lerics. T hi s is no t ou r interp reta t io n from th e reformist s ide . We be l ieve

that Is lam a l low s for freedom and dem ocracy. L et 's no t forget th at M r.

16*



P E R S I A N P t L f R I M A £ E S

K h a t a m i is a c l er ic a n d M r . [ A b d o l l a h ] N o u r i [ th e p o p u l a r p r o d e m o c r a c y

lea der] is a c leric. S til l , 1 th in k it is ou r du ty as c lerics app ro ac hi ng th e

twenty-firs t century and twenty years after our revolution, to approach mat

ters m or e sensib ly . W e mu st lead the reform s."

I asked him if he be l ieved the mingl ing of re l igion and pol i t ics was

unhea l thy, that i t might have damaged both re l igion and pol i t ica l l i fe .

"Yes, i t m a y h a v e d a m a g e d s o m e p e o p l e ' s p e rc e p t i o n s o f I s l a m , b u t t h a t

do es no t mea n tha t re l igion has no ro l e in pol i t ics . W ha t is often c la im ed as

Is lam by th e r ight win g is mere l y a form of oppre ss ion . A gain, we do no t

regard this as a proper interpreta t ion of Is lam/ ' he sa id . "This is a very impor

tant p oin t and l ies a t th e heart of th e cur ren t s truggl e . W e pr om ot e an I s lam

t h a t i s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h d e m o c ra c y . T h e r i g h t w i n g s u p p o r t s a n o p p re s s i v e

i n t e rp re t a t i o n . A n y o n e w h o s a ys t h a t I s l a m i s n o t c o m p a t i b l e w i t h d e m o c ra c y

d o e s n o t u n d e rs t a n d t h e e s s e n c e o f t h e fa i t h . D e m o c ra c y i s a h u m a n n e e d ,

a n d Is l a m a d d re s s e s h u m a n n e e d s . T h e W e s t s h o u l d u n d e rs t a n d t h i s ."

I to ld h im th at we m igh t wa nt to look a t it an oth er way. T h e que st ion

o f t e n p o s e d b y re s p e c t e d W e s t e rn n e w s m a g a z i n e s a n d s c h o l a r l y j o u rn a l s — a re

I s l a m a n d d e m o c r a c y co m p a t i b l e ? — s e e m e d t o m e u n fa ir , d e p i ct in g t h e M u s

l i m w o r l d a s a s t ra n g e m o n o l i t h i c o t h e r t h a t m i g h t o r m i g h t n o t b e f i t fo r

" o u r g re a t d e m o c ra c y . " A h o l l o w u n d e rs t a n d i n g u n d e r l i e s t h e q u e s t i o n . T h e

fac t t h a t m o s t M u s l i m c o u n t r i e s h av e fa il ed t o e m b ra c e d e m o c ra c y h a s n o t h

ing to do with the faith; i t is chiefly because their traditional or secular-minded

leaders m ake up a c lass of pet ty tyrants an d tradit iona l m on arc hs . Th eir soc i

e t ies re ta in patr iarcha l an d, in som e senses , t r iba l a irs . M os t M us l im cou ntries

have not had their A ge of E nl igh tenm ent, th e cri tical period that separated

re l i g io n f ro m t h e s t a t e i n m o s t o f E u ro p e , t h e m o m e n t w h e n re l ig i o n s e t tl e d

i n t o a p r i v a t e h o m e , re m o v i n g i t s o b s t ru c t i o n s f ro m t h e p a t h o f p u b l i c g ro w t h

th ro ug h dem ocratic system s. In Iran 's case , I to ld A btahi de l icate ly , th e c leric

s imply rep laced the king after the revolution. For democracy to work, i t

seemed to me, re l igion needed to re treat in to the private space.

H e smil ed, fo lded o ver his robe , and seemingly ignorin g my lo ng editoria l

insert io n, we nt on with his s t a t em en t "Yes, ou r view is that dem ocra cy is

c o m p a t i b l e w i t h I s l a m . T h e re is n o d o u b t a b o u t t h a t . U n fo r t u n a t e l y , t h e re

h a v e b e e n m a n y e x t re m i s t s i n I ra n w h o s a y t h a t I s l a m i s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h

d e m o c ra c y . S o m e c o n s e rv a t i v e c l e r i c s s a y t h a t d e m o c ra c y w o u l d s o m e h o w

co rru pt th e fa i th . T hi s ts ju s t w ro ng . O the rs , o n the l ibera l s ide , especial ly

164



T E H R A N

d u r i n g t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R e v o l u t i o n

[1906—11

J,

m a d e a n a rg u m e n t s i m i l a r

t o t h e o n e y o u j u s t m a d e : t h a t w e n e e d e d a n A g e o f E n l i g h t e n m e n t , t o s e p a

rate re ligion from the state."

In the ear ly twentie th century, a smal l group of I ranian inte l lec tua ls sought

t o c re a t e a n E n l i g h t e n m e n t t y p e o f a t m o s p h e re i n I ra n , B o rro w i n g h e a v il y

from French E nl igh ten m en t thinkers (especia l ly their antic lerica l ism), th is

group of po l i t ica l ac t ivis ts , poets , and journa l is ts sought to create a Par l iament

and curb the powers of the king and interference by the foreign powers .

However, the l ibera l in te l lec tua ls were not the only ones interes ted in a

consti tut ion. Severa l leading c lerics l ined up to support the idea , though for

different rea sons. A fter som e ini tia l success , th e C on sti tu t ion a l R evol ution

was beaten back by a co l lu s ion of roya l is t and foreign (chief ly R ussian and

British) forces . T h e P ar l ia m ent bui l ding was a t tacked, and C ons ti tut io na l is t

n e w s p a p e r s w e r e s h u t d o w n . A s a r e s u l t , m a n y of t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t t h i n k e r s

fled abroad or were kil led.

A btahi spoke b lunt l y , "T he oth er s ide [ the conservatives] fear t ru e d em oc

ra cy b e c a u s e i t w o u l d m e a n a l o s s of p o w e r for t h e m . T h e e l e c t i o n s h a v e

proved that . That 's why they are us ing a l l the other formidable too ls a t their

disposal ro fight our reforms."

What about the reformists? I asked. In a t ru ly democratic system everyone

should have the r ight to run for office . Voters would not choose from only a

l imited group of c lerics . In that scenario , d id he think the reformists could

lose power as wel l to , say, a secular nat iona l is t?

"O ur pres ide nt is very popu lar ." He smil ed. H e had a poin t , g iven t he

o v e rw h e l m i n g n a t u re of K h a t a m i ' s e l e c t i o n s in 1 9 9 7 a n d 2 0 0 1 . I a l s o m e t

t h o u s a n d s of I ra n i a n s in m y t ra v e l s w h o g e n u i n e l y l i k e d K h a t a m i , ev e n t h e

ones who expressed frustration at his inabil ity to defeat his conservative foes.

S t il l , it m u s t b e s a id t h a t K h a t a m i m o s d y ra n a g a i n s t a l re a d y d i s g rac e d c o n

servative cand idates , I to l d A btah i .

" I t h i n k o u r p e o p l e w a n t d e m o c ra c y , b u t t h e y a l s o w a n t t o p re s e rv e t h e

h o n o r o f o u r re l i g i o n f ro m e x t re m i s t s. T h a t ' s w h y t h e y t ru s t P re s i d e n t

K hatam i. I th i nk th ere is a ro le for re l igion in democracy, and the re is no rea

s o n a c l e r i c c a n n o t e n s u re a d e m o c ra t i c s y s t e m .

"T his is an excit ing m o m en t in ou r his tory," A btah i said , fo lding over his

c loak. " In fact , i t is an excit ing moment in the his tory of the world . So many

peoples across the world are embracing the ideas of c ivi l socie ty and freedom

165



P E R S I A N P i L f E U M A C E S

a n d d e m o c ra c y . W e , a n d P re s i d e n t K h a t a m i , a re j u s t d o i n g o u r h u m b l e p a r t

to he lp Iran achieve those goa ls . I t wi l l be an uphi l l s truggle , but we sha l l con

t in ue to say the thing s we be l ieve, and w e hope, w ith G od 's h e lp , we sha l l be

successfu l ."

He leaned forward, a ges ture that the interview should end on that note .

"W e are a t yo ur service , M r. M olavi ," he sa id , s tan ding u p in a quick jerk.

We bade each other good-bye with the tradit iona l three kisses on the

cheek. Wait ing for the escort de legated to see me out of the bui lding, 1 stayed

b e h i n d a f te r A b t a h i w a l k e d o u t . I w a t c h e d h i m t h ro u g h t h e w i n d o w , h i s c l e r

ica l robes f lowing, walking across the beautifu l pa lace courtyard. To an out

side observer, i t is s l ightly disorienting to see a c leric working in a palace,

c h a t t i n g w i t h a n a m b a s s a d o r o v e r a c e l l p h o n e o r ru n n i n g o ff i n a b l a c k

s t r e t ch M e r c e d es - B e n z l i m o u s i n e . A r o u n d t h e w o rl d , t h e co n d i t i o n e d h u m a n

eye expects to see men of re l igion in a certa in l ight , humble , quie t is t , p ious .

Even men of re l igion who re ject poverty and s i lence, the ones who wie ld

pol i t ica l inf luence—rabbis in Is rae l , Hindu preachers in India , Cathol ic

p r i es t s in R o m e , M u s l i m s c h o l a r s i n E g y p t — m u s t c o n t e n d w i t h s ec u l a r g o v

ernments that t ry to di lu te their inf luence. I t takes awhi le for the eye to adjust

t o I ra n ' s S h i ' a c l e r i c s i n t u rb a n s s t e p p i n g o u t o f l i m o u s i n e s fo r m e e t i n g s w i t h

da pp er E ur op ea n m inis ter s in the ir s ilk ties or s impl y s tro l l ing across a pa lace

courtyard to their p lush corner offices near the pres ident .

A y a to l l a h K h o m e i n i , t h o u g h n e v e r o n e fo r t h e c re a t u re c o m fo r ts o f

power, wanted i t exact ly this way. He be l ieved that the Western notion of sep^-

arat ion of re l igion and s ta te , pushed by "foreign imperia l is ts" and their

" n a t iv e l a ck e ys ," i n t e n d e d t o d i vi d e t h e M u s l i m w o r l d a n d p l u n d e r I ra n ' s

re s o u rc e s . K h o m e i n i h a d b e e n c l e a r i n h is p re re v o l u t i o n w ri t i n g s :

This slogan of the separation of religion and politics and the demand that Islamic

scholars not intervene in social and political affairs have been formulated and

propagated by the imperialists; it is only the irreligious who repeat them. These

slogans and claims have been advan ced by the imperialists and their political

agen ts in order to prevent religion from ordering the affairs of this world and

shaping Mu slim society, and at the same time to create a rift between the scholars

of

Islam,

on the one hand, and the masses and those struggling for freedom and

independence, on the

other.

They have thus been able to gain dominance over our

people and plunder our resources, for such has always been their ultimate goal.

156



1 5 F A J A M

M y es c o r t a rr iv e d , a s m i l i n g m a n w i t h a d a rk b l a c k b e a rd a n d ru m p l e d

gray suit with red pin stripe s. A fter a firm, a l m ost painful ha nd sh ak e, he said

good-bye, apparent ly fee l ing no need to walk me out , as he was ass igned to

d o .

I walked across the pa lace grounds a lone toward the front door. "How was

your interview?" the guard asked. "Write good things ," he sa id . "There have

b e e n t o o m a n y b a d t h i n g s w ri t t e n a b o u t I ra n i n t h e W e s t . "

Just outs id e th e pres iden tia l pa l ace , I hai led a taxi . T h e driver wasted no

time. "These mul lahs are ki l l ing us ," he sa id . "We are poor, they are r ich. They

are ki l l ing us ."

The Shi'atization of Iran

4 n the northw estern c ity of A rdabi l , a th ir teen th- to fourteenth-century my s-

t ical S unn i M us l im rel igious leader with deep reverence for Im am A l i , S hi 'a

• ' I s l a m 's first martyr, attracted a large fol lowing of Iranians as wel l as Turk s

from eastern A natolia. K now n as S heikh Safi of A rdabil , he em erged as the leader

of a S ufi mystical order with devo ted adher ents w ho viewed him as a semi-D ivine

figure. The order came to be known as the Safavis, from its founder's name. After

his death, Sheikh Safi's sons continued in his footsteps, leading the Safavi Sufi

ord er as it attracted m ore follow ers from nearby l ands. In 15 01 , Ism ail, rite Safavi

leader who added a loyal following of TUrkish warriors to his circle of believers,

burst out of A rdabil to co nq ue r the no rthw estern Iranian city of Tabriz.

Ism ai l d iffered m arked ly from his Safavi predecesso rs . H e despised S un ni

M us l im s and fancied himse l f a m essiah f igure , cu l t ivat ing an image of himse lf

a s a n u n c o n q u e ra b l e m i l i t ary l e a de r p ro t e c t e d i n b a t t l e b y a h a l o of G o d .

M a n y of h i s fo l l o w e rs ru s h e d i n t o b a n l e w i t h t h e p h ra s e " T h e re i s n o G o d

bu t A l l ah, and Ismai l is the vice-reg ent of A l lah."

Having conquered large parts of I ran, Ismai l se t about convert ing the

popula t ion to Shi ' ism by a mix of persuasion and force . In Tabriz he forced

re s i d e n t s t o c h a n t s l o g a n s d e n o u n c i n g t h e t h re e e ar l y M u s l i m c a l i p h s w h o

h a d " u s u rp e d " Im a m A l i 's r ig h tfu l c a l i p h a t e . R e s i st a n c e p o p p e d u p h e re a n d

there to Ismai l 's ca l l , but on the whole , I ran provided re la t ive ly fert i le ground

for a Shi 'a convers ion. Severa l o ld Iranian c i t ies had harbored large Shi 'a

popula t ions . In the tenth century an Iranian dynasty, the Buyids , had brief ly

t r i e d t o a c c o m p l i s h I s m a i l ' s fea t o f S h i ' a c o n v e rs i o n . O n e p ow e rfu l M o n g o l

ru l e r o f I ra n , t h e fo u r t e e n t h -c e n t u ry U l j a i tu K h u d a b a n d a , h a d co n v e r t e d t o

1 6 7



P E R S I A N P l L p E U M A f E S

X

S h i ' is m . T h r o u g h o u t t h e M o n g o l e ra , w a n d e r i n g S u fis h a d i n t r o d u c e d a n e l e

m e n t o f Im a m A l i w o rs h i p i n t o I ra n ia n re l i g io u s tra d i t i o n . N o d o u b t s o m e

I ranian s even saw S hi ' ism as a way to se t them selv es apart from the ir A rab

n e i g h b o rs , w h o m t h e y s t i l l v i e w e d w i t h a m i n g l i n g o f s c o rn a n d d i s t ru s t .

When Ismai l sensed res is tance, he used the sword, k i l l ing "nonbel ievers ."

As for Ismai l , perhaps he had geopol i t ica l aspira t ions in his Shi 'a ca l l , see

i n g it a s a w a y of c h a l l e n g i n g S u n n i O t t o m a n T u rk e y a n d t h e S u n n i U z b e k s

of the northeast , or perhaps he tru ly regarded himse lf as a messiah. Whatever

his motiva tion, he neede d c lerics to spread the S hi 'a messa ge. W he n he f irst

arrived in Tabriz , a search of a l l Is lamic l ibraries unearthed only one book on

S h i ' i s m . I s m a i l a n d h i s S a fa vi su c c e s s o rs i m p o rt e d A ra b S h i ' a cl e r ic s f ro m

B a h ra i n , I ra q , S y r ia , a n d L e b a n o n i n o rd e r t o p re a c h t h e S h i ' a fa i th . T h e s e

c lerics arr ived in an Iran with an avowed Shi 'a k ing, to be sure , but a lso with

a popula t ion (and king) that l i t t le unders tood the basic tenets of the orthodox

Shi 'a fa i th . Thus far Ismai l 's Shi ' ism involved l i t t le more than curs ing the

t h re e e a r l y c a l i p h s ; p ra i s i n g Im a m A l i , t h e fo u r t h c a l i p h , a n d Im a m H o s s e i n ,

the great Shi 'a martyr; and adminis tering heavy doses of Ismai l worship to

fo l lowers . Ismai l 's agents led people to be l ieve that he descended from the

infa l l ib le seventh Shi 'a imam, a c la im never substantia ted.

The newly arrived Shi 'a c lerics must have sensed the de l icacy of their

task: to teach Iranians the princip les of their new fa i th , whi le ho lding their

n o s e s a t s o m e of t h e u n o r t h o d o x S h i ' a id e a s o f t h e S a fa vi K i n g. A n u n e a s y

a l l iance formed between a s ta te that needed the re l igious legit imacy accorded

b y M u s l i m s c h o l a r s a n d th e s c h o l a r s w h o d e s ir e d t h e p r o t e c t i o n a n d p a t r o n

age of a powerful king.

M e a n w h i l e , I ra n ' s n e i g h b o rs g re w re s tl e s s . I s m a i l ' s ag g re s si v e S h i ' a p ro p

a g a t i o n i n e a s t e rn A n a t o l i a a l a rm e d O t t o m a n , a n d s t a u n c h l y S u n n i , T u rk ey .

S o o n t h e tw o M u s l i m p o w e rs c a m e t o b l o w s . W h i l e I s m a il ' s s o l d i e rs re l ie d o n

t h e h e a v en l y p o w e rs o f t h e i r l ea d er , t h e O t t o m a n s re l i e d o n a m o re p o t e n t

w e a p o n , E u r o p e a n g u n p o w d e r I s m a i l 's faith fu l t u r n e d b e n e a t h t h e c a n n o n ,

an embarrassing defeat for the "infal l ible" king. He spent the rest of his l ife in

b o u t s o f d e p re s s i o n a n d p i t c h e d b a t t l e s w i t h U z b e k s i n t h e n o r t h e a s t u n t i l h i s

death, in 1524.

Ism ai l 's successor, S ha h Tah m asp, w ho ru l ed from 1524 to 1576 , opte d

not to portray himse lf as a semi-Divine f igure . He sought, in fact , to suppress

this view among his fo l lowers . Shah Tahmasp ins tructed his Shi 'a c lerics to

16 S



T E H R A N

teach the orthodox fa i th , known as Twelver Shi ' ism because of i ts reverence

for the twelve im am s. By th e time S hah A bbas I , Safavid I ran 's mo st ce le

brated king, came to power in 1587, Shi 'a c lerks he ld great inf luence in soci

e ty and the co urt . C ou rt c lerics advised kings and w rote laws. A bbas , wel l

known for his patronage of the arts and architecture in Is fahan, a lso es tab

l ished a netwo rk of re l igious co l l eges . Tod ay 's mos t powerfu l I ra nian leaders ,

i n c l u d i n g P r e s i d en t K h a t a m i a n d t h e S u p r e m e L e ad er , A y a to l l a h A l i

K h a m e n e i , u n d e r w e n t t h e i r e d u c a t i o n in rel i g i o u s s e m i n a r i e s n o t u n l i k e t h e

f irst o n e b u i l t i n I s fa h a n u n d e r t h e d i re c t i o n o f S h a h A b b a s ,

S h a h A b b a s w i ll al w a y s b e re m e m b e re d fo r o n e m a j o r t h i n g , h is a rc h i te c

tur a l legacy in Is fahan. Few M us l im ci t ies boast such exqu is i te mosq ues ,

bridges , garde ns , and pa laces . T h e Za ya nd eh R ud R iver, w hic h cu ts across the

heart of the c i ty l ike the Thames or the Seine, adds another e lement of

ro m a n c e t o t h e c i t y o f a q u a b l u e s p i re s . I t s s e v e n t e e n t h -c e n t u ry re s i d e n t s

often said Isfahan was

nesf-e-jahan

(ha lf the world) .

H i s t o ry w il l a l s o re m e m b e r S h a h A b b a s fo r p o l i c ie s t h a t e n d e a re d S h i ' i s m

t o I ra n ' s p o p u l a t i o n . T h o u g h Is m a i l a n d T a h m a s p l a i d t h e g ro u n d w o rk , i t w a s

no t unti l a leader of S ha h A bbas 's abi l ity and vis ion that S hi ' ism co uld tru l y

find i ts ho m e in Iran. S ha h A bbas , for ins tance, es tab l ishe d th e afor em en

t ioned re l igious co l leges that produced generat ions of c lerica l leaders . In

addit ion, he had a somewhat la issez-fa ire po l icy toward Sufi and mystica l

views.

U n d e r h i s re i g n , a m a j o r i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t i n S h i ' i s m b e g a n

t h a t c h a l l e n g e d t h e d ry a n d l e g a l is ti c o r t h o d o x S h i ' i s m . T h i s n e w p h i l o s o p h y

w o u l d c o m b i n e G r e e k r a t io n a l i s m w i t h s o u l - s e a r c h i n g m y s t ic is m . T h i s m y s

t ic ism al low ed each individua l be l iever to take his ow n path toward G od ,

at tract ing many fo l lowers who origina l ly dis l iked the orthodox Twelver

S hi ' ism of th e Law. Th is m ov em en t of divine theoso phy , la ter ca l led the Is fa

han or Uluminationis t school because of i ts mystica l v iew of the world of

l ight , grew after the dea th of S ha h A bbas and often c am e int o conf l ic t w ith

t h e m o re o r t h o d o x c l e ri c s, w h o d i s m i s s e d t h e S u fi p a t h t o G o d a s s e m i b l a s -

p h e m o u s . T h e l e g a cy o f t h i s d i v in e t h e o s o p h y h a s h a d a p ro fo u n d i m p a c t o n

S h i ' a s c h o l a rs h i p a n d h a s l e d t o d i s a g re e m e n t s w i t h m a n y o f t h e s c h o l a rs

who espouse a more orthodox view. Interes t ingly , the Uluminationis t school

a lso served to l ink some of Iran 's pre-Is lamic tradit ions of Zoroastr ianism

and l ight with the new faith.

S t il l , d e s p i t e S h a h A b b a s ' s c o n s i d e ra b l e ef fo rt s t o p ro m o t e S h i ' i s m a m o n g

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P E f c M A N

P L L p l U M A C E S

e l i te s , o n l y a ft er h i s d e a t h a n d t h e ri s e o f M u l l a h M o h a m m a d B a g h e r M a jl e si

d i d S h i ' i s m t ru l y o v e rc o m e t h e m a s s e s .

M aj les i was a leading cou rt c leric in Is fahan from a bo ut 1680 unti l h is

de ath in 16 98. A ppo inted by a weak king to the po si t ion of chief mul la h in

1 6 9 5 ,

he successfu l ly expl oited his pos i t ion to prop agate his m essage broadly

to Iranians . His message lacked "confusing" complexity; i t was socia l ly con

servative, an ti- S un ni , and an ti-S ufi (mystic), as wel l as an or tho do x and

u n b e n d i n g i n t e rp re t a t i o n of T w e l v e r S h i ' i s m . A t t h e t i m e o t h e r v i e w p o i n t s

exis ted, bu t M aj lesi foug ht against thes e views, especia l ly th at of M ul l ah

Sadra , who argued for a more esoteric , mystica l Is lam of the Spiri t , as

op po sed to M aj lesi 's is lam of the L aw. Tod ay 's Is lam ic seminary s tud en t s ti l l

g ro p e s t o c o m b i n e t h e s e t w o v ie w p o i n t s — t h e S a d ra i a n a n d M a j l e si a n, E v e n

A y a t o l l a h K h o m e i n i , w h o s e p u b l i c a c t i o n s re fl e c te d a h a rs h " M a j l e s ia n " I s l a m

o f t h e L a w s ta n c e , p u rs u e d m y s t ic a l s t u d i e s in t h e s e m i n a ry , w i n n i n g re n o w n

among his own s tudents for his teaching of the subject .

I suppose the Iranian seminary s tudent wi l l never reconci le the two view

points . Indeed, as in so many aspects of I ranian cu l ture , many a seminary s tu

dent has genera l ly re treated into the embrace of mul t ishaded ambiguity on this

subject , acknowledging the importance, and truth, of both s tra ins of thought.

F o r m o s t I ra n i a n s, h o w e v e r, re l i g i o u s s e m i n a ry d i s a g re e m e n t s m a t t e r o n l y

periphera l ly to their fai th . M aj lesi 's m ost s ignificant ach ievem ent rem ain s his

successfu l propagation of Shi ' ism to an Iranian popula t ion l i t t le aware of the

fa it h . H e is c re d i te d w i t h p ro p a g a t i n g n u m e r o u s S h i ' a r it u a l s t h a t I ra n i a n s

re g u l a r l y p ra c t i c e , i n c l u d i n g m o u rn i n g c e re m o n i e s fo r t h e fa l l e n i m a m s a n d

p i l g r i m a g e s t o s h r i n e s o f i m a m s a n d t h e i r fam i l ie s. S h i ' i s m , s o m e h o w ,

worked in Iran. Today Shi ' ism is not on ly the majori ty fa i th , i t a lso forms an

im po rtan t part of th e Iranian cu l tura l identity . W ith a few boo ks of M aj les i's

writ ings and some essays that described his l i fe and phi losophy in my ruck

sack, I f lew from Te hra n to Is fahan to ma ke a pi lgrimage to the M aj lesi shrine .

Sensual Isfahan

I

n the grand square of Is fahan, 1 sa t on a bench a t dusk and l is tened to a

y o u n g Is fa h a n i p l ay t h e ta r, a n a n c i e n t P e rsi a n i n s t ru m e n t w i t h a n i n t o x i -

cat ingly sweet sound, l ike the sugary, soft center of gaz, a p o p u l a r I s fa h a n

candy. A crowd gathered as he caressed th e tar s tr ings . T h e las t defiant rays of

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I S F A H A N

t h e o ra n g e s u n l i n g e re d i n t h e g ra y -p i n k d u s k sk y. T h e s h i n i n g b l u e - d o m e d

m o s q u e s s p a rk l e d . T h e w a t e rs o f t h e c e n t ra l fo u n t a i n s s h i m m e re d . T h e

w h o l e m a i d a n , t h e p u b l i c s q u a re r i m m e d b y t h e b l u e a n d g o l d o f e x q u i s i t e

m o s q u e s a n d fo u r-h u n d re d -y e a r -o l d b u i l d i n g s , s e e m e d a g l o w . T h e re w a s a

softness in the a ir , th e kind of softness tha t m igh t be scooped w ith a sp oo n

a n d s p re a d o n t h e h o t h a rd f l a t b re a d s o l d b y H o s s e i n , t h e b a k e r d o w n t h e

street,

I s fa h a n ' s g ra n d m a i d a n , t h e m o n u m e n t a l p u b l i c s q u a re f i v e t i m e s t h e s i z e

of P i az za S a n M a r c o i n V e n ic e w i t h e q u a l a m o u n t s o f c h a r m a n d r o m a n c e

a n d h i s t o ry a s t h a t l e g e n d a ry I t a l i a n s q u a re , s h i n e s a s a m o n u m e n t t o S h a h

A b b a s ' s v i s i o n o f h i s s p l e n d i d l a t e -s e v e n t e e n t h -c e n t u ry c a p it a l . S h a h A b b a s

ranks as one of I ran 's most ab le leaders for resuscita t ing the fa l tering nation,

recapturing los t terr i tory, and rec la iming Iran 's p lace as a world power a t a

moment when the Safavid dynasty had faced the specter of kingly decadence

and neglect .

T o d a y t h e g ra n d m a i d a n b u i l t by S h a h A b b a s a n d h i s a rc h i t e c ts a t t rac t s

t o u r i s t s fro m a ro u n d t h e w o r l d . O n t h i s n i g h t I s a w g ro u p s o f I t a l i a n s, G e r

m a n s , F re n c h , a n d A ra b s , a s w e l l a s a y o u n g A m e ri c a n p h o t o g ra p h e r f ro m

Wyoming, who seemed to re l ish the a t tention he was gett ing as a nove l ty , an

A m erican touris t . "I love i t here ," he sa id . "T he Ira nians are so nice ," he to l d

m e ,

s o m e w h a t i n c re d u l o u s l y . " I n ev e r e x p e c t e d t h i s . T h e y a l l w a n t t o g o t o

A merica I have been invited into thre e hom es a l ready. I t rave led in A sia for

m o n t h s , a n d n o b o d y i n v i t e d m e i n . I t ' s a m a z i n g . "

L ater tha t n igh t I wal ked back to my hote l , on a busy s treet in the m iddl e

of th e c ity . M y roo m had no t been ready wh en I arr ived ear l ier , so a p l um p,

p l e a s a n t c l e a n i n g w o m a n s h o w e d m e t o m y ro o m , c h a r t e r i n g i n a l i l t i n g ,

s ingsong Isfahani accent . "Your towels are over there ," she sang. " In the

m o rn i n g w e h a v e b re a k fa s t , " s h e c ro o n e d , " I ' m s o s o rry y o u r ro o m w a s n o t

ready earl ier. W e have terr ib ly t rou bl ed you "

A s m a l l , m o d e s t , c l e a n h o t e l w i t h w o rn P e rs i a n ru g s i n t h e l o b b y a n d t a s t y

breakfasts of eggs, f lat bread, and sweet tea , th e H ote l A ria a t tracted m id

d l e -c l a s s I ra n i a n s a n d E u ro p e a n b u d g e t t rav e l e rs. I t s t o o d a c ro s s t h e s t re e t

f ro m Is fa h a n 's m o s t fa m o u s h o t e l , t h e A b b a s i (k n o w n b e fo re t h e re v o l u t i o n

a s t h e S h a h A b b a s) . T h e H o t e l S h a h A b b a s o n c e p r o v id e d I r a n ' s e l it e w i t h

nights of s inging, dancing, and drinking in a lavish and love ly se t t ing. The

revolution abrupt ly ended the party , much to the chagrin of a few of the o lder

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P E R S I A N

P 1 L £ M M A £ E 5

w a i t e rs , w h o t o l d m e t h a t t h e y fo n d l y re m e m b e re d t h e " g o o d t i m e s , " e s p e

cia l ly the whiskey-induced large t ips .

In m y ro o m a t t h e A r ia , t h e b a re a n d y e l l o w i n g w a l l s h a d l i tt l e d e c o ra t i o n

except for one painting above the bed, a pic ture of a s tr iking woman in a red

scarf and b lue headband, carrying a f lower in one hand and a massive c lay jug

o n h e r s h o u l d e r . H e r e y es w e re b i g a n d b ro w n a n d c u rv e d . S h e a l s o h a d b ig

red l ips and tufts of hair ju t t ing out from the scarf.

A bove the bed, a smal l , in tricate ly design ed co ppe r lam p enc lo sed a red

l ight bu lb . I turned off the cei l ing l ight and switched on the lamp to do some

re a d i n g . H u n d re d s o f t i n y re d l i g h t s p o t s s p l a s h e d a n d d a n c e d a c ro s s t h e

ro om , giving i t the fa int ly seedy a ir of a E ur op ea n red- l ight dis tr ic t. I lan ded

o n a p a g e i n M o o j a n M o m e n ' s e x ce l l e n t s t u d y of S h i ' i s m t l ia t i n c l u d e d d ra w

i n g s of b o t h S h a h A b b a s a n d M u l l a h M o h a m m a d B a g h e r M a jl e si . I n t h e p i c

t u r e .

S h a h A b b a s w e a rs a p l u m e d a n d b e je w e l ed t u rb a n . H i s m u s t a c h e j u t s

out from his face , extending far beyond his ears but not cur led toward them.

H e h a s t h i n e y e b ro w s a n d a w ri n k l e d fo re h e ad . H e w e a rs a d e l i c at e l y e m b ro i

d e re d c a p e t h a t re s t s o n h i s b u t t o n e d a n d j e w e l e d s h i r t . S h a h A b b a s l o o k s

every bi t th e P ers ian roya l in the p ic ture . M aj lesi , for his part , lo oks no less

regal, his only affectation of modesty being the position he sits in, knees to

the ground, as i f in prayer. He wears a la rge checkered turban and has swarthy

eyes that contrast with his white beard. His c lerical robe, finely cut, wel l fit

ted, and e l aborate ly designed , is drap ed across one sho ul der. M aj les i ref lec ts

a t ra d i t i o n a l l o o k , o n e o f a p i o u s a n d s e r i o u s m a n w h o o n c e p ro c l a i m e d

dan cing the heig ht of i rra tiona l i ty . S ha h A bbas , no l ess re l igious ly devo ted

th an M aj lesi , has th e a ir of a m an with a tas te for beauty, a m an for w ho m

dancing would be part of court l i fe .

T h e n e x t m o rn i n g , i n t h e h o t e l re s t a u ra n t , a s I a t e b re a k fa s t , I noticed on

t h e b a c k w a l l a se d u c t iv e p a i n t i n g o f a d a n c i n g w o m a n w e a r i n g b r i g h t re d a n d

bl ue and yel low form -fitting rob es, carrying a w ine ju g an d offering a cup to

an old derv ish with a gray bear d sitting by th e river. N ot th e sort of pai nti ng

t h a t M u l l a h M a jl e s i w o u l d h a v e a p p ro v e d of.

A l l o v er I ra n , e sp e ci al l y i n p r i v at e h o m e s a n d re s t a u ra n t s a n d h o t e l s , I s aw

t h e s e p a i n t i n g s o f s u b t l y s e n s u a l w o m e n d a n c i n g o r c arry in g w i n e j u g s . T h e

m a g n i f i c e n t H o t e l A b b a s i p ro v i d e d a h o m e t o a v i r tu a l s h r i n e o f t h e s e m u ra l s

o f s u b t l e a n d s o m e t i m e s n o t - s o -s u b t l e fe m a l e s e n su a l i ty . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f

t h e re v o l u t i o n t h e n e w Is l a m i c re v o l u t i o n a ry a u t h o r i t i e s i n I s fa h a n d e e m e d a l l

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I S F A H A N

s u c h m u ra l s o ffe n s i v e a n d o rd e re d t h e m d e s t ro y e d . D a n c i n g w o m e n , t h e y

s a id , e c h o i n g M a jl e s i, a re n o t I s l a m i c . T h e h o t e l m a n a g e m e n t , h o w e v er , fo u n d

t h e t h o u g h t o f d e s t ru c t i o n a b h o rre n t . T h e a r t i s t , a f t e r a l l , h a d w o rk e d o n t h e

a r t fo r m o re t h a n t e n y e a rs . A c o m p ro m i s e w a s re a c h e d . T h e a r ti s t w o u l d

re t u rn t o t h e h o t e l a n d p a i n t l o n g s l e e v e s o n s o m e o f t h e w o m e n a n d c o v e r

th e c leavage of other s . T h e art is t d id a masterfu l

j o b ,

with no traces of change,

A w aiter in th e Ho te l A bbasi , however, to ld m e that the art is t had left h is wor k

i n c o m p l e t e . " T h e a r t i s t m a d e o n e m i s t a k e , " h e s a i d . " H e s h o u l d h a v e d ra w n

fro w n s o n t h e m e n i n t h e p a i n t i n g s . "

As I ruminated on the issue of I ran 's seemingly contradic tory faces of

publ ic modesty and private sensua l i ty , I had an appropria te vis i tor a t my tab le ,

A l i , a y o u n g P a k i s t a n i I h a d m e t t h e n i g h t b e fo re i n t h e l o b b y . H e h a d a n

u rg e n t q u e s t i o n for m e . L o o k i n g a ro u n d , h e t o o k a s ip o f t e a a n d w h i s p e re d :

"M r. A fshin, yes terday a taxi driver asked m e if I w ant w om an . H e sa id tha t h e

can get m e w om an for ten th ou sa nd to m an s (fifteen dol lars) . H e sa id she is a

v e r y p r e t t y a n d y o u n g w o m a n . W h a t s h o u l d I d o ? "

I k n e w t h a t p ro s t i t u t i o n h a d b e c o m e fa i r l y c o m m o n i n T e h ra n , b u t i n

Is fa h a n ? I w a s s u rp r i s e d . W h a t c o u l d I sa y ?

" I m e a n , i s i t d a n g e ro u s ? " h e a s k e d .

I to ld him he would be better off v is i t ing Is fahan 's great s i tes .

He looked def la ted. "So, i t is too dangerous, yes?"

I was not sure what to say. " I t is bet ter to avoid these things ," I advised

h i m .

S udd enl y he pe rked u p, "Yes, m aybe you are r ight . W hy s ho ul d I r isk it?

B e s id e s, w e h a v e g o o d w o m e n i n K a ra c h i . T h e re a re B o s n i a n s a n d R u s s i a n s

a n d A f g h an i w o m e n . O h , t h e A f g h an i w o m e n " h e sa id , s m i l in g , " T h e A f gh a ni

w o m e n a re v e ry b ea u t ifu l , M r . A fs h in . Y o u m u s t c o m e a n d v is it m e . I s h a l l

J a k e y o u t o a n A fg h an i w o m a n . "

H e p a u s e d fo r a m o m e n t , p e rh a p s w a i t i n g fo r m e t o t h a n k h i m fo r t h e

p ro m i s e d A fg ha n i w o m a n . I s i p p e d m y t e a a n d re f l e ct ed o n t h e u n h a p p y

prospect of s i t t ing through breakfast as Al i described various types of prost i

tutes he had been with. Jus t th en his fa ther walked in to the res tau ran t , A l i

loo ked a t me nervous ly , g iving m e a "p lease d on ' t say any thin g" loo k. H is

fa ther, a ta l l and exceedingly formal man with gray hair , conducted business

w i t h I s fa h a n t ra d e rs . H e w a l k e d i n t o t h e ro o m w i t h t h e a i r o f a h i g h -ra n k i n g

officia l on a state visit . He wore the traditional Pakistani

shalwar

a n d

khamees.

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H R M A M P l l C J U M A p E S

r

t h e l o n g c o t t o n s h i r t a n d b a g g y p a n t s . I ros e to greet h i m a nd offered him a

c h ai r. " P l e a s e ," h e s a id , " w e s h a l l n o t d i s t u rb y o u , M r . M o l a v i . " T h e y s a t d o w n

at a nearby tab le to ta lk about the s i tes they p lanned to vis i t that day

A g ro u p o f fo u r F re n c h m e n i n j e a n s a n d c o l o rfu l s w e a t e rs s a t d o w n , t a l k

i n g a n i m a t e d l y a b o u t t h e v e i l i n g o f I ra n i a n w o m e n .

"C'esl tragique"

three of them agreed, especia l ly s ince they knew so many

bright and inte l l igent I ranian women in Paris .

T h e fo u r t h d i s a g re e d .

"C a

r'esr

culture iranienne"

he sa id , expla ining how

t h e c h a d o r i n t e r t w i n e d w i t h I ra n i a n c u l t u re .

" M a y b e y o u a re r i g h t ," o n e o f t h e o t h e rs s a id , w a v e r i n g fo r a m o m e n t .

The other two disagreed vigorous ly . " Iranians are not fanatica l ," one of

t h e m s a i d . " I m e a n , l o o k a ro u n d y o u , " h e s a i d , p o i n t i n g a t t h e d a n c i n g

w o m a n o n t h e w a l l . " T h a t i s t h e rea l I ra n i "

T h e w a v e r i n g t o u r i s t n o d d e d , s a y i n g , " T h e w o m e n o n t h e w a l l s h a v e

more fun than the rea l women " They a l l laughed, dipped their bread in their

eggs , and mapped out their p lans for the day.

I

gathered my rucksack of books and headed to the o ld Is fahan bazaar,

w h e re I w o u l d v is it t h e M a jl e si s h r i n e .

The Bazaar and the M osque

T

he M ajles i shrine an d m os qu e s tand a t th e en d of the M aj lesi bazaar, a

typica l mid-s ize outdoor bazaar jammed with bartering crowds, co lorfu l

texti les , frui t ju ice s ta l ls , c lo thing and toy s tores , tea-s ipping merchants ,

and o ld men carrying heavy loads on their s tra ining backs .

W h e n I a r r i v e d , c ro w d s h a d b e g u n t o s t re a m i n fo r t h e i r m o rn i n g s h o p

ping . A t a s tal l se l l ing bright fabrics, a heated arg um ent too k p lace betw een a

f em a l e c u s t o m e r a n d t h e m e r c h a n t . " I n t h e n a m e of G o d , " t h e a n g r y w o m a n

said, "when wi l l you s top ra is ing your prices?"

T h e m e rc h a n t ru b b e d h i s b u s h y m u s t a c h e , ra i s e d h i s a rm s , a n d w i d e n e d

his eyes , d isp laying app rop ria te offense a t the co m m en t. "This is the best

price you wi l l f ind, m ad am . You wil l n ot f ind s uch qua l i ty a t th is price ."

A n o l d m a n w i t h a w i d e l o ad o n h i s b a c k c a m e b a rre l i n g to w a rd m e , a

p o p p i n g g re e n v e in ru n n i n g a c ro s s h i s re d fo re h e a d . " O u t o f t h e w a y

1

/' he

ye l led. " I n the na m e of G od , ou t of the way "

A few s ta l ls so ld fake Western designer c lothes , badly misspe l led—

174



I S F A H A N

" A d e e d a s " a n d " K a l v in K l i n e " t h e m o s t n o t a b l e — a n d a f ru it j u i c e v e n d o r

sang the praises of his oranges and melons . "The f inest oranges in Is fahan "

he cried. "There are none f iner, except for my melons , which are even f iner

t h a n t h e o ra n g e s "

A group of o ld men with wizened brown faces and b lack g lasses s ipped tea

and s tared a t the pass ing crowds.

M a n y of I r a n ' s m o s t im p o r t a n t m o s q u e s m a k e t h e b a za a r t h e i r h o m e , t e s

t ifying to the tradit iona l ly c lose l inks between men of re l igion and men of

commerce. The bazaar has a lways p layed a cri t ica l po l i t ica l ro le , part icu lar ly

i n t w e n t i e t h -c e n t u ry I ra n . T h e c l o s i n g o f t h e b a z a a r t o p ro t e s t a g o v e rn m e n t

pol icy dotted twentie th-century Iranian pol i t ica l l i fe . In fact , powerfu l bazaar

m e rc h a n t s b a n k ro l l e d I ra n ' s c l e r i c s i n o p p o s i n g t h e S h a h .

The l inks between the bazaar and the c lergy are socia l , economic, and

pol i t ica l . T he bazaari and the c leric often hai l from th e same tradit iona l m id

d le c lass and intermarry. Economica l ly , the c lerics look to the bazaar for

money in the form of an Is lamic tax that bazaaris scrupulous ly pay to c lerics

and mosques . Bazaaris in turn look to c lerics for re l igious cover and, indeed,

p e rh a p s fo r s al v a t i o n . O n e v e t e ra n b a z a a r i j o k i n g l y e x p l a i n e d : " W h e n y o u

spend your days cheating your neighbor out of ten tomans, i t makes you fee l

b e t t e r t o g i v e o n e o f t h o s e t o m a n s t o t h e m o s q u e . "

I t d i d n o t s t o p t h e re . In t h e n i n e t e e n t h a n d e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s , t h e

c lergy a lso served as jud ges and p ubl ic notarizers , so the m en of c om m erc e

went to the men of the c loth to so lve a dispute or s tamp a bi l l of sa le . In tac t ,

even when the Pahlavi kings created c ivi l courts and c ivi l notarizers , many

tradit iona l men of the bazaar preferred us ing trus ted bazaar c lerics for their

t ra n s a c t i o n a l m a t t e rs , i n s t e a d o f t h e w h i t e -c o l l a re d , n e c k t i e d g o v e rn m e n t

m en in a ir-co ndit io ned offices .

I t is therefore not surpris ing that I ran 's economy has grown to resemble a

vast bazaar with i ts d is torted mix of fantas t ica l ly wea l thy merchants , d ir t-poor

labo rers , and s truggl ing petty t raders , w ith very l i tt le in the mid dle , I ran 's

s truggl ing midd le c lass . L ike th e bazaar, I ran 's eco no m y benefi ts w el l -

connected r isk-taking specula tors , such as rea l es ta te deve lopers and, for a

whi le , currency traders . Ins ider dea l ings between bazaar bigwigs and senior

offic ia ls a l so grease th e whee ls of com m erce . I f a bu sin ess m an w ants to

im po rt Toy ota cars , he ne eds a l icense . T h e ap pro pria te go ver nm ent office, for

a fee, might provide that l icense to a "friendly" businessman, one of the family.

17?



P E R S I A N P l L p E U M A £ E 5

T h e l icense w oul d have been san ction ed by a conservative cleric . T h e Toyotas

enter the country, and a l l three part ies get their cut .

I t is the bazaari background of many c lerics that has contributed to the

Iranian fo lk cu l ture cri t ic ism of c lerics as greedy, a common caricature even

before the revolution. After the revolution a number of bazaaris gained

incredib le wea l th from their newfound access to power. Severa l bazaar mer

c h a n t s b e c a m e m i n i s t e rs i n t h e n e w g o v e rn m e n t , e s p e c i a l l y i n p o s t s d e a l i n g

w i t h c o m m e r c e a n d e c o n o m i c s .

Just be l ow th e bazaari in the hierarchy of t raditiona l I ranian com m erce is the

m<tydani

f

w ho makes a l iving trading and sel l ing in publ ic squares . O ne

maydani

t rader, M oh sen R afiqdoost, rose to the m ost powerful eco nom ic post in Iran,

chairm an of the mult ibi l l ion-dol lar B onyad-e-M ostazeran va Janbazan, a "char

i tab le" foundation that own s banks, hote ls , shippin g l ines, and ma nufacturing

companies , hundreds of semiprivate companies that are unaccountable to the

technocratic Central Bank governor. Created from confiscated assets of leading

m em ber s of th e prerevolu tion e lite as wel l as th e Pahlavi "charitabl e" founda

t ion, the btmyads, est imated to contro l up to 20 percent of I ran 's G DP , jea lous ly

gua rd their b ook s from prying eyes. T he y answ er only to th e con servative

S upr em e L eader, A yato l lah K ham enei. R afiqdoost 's c lose t ies to senior c lerics

replicated the old bazaar system , this time with mu ch higher stakes, R afiqdoost

left his post in 1999 amid serious corruption charges by reformist newspapers.

S t il l , the I ranian bazaar, n o different from oth er pu bl ic arenas in Iranian

life,

s h o u l d n o t b e s e e n a s a m o n o l i t h i c fo rc e i n c o l l u s i o n w i t h t h e g o v e rn

m ent . In ma ny respects , bazaaris are ju s t as frus tra ted as oth er I ranians .

M a n y n o t e t h a t o n l y a s m a l l m i n o r i t y o f b a z a ar i s e n t e re d t h e s t a t e a p p a ra t u s

and benefi ted from their newfound access to power. Indeed, within the

bazaar, the s ta te-affi l ia ted merchants are no longer considered "one of us ."

T h e y a re " o n e o f t h e m . " R e s e a rc h e rs a n d a n t h ro p o l o g i s t s w h o h a v e s p e n t

considerable t ime in the bazaar note that the tradit iona l bazaar-c lergy a l l iance

h a s b e e n s t ra in e d s i n c e t h e 1 9 7 9 re v o l u t i o n . M a n y b a z a ar i s c o m p l a i n t h a t

t h e g o v e rn m e n t ' s h e a v y i n v o l v e m e n t i n t ra d e a n d b u s i n e s s c ro w d s t h e m

out. I ran 's carpet t raders are part icu lar ly incensed a t the government practice

o f m a k i n g m a c h i n e - m a d e c a r p e t s a n d s e l l i n g t h e m a r o u n d t h e w o r l d , u n d e r

c u t t i n g t h e i r o w n h a n d c ra f t e d i te m s . A s o n e c a rp e t t ra d e r i n t h e T e h ra n

carpet bazaar to ld m e, "H ow can I com pe te with a gov ernm ent offic ia l

in some minis try who can make a phone ca l l , get a free export l icense , and

176



I S F A H A N

s e n d h i s i n fe r io r c a r p e t s t o E u r o p e a n m a r k e t s a t l o w e r p r i c e s ? "

A n i m p o r t a n t b a t t l e is t a k i n g p l a c e t o d a y b e t w e e n a g ro u p o f t e c h n o c ra t s

and a smal l gro up of s tate-affi l iated bazaaris. Te chn ocr ats in the C entra l Bank

a n d s u r ro u n d i n g P re s i d e n t K h a t a m i ha v e c al l e d for a b re a k u p o f t h e bonyads,

bu t powerfu l bazaar m erc ha nts and se nior conservative c lergy res is t. T h e cur

re n t c l o s e d e c o n o m i c s y s t e m , w i t h i t s c o n v o l u t e d , c o rru p t a v e n u e s o f h o rs e

trading, benefi t the merchant with s ta te connections and the offic ia l wi l l ing to

take a cut of the dea l . I ranian offic ia ls have taken note , making the combat

t i n g of c o rru p t i o n a c e n t e rp i e c e o f t h e i r p o l i ti c al d i s c o u rs e , t h o u g h few m e a n

i ng fu l s t e p s h a v e b e e n t a k e n t o c h a n g e t h e s y s t e m . T h e o u t c o m e o f t h i s b a t t l e

may be as important to the future of I ran as the raging pol i t ica l bat t le over

reform, because i t could mean a spark of l i fe to Iran 's s tagnant economy. The

Iranian bazaar after a l l works wo nde rs as a c le aringh ouse of goods tha t suppl ies

cities with tires, socks, and l inens, making a few tire and sock sel lers rich a long

the way. I t s truggles when i t ac ts as the model for an entire nat ion 's economy.

I m o v e d o n , t o w a r d t h e s h r i n e o f M u l l a h M o h a m m a d B a g h er M a jl e si ,

Pilgrimage: M ullah M ohamm ad Bagher

M ajlesi and the Rise of the Shi'a Cleric

A

s I w a l k e d a m i d t h e c l u t t e r o f c o l o r a n d c o m m e rc e , I s aw a d u s t -

co l ored d om e in the dis tanc e and a cracked s ign, w ri t ten in Farsi , that

re a d M A J L E S L S T R E E T a n d l e d i n t o t h e m o s q u e c o u r t y a rd . T h e re a s m a l l

pool of green, brackish water f lanked by s imple , low arches led me into the

s h r i n e , w h e re I re m o v e d m y s h o e s . T h re e l a rg e , c o a rs e re d P e rs i a n c a rp e t s

with white f lower designs covered the f loor, and four chandel iers hung from

th e ceil ing. S afavi-style artistry covered the wal ls: f low ers and vines in bl ue

a n d g o l d . A t h i n c r o w d g a t h e r e d a r o u n d M a jl e si 's t o m b . A m a n l e a n e d t o w a r d

t h e m e t a l g ri l l w o rk s u rr o u n d i n g t h e t o m b a n d k i s se d it . M o s t p i l g r im s t o t h e

s h r i n e p ro b a b l y h a d l i tt l e u n d e rs t a n d i n g o f M a j l es i' s ro l e i n I ra n i a n h i s to ry

bey on d the fact that he was an imp orta nt c leric in th e Safavi era . A ctua l l y

most Iranian pilgrims know few facts about any of the saints they honor. It is

s imply enough to honor the sa int by pi lgrimage, not to know the sa int 's h is tory.

Ins ide th e me ta l gri l le , thr ee to m bs lay toge ther: M aj les i, h is ra ther, and his

b ro t h e r . A g re e n s p o t l i g h t s h o n e o n t h e t o m b s a n d t h e c ru m p l e d p i e c e s o f

m o n e y s t re w n a b o u t ; p i l g r i m s ' d o n a t i o n s a c c o m p a n i e d b y a p ra y e r , p e rh a p s

177



P E R S I A N

P L p E U M A £ E S

for th e hea l th of an a il ing re la t ive or for adm iss ion into a universi ty . O n th e

o u t e r r i m o f t h e s h r i n e , l u m i n o u s w h i t e Q u ra n i c c a l l i g ra p h y s p e l l e d o u t t h e

n a m e s o f t h e t w e l v e S h i ' a i m a m s .

A co ld , pers is tent wind b lew in from the courtyard. I moved away from

the shrine and sa t down next to an e lectr ic heater against the back wal l of the

s h r i n e . A H a ro u n d m e c re a k ed t h e t o m b s o f p r o m i n e n t I s fah a n c l e ri cs . T h e

s h r i n e fel t c oz y, w a r m , s m a l l , a n d b r i g h t . O p e n i n g M o o j a n M o m e n ' s w o r k

again, I tu rn ed to the passag es in w hic h he describes M aj les i: " I t is necessary

to take a c lose look a t the act ivi ty of M uh am m ad Baqer M ajl isi s ince he was

one of the most powerfu l and inf luentia l Shi 'a u lama of a l l t ime and s ince his

pol ic ies and act ions reoriented Twelver Shi ' ism in the direct ion that i t was to

deve lop from his day on . M aj l is i w as an im por tant schol ar in his ow n

right . . . . I t is, however, in the social and pol i t ica l ro le tha t he p layed r a the r

tha n his scholar l y wo rk that h is im por tanc e l ies ," M aj lesi , on e of the m ost

p ro l i n e w ri t e rs in I ra n ' s h i st o ry , p ro d u c e d m o re t h a n s ix ty w o rk s . M o re

important , he wrote most ly in Pers ian in a t ime when Iranian c lerics s t i l l

re l ied o n A rabic . L ike th e R eform ation pries ts of E ur op e wh o first wrote in

t h e v ern a c u l a r , M a jl e si c h o s e P e rs ia n b e c a u s e h e w a n t e d t o re a c h t h e p e o p l e

w i t h h i s b ro a d m e s s a g e. A g a in , M o m e n w ri t es : " U p t o [M a jl e si 's ] t i m e , i t

w o u l d b e t ru e t o s a y t h a t S h i ' i s m h a d s a t l i g h t l y o n t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f I ra n ,

consis t ing most ly of mere express ions of love for Al i and hatred of the f irs t

three ca l iph s . M ajl isi sou gh t to es tab l ish S hi ' ism firmly in the m ind s and

h e a r t s o f t h e p e o p l e . . . . A l t h o u g h t h e w r i t in g o f b o o k s o f S h i 'a d o c t r in e a n d

law in Pers ian wa s be gu n as early as the re ign of S hah I smai l . . . . M aj l is i was

the f irs t to wri te in Pers ian so much, on such a wide range of subjects and in

a m a n n e r t h a t c o u l d b e u n d e rs t o o d b y t h e o rd i n a ry p e o p l e . "

M a jl e s i' s p e n ra n g e d far a n d w i d e . H e w ro t e o n e v e ry t h i n g f ro m c o m p l e x

theol ogica l m atter s to th e pro pe r way for a be l iever to sneeze or spi t . N ot hi ng

w a s t o o a b s t ra c t , a n d n o t h i n g t o o p e rs o n a l , i n c l u d i n g l o n g d i s q u i s i t i o n s o n

Is lamica l ly prosc ribed sexua l in te rcou rse . M aj les i's tho ug ht s o n sex in fact are

a s u b j e c t o f p ru r i e n t i n t e re s t a n d m u c h h u m o r a m o n g y o u n g s e m i n a r i a n s

and a point of r idicu le for his secular cri t ics . In reading his wri t ings , one rea l

izes th at thi s m an believed in th e abs ol ute righteousness of his cau se. N o

Hafezian am biguity in M aj les i. In his w orl d , S ufis were heret ics , and a s to m

ach a i lment required the exact Is lamica l ly prescribed cure .

A fter the 1979 revol ution, som e clerics fo l lowed directly in M aj lesi 's foot-

178



I S F A H A N

s e ps . T h e y n o t o n l y h e l p e d e n g i n e e r a p o l i ti c al re v o l u t i o n (s o m e t h i n g t h a t

M aj les i never th ou gh t of) bu t a lso pu rsu ed a massive social revol ution. Th ey

w anted , l ike M aj lesi , to c ontr o l every aspect of th e be l iever 's l ife . A massive

p ro p a g a n d a c a m p a i g n p u s h i n g a s o c i a l l y c o n s e rv a t i v e a n d re v o l u t i o n a ry w a y

of l i fe targeted everything from chi ldren 's books to te levis ion programs, from

w h a t t o re a d t o w h a t to w e a r. R u l i n g c l e r i cs m a n d a t e d t h e v e il . A l c o h o l , d a n c

ing, and mixed gathering part ies were prohibited. "Dancing is forbidden by

re l i g i o u s l a w ," M a j l es i o n c e w ro t e , " a n d re a s o n l e a d s ev e ry p e rs o n t o t h e j u d g

ment that i t is an abomination." I ran 's postrevolution c lerics seemed to agree ,

despite the fact that I ranians of a l l c lasses inc lude dancing as part of their

w e d d i n g c e r e m o n i e s .

Short ly after the revolution, c lerics appeared dai ly on te levis ion, remind

ing be l ievers to pray, to give a lm s, to pay al l egiance to K ho m eini . N o t even

hygien e and sexua l re la t ion s escaped their no tice . Te hran is s ti l l jok e ab ou t a

prominent TV c leric who, in the ear ly years after the revolution, obsess ive ly

d i s c u s s e d p ro p e r w a y s t o u s e t h e b a t h ro o m .

If M aj lesi l ived today, I be l ieve he wou ld w ork for I ranian te levis ion an d

ra d io . T h o u g h o r t h o d o x re l i g io u s p ro g ra m m i n g of t h e e a rl y e i g h ti e s h a s

m o d e ra t e d , re l i g i o u s c o n t e n t — e s p e c i a l l y i n s t ru c t i v e c o m m e n t o n w h a t a

b e l ie v e r m u s t d o — re m a i n s a f ix t ure . E v e n n o n re l i g i o u s p ro g ra m s h a v e a n

u n s e t t l i n g t e n d e n c y t o p re a c h . N i g h t t i m e d ra m a s t el l sa p p y, m o ra l i s t i c ta l e s .

E v e n c o m e d i e s p re a c h a n u n d e r l y i n g m o ra l m e s s a g e . F o r t h e m o s t p a r t , t h e s e

mora l messages s tay s imple , even laudable : Be good to your parents ; respect

y o u r e l d e rs ; k e e p y o u r t e m p e r i n c h e c k . S t i l l , I ra n i a n s g ro w w e a ry o f t h e

p re a c h i n g . O n e w o m a n ' s c o m m e n t s , off t h e air, t o a T V re p o r t e r d e m o n s t ra t e

t h e p o i n t . S h e t o o k t h e re p o r t e r a si d e a n d b e g a n a s m a l l t i ra d e : " I t u rn o n t h e

T V for e n t e r t a i n m e n t a n d n e w s . In s t e a d I g e t l e c t u re s o n h o w t o a c t, w h e n t o

p ra y, a n d w h o m t o p ra i s e A p ro g ra m I s aw t h e o t h e r d a y w a s d ee p l y i n s u l t

i n g . I t w a s a p ro g ra m a i m e d a t w o m e n , a n d i t w a s t e l l i n g m e h o w I s h o u l d

raise my chi ldren. I have s ix chi ldren in their twenties and thir t ies , and they

have been ra ised very wel l so far without the he lp of your te levis ion s ta t ion "

W a t c h i n g I ra n i a n T V , o n e re c al l s M a jl e s i' s v o l u m i n o u s w o rk s p re a c h i n g

the proper way to perform dai ly functions of l i fe . In fact , th is a l l -encompass

ing mo ra l i ty bec am e typica l of I ra nian c lerica l wri t ings fo l lowing M aj les i's

example . In order to achieve the highest s tage of the Shi 'a c lerica l h ierarchy,

t o b e c o m e a n ay a t o l l a h , o n e m u s t w ri t e a m a j o r w o rk t h a t t o u c h e s o n b o t h

179



P E R S I A N P i t C R l M A C E S

t h e o l o g y a n d t h e p ro p e r w a y t o p e rfo rm d a i l y fu n c t i o n s . In K h o m e i n i ' s w r i t

ings , one f inds both ana lyses of P la to 's Republic a n d i n s t ru c t i o n s o n t h e

p ro p e r w a y t o u s e t h e b a t h ro o m . I ra n i a n te l e v i si o n m e re l y e x t e n d e d M a jl e s i' s

style of pervasive preaching, using satel l i tes and airwaves instead of books

a n d s e r m o n s .

T h e s c h o l a r A h m a d K a r im i H a k k a k n o t e s t h a t t h e M a jl e si a p p r o a c h t o

t h e o l o g i c a l i n q u i ry , e m u l a t e d b y m a n y o t h e r l e a d i n g a y a t o l i a h s , c o n t a i n e d a

fa ta l f law that came to haunt Shi ' ism: "By address ing a l l of the hypothetica l

s i tuat io ns a t ru e bel iever cou ld or m ight race , leaving l i t tle to individua l co m

mon sense, they opened themselves to harsh r idicu le from their opponents ,

especial ly secular and agnostic inte l lectuals of the 20th century."

O n e o f t h o s e c r it ic s w a s t h e s e c u l a r in t e l l e c t u a l S h a h ro k h M e s k o o b . In

m y ru c k s a c k , I c a rri e d a w o rk b y M e s k o o b , Iranian National Identity. In a sec

t ion o n M ajles i, M esk oo b writes p la in ly for his audie nce, with no need for

sat irica l as ides , th ou gh th ey are impl ied: "[M aj lesi 's ] bo ok ca l led Countenance o f

the Pure states as its subject ' t he e xpo sition of virtu es of pr op er behav ior, ' from

wearing c lothes to sexua l in tercourse and associa t ion with females , c l ipping

fingernails , s leep ing, wa king, uri nat ion an d defecation, enem as, sneezing,

entering and leaving a domici le , and treatments and cures for many i l lnesses

and diseases . T h e seve nth cha pter of th e fifth sect io n is 'o n p l uck ing n asa l

hairs and p laying with one 's beard. ' The s ixth chapter of the e leventh section

t re a t s ' p ro p e r w a y s o f s n e e z i n g , b e l c h i n g a n d s p i t t i n g . " M e s k o o b a l s o q u o t e s

extensively M ajlesi 's views on scienc e, defined as "kn ow le dge of th e c lear,

s e c u re

ayehs

[divine s igns , verses in the Q ur an ]; of th e re l igious d uties and

obl igations whic h G od has f ixed in bis Just ice; and of the P roph etic Tradit ions ,

w hic h are val id unti l the day of R esurrection ," M aj lesi 's co ntradic tory pic ture

o f t h e P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d , t h e m e s s en g e r o f I s l a m , s t ru c k m e , s in c e t h e

Prophet consis tent ly counse led his fo l lowers to "seek knowledge, even as far

as Ch ina." M aj les i, on the oth er h and , wri tes that s tudies of sc iences b eyo nd

his own na rrow definit ion "are a wa ste of one 's l ife . . . wh ich genera l ly lead to

apostasy and heresy, in which case the l ikelihood of salvation is remote."

M e s k o o b h a s s u p p o r t i n h i s c r it i ci s m of I ra n i a n cl e r ic s . L e a d i n g re l i g io u s

i n t e l l e c t u a l s h a v e al s o b e e n h a rs h c r i t ic s . O n e o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u ry ' s m o s t

pr om ine nt cri tics of c lerical v iews, A l i S haria t i , was th e so n of a p ro m ine nt

c leric

himself.

Sharia t i , educated in the re l igious seminary, a lso radica l ly

opposed the Shah, In his wri t ings and lec tures , he a t tacked the Safavi-era

1*0



I S F A H A N

c lerics, no ting that they infused to o m uc h supers t i t ion and r i tua l in to I ran 's

S hi 'a faith. H e decried S afavi c lerics l ike M ajlesi for crea ting w ha t he cal led

B l a c k S h i ' i s m , c h a ra c t e r i z e d b y e n d l e s s m o u rn i n g a n d w e e p i n g fo r t h e fa l l e n

i m a m s . In s t e a d h e p ro m o t e d a R e d S h i ' i s m , w h i c h c o u n s e l e d b e l i e v e rs t o

emulate Imam Hossein and f ight against in jus t ice , Sharia t i dreamed of an

Is lam without c lerics . He once wrote that I ran 's c lerica l c lass "seeks refuge in

t imes long past and outdated ceremonies and is sa t is f ied to be the gatekeeper

a t t h e g ra v e ya rd ." O f c o u rs e , S h a r i a t i a n g e re d t ra d i t i o n a l m u l l a h s , t h o u g h t h e

m o re ra d i c al c l e r ic s l i k e K h o m e i n i s w e e t e n e d t o h i s re v o l u t i o n a ry a n d

anti-Shah views.

P e rh a p s t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u ry ' s m o s t v o c ife rou s c l e ri ca l c r it ic w a s A h m a d

K asravi, a fiery essayist an d ora tor, a lso educ ated in a re ligious sem inary. H e

condemned Iran 's c lerics for fa i l ing to support the l ibera l princip les of the

C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R e v o l u t i o n o f 1 9 0 6 - 1 1 , t h e m o m e n t w h e n I r a n i an s s t o o d u p

and d em an de d an e lected par l iam ent an d th e ru le of law. K asravi cri tic ized

the c lergy for creat ing what he ca l led a fa lse Is lam, one that sought to protect

th e c lergy 's pow er and veered from princip l es of th e fai th . He vigorous ly cri t

icized what he viewed as their hypocrisy, their obsessive re liance on tradition,

and their host i l i ty to representat ive government. In one of his art ic les , he se t

out his objections to the Is lam created by Iran 's c lerics : "This re l igion is

incompatib le with reason; i t is incompatib le with the sc iences; i t is incompat

ib le with his tory; i t is incompatib le with Is lam

itself;

i t is incompatib le with

l ife . Fina l ly , it is inco m patib le w ith repre sentat ive gov ernm ent." K asravi's

s e m i n a l w o r k .

On Islam and Shi'ism,

publ ished in 1944, bris t les with the l i ter

ary energy of a devoted revolutionary. The chapter t i t les are revea l ing: "The

D e t r i m e n t a l C o n s e q u e n c e s o f I s l a m , " " G o d Is W e a ry of T h i s I s l a m , " " C ri t i

c i sm s T h a t C a n B e M a d e o f S h i ' i s m , " " T h e B u l l y i n g of t h e C l e r ic s ," K a srav i

m a k e s n o a t t e m p t t o c o n c e a l h i s c o n t e m p t fo r c l e r i c s . In t h e c h a p t e r t i t l e d

"The Bul lying of Clerics ," he writes : "They [c lerics] are ignorant people who

do not know as much about the world and its affairs as a ten year old child.

A nd s ince their mi nd s are f il led with re l igious jur isp ru de nce , reported sayings

and long, involved fabricat ions of princip les and phi losophy, there is no room

l e f t fo r k n o w l e d g e o r i n fo rm a t i o n . S o m u c h h a s h a p p e n e d i n t h e w o r l d , s c i

e n c e s h a v e a p p e a re d a n d c h a n g e s h a v e o c c u rre d , w h i c h t h e y h a v e e i t h e r n o t

k n o w n o r u n d e rs t o o d o r h a v e u n d e rs t o o d b u t n o t p a i d a n y a t t e n t i o n t o . T h e y

l ive in the present , but cannot look a t the world except from the perspective

1*1



P E R S I A N P l L f B . l M A C £ S

o f t h i r t e e n h u n d r e d y e a rs a g o ." L a t e r i n t h a t c h a p t e r , h e s a y s: " In t h e i r i g n o

rance, in t rying to preserve their own organization, they are content with the

m i s e ry o f t w e n t y m i l l i o n p e o p l e / '

O f cou rse , K asravi 's boo k caused a s to rm of prote s t am on g Iran 's c lergy,

the more so s ince he wrote i t in their s ty le , being one of their own. Here was

n o m e re E u ro p e a n i z e d s e c u l a r p ro t e s t e r w h o c o u l d b e e a s i l y d i s m i s s e d . H e re

w a s a m a n w h o s t u d i e d i n t h e s e m i n a ry a n d s p o k e t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e c l e rg y

a n d c o n fro n t e d c l e r ic s w i t h h a rs h n e g a t i o n s o f t h e i r m o s t s a c re d t ru t h s . K a s -

ravi sho cke d th e c lerics , w ho fo un d them selv es a t a loss o n wh at to do with

t h i s a n g r y f o r m e r s e m i n a r y s t u d e n t . A s R o y M o t t a h e d e h p o i n t s o u t , " I r a n h a d

a lo ng tradit io n of the qu ie t skeptic , bu t K asravi was entire ly different H e

was a noisy unbe l iever, a preacher whose texts were secularism, the tr iumph

of sc ience, and the superiori ty of consti tut iona l democracy."

A l a s ,

K asravi came to o early , and his voice was too lo ud for his t im e

(indeed, pe rha ps even for this t im e). A n Is lam ic extremist assass inated him in

1946.

T h i s a s s a s si n b e l o n g e d t o t h e g ro u p fo u n d e d b y a re l i g i o u s s e m i n a ry

s t u d e n t w h o c a l l e d h i m s e l f N a v a b -e -S a fa v i, a n a m e l i n k ed w i t h t h e S a fav i

s t at e w h e re M a jl e s i o n c e re i g n e d s u p re m e a s h e a d m u l l a h .

K asravi th ou gh t l i tt le of the c lerics he cam e into contac t with , even t ho ug h

Ira n, and S afavid-era Is fahan in part icu lar , pro du ced som e of th e M us l im

wo rld 's m ost profoundl y im porta nt scholars , w ho se interes ts and skil l s ranged

from Sufi poetry to architecture . Sheikh Baha a l -Din (1546-1622), the leading

scholar of Is lam in his day, served as the key architect for one of Iran's most

b re a t h t a k i n g m o n u m e n t s : t h e S h a h M o s q u e o f I s fah a n, T o d a y 's a rc h i t e c t u re

s tudent s t i l l marve ls a t the sophis t icated design of th is extraordinary s tructure .

S h e i k h B a h a a l -D i n w a s a l s o t h e g re a t e s t m a t h e m a t i c i a n a n d a s t ro n o m e r o f

this period. Sure ly , here was a man of re l igion whose mind was f i l led with

m o re t h a n j u s t " l o n g , i n v o l v e d fa b r i c a t i o n s o f p r i n c i p l e s a n d p h i l o s o p h y . " In

K asravi 's era , however, W estern sc ience far exceeded any thing pr od uc ed from

the re l igious seminary, and his impatience with the seminary, and indeed any

thing that d id not imply progress , inc luding Pers ia 's be loved medieva l Pers ian

poets , was legendary. In fact, K asravi enc our age d the bu rn in g of bo oks by

Pers ian poets , even the revered Hafez, whom he fe l t was not progress ive

en ou gh for I ranian ne eds . K asravi was, in a sense , ju s t as r ighte ous ab ou t his

cau se as M aj lesi was in th e la te seve ntee nth century.

H ow m igh t K asravi view Iran today ? A s a fervent be l iever in rep rese nta-



I S F A H A N

t ive government he might speak for I ran 's democracy movement, and sure ly ,

h e w o u l d c o n d e m n c o n s e rv a t i v e c l e r i c a l a t t e m p t s t o q u a s h t h e m o v e m e n t . In

gl oom y fact, if he were a live to da y he wo ul d pro bab ly be in a jai l cel l , if he

had not met the same fate as he did in 1946.

Zi pp ing m y backpack, I s tood up, s tre tc hed m y legs , and wat che d the

crowd mil l in to the shrin e , on th e edge of th e M ajlesi bazaar in Is fahan. A

young boy, barefoot and bright-eyed, fo l lowed his fa ther They leaned into the

meta l gri l le and kissed i t , then s tood together, bowing and praying. Ins ide the

g o l d e n g ri ll e e n c l o s u r e . M u l l a h M o h a m m a d B a g h e r M a jl e si 's f at h er a l so is

laid to rest. Ironical l y, M ajlesi 's father w as a fol low er of the S ufi way. I nsid e

t h e e n c l o s u re , fa t h e r a n d s o n re p re s e n t e d t w o s t ra i n s o f S h i ' a I s l a m i c

tho ug ht. In this case , the son tr iu m ph ed over the fa ther S t il l , the Sufi way has

not died in Iran and has only grown s tronger as the government of the

Is l a m i c R e p u b l i c a c t s m o re l ik e M a j l es i t h e s o n t h a n M a jl e si t h e fa t h e r O n

t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e s h r i n e — t h e w o m e n ' s s e c t i o n , w h i c h I c o u l d n o t s e e — I

h e a rd w e e p i n g . P e rh a p s a m o u rn i n g c e re m o n y fo r H o s s e i n , t h e m a r t y re d

S h i ' a i m a m . L a t e r I l e a rn e d t h a t a w o m a n w h o h a d re c e n tl y l o s t h e r h u s b a n d

had vis i ted the shrine every day for the past two months , bewai l ing her loss .

Her husband was buried far away, so she used the shrine for her dai ly weep

i n g , v i s i t i n g h e r h u s b a n d ' s t o m b o n w e e k e n d s .

I looked a t my w atch . I had spen t near ly two ho ur s in the shrin e , reading,

thin kin g, and ob serving. I wa nted to s tay longer, in to the nig ht in m y w arm

spot by the e lectr ic heater w ith m y boo ks. I was t i red, m y legs were sore , and

I wan ted to s i t back dow n and doze off on th e floor, jo in ing a few nap pers . B ut

t h e re w a s n o t i m e . I w a s ru n n i n g l a t e fo r m y n e x t a p p o i n t m e n t . I w a l k e d

toward the door, handed a few bi l l s to the shrine 's caretaker, and walked back

out into the courtyard, where two l i t t le g ir ls in white head scarves chased

each other around the ref lec t ing pool .

W h e n I e m e rg e d f ro m t h e M a jl e si s h r i n e at d u s k , b a c k i n t o t h e b a z a a r ' s

l i g h t , a b l i n d m a n c h a n t e d m o u rn i n g s o n g s fo r Im a m H o s s e i n , N e x t t o h i m

lay a hat fi l led with sm al l b i l l s and coins . A s l ight chil l h u ng in the a ir . N earby

a man roasted corn on an open f ire . I s tood next to the f ire and l is tened to the

b l i n d m a n s i n g. " O Im a m H o s s e i n , w h y d i d th e y kil l y o u ? W h y d i d t h e y

re fu s e y o u w a t e r? O , O , O Im a m H o s s e i n , y o u a re t h e p r i n c e o f m a r t y rs / ' T h e

m o u rn i n g s o n g t h e o l d m a n s a n g fo rm e d p a r t o f t h e s e v e n t e e n t h -c e n t u ry

M aj les ian r i tua ls prescrib ed for be l ievers .



P E R S I A N

P l L f J U M A f E S

Severa l men of the bazaar in crisp shir ts and beards , perhaps r ich whole

sa lers ,

m a d e t h e i r w a y h o m e . T h e y w o re t u rq u o i s e r i n g s o n t h e i r s m a l l f i n

gers , as do m any c lerics . A s they walked by th e M ajles i shrine , they s top ped ,

w hisp ered a prayer, and mo ved on . A few dro pp ed bi l l s in th e b l ind m an 's ha t .

A s e a c h b il l l a n d e d i n t h e h a t , a y o u n g b o y n u d g e d t h e b l i n d m a n , c a u s i n g

h i m t o c ry l o u d e r : " O Im a m H o s s e i n . " I h u rr i e d o ff t o m y n e x t a p p o i n t m e n t ,

t h e m o u rn i n g s o n g s o f t h e b l i n d m a n f i l l i n g m y h e a d .

M r. M ohseni, the Young Cleric

A

f ri en d i n T e h ra n h a d s u g g e s t e d t h a t I m e e t M r . M o h s e n i . " H e is a

yo un g cleric w ith inte resti ng ideas," h e said at th e time. A final-year

s tudent in one of Is fahan 's

madresehs,

r e l ig i ou s c o l l e g es , M r . M o h s e n i

s a i d h e w o u l d b e g l a d t o m e e t w h e n

1

arrived in Is fahan. E m ergin g from th e

M ajles i bazaar, I hai led a cab and ha nd ed th e driver the direct ion s M r,

M o h s e n i h a d re a d t o m e o v e r t h e p h o n e . M y d r iv e r, h o w e v e r, p a i d m o re

attention to his carefu l ly crafted rant on high frui t and meat prices than he

did to m y direct ions to t he c l eric 's hou se . W e got los t several t im es.

" Y e s te rda y I w e n t t o t h e m a rk e t a n d b o u g h t w a t e rm e l o n . Y o u w i l l n o t

be l ieve what that crook charged me," he sa id as we drove past one of the

m a rk e d s t re e t s. I p o i n t e d o u t o u r m i s d i re c t i o n , a n d h e p ro m p t l y b a c k e d u p

into oncoming traffic , horns b laring, a l l the whi le lamenting the fact that the

price of onions , a domestic good, was only s l ight ly less than the price of

b a n a n a s , a n i m p o rt e d g o o d .

A t o u r d e s t i n a t i o n , a s m a l l d u s t -b r i c k h o u s e i n a c l u t t e r of s id e s t re et s , I

ra n g t h e b u z ze r . A y o u n g , w e l l -b u i l t m a n w i t h a sh a rp l y d e fi n e d j a w a n d t h i n

b l a c k b e a rd g re e t e d m e , M r . M o h s e n i . H e w o re a w h i t e s k u l l c a p o n h i s h e a d ,

t h e s o r t o f c a p w o rn u n d e rn e a t h a t u rb a n . T h e fa c t t h a t h e a n s w e re d t h e d o o r

h i m s e l f a n d w o re a s k u l l c a p i n s t e a d o f t h e t u rb a n i n d i c a t e d t h a t h e m e a n t o u r

m eetin g to be casua l . I was p lea sed.

" H e l l o , M r . M o l a v i , " h e sa i d , s m i l i n g a n d o f fe ri ng t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

cheek-to-cheek greeting. I apologized for my de lay, handed him a box of

sweets purchased a t the bazaar, and offered greetings from our mutua l fr iend.

"You have embarrassed me," he sa id , taking the sweets . He gestured for

m e t o e n t e r t h e s m a l l c o u r t y a rd o f t h e h o u s e . W e w a l k e d a c ro s s t h e c o u r t y a rd

t o w a rd t h e d o o r , w h e re a v a r i e t y o f m e n ' s a n d w o m e n ' s s h o e s l a y n e a t l y o u t -

1 * 4



I S F A H A N

s i d e [ s l i p p e d off m y o w n s h o e s a n d e n t e re d , a c o m m o n r i tu a l i n m a n y t ra d i

t i o n a l m i d d l e -c l a s s I ra n i a n h o m e s , b u t n o t s o a m o n g t h e m o d e rn m i d d l e a n d

up per m iddl e c lasses . In s ide , a m iddl e-aged m an in a crisp, co l lared sh ir t and

a c lose ly cropped b lack beard greeted me. He wore a ce l l phone s trapped to

his wais t . He was a bazaari , I found out la ter , a wel l -connected trader of l ight

fixtures bought by government offices . Behind him, a teenager with a

c ro o k e d - t o o t h e d s m i l e a p p ro a c h e d , b o w i n g s l i g h t l y , o n e h a n d o n h i s c h e s t .

H e t o o k m y j a c k e t .

M r . M o h s e n i t u rn e d t o t h e m a n i n t h e c o l l a re d s h i r t . " T h i s is m y u n c l e , "

h e sa id . " M y b ro t h e r a n d I a re o f te n p u t t i n g h i m t o t ro u b l e . " M r . M o h s e n i ' s

younger brother, he of the crooked teeth, smiled.

H i s u n c l e p re d i c t a b l y p ro t e s t e d . " W h a t t ro u b l e ? I t i s a l w a y s a p l e a s u re t o

see both of y ou / ' S udd enl y I real ized that m y visi t m ight have caused this la t

es t " trou bl e ." A fter a l l , a sem inary s tu de nt wh o l ives in a dor m itory d oes no t

have the m eans to hos t a foreign gu est in the prop er ly ge ner ou s Iranian wa y

M r. M o h s e n i ' s o w n p a re n t s l iv e i n a n e a rb y city , s o M r . M o h s e n i m u s t h a v e

p u t h i s u n c l e t o t h i s " t ro u b l e " o n m y behalf. I fel t a ru s h o f e m b a rra s s m e n t .

His unc le guided us into a large , carpeted s i t t ing room, where we sat on

t h e f l oo r a n d l e a n e d u p a g a i n s t so ft c u s h i o n s , M r . M o h s e n i ' s y o u n g e r b ro t h e r

soon brought us t iny g lasses of tea and sugar cubes . He sa t in the corner, s tar

ing at me as the conversation drifted from talk of my travels to Isfahani sweets

to gem si one s.

" M r M o l a v i , " t h e u n c l e s a id , " if y o u w a n t t o b u y s o m e g e m s t o n e s fo r y o u r

family , le t me know. I t is important that you buy them with somebody who

k n o w s t h e s e t h i n g s . I w o u l d n ' t w a n t a n y o n e t o foo l y o u .

" D o n ' t b o t h e r b u y i n g

feeroozek

here ," he sa id , referring t o a tu rqu ois e

s t o n e . " B uy it i n M a s h h a d o r ev en N e i s h a p o u r "

M r . M o h s e n i i n t e r r u p t e d , sa yi ng ; " M r . M o l a v i, m y b r o t h e r w a n t e d to m e e t

you very much. He reads a l l of these reformist newspapers , and now he wants

t o b e c o m e a j o u rn a l i s t a n d b e fa m o u s l i ke A k b a r G a n ji " H i s b ro t h e r ' s fac e

re d d e n e d .

" I r a n n e e d s m o r e g o o d jo u r n a l i s t s , " I sa id , w i s h in g h i m w e l l . M r . M o h s e n i

la ugh ed and asked m e if I had m et th e reformist re porters . I described som e

of m y m eetings . T h e tee nage r L eaned forward, l is tening intently .

A s I offered my imp ress io ns of each reporter , an e lder ly m an w ith a

b ro w n , w ri n k l e d fac e a p p ro a c h e d M r . M o h s e n i ' s u n c l e a n d w h i s p e re d i n h i s

1 8 5



F E R S U M P l L f l U M A p E S

e ar, M r M o h s e n i ' s u n c l e s to o d u p . " M r . M o l a v i , w e h av e p r e p a r e d a v ery

h u m b l e m e a l . W i l l y o u d o t h e h o n o r o f j o i n i n g u s ? " W e m o v e d t o a n o t h e r

room where a tab lec loth was se t out on the f loor.

T h e r e w a s n o t h i n g " h u m b l e " a b o u t t h e m e a l . T h e r e w e r e t h r e e d i f f e r e n t

meat s tews, a l ternate ly spiced with saffron, turmeric , herbs , sour p lums, and

oth er spices . A m o u n d of saffron-f lecked r ice occ upie d the cen ter of the

c l o t h , a n d e a c h s p o t — t h e re w e re fo u r o f u s — h a d a b o w l o f s t e a m i n g h o t

s o u p . M r . M o h s e n i ' s u n c l e ' s w ife c o u l d n o t j o i n u s , I w a s t o l d . S h e h a d a p r i o r

e n g a g e m e n t , t h o u g h s h e s e n t h e r g re e t in g s . A f te r d in n e r , m o re t e a a n d

honey-soaked sweets arr ived, and we re t ired back to the s i t t ing room.

G e n t l y st uffe d , w e sa t b a c k o n t h e c u s h i o n s . M r . M o h s e n i ' s u n c l e b a d e u s

good-bye. He had to go pick up his wife from her mother 's house, he to ld us .

M r . M o h s e n i ' s b r o t h e r w a l k ed o u t w i t h h i m , l e a vi ng m e a l o n e w i t h t h e y o u n g

cleric I had come to interview.

M r. M oh sen i , a f if th-year c lerica l s tud ent , l ooked to b e in his early thir t ies .

H e s t u d i e d Is l a m i c j u r i s p ru d e n c e a n d p h i l o s o p h y , h a v i n g w o rk e d t h ro u g h t h e

first level, known as the

muqaddamat

( i n t ro d u c t i o n ) , w h i c h i n v o l v e s r i g o ro u s

A ra b i c g ra m m a r, b a si c l o g ic , a n d rh e t o r i c c l a s se s , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e c o u n t l e s s

re a d i n g s o f Q u ra n i c c o m m e n t a r i e s b y S h i ' a s c h o l a rs . H e a l s o re a d a n d d i s

c u s s e d W e s t e rn p h i l o s o p h e rs , p a r t ic u l a r l y K a n t a n d H e g e l .

What did his fe l low seminarians think about the ideas of reform and

d e m o c r a c y ?

"You know, I can safe ly say that about seventy percent of seminary s tu

d e n t s s u p p o r t t h e s e i d e a s o f d e m o c ra t i c re fo rm . T h e y a re ra t i o n a l , a n d t h e y

a re b a s e d o n p h i l o s o p h y a n d a s o u n d i n t e rp re t a t i o n o f t h e Q u ra n a n d c u rre n t

condit ions ," he sa id .

I a s k e d h i m h o w h e c a m e u p w i t h t h a t n u m b e r? D i d h e c o n d u c t a

survey?

"It is a genera l es t imation," he sa id . " I th ink you wi l l see that I am right as

y o u s p e n d m o re t i m e w i t h y o u n g s e m i n a r i a n s . O f c o u rs e , t h e re a re s t i l l t h o s e

who do not be l ieve in these ideas . They say that these ideas are Western per

v e rs i o n s . A m o n g t h e s t u d e n t s , w e h a v e s o m e h e a t e d d e b a t e s . "

H e p o p p e d a s u g a r c u b e i n h i s m o u t h , u rg e d m e t o h e l p m y s e l f t o t h e

fruit bowl, s ipped his tea , and continued. "For a l l of us , the debate is far

d e e p e r t h a n a s i m p l e o n e a b o u t d e m o c ra c y . T h e re i s a l s o a d e b a t e a b o u t w h a t

ro l e rel i g io n s h o u l d p l ay i n p o l i ti c s. In t h i s re sp e c t , A b d o l K a r im S o r o u s h h a s

136



I S F A H A N

played a profoundly inf luentia l ro le in my own thinking and that of many

young c lerics ."

Iran 's reformist c lerics and re l igious inte l lec tua ls consider Soroush, a lay

Is lamic phi losopher, a master . In his wri t ings and lec tures , he argues that the

m i n g l i n g o f re l i g i o n a n d g o v e rn m e n t re d u c e s re l i g i o n t o i d e o l o g y , e n d a n g e r

ing the fai th by expo sing i t to the po l lu t ion of po l i t ics . W hil e nei t her n ew no r

profound, the idea is h ighly charged, for i t contradic ts a core princip le of the

Is lam ic R epubl ic : th e fus ion of re l igion an d th e s ta te . A s a resu l t , har d- l ine rs

o ft en t a rg e t S o ro u s h , i n a d v e r t en t l y b ro a d e n i n g h i s p o p u l a r i t y o n c o l l e g e

c a m p u s e s .

T h o u g h S o r o u s h h a s e a r n e d s o m e m e a s u r e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e c o g n i t i o n

fo r h i s v ie w s o n rel i g i o n a n d st a te , y o u n g s e m i n a r i a n s l i k e M r . M o h s e n i c o n -

sentrate more on his views on the rights of the individual. "Few Is lamic philoso

phers have writ ten so wide ly and argued so persuasive ly , in an Is lamic

context , on th e r ights of the individua l . In this respect , S or ou sh is real ly

cha ngi ng op inion s ," M r. M oh se ni sa id . "By doin g this, express in g th e r ights of

the individua l in Is lamic terms, he is se t t ing new precedents ."

A n d h e l p i n g b u i l d t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l fo u n d a t i o n for d e m o c ra c y in I ra n ?

"In a way, yes ," M r. M oh sen i sa id . " In dividua l r ig hts are very imp orta nt in

a democracy This is an argument that we have a lo t in the seminary."

M r . M o h s e n i a l s o s a id t h a t h e fol l o w s cl o s el y t h e w rit in g s o f M o h s e n

K adivar, th e reformist c leric ja i led by th e Is lam ic R epubl ic for his w ork s

d e n o u n c i n g t h e c o u n t ry ' s ru l i n g c l e rg y a s " re l i g i o u s d e s p o t s . " In a p u b l i c l e t

t e r f ro m p r i s o n , K a d iv a r w ro t e t h a t " t h e h o l i n e s s of re l i g io n s h o u l d n o t

authorize the re l igious leaders to force others to obey their own way of think

i n g a n d t o d e n o u n c e a n y o b j e c t i o n o r c r i t i c i s m a s b l a s p h e m y " H e w e n t o n t o

say that " the irresponsib le l i fe long ru ler who thinks himse lf above the law,

with unl imited authori ty , should not exis t in this country."

I a s k ed M r . M o n s e n i w h a t h e l ik ed a b o u t K a d iv a r' s p h il o s o p h y .

He smiled, saying, "I would rather not go into specifics. He is in jai l after

a l l . "

In o u r c o n v e rs a t i o n , M r . M o h s e n i re g u l a r l y u s e d t h e F a rs i w o rd

bahs,

w h i c h c a n b e a l t e rn a t e l y t ra n s l a t e d a s " d e b a t e " o r " a rg u m e n t . " H e a n d h i s fe l

l o w s e m i n a r i a n s s e e m e d t o b e i n c o n s t a n t

baks.

Iran 's Shi 'a c lerics , un l ike

t h e i r S u n n i c o u n t e rp a r t s , h a v e b ro a d l e ew a y t o i n t e rp re t t h e Q u ra n t h r o u g h

a lega l process ca l led

ijtihad.

T h i s c a n l ea d t o n u m e r o u s i n t e rp re t a t i o n s o f

1S7



P E R S I A N P I L p E U M A f E S

I s l a m i c l aw . T h o u g h M r . M o h s e n i w o u l d n e e d a m i n i m u m of five m o r e y e a r s

of s tudy before he could be considered a mujtahid, an interpreter of the

Quran, he a l ready seemed wil l ing to interpret a myriad of Quranic matters .

He was, in a sense , a mujtahid in t ra ining, and he seemed to enjoy answering

m y q u e s t i o n s a b o u t a s p e c t s o f I s l a m i c l a w , e m p l o y i n g h i s t o ry a n d a n e c d o t e s

a n d p a s s a g e s f ro m t h e Q u ra n i n h i s re s p o n s e s .

I t m ight n ot h ave been th is way for S hi 'a c lerics were i t no t for an e igh

t e e n t h - c e n t u r y m u l l a h , M o h a m m a d B a q ir V a h id B e h b e h a n i . T h e S h i ' a t r a d i

tion of

ijtihad

c a m e u n d e r fire i n t h e m i d -e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u ry f ro m a p o w e rful

array of cri t ics who thought that I ran 's Shi 'a c lerics abused their r ight of

interpreta t ion, thereby disregarding the basic tenets of the fa i th . Behbehani,

an Is fahan-born c leric a t the center of the debate , v igorous ly backed the c ler

ical right of

ijtihad.

B e h b e h a n i , l i ke M a jl e si b e fo re h i m , h a d t h e a b s o l u t e

r i g h t e o u s n e s s o f c a u s e a n d s i n g l e -m i n d e d d e t e rm i n a t i o n t o d e fe a t h i s o p p o

n e n t s .

A l s o l i k e M a jl e s i, h e v i g o ro u s l y s o u g h t t o ro o t o u t " h e re ti c a l " i n n o v a

t ions from the orthodox Twelver Shi 'a fa i th . For his efforts , he earned the t ide

Sufi kil ler.

Be hbe han i 's la rgest achiev em ent, however, w as his defeat of th e A khbaris ,

a c lerica l movement that sought to l imit a c leric 's power to interpret the

Q u r a n a n d p r i n c i p l e s of S h i ' i s m . T h e A k h b a r i s a rg u e d t h a t t h e c l e ri c s h o u l d

s i m p l y fo l l o w t h e w o rd s o f t h e Q u ra n a n d t h e s a y i n g s o f t h e P ro p h e t . B e h b e

h a n i l ed t h e c o u n t e r c h a rg e, l a b e l i n g al l A k h b a r i s " u n b e l i e v e rs " a n d p ro m o t

ing thu gg ish a t tacks on thes e "infide ls ." W ith ou t c lerica l in terpre ta t ion , th e

b e l i e v e rs w o u l d b e l o s t , B e h b e h a n i a rg u e d . In t ru t h , w i t h o u t c l e r i c a l i n t e rp re

t a t i o n , t h e c l e r i c s m i g h t h a v e b e e n t h e u l t i m a t e l o s e rs , s t r i p p i n g t h e m o f a n

i m p o rt a n t p o w e r .

T h e p r o p o n e n t s o f

ijtihad

w on this bat t le eas ily . T ha t 's w hy, in th e la te

t w e n t i e t h c e n t u ry , K h o m e i n i c o u l d s o ra d ic al l y i n t e rp re t S h i ' a h i st o ry a n d t h e

Q ur an as to com e up with the idea of ru l e by c lerics . Converse ly , K hatam i a nd

N ou ri fa l l we l l within th eir c lerical r ights to adv ocate a l im ited form of

d e m o c ra c y w i t h l e g i t i m a c y i n t h e Q u ra n . T h i s t ra d i t i o n o f i n t e rp re t a t i o n

makes the seminary a l ive ly forum for debate , notwithstanding the regular

attempts by conservative c lerics to stif le that debate.

Y o u n g s e m i n a r i a n s l i k e M r . M o h s e n i , a s a c o n s e q u e n c e , a s p ire t o b e

future inter prete rs of the S hi 'a way. In a go ver nm ent ru l ed by c lerics, th e e nd

l e s s s e m i n a ry d e b a t e s m e a n m u c h m o re t h a n m e re a c a d e m i c e x e rc i s e s . T h e y

18&



I S F A H A N

offer c lues to the pol i t ica l future of I ran. "We are a new generat ion, a genera

t i o n t h a t h a s a c c e s s t o a l l o f t h e w o r l d ' s i n fo rm a t i o n t h ro u g h t e l e v i s i o n a n d

t h e I n t e rn e t / ' M r . M o h s e n i s a id , " I t is i n e vi t ab l e t h a t w e s h a l l b r i n g n e w i d e a s.

In today 's seminary, we do not concern ourse lves only with ancient re l igious

t ra c t s o r s u p e rs t i t i o u s r i t u a l s as s o m e p e o p l e o n t h e o u t s i d e m i g h t t h i n k . O u r

d e b a t e s a re h i g h l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d . W e d i s c u s s H e g e l a n d H a b e rm a s [ t h e p o s t

m o d e r n i s t p h i l o s o p h e r l a n d P o p p e r a n d N i e t z sc h e . E v e n t h e h a r d - l i n e f a c

t ion , w hic h I d isagree with , bases its arg um ent s on rea son an d often qu ote s

P l a t o ' s

Republic."

I t s t ru c k m e t h a t i n h i s m i n d , " s o p h i s t i c a t e d " m e a n t " W e s t e rn / ' T h e s e m

i n a ry d i s c u s s i o n s h e d e s c r i b e d re m i n d e d m e o f m e e t i n g s I h a d w i t h s e c u l a r

I ra n i a n i n t e l l e c t u a l s , i n w h i c h m a n y o f t h e s a m e p h i l o s o p h e rs w e re d i s c u s s e d

and some of the o ld lef t is t ideas were proffered. Perhaps , I ventured, the aver-

age Iranian was less interes ted in phi losophica l theories and more in an effec

t ive ly governed s ta te that provided them with securi ty , prosperi ty , freedom,

and persona l d ignity .

"Yes/ ' He smiled. "Yes, perhaps , but there must a lways be a theory behind

i t. W i t h o u t t h e o ry t o b a c k u p a s t a te , t h e re w i l l b e c h a o s " I re m e m b e re d a

left is t in te l lecua l saying essentia l ly the same thing.

H a s t h e t h e o ry o f velayat-e-faqik, ru le by c lerics , s tood the tes t?

He s ipped his tea and continued, answering my question from a different

angle : " I th ink i t is a shame that many people have deve loped a dis tas te for

c lerics . M ost of my gen erat io n of sem inary s tu de nts are different from the

ru l ing c lergy that people are upset with . We be l ieve in the reform of the sys

tem, in democracy, in c ivi l socie ty , and dia logue, many of the same things the

Ir anian pe opl e be l ieve in . W e are no t a l l e l it is ts. We min gl e with th e peop le . I

s tand in the sam e brea d l ines, I wait for th e sam e taxis. S om etim es, the taxis

w o n ' t e v e n s t o p t o p i c k m e u p . "

But he had power, I sa id , and that was the difference, no?

"Yes, of course. The price of political power is high."

W h i c h b ro u g h t u s b a c k t o t h e q u e s t i o n o f

velayat-e-faqik,

I v e n t u re d , t ry

ing again.

Just then his younger brother walked back into the room, carrying a c lear

g l a ss b o w l of f re sh l y c u t w a t e rm e l o n . M r . M o s h e n i s m i l e d , p e rh a p s re l i ev e d

that our interview was interrupted. "Aha, on this a l l I ranians can agree . We

have the finest fruit in the world." He reached over, picked up a fork, and

189



FER51AU PLLCR1MACES

p l a c e d t h re e s l i c e s o f w a t e rm e l o n o n a p l a t e fo r m e . H i s y o u n g e r b ro t h e r s a t

do w n to jo in us . Tentative ly , quiet ly , he asked if I had s een th e A me rican

m o v i e

Titank*

M r . M o h s e n i s m i l e d , " I m u s t s e e t h i s m o v i e / ' h e s a i d. " T h i s i s

a l l m y b ro t h e r t a l k s a b o u t . "

190



V I

Winds of Reform A Murder in Kashan ^ Tabriz Student Protests, 1999

• The Case of Ahma d Batebi * Iran's Fight for a Constitution: 1906-11

An American Constitutionalist in Tabriz <fc

"T/z£

Strangling of Persia": A Constitutional End ing

Tfre

Parliament of the Islamic Republic of Iran

Cities: Tehran, Kashan , Tabriz

Winds of Reform

W

hen the Safavid state fe l l in the early eighteenth century, Iran fe l l

in to a period of chaotic ru le marked by foreign incurs ions , t r iba l

and feuda l d ivis ion, and s t if led economic deve lopment. The

Qajar dynasty (1798-1921) res tored some s tabi l i ty but pres ided over a period

o f re l a t i v e s t a g n a t i o n i n c o m p a r i s o n t o o t h e r re g i o n a l p o w e rs , n o t a b l y T u rk e y

and Egypt, which made s ignificant s tr ides in bui lding and moderniz ing their

i n s t i t u t i o n s . I n I r a n , p i e c e m e a l , c o u r t - i n s p i r e d i n i t i a t i v e s i n t h e m i d -

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u ry m o d e rn i z e d t h e s t a t e t o s o m e d e g re e , b u t , a s e s t e e m e d

Ira n s c h o l a r N i k k i e K e d d ie n o t e d , t h e m o d e rn i z a t i o n a t t e m p t s w e re " s l i gh t

and abort ive ," T h e Qajar ru l ers s ty led them selv es in th e P ers ian kingly tradi

t ion of abso lu te power, th ou gh they lacked th e m agn anim ity and effectiveness

re q u i re d o f t h i s st a n c e . W i t h e l a b o ra t e t it l e s s u c h a s S h a d o w o f G o d o n E a r t h ,

K i ng of K i n g s, S u p re m e A rb i tra to r , G u a rd i a n o f t h e F l o c k , a n d A s y l u m o f t h e

U n i v e rs e , t h e Q a j a r k i n g s re p re s e n t e d , i n t h e e y e s o f n i n e t e e n t h -c e n t u ry

W e s t e rn t ra v el e rs t o I ra n , a c a r i c a t u re of " O r i e n t a l D e s p o t i s m . " S i r J o h n M a l

co lm, the ear ly-nineteenth-century Bri t ish envoy to Pers ia , ca l led i t "one of

t h e m o s t a b s o l u t e m o n a r c h i e s i n t h e w o r l d , " u n e n c u m b e r e d b y l a w s , i n s t i t u

t ions ,

or checks and ba lances .

The Qajar kings bui l t few s ignificant ins t i tut ions of las t ing va lue , con-

191



P E R S I A N P L L p l U M A £ E S

t r i b u t e d l i t t l e t o t h e e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c o u n t ry , g ra n t e d o u t ra

g e o u s c o n c e s s i o n s t o fo re i g n c o u n t r i e s , a n d fu r t h e r p o l a r i z e d t h e c o u n t ry ' s

co m m un al and feuda l po l i t ics by p laying tr ibes and feuda l l ords against on e

another in a de l icate ba lancing act of power preservation. As a resu l t ,

t u rn -o f - t h e - t w e n t i e t h -c e n t u ry I ra n h a d b e c o m e a c h a o t i c p l a c e , p re y t o b o t h

foreign and do m estic ban dits , a cou ntry th at princes , fore ign cus tom s offi

c ials , and feudal la ndl ords l ooted , wh ere r iva l t r ibes ignored th e centra l g ov

ernment, k ings tended more to pa lace intr igue than affa irs of s ta te , and

Brit ish and R ussian lega tions dic ta ted I ranian pol ic ies m ost favorable to

t h e m , o f t e n l e c t u r i n g t h e k i n g l i k e a n a u g h t y s c h o o l b o y .

L a t e - n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y I r a n i a n in t el l e c t u al s v ie w ed t h e " b a c k w a r d n e s s "

o f t h e I ra n i a n s t a t e w i t h s e r i o u s c o n c e rn . M o s t n o t a bl y , th e y w o rr ie d a b o u t

t h e a rb i t ra ry n a t u re o f t h e n a t i o n ' s l a w s a n d t h e c o n t i n u i n g e n c ro a c h m e n t o f

foreign po wers , notabl y B ri ta in and R ussia , on Ira nian sovereignty. M irza

M a l k u m K h a n , a l a t e - n i n e t e e n t h - a n d e a r l y - t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y l i b er a l

reformist newspaper editor , captured the mood of his generat ion of I ranian

intel lectuals in the first issue of his newspaper (Qanun): " G o d h a s b l e s s e d I ra n .

His b less ing has been negated by lack of laws." In the ear ly twentie th century,

m e n l i ke M a l k u m K h a n (a n A r m e n i a n C h r i st i an w h o c o n ve r t ed t o I s l a m ) ,

frustrated by royal privilege and foreign interference in Iranian affairs, set

forth a powerfu l idea: A writ ten con sti tu t ion w ith a body of fair and ju s t laws

w o u l d f re e I ra n f ro m i t s c u rre n t c o n d i t i o n a n d e m b a rk t h e s t a t e t o w a rd m o d

ernization. In te l lec tua ls , merchants , and nationa l is t c lerics began agita t ing for

a c o n s t i t u t i o n . In re s p o n s e t o t h e m o v e m e n t , i n l a t e 1 9 0 6 , M o z a ffa r-e d -D i n

S h a h , t h e Q a j a r k i n g , re l u c t a n t l y s i g n e d t w o l a w s t h a t p ro v i d e d t h e c o u n t ry

w i t h a E u r o p e a n - s t y l e c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d a p a rl i a m e n t , k n o w n a s t h e H o u s e o f

Just ice . T h e C ons ti tut ion a l is ts had w on a n early , a lbei t short- l ived, v ic tory.

S t a n d i n g h i g h a b o v e a m a j o r T e h ra n h i g h w a y , a b i l l b o a rd h o n o rs t h e

e a r l y - t w e n t i e t h -c e n t u ry c l e ri c S h e i k h F a zl o l l a h N o u r i , a n i m p o r t a n t p l a ye r i n

t h e e ra k n o w n a s t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R e v o l u t i o n of 1 9 0 6 - 1 1 . T h e b i l l b o a rd

c o m m e m o ra t i n g h i s d e a t h d e p i ct s t h e c l e r ic a s a n o b l e m a r ty r . N o u r i h e a rt il y

o p p o s e d I ra n ' s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l m o v e m e n t . H e c a l l e d i t " u n - Is l a m i c " d e s p i t e t h e

fact that severa l leading c lerics supported i t . He roused mobs to a t tack Con

s t i t u t i o n a l i s t s . H e w ro t e b re a t h l e s s p a m p h l e t s w a rn i n g o f t h e d a n g e rs a p a r

l i a m e n t p o s e d t o I s l a m . H e c o l l u d e d w i t h ro y a l i st o p p o n e n t s o f t h e

c o n s t i t u t i o n . W h i l e M r . M o h s e n i d o e s n o t c a re m u c h f or S h e i k h F a zl o l l a h

192



T E H R A N

N ou ri , today 's conservative c lerics ow e a l legiance to him as a forefather. A ya

to l l ah K hom eini , in part icu lar , offered high praise for N ou ri ,

Iran 's s truggl e for a con sti tut ion and t he creation of th e "H ou se of Just ice "

e b b e d a n d fl o w e d f ro m 1 9 0 6 t o 1 9 1 1 , In o n e o f t h e m o m e n t s of C o n s t i t u

t iona l is t ascendancy, N ou ri was executed as "a t ra i tor to the con sti tut i on." H e

w a s h a n g e d o u t s i d e t h e P a r l i a m e n t b u i l d i n g h e s o fe ro ci o u s l y o p p o s e d .

D e m o c r a t i c - m i n d e d I r a n i a n s d o n o t m o u r n N o u n ' s e x e c ut io n . T o t h e m ,

N o u ri , re p re s e n t s t ra d i t io n a l re a c t io n t o l i b e ra l re fo rm s . D e m o c ra t i c - m i n d e d

Iranians rue his efforts to crush Iran 's adolescent movement for freedom and

re p re s e n t a t i v e g o v e rn m e n t .

T h e T e h ra n b i l l b o a rd o f N o u r i , ere c t e d s h o r t l y a fte r t h e re v o l u t i o n b y t h e

Is l a m i c R e p u b l i c o f I ra n , p re s e n t s a d i ffe re n t s to ry, o n e o f m a r t y rd o m . N o u r i ' s

fa c e d o m i n a t e s t h e a d : o v a l , d a rk , w i t h s m a l l e y e s , a n d a n e n o rm o u s

sa l t-an d-p epp er b eard. Jus t be low his face , a dying red rose dangle s from a

n o o s e . T h e m e s s a g e is n o t s u b t l e : T h e u n j u s tl y h a n g e d S h e i k h F a z l o l ia h

N ou ri , " the rose of I ran 's clergy," was m artyred for his defense of Is lam

a g a i n s t d e m o c ra c y a n d re p re s e n t a t i v e g o v e rn m e n t .

T h e Is l a m i c R e p u b l i c u s e s b i l l b o a rd s a s a n o t h e r v e h i c l e for it s p ro p a

g a n d a m a c h i n e . A l l a c ro s s t h e c o u n t ry , e v en i n re m o t e h i n t e r l a n d s , b i l l b o a rd s

showcase the faces of important c lerics and righteous doctrines. Traveling

across Iran, one becomes accustomed to seeing the oversize visage of a

gray-bearded c leric s taring down from a squa re in the sky. T h e N ou ri b i l l board

towers, appropriate ly, over th e S heik h Fazloliah N ou ri Highway. I passed it

often, on my way to appointments, gatherings, or the airport. I t a lways eeri ly

re m i n d e d m e o f I ra n ' s C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R e v o l u t i o n o f 1 9 0 6 - 1 1 , a m o m e n t i n

Iranian his tory that seems to be repeating i tse l f today, a t leas t in broad brush

strokes. T h en , as now , Ir anian s foug ht for freedom against powerful reaction ary

forces . A gain, in te l lec tua ls and journ a l is ts lead the charge whi le the pop ul a t ion

simmers with anger a t the current order, longing for an undefined new one.

I had spent a considerable amount of time covering Iran's reform movement:

the crowded s tude nt ral l ies, the reformist pres ident M oh am m ad K hatami 's rock

star-l ike public appearances, the growing disi l lusion with the president as his

opp onen ts outm usc l ed him , the tria ls and ja il ings of leading prodem ocracy jou r

nalists , th e public debates between conservative an d reform -m inded clerics on

Is lam and democracy, the student deaths, the rise of new intel lectual journals. In

my reading of Iranian history, I had c om e to the con cl usion th at every d em ocratic

193



P EM 1A N P l L f A l M A fE S

movement in Iran, in one way or another, must contend with the ghosts of the

Co nstitutio nal R evolution. I headed to Tabriz, the northw estern Iranian city

home to key Constitutionalist struggles, to revisit some of those ghosts.

Tabriz was a t th e forefront of the Co nsti tut i on a l R evol ution; m any of i ts

s o n s a n d d a u g h t e rs d i e d i n t h o s e c h a o t i c d a ys . F ro m J u n e 1 9 0 S t o A p r il 1 9 0 9 ,

w h e n T e h ra n ' s C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t s w e re s i l e n c e d a n d d e fe a t e d b y a c o l l u s i o n o f

conservative c lergy, roya l is t forces, and R ussian tro ops , Tabriz s tood a lo ne in

res is tance. T h e schol ar Jane t A fary writes : "W he n th e M ajl is [ the P ar l iam ent,

in Teh ran] was bo m ba rd ed [by R ussian and roya l is t so ldiers] and the leading

inte l lec tua l s of the m ov em en t were forced into exi le in Ju ne 1908, the revol u

t ionary center moved from Tehran to Tabriz / ' She ca l ls the ensuing Tabriz

re s i s t a n c e " o n e o f t h e m o s t m o v i n g c h a p t e rs o f t w e n t i e t h -c e n t u ry I ra n i a n

his tory." I w ant ed to lo ok back on the cha pter in I ranian his tory.

To do that , I cho se an un or th od ox s i te as my choice of pi lgrim age, an o l d ,

e l e g a n t T a b r i z h o u s e t h a t s e rv e d a s t h e b a c k d ro p t o s o m e o f t h e C o n s t i t u

t i o n a l i s t s t ru g g l e s . T o d a y a m u s e u m o c c u p i e s t h e h o u s e t h a t o n c e s h e l t e re d

the f irs t reformers . The Tabriz Consti tut ion House, i ts current name, offered

the Consti tut iona l is ts a p lace to discuss s tra tegies , re load their weapons, and

l i c k t h e i r w o u n d s .

I a l s o w a n t e d t o l o o k i n t o t h e T a b r i z s t u d e n t p ro t e s t s o f t h e s u m m e r o f

1 9 9 9 . R u m o rs c i rc u l a t e d a ro u n d T e h ra n t h a t t h e p o l i c e a n d s t u d e n t c l a s h es

in Tabriz r iva led any in Iran for bruta l i ty . Four s tudents a l legedly died, dozens

w e re in j u re d , a n d h u n d re d s j a i l e d . T h e s t u d e n t s fo u g h t for s o m e of t h e s a m e

freedoms the ir great-g rand father s and -gra nd m oth er s had died for in the

Tabriz resistance at the start of the century.

Before vis it ing Tabriz , however, I bad e goo d-b ye to M r. M oh sen i in Is fa

h a n a n d b o a rd e d a b u s t o K a s h a n , a t h r e e - h o u r d r iv e a w ay . T h e re I w o u l d

re c a l l a m i d -n i n e t e e n t h -c e n t u ry m u rd e r , o n e i n s p i re d b y t h e c l a s s i c I ra n i a n

confl ic t between tradit ion and modernity , a conf l ic t that co lored the debates

of the Consti tut iona l era and, indeed, inf luences the Iranian debate today.

A M urder in Kashan

T

h e Is fa h a n b u s t e rm i n a l , a d u s t -c o l o re d b r i c k b u i l d i n g , j a n g l e d w i t h c o l

orfu l buses Lined up outs ide the doors . Competing bus operators

s h o u t e d o u t d e s t i n a ti o n s : " T e h r a n S h i ra z R a s h l K a s h a n " O n e t o u t e d

1 9 4



K A S H A N

t h e s e a t s o n h i s b u s . " C o m fo r t a b l e c h a i rs " h e y el l e d . " T h e m o s t c o m fo r t a b l e

chairs aro un d " 1 bo ug ht a t icket for K ashan and wal ked over to a gove rn

m e n t - r u n b o o k s t a n d , s i m i l a r t o t h e I s l a m i c b o o k s l i b r a r y a t T e h r a n

M e h ra b a d A i rp o r t . I s a w t h e u s u a l b o o k s : t h e w ri t i n g s o f l e a d in g c l e ri cs , p a n

e g y ri cs t o A y a t o l l a h K h o m e i n i , a n d a few b o o k s p ra is i n g I ra n ' s " Is l a m i c R e v

o l u t i o n . " A m i d t h e I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c b o o k s , I a l s o sa w F a rs i t ra n s l a t i o n s o f

Oliver Twist

a n d

Robinson Crusoe,

as wel l as s t icker deca ls of I ranian war veter

a n s ,

m a r t y rs o f t h e I ra n - I ra q W a r T h e d e c a l s l o o k e d m u c h l i k e t h e b i l l b o a rd s

a r o u n d t h e c o u n t r y c o m m e m o r a t i n g t h e y o u t h s w h o h a d d i ed i n t h e w ar . A

c o l l a g e o f re d t u l i p s s u rro u n d e d o n e y o u n g m a n w i t h g re e n e y e s a n d a b l a c k

b e a rd . A n o t h e r p i c t u re s h o w e d a y o u n g m a n , d e a d o n t h e g ro u n d , h i s h e a d

s u rro u n d e d b y f re sh t u l i p s . I ra n ' s w a r p ro p a g a n d a d e p a r t m e n t o ft en w ro t e of

the miraculous growth of tu l ips from soi l watered by the b lood of martyrs .

I bought a few s t ickers and walked toward my bus , pas t abundant s tores

se l l ing frui ts , nuts , sweets , newspapers , and handicrafts . Back outs ide , I

l o c a t e d t h e b u s a m i d s t t h e c o l l e c t i o n of M e rc e d e s d i e se l b u s e s w i th c o l o rfu l

s igns on th eir back m irrors . T h e Farsi s igns cried: o H O S S E I N , O M O H A M M A D ,

a n d o

A U .

O n t h e b a c k o f t w o b u s e s , E n g l i s h s i g n s re a d :

G O D R E M E M B E R

a n d

G O O D T R A V E L O U R W I S H

.

A c o u p l e o f E u r o p e a n b a c k p a c k e r s b o a rd e d t h e

G o o d T r av el O u r W i s h b u s , w h i l e I b o a r d e d t h e O H o s s e i n b u s t o K a s h a n ,

h e a d e d t o t h e B a g h -e -F i n G a rd e n s , b u i l t b y t h e l a te S h a h A b b a s a n d s c e n e o f

t h e m u r d e r of t h e m i d - n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y m o d e r n i z i n g p r i m e m i n i s t e r M i rz a

T a q i K h a n F a ra h a n i , b e t t e r k n o w n a s A m i r K a bi r.

W h e n N a s i r u d d i n S h a h , t h e n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Q a ja r k i n g , s e n t a n

a s s a ss i n t o k il l A m i r K a b ir i n 1 8 5 1 , it m a y h a v e s e e m e d t o c o n t e m p o ra r i e s

l ike s imply another case of a

vazir

w ho had los t favor w ith his king. Bu t t he

m u rd e r h a s g ro w n fa r b e y o n d t h a t i n t h e I ra n i a n p o p u l a r m i n d . I t h a s c o m e

to repr esen t a ta le of a reform er un just ly s truc k dow n. A mir K abir be l ieved in

t h e n e e d t o re fo rm I ra n ' s t ra d i t i o n a l s t a t e s t ru c t u re , t o m o d e rn i z e t h e b a c k

w a rd c o u n t ry a l o n g t h e l in e s o f t h e E u ro p e a n n a t i o n -s t a t e , w i t h o rg a n i z ed

finances , a wel l - t ra ined army, univers i t ies that taught the sc iences , and a

bureaucracy of technocrats . He a lso sought to curta i l the socia l inf luence of

I ran's c lergy, view ing th em as a regressive force in society. For h is efforts at

reforming th e Iranian s ta te , m any du b A m ir K abir " Iran 's f irst reformer," th e

grandfather of other reformers who, l ike him, paid heavy prices for their

efforts.

1 9 5



P E R S I A N P I L f R l A U p E S

N a s i ru d d i n S h a h a p p o i n t e d h i s fo rm e r g u a rd i a n a n d t u t o r . A m i r K a bl r , t o

t h e p o s t of p r im e m i n i s t e r w h e n h e a s c e n d e d t h e t h ro n e i n 1 8 4 8 . A m i r K a bir

i m m e d i a te l y s e t a b o u t m o d e rn i z i n g t h e I ra n i an s t a t e . H e o rg an i z ed t h e

nation's finances, cut the salaries of freeloading court members, devised a tax

s y s t e m , a n d w ro t e n e w g u i d e l i n e s fo r a rm y d i v i s i o n s , s t re n g t h e n i n g I ra n ' s t a t

tered defenses . He appointed trus tworthy governors to border areas , people

h e b e l i e v e d w o u l d p ro t e c t I ra n , d i s p l a c i n g t h e c o rru p t , m o n e y -h u n g ry g o v e r

nors of the past. He also began Iran's foreign policy of playing off Britain and

Russia against each other, an effort to s tem the encroachment of both cov

e t o u s n a t i o n s .

P erha ps A mir K abir 's m os t imm ediate success w as his effort to vaccinate

Ira nians from smal lpox , w hic h cut the dea th ra te s ignificantly and repr e

sented a tangib le contribution to the dai ly l ives of I ranians . He a lso bui l t in

1 8 4 8 a n u p p e r- l e v e l h i g h s c h o o l , D a r a l F o n o u n , t h a t w o u l d t e a c h t h e m o d

ern sc iences and languages that would undergird his modernization efforts .

Bui l t on th e outsk irts of Te hra n, it symbol ized his bel ief th at I ran n eed ed to

enter the modern world of sc ience and information in order to emerge from

its cu rre nt s ta te of backw ardne ss , m ark ed by ram pa nt disease , feuda l expl oi ta

t i o n , m i n i m a l c e n t ra l g o v e rn m e n t c o n t ro l , a n d l i t e ra c y ra t e s b e l o w 5 p e rc e n t .

B y 1 8 5 1 , h o w e v e r, A m i r K a b i r' s re fo rm s a n d h i s g ro w i n g p o w e r h a d

b e g u n t o ra n k l e s o m e m e m b e r s o f t h e c o u r t e l i te , w h o s e p r iv il e g e s h e t h re a t

e n e d . N a s i ru d d i n S h a h b e g a n t o h e a r c o m p l a i n t s , i n c l u d i n g s o m e f ro m h i s

m o t h e r , M a h d o l O l i a , a n d a p o w e rful fo rm e r o ffic ia l n a m e d M i rz a A g h a

K h a n N o u r i . O n e n i g h t th e y c o n v i n c e d t h e i n to x i ca te d S h a h of t h e " t r e a c h

e ry" o f A m i r K a bi r. D e s p i t e t h e fa ct t h a t A m i r K a b ir w a s m a rr i e d t o t h e S h a h ' s

s is te r , N a s i ru d d i n p ro m p t l y s i g n e d a n e x e c u t i o n o rd e r for t h e re fo rm i s t p r i m e

m i n i s t e r a n d s e n t a n o t o r i o u s e x e c u t i o n e r o n t h e k i n g l y m i s s i o n t o t h e

B a g h - e - F i n G a r d e n s i n K a s h a n , w h e r e A m i r K a b ir v a c a ti o n ed .

O u r b us rum bl ed past acres of ye l low fie lds , te l eph one l ines, ro l l ing hi l l s ,

b u rs t s o f f l o w e rs , a n d s p o t s o f b ro w n m o u n t a i n s o n t h e t h re e -h o u r d r i v e t o

K a s h a n . T h e m o u n t a i n s ov e r t h e h o r i z o n l o o k ed l i k e u n d u l a t i n g o c e a n

w a v e s. I s a t n ex t t o a y o u n g m a n w i t h a s h a v e d h e a d w h o h a d j u s t c o m p l e t e d

h i s m i l i t a ry se rvi c e i n I s fah a n . H e w a s n o w h e a d e d b a c k h o m e t o K a s h a n . T h e

tra jectory of the conversat ion fo l lowed a famil iar route : He worried about his

fu t u re ; t h e re w e re n o j o b s ; t h e g o v e rn m e n t w a s c o rru p t ; th e u n i v e rs i ty e x a m s

were prohibitively difficult .

19

6



K A S H A N

W h e n I t o l d h i m t h a t

1

p l a n n e d t o v is it t h e s i te of A m i r K a b i r 's m u rd e r i n

K a s h a n , h i s e y es b r i g h t e n e d . " A h , y e s, A m i r K a b ir w a s o n e o f o u r g re a t e st

l e a d e rs . W e n e e d m o re m e n l i k e h i m t o d a y T h e t ro u b l e i s t h a t a l l o f o u r

reformers are overthrown or ki l led."

S h o r t l y a f t e r t h e b u s t u rn e d o u t o f t h e s t a t i o n ,

I

saw an ex traord inary

piece of go ver nm ent p rop aga nd a n eat ly typed in big, bo l d Fars i le t ters against

a brick walk It said: O U R G O V E R N M E N T I S T H E S A M E G O V E R N M E N T A S T H E

O N E

o r

T H E P R O P H E T M U H A M M A D , M A Y H E R E S T I N

P E A C E . T h e p r o p a g a n d a

w ri t ers h a d e q u a t e d t h e c u r re n t e ra w i t h t h e m o s t s a c re d m o m e n t i n M u s l i m

history, the time of th e P rop het M uh am m ad — an extraordinarily bo ld assertion.

O f c o u rs e , t h e a n a l o g y is s il l y: h o w c a n o n e c o m p a re t h e s e v e n t h -c e n t u ry

government run by a smal l group of devoted re l igious fo l lowers of a Divine ly

i n s p i re d p ro p h e t i n M e d i n a t o a m o d e rn , re s o u rc e -r i c h , p o s t re v o l u t i o n s t a t e

of nearly seventy mil l io n peopl e in I ran ? In fact, I do ub t m os t officials of the

Is l a m i c R e p u b l i c w o u l d b o t h e r t ry i n g t o m a k e an a rg u m e n t s u p p o r t i n g t h a t

s ta tem ent. But the l i tera l in terp reta t io n of th e s ta te m ent m atter ed less th an i ts

ref lect ion of a way of thinking among a powerfu l segment of I ran 's ru lers , a

v ie w t h a t h e l d W e s t e rn i d e ol o g i e s in c o n t e m p t , a v ie w h e l d b y K h o m e i n i a n d

s o m e o f t o d a y ' s h a rd - l i n e c l e r i c a l ru l e rs , H a rk e n t n g b a c k t o t h e " i d e a l t i m e "

of t h e P ro p h e t M u h a m m a d e ffec tiv el y re p u d i a t e s t h o s e w h o c a l l for p ro g re s s

a l o n g m o d e rn , a n d W e s t e rn , l i n e s . I t i s a p o w e rfu l a rg u m e n t a n d o n e t h a t

soothed many tradit iona l I ranians in the 1970s who were disoriented by the

S h a h ' s h e a d l o n g ru s h t o m o d e rn i z a t i o n fo l l o w i n g a W e s t e rn m o d e l . A f te r a l l,

w a s n o t th e P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d ' s c o m m u n i t y a p e ac ef ul a n d s u cc e ss fu l

o n e ? D i d i t n o t a c h i e v e g re a t t h i n g s w i t h o u t W e s t e rn i d e o l o g i e s ?

T h i s t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t ra d i t i o n a l i s t s , w h o s a w m o d e rn i z a t i o n a s " W e s t

e rn i z a t io n , " a n d t h e m o d e m i z e rs , s o m e of w h o m g ro p e d fo r a m i d d l e g ro u n d

a n d o t h e rs w h o p u s h e d fo r t o t a l W e s t e rn i z a t i o n , a n i m a t e d m u c h o f I ra n ' s

p o l i ti c al d i s c o u rs e f ro m t h e m i d -n i n e t e e n t h -c e n t u ry p e r i od of A m i r K a b ir

onward. He fe l l in to the camp of the modernizer groping for the middle

g ro u n d . U n l i k e l a t e r i n t e l l e c t u a l s , s o m e o f w h o m c a l l e d for t h e t o t a l " E u r o -

p e a n i z a t i o n " of I ra n i a n i n s t i t u t i o n s , A m i r K a b ir a t t e m p t e d g ra d u a l re fo rm

t h a t w o u l d i m p o rt W e s t e rn s c i en c e a n d a d m i n i s t ra t iv e m e t h o d s w i t h o u t

importing Western ideas of po l i t ica l modernity .

Today, A mir K abir is wide ly respected by l ibera l na t iona l is t I ranians as a

reformer ahead of his t ime. In fact , he has come to represent a certa in type of

W



P E R S I A N P I L f M M A £ E S

far s igh ted nationa l ism , an image that P res iden t K hatam i has us ed in som e of

his own campaign l i tera ture , in which he refers to the la te moderniz ing prime

minis ter in f la t tering tones , thus equating himse lf with a respected his torica l

f igure who tr ied to reform a s ta te s tructure that seemed res is tant to change. "

T h e b u s s t o p p e d i n K a s h a n s t a t i o n a t m i d d a y . O n T a l e g h a n i S t ree t ,

named after a p ro m i n e n t re v o l u t i o n a ry a y a t o l l a h , I s a w a p p l e c a r t s a n d

t re e -s h a d e d s h o p s a n d a s q u a re n a m e d 1 5 K h o rd a d , a n I ra n i a n d a te c o rr e

s p o n d i n g t o J u n e 1 5 , w h e n K h o m e i n i s u p p o r t e rs , i n 1 9 6 3 , f irst p ro t e s t e d

o p e n l y a g a i n s t t h e S h a h i n t h e h o l y c i t y o f Q o m .

1

A m i d t h e s qu a r e , a n e n o r

mous c lock rose to the sky. It read 1:20

. M .

A yo un g boy, N ajibulJah. in a tor n sweater , asked m e if I w anted to b uy

g u m . H e c a rr i e d a small box of Chiclets. "It is very good gum," he said.

"Rea l ly , very good." I bought a few packs and asked him how to get to the

B a g h -e -F i n .

"You wil l need a taxi," he said. "It is far from here."

I a s ke d h i m if h e k n e w w h o A m i r K a b ir w a s .

"N o . "

1 asked h im w he re he l ived, if he had a h om e (most of the Chic l e ts se l l ers

in Tehran are street kids).

"Yes, I l ive ne ar here , but my fa ther w ent to G od ]died], so I he l p m y

m o t h e r . "

We s tood in front of a frui t se l ler . I bought the res t of the Chic le ts from

hi m and asked hi m to hai l a cab for me. H e scurried away. W he n h e c am e

back with the taxi , I handed him two bags of frui t . "When wil l you be back?"

he asked, wide-eyed. " I can bring more gum."

The taxi driver, an e lder ly man driving a worn Paykan, ta lked l ike most

Te hra n drivers , la m basting the c lerics and l am ent ing the sta te of the e co no m y

and marve l ing a t the days

ghabl az enghelab,

b e fo re t h e re v o l u t i o n , w h e n h e

had bought a car for th ir ty-s ix thousand tomans. "Today," he sa id , " I must pay

f iv e m i l l i o n t o m a n s for t h e c a r. I w e n t o u t o n t h e s t re e ts t o d e m o n s t ra t e d u r

i n g t h e re v o l u t i o n , " h e s a i d . " W h a t fo r? W e h a v e n o t h i n g n o w . "

W e d ro v e o n A y a t o l l a h K a s h a n i S t re e t, w h e re c h i l d re n p l a y ed o n t h e

p e r i p h e ry a n d m o t o rc y c l e s b u z z e d b y u s . W e p as s ed I m a m H o s s e i n S q u a re

1 A conservative foundation k n o w n as the 15 K h o r d a d F o u n d a t i o n c o n t in u e s to p r o m o t e

th e execution o f S a l m a n R u s hd i e,

despite

the fact that Iran's F o r e i g n M i n i s tr y h a s sought

to distance itself from K h o m e i n i' s notorious fatwa against him.

19s



K A S H A N

a n d N a v ab - e- S a f a vi S t r e e t

2

b e fo re re a c h i n g B a g h -e -F i n , T h e g a rd e n s m e a n

dered ar ou nd f lowing w ater cana ls and s ton e walkw ays. T h e cana l s w ere t i led

w i t h l i g h t b l u e c e ra m i c . T al l tre e s s h a d e d t h e g re e n b e n c h e s a n d l o w - s p o u t i n g

fountains dott ing the area .

M y dr iv e r a n d

1

w a l k e d t o w a rd a s q u a t b r ic k b u i l d i n g t h a t h o u s e d t h e

p u b l i c b a t h w h e re A m i r K a b ir m e t h i s d e m i s e . T h e m a rb l e d b a t h ro o m f lo or

spark led. "See this wal l ," my driver sa id , pointing to the t i led wal l of the

kamam, t h e l a rg e a re a w h e re d i g n i t a ri e s l ik e A m i r K a b ir b a t h e d w i t h t h e h e l p

of servants who scrubbed the week 's d ir t off their bodies . " I heard that i t took

two weeks to fu l ly scrub away the b loody hand marks on that wal l ."

I t r ie d t o i m a g i n e t h e s c e n e . S o u rc e s s ay t h a t A m i r K a b ir s aw h i s e x e c u

t ioner and s toica l ly accepted his fa te when he learned of the Shah 's order for

h i s e x e c u t i o n . H e h a d o n l y o n e re q u e s t : t o c h o o s e h i s o w n fo rm o f d e a t h . T h e

executioner agreed but broke his word, s l i t t ing the prime minis ter 's wris ts

a n d s h o v i n g a t o w e l d o w n h i s t h ro a t , a s h i s b l o o d i e d h a n d s p u s h e d a g a i n s t

t h e w a l l .

"A mir K abir w as a great ma n," my sixtyish driver sa id , ech oin g the w ord s

o f t h e t w e n t y -y e a r-o l d re t u rn i n g a rm y c o n s c r i p t a b o a rd t h e b u s . " I t is a s h a m e

he was ki l led. He could have done great th ings for I ran."

I heard the t ink le of th e cana l s ju s t ou ts ide the

hamam.

"But in Iran we a lways ki l l our reformers . Have you read Rezagol i 's book?"

Yes, I had. In a recent best-se l l ing book t i t led

The Killing of Iran's Elites,

t h e

Iranian socio logis t Al i Rezagol i lamented Iran 's tendency to ki l l i ts reformers

either physical ly or po l i t ica l ly H e nam ed A m ir K abir as on e of three exam

ples. A p p a re n tl y , t h e b o o k s o l d w el l i n K a s h a n t o o , a c c o rd i n g t o m y d r iv e r.

" I a m a fo rm e r a rm y c o l o n e l , " h e s a i d . " I re a d m a n y b o o k s a b o u t o u r h i s

t o ry t h e s e d a y s. T h e re a re m a n y t h i n g s t h a t w e I ra n i a n s s h o u l d b e a s h a m e d

of. M an y of us are always b la m ing foreigners for ou r prob le m s. Yes, th e Bri t ish

w e re b a d , an d s o w e re t h e R u s s i a n s a n d e v e n t h e A m e ri c a n s , b u t w e a l s o n e e d

t o l o o k i n t h e m i rro r M e n l i k e A m i r K a b ir l o o k e d i n t h e m i rro r , s aw t h e p r o b

l e m s , a n d t r i e d t o c h a n g e t h e m . W h a t h a p p e n e d ? H e w a s k i l l e d b y I ra n i a n s / '

The former co lone l turned taxi driver ra ised his arms in disgust . "Pres ident

K hatam i has a l ready bee n ki l led, po l i t ica l ly speaking. I t is a famil iar pat tern . '

7

2 N avab-e-S afavi . as you may reca l l , is the n a m e of the m a n w h o ki l l ed A hm ed K as ravi,

the nois y

secular nationalist,

Jn

1946,

199



P E R S I A N P L L f JU M A £ E 5

We walked back to the car, a l ight ra in sending the s treams of water rush

ing down the b lue-t i led cana ls .

T h e d e a t h o f A m i r K a b ir d i d n o t q u e n c h t h e e d u c a t e d e l i t e 's t h i rs t for

m o d e rn i z a t i o n o f t h e I ra n i a n s t a t e . In t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u ry , a n e w g e n

erat ion of in te l l ec tua ls em erged with ideas far mo re progress ive th an A mir

K a b ir 's , w h o s e c o u r t a ff il i at io n s a n d p e rs o n a l o u t l o o k m a d e h i m a m o re c o n

servative mod ernizer, a lbeit an im po rtan t on e for his t ime. T he se new inte l

l e c t u a l s s o u g h t n o t t o g ro p e fo r a m i d d l e g ro u n d b e t w e e n t ra d i t i o n a n d

m o d e rn i t y b u t i n s t ea d e m b ra c e d E u ro p e a n i d ea s w h o l l y .

3

A s E r v a n d A b r a -

h a mi an no tes in his c lassic bo ok

Iran between Two Revolutions,

t h e n e w g e n e r

a t ion of in te l lec tua ls be l ieved in the princip les of l ibera l ism, nationa l ism, and

e v e n s o c ia l i s m a n d w e re in f l u e n c e d b y t h e F re n c h E n l i g h t e n m e n t , w h i c h l e d

t h e m t o v e n e ra t e " n o t t h e S h a d o w of G o d o n E a r t h (L e.

T

Iran's Qajar kings),

bu t the tr ium virate of E qua l i ty , L iberty , and Fraternity ."

These inte l lec tua ls would p lay a cri t ica l ro le in the events leading up to

t h e e a r l y - t w e n t i e t h -c e n t u ry C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R e v o l u t i o n { 1 9 0 6 -1 1 ). I fl ew f ro m

K a s h a n t o T a b r i z t o rec a l l a n i m p o r t a n t e p i s o d e i n t h a t re v o l u t i o n : t h e T a b ri z

res is tance . But f irs t, I fo l lowed the tra i l of a mo re co nte m po rary res is tance,

t h e s t u d e n t p ro t e s t s i n T a b r i z i n 1 9 9 9 . D u ri n g t h o s e p ro t e s t s , w h i c h ro c k e d

that c i ty as wel l as severa l o the r majo r I ranian c i ties, s tu de nt s too k to the

stree ts to cal l for an end to aut ho rita ria n rul e, for grea ter political freedo m s,

fo r a n o p e n p re s s — i d e a s ro o t e d i n t h e t h i n k i n g o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t s i n

the ear ly twentie th century.

Tabriz Student Protests, 1999

1

rr ived in Tabriz o n a chi l ly afternoon j us t before winter . A few m on th s

h a d p a s s e d s i n c e t h e s u m m e r s t u d e n t p ro t e s t s of 1 9 9 9 , t h e o n e s t h a t

i n c l u d e d s t u d e n t c h a n t s fo r " d e m o c ra c y , " " t h e ru l e o f

law,"

and "civil soci

e ty ." T he c i ty had re t urn ed to i ts no rm al rh yth m s of life. T he vast , win ding ,

u n d e r g ro u n d b a za a r, t h e b i g g e s t i n al l t h e M i d d l e E a s t , b u z z e d w i t h t h e

so un d of shuff l ing feet and brisk bus iness . O n Val i-e-A sr S treet , yo un g,

sharp ly dressed boys and gir ls f l i r ted and furt ive ly exchanged phone num

bers . The maidan-e-ShahQoli, a p u b l i c p a rk w i t h a h u g e m a n -m a d e l a ke a n d

^

T h i s n e w g e n e r at i o n c o i n e d

th e m o d e m

I ranian term

for

intel lectual, rushtmfekr. Literal ly,

it

me an s "enl ightened thinker"

2 0 0



lAbKil

ta l l h i l l s , in the evenings a t tracted large crowds of famil ies who s tro l led

u n d e rn e a t h t h e b l u e -g ra y d u s k s k y a n d t h e s w a rm i n g b l a c k b i rd s a b o v e .

Y o u n g p e o p l e k i c ke d a s o c c e r ba l l , b a n t e r i n g i n A z e r i, t h e l a n g u a g e s p o k e n i n

Tabriz and i ts la rger province , A zerbaijan.

4

T a b r i z U n i v e r s i t y r e m a i n e d r e l a t i v e l y q u i e t , w i t h s t u d e n t s t u r n i n g

t h e i r m i n d s t o u p c o m i n g e x a m s . K h o m e i n i b i l l b o a rd s , i n c l u d i n g o n e w i t h a

c e l e s t i a l - l o o k i n g K h o m e i n i t ra n s p o s e d o v e r N o a h ' s A rk , d o t t e d t h e ro a d s .

The crisp, chi l ly a ir marked a pre lude to the co ld and snowy winter ahead.

I spent the afternoon with two Tabriz Univers i ty s tudents : Behrooz, a

s l im, gregarious and loquacious s tudent in the sc iences , and his fr iend, Yadol-

lah, a squat , reserved young man with an a ir of quie t d ignity . We sat

cross- legged on e laborate ly designed bur gu nd y carpets , in a smal l ro om with

wh ite , bare wal ls and p las t ic f lowers on bro w n tab l es , in Yadol lah 's p are nts '

ho use . A large s ilver sam ovar fu ll of hot tea s team ed in a corn er of the ro om

as we reca l led th e s tu de nt pro tes ts in th e sum m er of 1999.

T h e s u m m e r s t u d e n t p ro t e s t s h a d b e g u n , a s d o m o s t i m p o rt a n t p o l i t i c a l

events , in Tehran. A smal l group of po l i t ica l ly act ive s tudents protes ted the

c l o s u re o f a p ro -K h a t a m i d a il y n e w s p a p e r ,

Salam

r

by Iran 's conservative judi

c ia ry . D u r i n g t h e p ro t e s t s , t h e h a rd - l i n e A n s a r-e -H e z b o l l a h c o n fro n t e d t h e

stu den ts . Both s ides tau nte d each oth er, and a few b lows f lurried from each

side.

P o l i ce o rd e re d t h e s t u d e n t s t o d i s p e rs e , a n d t h e A n s a r-e -H e z b o i l a h ,

whose shady l inks with senior conservative c lerics give i t inordinate power,

w e n t u n p u n i s h e d .

L a t e r t h a t e v e n i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n t u rn e d for t h e w o rs e . S e v eral s t u d e n t s

continued their protes ts from their dormitory, chanting s logans for freedom

o f t h e p re s s a n d d e m o c ra c y . T h e i r o p p o n e n t s l u rk e d o u t s i d e , t h e n e n t e re d t h e

dormitory with pol ice offic ia ls , in tent on cracking down hard on the protes t

ers. A n s a r - e - H e z b o l l a h t h u g s b e a t, p u n c h e d , k ic k ed , a n d t h r e w s t u d e n t s

against conc rete wal ls . A ccordin g to on e s tud en t eyewitness, on e of th e a t tack

e rs s h o v e d a c l u b i n t o a s t u d e n t ' s b a c k , s a yi n g , " W h e re is y o u r M r . K h a t a m i

n o w ? " A n o t h e r a t t ac k e r w e n t ev e n fur th e r, fo rc in g a s t u d e n t o u t t h e w i n d o w .

H e fel l t o h i s d e a t h . A n o t h e r s t u d e n t h a d a n ey e g o u g e d o u t i n t h e m e l e e .

P redic tab ly , Te hra n Univers i ty eru pte d after th e do rm itory ra id . T h e nex t

* I r anian A zer is , w h o mak e u p near l y one- f our th of the countr y 's

p o p u l a t i o n ,

are ful ly

integrated

a n d often intensely national ist ,

despite

their preferred use of their l o c a l l a n

guage.

T h e

majority of Azeris also speak, read, and write Persian.

201



P E R S I A

W

P L l f i U A A A f E S

d a y t h o u s a n d s o f s t u d e n t s a n d t h e i r s u p p o r t e rs s p i l l e d o n t o t h e n e a rb y

streets . T he Basijis fanned ou t across cam pu s and nearb y hot spots , ho pin g to

m a i n t a i n o rd e r . T h e A n s a r-e -H e z b o l l a h h i t t h e s t re e ts a g ai n , l o o k i n g t o

k n o c k s o m e h e a d s in . A n g ry , d is affe ct ed , u n e m p l o y e d y o u t h s j o i n e d t h e s t u

de nts in the ir prote s ts . Te m pers inevitab ly f lared, and c lashe s en sue d. A nsar

t h u g s ,

carrying kn ives and c hain s , a t tacked prote s ters . T h e Basijis, os tensib ly

dispatched to mainta in order, lacked discip l ine , and some even took part in

th e s tud en t beating s . A few Basijis d isguised them selv es as s tudents— jeans,

T -s h i r t s , c l e a n -s h a v e d — a n d t h re w b r i c k s i n t o s h o p w i n d o w s t o p ro v e t h a t t h e

s t u d e n t s w e re a n a rc h i s t s . P ro d e m o c ra c y c h a n t s w e re s o o n t ra n s fo rm e d i n t o

persona l a t tacks on Iran 's conservative c lerics . Even the normal ly off- l imits

S u p re m e L e a d er , A y a to l l a h A l i K h a m e n e i , fel t t h e s t i n g of s t u d e n t s l o g a n s .

Back in Tabriz , Behrooz and Yadol lah, moved by the courage of Tehran 's

s tudents , decided to show their so l idari ty with a protes t of their own. "When

we heard about the Tehran s tudent protes ts ," Behrooz sa id , "many of us

decided to have our ow n protes t in Tabriz . W e gathered a t the univers ity a nd

began cha ntin g s lo gans against the conservatives . A cross th e s treet from the

univers i ty , the headquarters for the Basij is was buzzing with act ivi ty . A rumor

had spread tha t the Basij is had K a lashnikov s and were going to fire on the

students . I d id not be l ieve i t , so I s tayed. The next th ing i knew, ] was hi t and

k n o c k e d d o w n / '

A s Yadol lah b egan p ou rin g tea , Beh rooz s too d u p, and l ifted his sweater to

his chin. H e tu rn ed his back to m e. Two l ong pink scars crisscrossed his b ack.

"This is my souvenir from the s tudent upris ing," he sa id . " I s t i l l don ' t know

w h a t h it m e . O n e m i n u t e I w a s c h a n t i n g s l o g a n s — ' W e w a n t f re ed om , n o t fas

c i s m ' — a n d t h e n e x t m i n u t e I w a s o n t h e g r o u n d , a n d s o m e t h i n g l a s h e d a t

my back. I th ink i t was a chain,"

H e l o w e re d h i s s h i r t a n d fa c ed m e . A n u n m i s t a k a b l e h i n t o f p r i d e t i n t e d

his eyes, "A fter i wa s kn ock ed dow n," he sa id , "1 pu t m y ha nd s o n my head

and ye l led. I was wait ing for another b low to hi t me. I fe l t a k ick in my ribs .

A n d t h e n a n o t h e r k i c k. " H e t o u c h e d h i s r i b s, " T h e n I fel t a n a rm o n m y

shoulder, l i f t ing me up. I t was Yadol lah," he sa id , pointing to his fr iend, who

sat across the room, pouring tea from the samovar into t iny g lasses .

Y a d o l l a h s m i l e d i n a c k n o w l e d g m e n t , a n d B e h ro o z c o n t i n u e d : " Y a d o l l a h

l ifted m e up, and we began run ni ng I fel t a sha rp pain w he n I ran beca use as

1 m oved my arms, I was s tre tchin g the w ou nd s o n m y back. 1 t r ied to r u n

2 0 2



T A B R I Z

w i t h o u t m o v i n g m y a rm s , b u t t h a t s l o w e d m e d o w n , s o

1

ju s t bore the pain

and ran a t fu l l speed. We wanted to get out of there/ ' he sa id .

Yadol lah p laced a teac up and sauc er in front of me, with tw o jagged white

sugar cubes leaning against the cup.

" Y a d o l l a h b ro u g h t m e r i g h t h e re t o h i s o w n h o u s e , a n d t h e y l a i d m e d o w n

o n t h e f l o o r a s t h e y w a s h e d m y w o u n d s . H i s a u n t c o u l d n o t s t o p s c re a m i n g

His o lder brother was very angry. I t was good that we had got out of there

b e c a u s e I h e a rd l a t e r t h a t t h e p o l i c e v a n s b e g a n ro u n d i n g u p s t u d e n t s / ' h e

said, "and the Hezbol lahis kept beating them.™

A s i n t h e T e h r a n s t u d e n t u p r i si n g , h a r d - l i n e A n s a r - e - H e z b o l l a h t h u g s

and the pol ice worked together to crush the s tudent protes ts in Tabriz . Po l ice

and inte l l igence services qu est io ned m any s tu de nts deta in ed after the r iots. A

n u m b e r o f s t u d e n t s re c e i v e d b e a t i n g s w h i l e i n c u s t o d y , n o t t o m e n t i o n t h e

fo u r s t u d e n t s w h o d i e d i n t h e T a b r i z u n re s t .

Were any of the s tudents l ighting back? I asked. I looked a t Yadol lah. I

w a n t e d t o g e t h i m i n v o l v e d i n t h e c o n v e rs a t i o n , b u t B e h ro o z re s p o n d e d

i n s t e a d . " S o m e o f t h e s t u d e n t s g a t h e re d b r i c k s. T h e re w a s a n e w m o s q u e

b e i n g b u i l t o n c a m p u s . T h e re w e re m a n y b r i ck s l y i n g a ro u n d . S o m e s t u d e n t s

picked up those bricks to defend themselves against the a t tacking Basij is ."

I t o o k a m o m e n t t o c o n j u re t h e i m a g e : a g ro u p o f y o u n g m e n u s i n g b r i c k s

fro m a n u n c o n s t ru c t e d m o s q u e a s t h e i r w e a p o n s a g a i n s t a b a n d o f re l i g i o u s

h a rd - l i n e rs . B e h ro o z s m i l e d . H e k n e w I h a d c a u g h t t h e i ro n y .

Yadol lah furrowed his brow, as i f he were thinking deeply, then entered

t h e c o n v e rs a t i o n . " I w a n t y o u t o k n o w s o m e t h i n g , M r . A fs h in , " h e sa id h a l t

ing l y "N ot a l l the Basijis are bad . M y brot he r is a Basiji . H e fought in the w ar

with Iraq. He does not th ink i t is r ight for Basij is to beat up s tudents . The

ones who a t tacked us are a minori ty ." He breathed deeply after h is s ta tement,

as if a weig ht had been l i fted from his shou ld ers , I assu red Yadol lah tha t m an y

of my friends are Basijis . Behrooz simply rol led his eyes.

A s t h e y p ro v id e d m o r e d e ta i l s a b o u t t h e s t u d e n t p ro t e s t s , I ref l e ct ed o n

the fr iendship of these two yo un g m en. Th ey hai led from two different m idd l e-

c l a ss b a c k g ro u n d s . B e h ro o z b e l o n g s t o I ra n ' s " m o d e rn m i d d l e c l as s, " t h e c l a ss

of c ivi l servants , technocrats , and profess iona ls bui l t up during the Pahlavi

years , who tend to be more open to the West and less socia l ly conservative

than the tradit iona l middle c lass of bazaar merchants , c lergy, and more

re l igiou s-m inded c ivil servants . I ra nian schola rs and his toria ns have poin ted

2 0 3



P E R S I A N

P l L p J U M A p E S

out the dis t inct ion between these two c lasses in the years preceding the rev

o l u t i o n . T h e y h a v e n o t e d t h a t b o t h g ro u p s g e n e ra l l y fav o re d t h e o v e r t h ro w o f

t h e S h a h , t h o u g h fo r d if fe re n t re a s o n s . T h e m o d e rn m i d d l e -c l a s s m a n m i g h t

have been frus tra ted by a world in which his education granted him a certa in

mobi l i ty , whi le his lack of important connections created a g lass cei l ing. He

might a lso have supported pol i t ica l l ibera l ism but wanted more freedom of

the press and a greater say in his government. The tradit iona l middle-c lass

man might have fe l t h is re l igious fa i th and va lues under assaul t in a world

w h e re m o d e rn i z a t i o n c a m e l a c e d w i t h W e s t e rn i z a t i o n . H e m i g h t a l s o h a v e

seen his l ive l ihood in danger as the country f i l led with cheap manufactured

g o o d s , t h e t ra d i t i o n a l b a z a a r s y s te m b e i n g e n c ro a c h e d u p o n by s u p e rm a rk e t

c h a i n s a n d m o d e r n m i d d l e - c l a s s m e r c h a n t s w h o s p o k e E n g l i s h a n d F r e n c h .

B e h r o o z ' s f a t h e r w o r k s a s a u n i v e r s i t y - e d u c a t e d e n g i n e e r f o r a

p r i v a t e -s e c t o r f i rm . H i s m o t h e r s p e a k s a l i t t l e E n g l i s h a n d w e a rs t h e l o o s e -

fitting m an te au a nd he ad scarf typical of he r c lass, as op po sed to th e m or e

severe chador. His teenage s is ter p lays the guitar and wants to become a c las

s ica l music ian. Family gatherings occasiona l ly involve a bi t of whiskey They

e a t d i n n e r s i t t i n g i n c h a i rs a ro u n d a t a b l e , a s o p p o s e d t o t h e t ra d i t i o n a l m i d

d le-c lass family which usua l ly eats on the f loor, a tab lec loth spread out on

the carpet . Behrooz 's family ignores most Is lamic hol idays , except for the

m ajor one s , m uc h l ike Ch ris t ian s in the W est , Th ey prou dl y back nationa l is ts

as wel l as more social and political freedoms. They have a sate l l i te dish on

t h e i r a p a r t m e n t b a l c o n y a i m e d a t I s t a n b u l . In t h e e v e n i n g s t h e y w a t c h T u rk

ish te levis ion game shows with scanti ly c lad women.

Yadol lah hai ls from the tradit iona l middle c lass . His fa ther is a moderate ly

successfu l merchant in the bazaar. His mother wears the

chador.

H i s p a re n t s

expect his seven teen-yea r-o l d s is ter to m arry soo n. T he family eats dinn er o n

t h e f l o o r , c ro s s - l e g g e d , s e a t e d a ro u n d a t a b l e c l o t h s p re a d o n t h e b u rg u n d y

carpet we now sat on. It celebrates virtual ly every Is lamic holiday. In family

g a t h e r i n g s , p e o p l e l e a n u p a g a i n s t c u s h i o n s o n t h e f l o o r— n o c h a i rs — a n d

alc ohol is never served. Yadol lah 's family a lso ha s a smal l sa te l l i te d ish on the

b a l c o n y . W h e n h i s g ra n d m o t h e r i s n o t a ro u n d , t h e fa m il y a l s o w a t c h e s T u rk

ish te levis ion gam e show s with scantily c lad wom en. O bvious ly , the sa te l l i te

dish knows no dis t inction between the tradit iona l and modern middle c lasses .

In t h e 1 9 7 0 s m e n l i ke Y a d o l l a h ' s ra t h e r b e g a n l i s t en i n g t o t h e c l a n d e s

t in e l y d is t r ib u t e d t a p e s o f A y a to l l a h K h o m e i n i . T h e b r av e a n d u n b e n d i n g

2 0 4



TA5IU Z

c leric in exi le tapped into seething c lass-based resentments as wel l as in to

c h e s t - t h u m p i n g n a t i o n a l i s t p r i d e . H e s p o k e for t h e h a v e -n o t s i n a w o r l d

w h e re t h e h a v e s c a l l o u s l y d i s re g a rd e d t h e m . W h e n K h o m e i n i ta l k e d o f e c o

n o m i c e x p l o i t a t i o n , Y a d o l l a h ' s fa t h e r k n e w w h a t h e m e a n t b e c a u s e h e s a w h i s

own profi ts fa l l whi le I ran 's petro e l i te with Western connections grew fabu

l o u s l y r i c h . W h e n K h o m e i n i ta l k e d o f a n a s s a u l t o n t h e fai th b y W e s t e rn i z a

t i o n , Y a d o l l a h ' s fa t h e r re m e m b e re d s a d l y t h e b i k i n i -c l a d w o m e n o n t h e

b i l l b o a rd s a d v e r ti s in g m o v i e s, t h e g o v e rn m e n t p r o m o t i n g p re - Is l a m i c h i s t o ry ,

a n d a l o c a l m o s q u e i l l u m i n a t e d b y t h e n e o n l i g h t s o f a t a v e rn b i l l b o a rd .

B e h ro o z ' s fa th e r, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , k n e w l i tt l e a b o u t K h o m e i n i u n t i l o n e

year before th e revol ution. A ccord ing to Beh rooz, h is fa ther had eager ly fo l

l o w e d I ra n ' s N a t i o n a l F ro n t , a d e m o c ra t i c a n d n a t i o n a l i s t o p p o s i t i o n p a r t y

t h a t v e h e m e n t l y o p p o s e d t h e S h a h . H e s p o k e fo n d l y o f S h a h p o o r B a k h t i a r ,

t h e N a t i o n a l F ro n t l e a de r, w h o m h e h a d m e t o n c e a t a s e m i n a r i n T a b r iz .

Bakhtiar ca l led for a secular , democratic par l iament and massive curbs on the

p o w e r o f t h e S h a h . N o t h i n g i n h i s rh e t o r i c m e n t i o n e d t h e v e il i ng of w o m e n

o r s t r i d e n t a n t i -W e s t e rn i s m , t h o u g h h e e s p o u s e d p o p u l i s t a n d n a t i o n a l i s t

t h e m e s s im i l a r t o t h o s e of K h o m e i n i .

A f te r t h e re v o l u t i o n a n d t h e v i ct o ry o f t h e K h o m e i n i s t s , a n e x t re m e v e r

s ion of the va lues of the tradit iona l middle c lass , of Yadol lah 's family , became

the "offic ia l" va lues of the government, promoted aggress ive ly by a govern

m e n t w i t h a n u n w a v e r i n g r i g h t e o u s n e s s o f i ts c a u s e . A n a s s a u l t o n m o d e rn

m i d d l e -c l a s s v a l u e s e n s u e d . S e e m i n g l y h a rm l e s s a c t s , s u c h a s d a n c i n g , l i s t e n

i n g t o p o p m u s i c , a n d m e n a n d w o m e n h o l d i n g h a n d s i n p u b l i c , c a m e u n d e r

h a r s h s c ru t i n y . W o m e n ' s d re s s p ro v e d a k e y i s s u e o f t h e a s s a u l t . T h e m o d e m

m i d d l e c l a ss fo u n d t h e t h o u g h t o f fo rc e d v ei l in g a b h o rre n t . W h e n K h o m e i n i

m a n d a t e d t h e v e i l i n g o f I ra n i a n w o m e n o n e y e a r a f t e r t h e re v o l u t i o n , m a s s i v e

s t re e t p ro t e s t s e n s u e d i n T e h ra n , e s p e c i a l l y p e o p l e d b y m o d e rn m i d d l e -c l a s s

w o m e n a n d m e n .

In the end , K hom eini 's v iew prevai led publ ic ly , bu t private ly , m od ern m id

d l e -c l a s s w o m e n re s is t e d , w e a r i n g t h e l a t e st E u ro p e a n - c u t d re s s e s u n d e r

t h e i r v ei ls , d a n c i n g at c l o s e d -d o o r p a r t ie s a m o n g o t h e r m o d e rn m i d d l e -c l a s s

f r i e n d s . T h e m o d e rn m i d d l e -c l a s s w o m a n re s e n t e d t h e n e w s t ru c t u re s a n d a l l

t h a t it i m p l i e d . A s o n e w o m a n p u t it t o m e , " J u st b e c a u s e I d o n ' t w a n t t o

drape myse lf in a b lack chador,

those people

a s s u m e t h a t I a m s o m e h o w

i m m o ra l T h a t i s s o d e e pl y i n s u l t i n g " B u t s h e a n d m o s t of I ra n ' s m o d e rn

205



P E R S I A N P U f K L M A p E S

up pe r m iddle c lass learn ed to l ive dua l l ives . P ubl ic ly , they confo rm ed to th e

new orthodox ways. Private ly , behind c losed doors , they sa t in their chairs and

l is tened to their music and drank their whiskey and cursed these tradit iona l

m e n w h o c h a n g e d t h e i r l iv es . T h e y h a d n o c h o i c e : T h e g o v e rn m e n t b e l o n g e d

to men more comfortab le s i t t ing on the f loor than in chairs .

B e h ro o z ' s fat h er fo u n d t h e p o s t re v o l u t i o n i n t o l e rab l e . " W e h a v e k n o w n

s o m e t h i n g d i f fe re n t , " h e t o l d m e l a t e r w h e n 1 m et h im . "We h ave l ived in freer

days social ly. It is difficult for us to accept the current ways, to go backward.

I t 's not jus t the socia l conservatism that they have imposed on us . But people^

of my c lass a lso had a dream of democracy and socia l progress . I t seems that

the c lergy are not the r ight people to lead us in socia l progress ." Yadol lah 's

fa ther, on the other hand, approved of the new order of th ings but gradua l ly

grew dis i l lus ioned as the economy s lowed and corruption increased. "St i l l , "

he to ld me. "female vei l ing was an important vic tory for the revolution."

The sons of these two men have forged a c lose bond. They s tudy together

every nigh t . O n Fridays , the ir day off, th ey som etim es go hik ing in near by

h il l s. T h e y w a t c h E u r o p e a n s o c c e r g a m e s b r o a d c a s t f ro m G e r m a n y T h e y

eager ly read the la tes t newspapers and discuss pol i t ica l events in Tehran. Both

s u p p o r t P re s i d en t K h a t a m i a n d re fo rm , b u t B e h ro o z ' s p a t ie n c e h a s w o rn '

th in . "If K hata m i can ' t d o it , he s ho ul d s tep as ide ," Beh rooz says these days .

O ccasiona l l y they vis it each oth er 's ho m es, Beh rooz s i t t ing o n th e f loor in

Yadol lah 's house and Yadol lah us ing a chair in Behrooz 's . Their fr iendship

stren gth ene d on tha t chaotic day in Jun e, w he n Yadol lah saved Be hro oz from

the chains of an angry thug.

The Case of Ahm ad Batebi

A

hmad Batebi , a s tr iking young man with long, f lowing b lack hair , a

chise led jaw, pierc ing eyes , and a c lose ly cropped b lack beard, is per

h a p s I ra n ' s m o s t fa m o u s t s t u d e n t p ro t e s t o r . B e h ro o z a n d Y a d o l l a h

both spoke of him fondly. During the Tehran s tudent protes ts Batebi carried

w ith him th e b lo odied sh ir t of a s tu de nt w ho had been b eaten a few days

before . In a moving and daring act , he ra ised the b loodied shir t above his

h e a d a n d m a rc h e d w i t h t h e p ro t e s t e rs . In t h a t h e a d y m o m e n t o f re b e l l i o n , h e

lo oke d l ike a yo un g Ch e G uevara— wavy b lack hair flowing aro un d a green

ba nd an na — an d symbolized the anger and frustra tion of s tu de nt protes ters . A

206



T A B R I Z

R e u t e rs p h o t o g ra p h e r s n a p p e d h i s p h o t o . T h e n e x t d ay B a t e b i' s fac e a n d t h e

bloodied shir t graced the front pages of every major newspaper in the world .

H e w a s d o o m e d .

I inquired about Batebi 's prison condit ions and pending tr ia l from the

s o r t of p e o p l e w h o m i g h t k n o w t h e s e t h i n g s . R u m o rs c i rc u l a t e d t h a t h e w a s

in solitary conf inem ent. I had hea rd ta les of severe beating s. T he re w as ta lk of

a death sentenc e. M y sources , however, were t ight- l ipp ed. Fina l ly , I cam e

across a po l i t ica l ly act ive s tudent who knew something about Batebi 's case . He

handed me a le t ter . " I t ' s a l l there ," he sa id , " the whole sad s tory."

I t was a chi l l ing le t ter from Batebi addres sed to Ir an 's judic iary. In i t, he

presented some of the deta i ls of h is incarcerat ion, which inc luded beatings

and dea th threats . I t wa s covertly dis tr ibuted from ha nd to han d on th e

Tehran Univers i ty campus, where I got a copy.

T he le t ter begins: "O n t he f irs t day of my arres t by p l a in c loth es securi ty

offic ia ls, I was br ou gh t ins ide th e univers i ty w he re they confiscated a l l my

d o c u m e n t s a n d p o s s e s s i o n s . W h i l e t a u n t i n g m e w i t h i n s u l t s , t h e y b e a t m e i n

m y t e s ti c l e s, m y l e g s, a n d a b d o m i n a l a re a . W h e n I p ro t e s t e d , t h e y a n s w e re d

that th is is the land of the 'Velayat ' and that I should be b l inded and not l ive

here."

H e w a s t h e n t a k e n t o p r i s o n . T h e re , h e w ri te s , " T h e s o l d i e rs b o u n d m y

h a n d s a n d s e c u re d t h e m t o p l u m b i n g p i p es . T h e y b ea t m y h e a d a n d a b d o m i n a l

area with soldier 's shoes. They insisted I s ign a confession of the accusations

m ade against me. N ext , they threw me on t he f loor, s tood on m y neck and cut

off not only a l l of my hair, but a lso parts of my scalp, causing it to bleed. They

beat me so severe ly with their heavy shoes that I los t consciousness ."

A f t e r o u t l i n i n g m o re h u m i l i a t i o n s a n d b e a t i n g s , h e d e s c r i b e s a h a rro w i n g

b a t h r o o m s c e n e : " I s ai d I n e e d e d t o h a v e t h e [b a t h ro o m ] d o o r c l o s e d , b u t

t h e y re fu s e d . N o t w a n t i n g t o e x p o s e m y b o d il y fu n c t i o n s t o o t h e rs , I t o l d

t h e m I n o l o n g e r w a n t e d t o g o t o t h e b a t h ro o m . T h e y i n s i s t e d I m u s t g o a n d

t h e d o o r m u s t b e o p e n . T h e n t h e y b e g a n l a s h i n g a t m e . I re s is t ed a n d

p u n c h e d o n e o f t h e m i n t h e fac e . A t t h i s p o i n t , t h e y t o o k m e a n d d u c k e d m y

head into a c losed drain fu l l of excrement. They he ld me under for so long, I

w a s u n a b l e t o h o l d m y b re a t h a n y l o n g e r , a n d e x c re m e n t w a s i n h a l e d t h ro u g h

m y n o s e a n d s e e p e d i n t o m y m o u t h ,

"During the investigations, they threatened several t imes to execute me and

to torture an d rape my family m em bers as wel l as imprison th em for lon g term s/ '

207



P

E H 5 I A N P i l f R l M A p E S

A t one po int , in a part icu lar l y crue l ac t of psychologica l t ortu re , h is in te r

rogators wrapped a noose around his neck whi le he sa t in a chair for two

h o u rs . E v e n t u a l l y h e b ro k e d o w n a n d s i g n e d a c o n fe s s i o n , A t r i a l e n s u e d . T h e

ju dg e bran ded his cou rag eou s lawyers "spies." Batebi was given the d eat h

sente nce. T h e charges against h im w ere "creatin g s treet unr es t " and " agita t

ing peopl e to create unre s t ." L ater, after an outcry from Ira nians and int ern a

t i o n a l h u m a n r i g h t s g r o u p s , t h e d e a t h s e n t e n c e w a s c o m m u t e d t o a

fif teen-year prison term.

Because of his high profi le from the photograph, Batebi had entered the

internationa l media and foreign act ivis t radar, an exc lus ive c lub with impor

tan t privileges for T hi rd W orl d pol itical activists . S hor tly after th e jai l ing, th ere

were protes ts from human rights groups, the world 's news agencies f i led dis

patches , pet i t ions were s igned on the Internet , and foreign governments

"expressed a larm." W he n h e was p laced in so l i tary confine m ent, th e news r ip

p l e d o u t t h ro u g h t h e n e w s a g e n c i e s , c a u s i n g m o re i n t e rn a t i o n a l p ro t e s t .

A u t h o r i ta r i a n g o v e r n m e n t s re g u l a rl y di s m i s s t h e w o r k o f h u m a n r i g h ts

g ro u p s a s b i a se d a n d p o l i ti ca l l y in s p i re d . T h o u g h h u m a n r i g h t s o rg a n i z a t i o n s

are not without fau l t and their researchers are not without bias , people l ike

B a t e b i a n d t h o u s a n d s o f o t h e r p r i s o n e rs o f c o n s c i e n c e a ro u n d t h e w o r l d a re

certa in ly p leased to be on their watch l is ts .

D u ri n g t h e u p ro a r o v e r t h e t r i a l I m e t a s t u d e n t , H a m i d , w h o h a d b e e n

brief ly deta ined after the s tudent protes ts . He had been, by his own admis

s ion, a bi t p layer in the demonstra t ions , mere ly joining the crowd for a bi t of

fun and to le t off s team . H e to ld m e: "W he n I wa s in ja i l , I wished that I were

a w e l l -k n o w n f i gu re a n d t h a t A m n e s t y In t e rn a t i o n a l k n e w w h e re I w a s . I fel t

s o a l o n e . W h e n G a nj i o r S h a m s [ I r an i an j o u r n a l i s t M a s h a l l a h S h a m s o l v a ez i n]

goes to ja i l , the whole world knows about i t , I could have died, and only my

family an d friends w oul d m o u rn m e. T hi s ma de m e sad. If I were to die , I

w ant ed to have so m e impac t . A t least I w oul d n ot have died in vain,"

H am id , twen ty years o ld , he was ta lking a bo ut dying for a cause . Jus t on e

generat ion ago there was a lso ta lk among pol i t ica l ly act ive young men and

w o m e n o f d y i n g fo r a c a u s e . T h o u g h t s o f re v o l u t i o n g r i p p e d t h e y o u n g a n d

ideal istic of th e 19 70s, T h e guerri l la cu l tur e of sacrifice for a cause was "in."

A s t h e l i t e ra ry h i s t o r i a n K a m ra n T al a to ff w ri te s , " D e a t h b e c a m e a t h e m e t h a t

m o d e rn c o m m i t t e d w ri t e rs p ra i s e d . D e a t h fo r o n e ' s p r i n c i p l e s w a s a c c e p t e d

w i t h o u t h e s i ta t i o n , " T h e I ra n i a n i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d M a rx i st w r i t e r S a m a d

20*



T E K R A M

B e h ra n g i e n c a p s u l a t e d t h e m o o d i n a h i g h l y p o l i t i c a l " c h i l d re n ' s b o o k " t i t l e d

The L ittle Black Fish. Behrangi describes the effort by a l i t t le black fish to break

away from his group, to explore the world , to move fear less ly away from tra

d i t i o n . I t w a s w i de l y se e n a s a n a l l e g ory fo r m o d e rn t i m e s . M o s t I ra n i a n i n t e l

lec tua ls , Behrangi inc luded, opposed to the Shah and agita t ing for change,

were eager to swim, l ike the l i t t le black fish, away from the status quo. It was

important to swim against the current , even if i t meant death, because the act

of sw im m ing ag ainst th e t ide , th e act of defiance, w oul d have an im pact o n

socie ty. In Behran gi 's boo k, the l i t tle b la ck f ish says: "O f cou rse , if som eda y I

s h o u l d b e fo rc e d t o fa ce d e a t h — a n d I s h a l l — i t d o e s n ' t m a t t e r. W h a t d o e s

matter is the inf luence my l i fe or death wi l l have on the l ives of others ."

T a l at off n o t e s t h a t " t h i s s e n t e n c e b e c a m e t h e a x i om fo r a w h o l e g e n e ra t i o n

t h a t w e n t o u t t o m e e t d e a t h — fi rs t i n s m a l l g ro u p s a n d l a t e r i n m a s s e s d u r i n g

t h e c o u rs e o f t h e 1 9 7 9 R e v o l u t i o n . " T h e i d e a o f s e c u l a r m a r t y rd o m c o i n c i d e d

w i t h t h e re l i g i o u s m a r t y r d o m t h a t p l a y s a c r it ic a l ro l e i n t h e S h i ' a M u s l i m

faith. A s Talatoff no tes, "b ot h secu la r leftists a nd re lig ious activists died in

t h e i r f i g h t s w i t h w h a t w a s a c o m m o n e n e m y . "

Ironica l ly , the author of

The Little Black Fish

died whi l e sw im m ing in a r iver.

He drowned. I ranian writers of the day depicted the death as a murder by

agents of the Shah 's secret po l ice , though i t has not been proved to be so. The

m os t pr om in en t inte l l ec tua l of the 1 960s, th e writer and essayis t Ja la l

A l -e -A h m a d , w ro t e a p a n e g y r ic a l e s sa y o n B e h ra n g i . H e t o o k B e h ra n g i ' s l i fe

and made i t a paragon of the committed writer dying for a cause . Behrangi

b e c a m e a h e ro a m o n g y o u n g w ri t e rs . H i s e x a m p l e o f l ife a n d d e a t h w a s s e e n

a s a m o d e l t o b e e m u l a t e d .

W he n H am id ta lked about dying for a cause , I rem em bere d S ama d Behrangi

and a l l the you ng Iranians w ho "died for a cause" in the 1970s. W h o rem em bers

them today? Did their deaths t ru ly have the kind of impact they wanted?

Iran's Fight for a Constitution, 1906-11

I

r a n ' s e a r l y - t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y C o n s t i t u t i o n a l m o v e m e n t g a i n e d g r o u n d i n

Tehran as a resu l t of the twin evi ls of a badly managed autocracy and effi

c i en t l y ru n fo re i gn d o m i n a t i o n . O n t h e s e t w o p o i n t s , a l l s i de s g e n e ra l l y

agreed, inc l udi ng the secular l ibera ls , th e reformist c lergy, th e mo re ort ho do x

2 0 9



P E R S I A N P I L p R I M A p E S

c lergy, and th e conservative bazaar m erch ant s . S t il l , wh i le the m ov em en t

agreed on what it did

not

wa nt, it d iffered on w hat u l t imate l y i t d id w ant. S an

d ra M a c ke y , t h e a u t h o r of The Iranians, sums i t up nice ly: "For the secular

i n t e l l e c t u a l s , [ t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R e v o l u t i o n ] t ra n s l a t e d i n t o t h e a d o p t i o n o f

s o m e fo rm o f W e s t e rn l i b e ra l i s m . F o r t h e m e rc h a n t s , it e q u a l e d e c o n o m i c

redress . For the reformist c lerics , i t converted into s trength for the Shia s ta te .

For the tradit iona l is t mul lahs and their fo l lowers , i t s tood for rees tab l ishing

th e K oran as th e lega l , po l i t ica l , socia l , and cu l tura l m od el for socie ty."

The l ibera l wing of the Consti tut iona l is ts won an ini t ia l v ic tory in la te

1906, w h e n a d y i n g S h a h s i g n e d t h e p a p e rs a l l o w i n g fo r t h e P a r l i a m e n t a n d a

w ri t t e n c o n s t i t u t i o n . T h i s c o n s t i t u t i o n re p l i c a t e d , fo r t h e m o s t p a r t , t h e B e l

gian Consti tut ion of 1831 with foreign words s imply inserted into the Fars i

text . A s a resu l t , many of I ran 's conservative c lerics, w ho origina l ly favored the

c o n s t i t u t i o n , o p p o s e d t h e f in a l d o c u m e n t . T h e y d e m a n d e d o v e rs i g h t o f t h e

P a r l i a m e n t t o m a k e s u re l a w s c o n fo rm e d w i t h I s l a m ,

S h e i k h F a z l o l l a h N o u r i , w h o l e d t h e co n s e rva t iv e o n s l a u g h t a g a in s t t h e

c o n s t i t u t i o n , c o n t i n u e d a d ru m b e a t of c r it i ci s m . T h e c o n s t i t u t i o n w o u l d

bring a l l sorts of vice to Iran, he proc la imed. I t would tear a t socie ty and ruin

th e m ora l s of th e na tion , he cried. He work ed feverish ly against i t. A s a resu l t

of N ou ri 's per s is tent a t tacks , the l iberal win g inserted lan guage in the con sti

tut ion that would a l low a committee of f ive c lerics to oversee a l l legis la t ion.

N o u r i w a s m o m e n t a r i l y a p p e a s e d , b u t t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t s i g n o re d t h e

c l a u s e , e n s u r i n g t h a t N o u r i ' s a t ta c k s w o u l d b e g i n a g a i n ,

N o u r i fo u n d a n a l ly i n t h e n e w S h a h , w h o a d a m a n t l y o p p o s e d t h e C o n

s t i tu t i o n a l i s t s a n d a re p re s e n t a t iv e p a r l i a m e n t . H e o n c e s a id : " I h a v e n o t h i n g

against the Par l iament, as long as they do not in terfere in pol i t ics and matters

o f s t a t e ." H e s c h e m e d c o n s t a n t l y t o c ru s h t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r i a n s a n d t h e i d e a s

associa ted with them. To that end, he a l l ied himse lf with conservative c lerics

l ike N ou ri as wel l as with R ussia, Tsaris t R ussia had recent ly defeated a gro up

o f p e s k y C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t s o f i t s o w n . T o e n s u re t h a t t h i s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n

t a g i o n d i d n o t s p re a d t o I ra n , R u s s ia j o i n e d w i t h t h e S h a h a n d c o n s e rv a t iv e

c lerics to defeat the movement.

Bri ta in , a t f irst , fou nd the anti- R ussia n s tra in in th e ear ly co nsti tu t ion a l

m o v e m e n t u s e fu l a n d o r i g i n a l l y s u p p o r t e d t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t s , H o w e v e r ,

w he n Britain an d R ussia effectively partiti on ed I ran into respective sphe res of

i n f l u e n c e , i n 1 9 0 7 , B r i t a i n ' s s u p p o r t w a n e d . T h e d o o r o p e n e d fo r R u s s i a n

210



T A B R I Z

t ro o p s t o b o m b a rd t h e P a r l i a m e n t . In J u n e 1 9 0 S , l e s s t h a n t w o y e a rs a f t e r t h e

c o n s t i t u t i o n h a d b e c o m e l a w a n d I r a n i a n P a r l i a m e n t m e m b e r s h a d d e b a t e d

t h e i s s u e s o f t h e d a y f ro m t h e " H o u s e o f J u s t i c e " i n T e h ra n , R u s s i a n a n d I r a n

ian roya l is t so ldiers a t tacked the Par l iament bui lding in Tehran and vio lent ly

e v ic te d it s m e m b e rs . T e h ra n i n t e l l e c t u a l s a n d w ri t e rs w h o s u p p o r t e d t h e c o n

s t i t u t i o n m e t a s im i l a r fa te . T h e d re a m o f re p re s e n ta t i v e g o v e rn m e n t v a n i s h e d

fo r t h e t i m e b e i n g , m o m e n t a r i l y c ru s h e d .

The act ion moved to Tabriz , a c i ty that s tood on a crossroads of sorts in

t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y . T h e va s t O t t o m a n E m p i r e t o I r a n ' s w e s t p r e

v e n t e d a fl u id t ra n s m i s s i o n o f E u ro p e a n i d e a s t o I ra n . I ra n i a n s t u d e n t s w h o

t ra v e l ed t o E u ro p e u s u al l y u s e d a n o r t h e rn ro u t e t o T a b r iz , t h e n w e n t o n t o

B a k u a n d M o s c o w , w h e re t h e y b o a rd e d a l o n g t ra i n t o P a r is . E u ro p e a n i de a s

trave led a long a s imilar route back to Iran, often f i l tered through Transcau-

c a s i a n i n t e l l e c t u a l s t o t h e n o r t h d o w n t o T a b r i z a n d t h e n t o T e h ra n a n d e l s e

wh ere . Tabriz beca m e the transi t po int for som e of the m ost progress ive ideas

of the ear ly twentie th century, the most powerfu l of which were the ru le of

l aw , re p re s e n t a t iv e g o v e rn m e n t , a n d a w ri t t e n c o n s t i t u t i o n . A s N i k k i e K e d d i e

n o t e s ,

" [T ] h e p ro fu n d i t y a n d ra d i c a l i s m o f t h e I ra n i a n [C o n s t i t u ti o n a l ] R e v o

l u t i o n i n t h e N o r t h c a n l a rge l y b e a t tr i b u t e d t o c o n t a c t s a n d i n f l u e n c e f ro m

t h e v ery re v o l u t i o n a ry R u s s i a n T ra n s c a u c a s u s . "

M a n y o f I ra n ' s l e a d i n g in t e l l e c t u a l s a n d e v e n s o m e l i b e ra l c l e ri cs h a d

c o m e t o b e l i e v e i n t h e a l m o s t m a g i c a l p o w e rs o f t h e w ri t t e n c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d

e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e ru l e o f l aw . T h e s e t w o p ro g re s s iv e i n s t i t u t i o n s w o u l d

s o l v e h u n d re d s o f y e a rs o f I ra n i a n p ro b l e m s , t h e y b e l i e v e d , i n c l u d i n g u n l i m

ited roya l autocracy, draconian landowners , an increasingly corrupt c lerica l

c lass, and w ide dispari t ies in wea l th . T he 1905 vic tory of Japa n, an A sian

n a t i o n w i t h a w ri t t e n c o n s t i t u t i o n , o v e r R u s s ia , a n im p e r i a l i s t E u ro p e a n

p o w e r , o n l y c o n f i rm e d w h a t m a n y I ra n i a n i n t e l l e c t u a l s b e l i e ve d : A w ri t t e n

c o n s t i t u t i o n w o u l d p ro d u c e a p ro s p e ro u s I ra n g o v e rn e d b y j u s t ru l e a n d f ree

dom from foreign exploita t ion.

In th e la te nin ete en th and early tw entie th ce nturies , Tabriz had smal l bu t

s ignificant pockets of in te l lec tua ls who formed debating and pol i t ica l ly act ive

socie t ies known as <mjuman% w h e re t h e y t a l k e d o f w ri t i n g a n I ra n i a n c o n s t i

tut ion. In the ear ly twentie th century, Tabriz emerged as a key inte l lec tua l

c e n t e r o f t h e l i b e ra l / se c u l a r w i n g o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R e v o l u t i o n , E . G .

Browne, Bri t ish Pers ianis t , described the Tabriz Pa l imentarians as a cut above

211



P E R 5 I A W P I L f i U M A f ES

th e rest , m or e progress ive and m ore ins is tent o n dem ocratic ru le . Te hran of

c o u rs e a l s o s t i r re d w i t h i t s o w n p ro c o n s t i t u t i o n

anjumans.

They a l l avid ly kept

up with Iran ian exile new spape rs in Baku, Tifl is, L on do n, and Ca lcu tta tha t

a g i - ta t e d fo r a c o n s t i t u t i o n a n d t h e ru l e of l a w , i n c l u d i n g M i rz a M a l k u m

K h a n 's L o n d o n - b a s e d n e w s p a pe r

Qanun.

Just as Te hra n 's P ar l iam ent lay ta t tered from R ussian bul le ts , Tabriz

fought back. For nine months after Tehran Consti tut iona l is ts had fa l len, the

city res is ted a massive bo m ba rd m en t by roya l is t t roo ps, a R ussian invasion,

a n d a n e c o n o m i c a n d a g r i c u l t u ra l b l o c k a d e t h a t l e f t t h o u s a n d s s t a rv i n g , i n

centra l downtown Tabriz there s tands a l iv ing reminder to the res is tance: the

Khaneh-ye Aiashrutiat

{Co nsti tut ion Ho us e), an e legant res idence with a s ton e

c o u r t y a rd , v a u l t e d a rc h e s , i n t r i c a t e m o l d i n g s , a n d h a rd w o o d f l o o rs . T h ro u g h

out the f ive years that Tabriz is agita ted for a consti tut ion, th is home of a

w e a l t h y m e r c h a n t o f te n w a s at t h e c e n t e r o f e v e n ts . C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t s re g u

lar ly gathered there to debate s tra tegies , nurse the wounded, and revive their

spirits . Tod ay a m us eu m r em ind s vis i tors of th e sacrif ices ma de du rin g t he

T a b r iz re s i s t a n c e . T h e m u s e u m h a s b e e n t o l e ra t e d b y b o t h S h a h s a n d t h e

Is lam ic R epubl ic for different rea son s: T h e S ha hs saw the Tabriz res is tanc e as

a repudiation of conservative c lerics, as it was, in part; the c lerics see it as a

re p u d i a t i o n o f k i n g s, a l s o t ru e . I vi si te d t h e m u s e u m w i t h B e h ro o z a n d Y a d o l

lah, I w ant ed to see ho w they viewed the events of 1908 in Tabriz . I wa nted to

see if they thought i t re levant to their s truggle today.

N e a r t h e e n t ra n c e t o t h e m u s e u m , a m a s s iv e b u s t of S a t t a r K h a n , t h e fol k

he ro of the Tabriz res is tance, greets vis i tors . S a t tar K han , a semil i tera te form er

bandit , som eho w emerged as the m ost brave and forcefu l advocate for the re in -

s t i tut ion of the consti tut ion. He did i t through sheer determination, great phys

ica l courage, and an unbending promotion of freedom and the ru le of law.

A s w e e n t e re d , B e h ro o z t o u c h e d t h e b u s t , ru n n i n g h i s f in g e rs a c ro ss t h e

s h a rp n o s e , d o w n t h e b u s h y m u s t a c h e a n d t h i n l o w e r l ip . I o p e n e d m y b a g

and pu l l ed out Janet A fary 's socia l ana lys is of I r an 's C ons ti tut io na l R evolu

t i o n . I fo u n d a q u o t e a t t r i b u t e d t o S a t t ar K h a n : " W h a t w e w a n t i s a n e n d t o

this regime of oppress ion: laws, freedom, a consti tut ion. This is the only way

to assure the sa lvation of the country. We are ready to die for th is . I have four

t h o u s a n d m e n u n d e r a rm s , a n d I c a n h a v e t e n t h o u s a n d i f I w a n t t o , a n d I c a n

h o l d o u t fo r t e n y e a rs . G o d is w i t h u s l T h e y s a y w e a re re b e l s . N o , w e d o n o t

212



TABRIZ

w a n t a n y h a rm t o c o m e t o t h e S h a h . B u t h e s h o u l d g i ve u s w h a t w e w a n t O r

we wil l proc la im a republ ic "

I m a d e a ro u g h t ra n s l a t i o n o n t h e s p o t fo r B e h ro o z a n d Y a d o l l a h .

"Sounds a lo t l ike the things we are asking for now," Behrooz sa id . Yadol

lah nodded in agreement, and Behrooz added: "The difference is that we do

n o t h a v e a n y a rm e d m e n t h e w a y S a t t ar K h a n d i d . "

W e m o v e d u p s t a i rs , o u r s h o e s c l i c k in g o n t h e h a rd w o o d s t ai rs. W e w a l k e d

a m o n g t h e m u s e u m d i sp l a y c a se s . W e l o o k e d a r b l a c k -a n d -w h i t e p h o t o s o f

Tabriz consti tut iona l revolutionaries , inc luding a photo of severa l hanging

from t he ga l lows, ki l led by R ussian so ldiers in 191 2, w he n R ussian tro op s

i n v ad e d I ra n 's n o r t h a n d e x t e rm i n a t e d a l l re m a i n i n g C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t s y m p a

thizers . We saw the p en case and eyeglasses of on e of th os e revol utionaries ,

S ighat-o l Is lam, severa l of whose descendants now enjoy successfu l l ives in

th e U nited S ta tes . W e a lso saw a forty-year-o ld le t ter from Ir an 's P ar l iam ent

p o s t h u m o u s l y t h a n k i n g S a t t ar K h a n a n d t h e p e o p l e o f A z e rb a ij a n for t h e i r

e ffor ts . O n t h e w a l l , a p a i n t i n g of S a t t a r K h a n ' s ra g g ed b a n d o f C o n s t i t u t i o n

a l is ts depict them with wide mustaches , long coats , and r if les s lung on their

s h o u l d e rs .

A f te r b e s i e g i n g T e h r a n ' s P a r l i a m e n t i n J u n e 1 9 0 8 , r o y a l is t f o r ce s

d e s c e n d e d o n T a b ri z , w h e re S a t t ar K h a n a n d B a g h e r K h a n , a l e s se r fol k h e ro

with a s imilar background to Sat tar 's , had taken contro l of key sectors of the

city in defiance of the roya l is t countercoup. Roya l is t forces , working in con

junction with conservative c lerics and hired thugs, eas i ly overran most of

Tabriz , except for a few dis tr ic ts w here S at tar K han and Bagher K ha n s t il l

r e m a i n e d e n t r e n c h e d . M e m b e r s o f t h e T a b ri z

anjumans

fo u n d t h e m s e l v e s t a r

g e te d b y a n g ry a n d w e l l -p a i d m o b s . T h e S h a h s o d e s ire d t o c ru s h t h e T a b r i z

opposit ion that he freed a notorious bandit from ja i l with orders to ra l ly a

band of crimina ls in to an army and ki l l a l l res is ters . The bandit , known as

R a him K h an (Khan, in a l l three las t names, roughly trans la tes as "s ir" or "mis

ter") , began a fr ightening campaign of rape and robbery in Tabriz that cowed

m a n y re s i d e n t s . T h e R u s s ia n c o n s u l , w h o h a d s u p p o r t e d h a rd - l i n e I s l a m i c

g ro u p s t h a t o p p o s e d t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n , u rg e d a l l re s i d e n t s w h o w i s h e d t o b e

spared to ra ise white f lags on their houses .

T h e s i t u a t i o n l o o k e d g r i m . F e w re s i d e n t s s a w m u c h h o p e i n re s i s t a n c e

a n y m o re . T h e n , su d d e n l y , In o n e o f t h o s e ra re m o m e n t s t h a t c o m b i n e g ra n d

213



P E R S I A N P l L f f U M A C E S

pol i t ica l defiance with gran d gesture , S at tar K han rod e th ro ug h the s treets of

Tabriz , dramatica l ly removing the white f lags of surrender from the people 's

hou ses . H un dr ed s of Tabriz is , excited by S at tar K han 's mov e, offered to join

his army of res is ters on the spot , and a vigorous recruit ing campaign began.

N ext, Sa t tar K han did wha t few Ir anian pol i t ic ians had ever been ab l e to do:

H e res is ted a bribe from a foreign embassy. T h e R ussian co nsul offered hi m

m o re m o n e y t h a n h e c o u l d e v e r i m a g i n e , b u t h e s t a u n c h l y re fu s e d . T h e

Tabriz res is tance had begun.

"You know , I rea l ly admire S at tar K han ," Beh rooz sa id . "H e was a m an of

action. We nee d m ore m en l ike him . We ne ed peo pl e l ike him today, peopl e

who are wi l l ing to back up their ta lk with act ion."

Y a d o l l a h , n o d d i n g i n a g re e m e n t , s a i d , " W h e n w e w e re o u t t h e re d e m o n

stra t ing during the protes ts , I got the sense that so many of us were wait ing to

be guided. We were wait ing for a leader. W e wante d som eo ne to take charge."

S o m e o n e l ik e S a t ta r K h a n ?

"Yes, w h y n o t ? " B e h ro o z s a id . " I k n o w h e w a s n o t a n in t e l l e c t u a l , " h e

added apologetica l ly , "but our inte l lec tua ls are a lways too busy debating each

o t h e r . W h i l e t h e d e b a t e g o e s o n , t h e s t ro n g m e n s t e p i n . "

I l o o k e d a t Y a d o l l a h . H e n o d d e d , B e h ro o z c o n t i n u e d , " S a t t a r K h a n a l s o

k n e w s o m e t h i n g t h a t t h e p r e r e v o i u t i o n i n t e l l e c t u a l s l i k e S h a r i a t i a n d

A l -e -A h m a d d i d n o t k n o w . H e k n e w t h a t n o m u l l a h w il l e v er s u p p o r t f re e

d o m . " T h o u g h S h a r ia t i a n d A l - e - A h m a d w e r e d e e pl y su s p i c i o u s of I r a n 's

c lerics , a t leas t Beh rooz jud ge d S attar K han 's v iew on I ran 's c lerical c lass co r

rec tl y . S a t t a r K h a n , i n a l l h i s p ro n o u n c e m e n t s , ref l ec te d t h e g e n e ra l v ie w o f

Tabriz inte l l ec tua ls of the day— that is, that I ran 's c lerics we re back w ard-

t h i n k i n g a n d re a c ti o n a ry. T h e y w e re m e m b e rs o f t h e w e a l t h y el i te w h o o w n e d

large swaths of land. Iran's conservative c lerics in conjunction with the wealthy

lan dow ners , k ings , and foreign emb assies conspired against the com m on m an.

For that reason, they fe l t , I ran 's c lerics despised the consti tut ion. Though sev

era l pr om in en t c lerics , in fact, supp ort ed t he c on sti tu t ion in Te hran , few fel t

the sam e way in Tabriz . In th e ear ly days of the C ons ti tut io na l R evol ution in

1906,

Tabriz

anjumans

forced severa l leading anti-Consti tut iona l is t Tabriz

c lerics ou t of th e city. In respon se, th e R ussians he l ped c on stru ct an

a n t i -C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t I s l a m i c anjuman to rep lace those turned out of Tabriz .

" M y fa t h er t h i n k s t h a t m u l l a h s w il l al w a y s b e e n e m i e s o f f ree d o m a n d

214



d e m o c ra c y / B e h ro o z s a id . " I a g re e w i t h h i m . E v e n M r . K h a t a m i i s j u s t

a n o t h e r m u l l a h / '

I k n e w B e h ro o z ' s c o m m e n t w o u l d re s u l t i n a c l e n c h e d - t e e t h d e b a t e w i t h

Yadol l ah. I t d id . Yadol lah loo ked paine d. H e sa id: "Yes, the re are c lerics w ho

are opposed to freedom and democracy. But we must not forget that there are

oth ers wh o thi nk differently . L et us a lso no t forget that ther e are m any c l er

ics in ja i l beca use of the ir prod em ocr acy be l iefs ." I no dd ed . H e wa s r igh t .

After spending a few days with these young men, I had become famil iar

with the routine. Behrooz would dismiss c lerics as "al l corrupt" or Is lam as

"anti ireedom," and Yadol lah wo ul d seek to mo derate his s ta tements . "N ot a l l

clerics are bad," Yadollah w oul d say, or "T he religion m ust be interpreted property."

For young men l ike Yadol lah, who grew up in t radit iona l ly re l igious

h o m e s , I ra n ' s I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c c re a t e d a p re d i c a m e n t . A t h o m e t h e y l e a rn e d

t h e b as ic v i rt u e s o f h o n e s t y a n d p i et y t h a t c o n s t i t u t e t h e M u s l i m fa it h . T h e y

learned to pray and revere the twelve imams of the Shi 'a fa i th . They went on

pi lgrimages to Shi 'a shrines , where they gave a lms to the poor and prayed for

the hea l th of their famil ies . Yet many of Yadol lah 's univers i ty fr iends and

peers large ly dis trus ted the very people who guarded their fa i th , the c lerics .

F o r Y a d o l l a h , t h e s e t w o p o l e s t u g g e d a t h i m . I t re s u l t e d i n a n a l m o s t p e rp e t

ua l ly defensive s tance. "Rea l Is lam is different from the conservative interpre

ta t ion," Yadol lah sa id regular ly . "N ot a l l c lerics are bad," he wo ul d re tort .

"K hatam i is a c leric , and h e be l ieves in dem ocra cy/ '

N orm al l y , nei the r boy seem ed to take offense in the se frequent due ls over

re l igion, though they came up with regulari ty when we discussed the issues

of the day. T hi s t ime, however, I notice d sha rp g l ares o n bo th s ides . A n icy

si lence ensued as we walked amid the g lass disp lay cases . I decided to leave

th em a lo ne. I to ld t he m I need ed som e fresh a ir . In front of m e, I fel t , their

y o u n g m e n ' s p r i d e w o u l d p re v e n t t h e m fro m s a y i n g t h e t h i n g s t h a t n e e d e d t o

be sa id to m en d fences . I le ft , havin g agreed to m eet th em ha lf an ho u r l a ter .

An Am erican Constitutionalist in Tabriz

ater we met up again in th e cou rtyar d of the ho use . Th ey had re t urn ed

t o g o o d s p ir i ts . A p p a re n t l y t h e y h a d m a d e p e a c e . W e s a t d o w n t o g e t h e r

on one of the s teps of the house.

215



P E K 5 1 A W

P l l f M M A p E S

Y a d o l l a h s p o k e : " M y g ra n d fa t h e r o f t e n t o l d m e s t o r i e s a b o u t t h e C o n s t i

t u t i o n a l R e v o l u t i o n . I t h i n k h e w a s o n l y a b a b y d u r i n g t h e T a b r iz re s i st a n c e ,

but he often described in great deta i l how he fought for the consti tut ion

against the R ussians . He a lso hated the B ri t ish." Yadol l ah laug hed. S o did

Beh rooz an d I . W e a l l knew the type: th e elder ly Iran ian m an , nat iona l is t ic ,

proconsti tut ion, anti-Bri t ish, and prone to great feats of exaggerat ion.

" D o t h e A m e r i c a n s k n o w m u c h a b o u t t h e C o n s t i t u t io n a l R e v o l u t i o n ? "

Behrooz asked.

" N o t re a l l y / ' I s a id .

T h e y l o o k e d d i s a p p o i n t e d . I a s s u re d t h e m , h o w e v e r, t h a t A m e ri c a n s c h o l

a rs h a v e d o n e s o m e v e ry g o o d w o rk o n t h e s u b j e c t .

" H a s K a s ra v i' s b o o k b e e n t ra n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h ? " B e h ro o z a s k e d .

A hm ad K asravi , the sha rp cri tic of I ran 's c lerica l c lass and a favori te so n of

Tabriz , wrote what s t i l l s tands in Iran as the most popular his tory of the

m o v e m e n t , d e s p i t e a t t e m p t s i n t h e e a r l y y e a rs o f t h e I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c t o d i s

credit h im . K asravi's h is tory heap ed praise on th e Tabriz revol utionaries and

the secular Consti tut iona l is ts who be l ieved in socia l democratic ideas , the

sorts of ideas emanating from Transcaucasia in the north . He dea l t harsh ly

with the c lerica l Consti tut iona l is ts , who he be l ieved were se l f- interes ted a t

best and an tidem ocra tic and reac tionary a t wo rs t . N eed le ss to say, th e Is lam ic

R e p u b l i c d o e s n o t c a re m u c h for K a s ra v i' s b o o k s , p re fe rri n g o t h e r h i s t o r ie s

t h a t a d v o c a t e t h e i m p o rt a n t ro l e I ra n ' s c l e r i c s p l a y e d i n t h e m o v e m e n t .

"T he b ook has no t been fu l ly trans l a ted," I to ld th em , "bu t it is quo ted

often in E ngl ish his tories ." I to ld th em of E , G , Browne, th e great Brit ish P er-

s ianis t w ho h ad writ ten a r ivet ing his tory of the Co nsti tu t iona l R evol ution.

B o t h o f t h e m n o d d e d ; t h e y h a d h e a rd o f B ro w n e .

I a s k ed t h e m if t h e y h a d h e a rd o f H o w a rd B a sk e rv il l e , t h e A m e ri c a n m i s

s ionary who had fought, and died, with the Tabriz revolutionaries .

Vaguely, they sa id , " Is he a pop ul ar f igure in A m eric a?" Yadol l ah asked.

Hardly .

Yadol lah asked me to te l l them the s tory. I gave them a brief summary of

th e events , Baskervi l le , a gradua te of P rinc eto n Univers ity , was an ideal is t, th e

k i n d o f y o u n g m a n w h o w a n t e d t o h a v e a n i m p a c t o n t h e w o r l d , h e l p p e o p l e ,

see land s far away. A t th e age of tw enty -th ree h e decided to go to Iran t o w ork

a s a n E n g l i s h t e a c h e r i n o n e o f t h e m a n y A m e ri c a n re l i g io u s m i s s i o n s i n t h e

c o u n t ry at t h e t i m e . H e t a u g h t E n g l i s h a n d m a t h e m a t i c s a t t h e A m e ri c a n

21$



T A & 1 U Z

P re s b y t e r ia n s c h o o l i n T a b r iz d u r i n g t h e d a y s of t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R e v o l u

t i o n . H e w a s s o m o v e d b y t h e T a b r iz re si s t a n c e a n d t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R e v o

lu t ion that he joi ne d th e revolu tionaries . Th erefore , he had to sacrif ice his

teaching posit ion. He be l ieved fervent ly in the r ight of I ranians to have a con

s t i tut io n and an e lected par l iam ent. His friend th e Brit ish jou rna l i s t M , A .

M o o re j o i n e d h i m , a n d b o t h b e c a m e a c ti v e a d v o c a te s fo r t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l

cause. Th ey prove d to be skil led leaders and w ere given a con ting ent of so l

diers to lead in batt le against R ussian an d roya l is t forces. In on e of th e las t

s tan ds before Tabriz fe l l to R ussian so ldiers , Baskervil le w as ki l led.

B e h ro o z a n d Y a d o l l a h s e e m e d i m p re s s e d , a s k i n g s e v e ra l fo l l o w -u p q u e s

t i o n s :

H o w d i d h e d i e? D i d t h e A m e ri c a n n e w s p a p e rs w ri te a b o u t i t ? D i d h e

have family?

In m y ru c k s a c k I c a rr ie d w i t h m e t h e A p r i l 2 2 , 1 9 0 9 , a rt ic l e i n t h e L o n d o n

Times

by M ,

A -

M o o re t h a t d e s c r i b e d B a s ke rv il l e 's d e a t h . I re a d a l o u d f ro m t h e

new spap er art ic le in E ngl ish, t rans l a t ing (I fear badly) as I w ent a lon g:

J

must now chronicle the gallant death of Mr. Baskerville, an Am erican, lately

master of the mission school Some retrospect is necessary. On M arch 31st, by

curious coincidence, he left the fence of neutrality and decided to throw in his lot

with the starving town, thereby sacrificing his appointment in the American

school . . . Baskerville was given charge of 150 men a nd myself 35 0. . . . We

reached the rendezvous at eleven and had to wait for the men. We only began to

move at 4:30 A M Baskerville led 150 men to the right. By the time he arrived

within range of the enemy, the number had dwindled to 9. With these he gal

lantly began the attack at 5:30

r

but was shot by a bullet through the heart when

leading on. He died almost immediately.

I a l s o s h o w e d t h e m a c o p y o f a l e t t e r w ri t t e n b y t h e w i fe o f t h e h e a d m a s

ter of the m iss ionary sch ool to Baskervil le 's parents . I had found the le t ter on

the Internet , on a s i te ca l led I r a n i a n . c o m , a popular s i te for I ranian expatria tes

and, increasingly, for I ranians l iv ing in the country. In the le t ter , the woman

described her conversat ion with Baskervi l le before his death. She to ld him

t h a t h i s a c t i o n s w o u l d h a v e c o n s e q u e n c e s , t h a t h e n o l o n g e r b e l o n g e d o n l y t o

himself. To that , Baskervi l le rep l ied: " I know. I am Pers ia 's now."

B e h ro o z s h o o k h i s h e a d . " I t is a s h a m e t h a t m o re A m e ri c a n s d o n o t k n o w

of him," he said.

317

http://iranian.com/

http://iranian.com/



P E R S I A N

F

1L £ R L M A p E S

" I t i s a s h a m e t h a t m o re I ra n i a n s d o n o t k n o w o f h i m " Y a d o l l a h l a u g h e d .

Baskervil le l ies buried in a simple tomb in a Tabriz cemetery. It is largely

ignored, except for a mysterious admirer who regular ly p laces ye l low roses on

th e large m arbl e s ton e that says s imply: "H ow ard Baskervil le : Bo rn A pri l 10,

1885.

D i e d A p ri l 1 9 , 1 9 0 9 . "

I t o l d t h e m o f a s e m i h i s t o r i c a l f i c ti o n re n d e r i n g o f B a s k e rv il l e i n A m i n

M a l o u f s b oo k Samarkand. I c a r ri e d M a l o u f s b o o k w i t h m e e v er y w h e r e in

T a b r i z . I t p ro v i d e d a d ra m a t i c re n d e r i n g , a l b e i t f i c t i o n a l , o f t h e T a b r i z

re s i s t a n c e , a n d i t c a m e i n h a n d y a s I re c o u n t e d t h e s t o ry o f B a s k e rv i l l e . I

p u l l e d o u t t h e b o o k a n d f l i p p e d t h r o u g h t h e p a g e s l o o k i n g f o r t h e

B a s k e r v i l l e p o r t i o n s . I t o l d B e h r o o z a n d Y a d o l l a h t h a t Malouf, a

F r e n c h - L e b a n e s e w r it er , h a d w o n n u m e r o u s a w a r d s f or t h i s n o v e l . T h e y

l o o k e d i m p r e s s e d .

"This nove l was se t in Tabriz?" Behrooz asked.

Part of it, I said.

"I must read this nove l ," Behrooz sa id .

I p u l l e d o u t m y w o r n c o p y of t h e n o v e l . I t u r n e d t o a p a g e o n w h i c h

B a s k er v il l e d e s c r i b e s h i s r e a c t i o n t o a m o u r n i n g c e r e m o n y f or I m a m H o s

s e i n . B a sk e rv il l e s p e a k s t o a n A m e ri c a n v i s i t o r in T a b r i z . I t c re a t e s a n

e v o c a t i v e i m a g e o f a n A m e ri c a n m i s s i o n a ry w h o c a re s d e e p l y a b o u t t h e

p e o p l e h e h a s c o m e t o s e rv e . I m a d e a ro u g h t ra n s l a t i o n a s I re ad

B a s k e rv i l l e ' s w o rd s :

I [Baskerville} had m ingled w ith the crowd and groans were being emitted all

around me. W atching those devastated faces, bathed in tears, and gazing at those

haggard, worried, entreating

eyes,

the whole misery of Persia appeared to me—

they were tattered souls besieged by never-ending mourning. Without realizing it,

my tears started

to

flow. Someone in the crowd

noticed,

they looked at me and

were

moved.

. *.

When they saw me crying, when they saw that I had thrown off

the

sover

eign indifference of a foreigner, they cam e to tell me confidentially that crying serves

no purpose and that

Persia

does not need any extra mourners and that the best I

could

do would be to provide the children of Tabriz with an adequate education.. . .

[However,] if[ had not cried, they would never have come to talk to me. If they had

not

seen

me crying, they w ould never have let me tell the pupils that this Shah was

rotten and that the religious chiefs of Tabriz were hardly any better.

318



T A & M Z

I

c losed th e bo ok. I feared that I had s tum bl ed w ith a few w ord s in the t ra ns

l a t i o n .

I

certa in ly did n ot offer th e sam e poetry of langua ge. S t i l l , I coul d see

t h a t t h e y o u n g m e n w e re i n t e re s t e d a n d p e rh a p s e v e n m o v e d .

" G o o n , " B e h ro o z sa i d , " re a d s o m e m o re . "

1

t u r n e d t o a s e c t i o n w h e re t h e A m e ri c a n n a rra t o r l a m e n t s B a s ke rvi l l e 's

d e a t h . T h e p a s s a g e h a d m o v e d m e , a n d I h o p e d i t w o u l d d o t h e s a m e fo r m y

a u d i e n c e . Y a d o l l a h l o o k e d o v e r m y s h o u l d e r a s I a g a in t ra n s l a t e d . T h e n a r ra

t o r w ri t e s : " O f a l l t h o s e w h o d i e d d u r i n g t h e m o n t h s o f h a rd s h i p , w h y h a v e I

s ingled out Baskervil le? Because he was my friend and com patriot? M ost pr ob

ably But a lso because his on ly ambit ion was to see l iberty and democracy tr i

u m p h in th e rebirth of th e O rien t , w hich for a il that was foreign to h im . Had

he given his l i fe for nothing? In ten, twenty or a hundred years would the

W e s t re m e m b e r h i s e x a m p l e , o r w o u l d P e rs i a re m e m b e r h i s a c t i o n ? I c h o s e

not to think about i t les t I fa l l in to the inescapable melancholy of those who

l o v e b e t w e e n t w o w o r l d s w h i c h a re e q u a l l y p ro m i s i n g a n d d i s a p p o i n t i n g , "

I fea re d t h a t m y t ra n s l a t i o n s w e re i n a d e q u a t e . I w a n t e d B e h ro o z a n d

Yadollah to feel the emotion in the l ines,

"T ha nk A l l ah/ ' Yadol lah sa id , " tha t M r. Baskervil le was real ly a great

m a n . " B e h ro o z , n o d d i n g , a d d e d : " I w i sh a l l A m e ri c a n s w e re l ik e t h a t . " W e

s t o o d u p t o h e a d o u r s e p a ra t e w a y s , b i d d i n g o n e a n o t h e r g o o d -b y e w i t h

e m b ra c e s a n d p ro m i s e s t o s t a y i n t o u c h .

The Strangling of Persia : A Constitutional Ending

F

or m an y Tabriz is , th e R ussian troo ps th at s torm ed th e cou ntr y after

Baskervi l le 's death may actua l ly have been a relief, In the f ina l months of

the roya l is t s iege, th e R ussians ha d shu t off a l l food supp l ie s heade d for

Tabriz from so uth a nd no rt h . S om e res idents had to eat grass . T h e tsar 's me n,

at leas t , brought with them order and a chunk of bread and a bowl of soup,

far mo re im po rta nt for the average Tabriz th an a cons ti tut io n.

Tabriz Constitutionalists , for their part, f led from their besieged city and

h e a d e d t o w a rd T e h ra n , w h e re C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t s h a d fa l l e n n i n e m o n t h s e a r

l i e r T h e y j o i n e d u p w i t h p ro c o n s t i t u t i o n B a k h t ia r i t r i b e s m e n f ro m I ra n ' s

s o u t h . T h e s u d d e n ru s h o f C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t s f ro m t h e n o r t h a n d s o u t h re v i

t a l i z e d T e h ra n ' s

anjumam,

which increased their proconsti tut ion act ivi ty .

M e a n w h il e , in Najaf, Iraq, home to Shi 'a Is lam's grand authori t ies , three of

219



P E R S IA N P I L f K I M A p E S

the most revered scholars offered re l igious sanction to the consti tut ion. Jus t

three months after Tabriz 's fa l l , momentum again shif ted toward the Consti

t u t i o n a l i s t s i n T e h ra n . W i t h i n a m o n t h t h e y t o o k c o n t ro l o f k e y s e c t o rs o f

T e h r a n . T h e f r ig h t en e d S h a h , M o h a m m a d A l l , t o o k r ef ug e i n t h e R u s si a n

E m b a s s y . I t w a s a d e fa c t o a b d i c a t i o n . T h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t s d e p o s e d t h e

S ha h in favor of his twelve-year-o ld s on , an un ct uo us an d fr ightened boy

w h o w a n t e d n o t h i n g o f t h e j o b .

A t t h i s t i m e , S h e i k h F a z l o l ia h N o u r i , t h e a n t i -C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t c l e ri c

i n s t ru m e n t a l i n t h e e a r l y b o m b a rd m e n t o f t h e P a r l i a m e n t , u n d e rw e n t t r i a l a s

a t ra i t o r F o u n d g u i l t y , h e s w u n g f ro m t h e g a l l o w s a t t h e h a n d s o f a C o n s t i t u

t i o n a l i s t h a n g m a n o n J u l y 3 1 , 1 9 0 9 , a n e v e n t c o m m e m o r a t e d o n t h e T e h r a n

b i l l b o a rd .

A las, even after N ou ri 's execu tion and the re imp osit ion of the P ar l iam ent,

Iran s t i l l had a long way to go before representat ive government could reach

a l ev el of m a t u r i t y t h a t w o u l d re s e m b l e a d e m o c ra t i c s o ci et y. T h e l a n d e d g e n

try pack ed th e new par l iam ent. L i teracy ra tes were be low 10 perc ent . S evera l

fo rm e r l y p ro -C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t c l e r i c s t u rn e d o n t h e P a r l i a m e n t . B a k h t i a r i

t r i b e s m e n f ro m I ra n ' s s o u t h w h o s u p p o r t e d t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t re s i s t a n c e

for persona l reasons had l i t t le use for Consti tut iona l is t princip les after the

victory. T h e average i l l i tera te Iranian did no t und ers tan d th e consti tu t ion . H e

m a y h a v e s u p p o r t e d i t b e c a u s e h e t h o u g h t it w o u l d p u t m o re b re ad o n t h e

tab le . Ins tead i t brought c ivi l war, chaos , and shortages .

Bri ta in and Russia cooked up ways to end the Iranian consti tut iona l

experiment, Bri ta in had come to rea l ize that one king came to hee l more eas

i ly than e ighty par l iamentarians with their own opinions and agendas . In to

t h i s u n c e r t a i n e n v i ro n m e n t a n o t h e r A m e ri c a n e n te re d t h e I ra n i a n p o l i t ic a l

s c e n e a n d l eft h is m a r k o n t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R e v o l u t io n : W M o r g a n S i n i s

t er , a N e w Y o rk b a n k e r w h o m t h e I ra n i a n P a r l i a m e n t re t a i n e d t o re o rd e r

Ir an 's f inances . He pro ved to be , l ike th e you ng Baskervi l le , an idea l is t w ho

bel ieved in the cause of I ranian independence and se l f-representat ive govern

m e n t . H e h a d re a d B ro w n e ' s d ra m a t i c a n d s y m p a t h e t i c a c c o u n t o f t h e C o n

s t i tut iona l R evolu tion and arrived in Teh ran in M ay 1911 suffused w ith

romantic vis ions of I ran 's yearnings for freedom,

S h u s t e r ' s p o l i t i c s d i d n o t re c o m m e n d h i m k i n d l y t o th e B r it is h a n d R u s s

ian legations . E ar ly on h e rankl ed th e Brit ish and R ussians with his refusa l to

p lay by their ru les . In an act of great symbolic importance to Iran 's Par l ia-

220



T A B R I Z

ment, he shunned the two embassies , refusing to pay a courtesy ca l l on e i ther

a m b a s s a d o r . A s d a y s a n d w e e k s a n d m o n t h s p a s s e d w i t h n o c o u r t e s y c a l l s ,

ta lk in Iranian pol i t ica l c irc les excited ly swir led aro un d th e A m erican ba nk er

w ho feared no t the Bri t ish and R ussian leg ations .

A s S h u s t e r w r o t e i n h i s m o v i n g m e m o i r ,

The Strangling of Persia,

" T h e

Iranian people were surprised to see a farangi (foreigner) who does not take

o rd e rs f ro m fo re i g n l e g a t i o n s / ' H e c a m e t o t h e s a m e c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t

Baskervi l le had before him: Iran 's k ings and reactionary c lerics bris t led a t any

ma jor reform s of th e pol i t ica l sys tem. A s lo ng as impe ria l Bri ta in and R ussia

s i d e d w i t h t h e " re a c t i o n a ry a g e n t s h o s t i l e t o a n y i m p ro v e m e n t , " I ra n w o u l d

remain mired in i ts backward s ta te .

S huster , for his part , had a jo b to do, and he was d eterm ined to d o i t with

effic iency Ch arge d with co l lec t ing taxes from I ran 's w ea l thy e l i te , he soo n

rea l ized that the e l i te viewed s ta te taxes as a burden to be shouldered only by

p e a s a n t s a n d w o rk i n g m e n . H e a l s o l e a rn e d t h a t I ra n i a n p o l i t i c i a n s , i n c l u d i n g

leading Consti tut iona l is ts , not on ly refused to pay taxes but had an unfortu

n a t e t e n d e n c y t o d i p t h e i r h a n d s i n t o p u b l i c fu n d s , a d i s e a s e t h a t c o n t i n u e s

u n a b a t e d t o d a y . " U n fo r t u n a t e l y fo r P e rs i a , " S h u s t e r w ro t e , " t h e p a t r i o t i s m

w h i c h i m p e l l e d n u m b e rs o f h e r b ra v e n a t i o n a l i s t s t o f i g h t t o d e p o s e t h e

ex- S ha h , . . d id no t suffice to prevent th e lo oting of th e publ ic t reasury,"

S hu ste r pu rsu ed the tax evaders with th e effic iency of a dri l lm aster. T h e

d e m o c ra t s i n P a r l i a m e n t s u p p o r t e d h i m fu l l y , t h o u g h t h e c l e r i c s a n d w e a l t h y

l a n d o w n e rs g re w w a ry o f S h u s t e r ' s z e a l . H e o rg a n i z e d a t a x g e n d a rm e ri e t o

a d d m u s c l e t o h i s d e m a n d s . In e v it ab l y , h e fac ed c o n fro n t a t i o n w i t h t h e R u s

s i a n s w h e n h e s o u g h t t o c o n f is c a te t h e p ro p e r t y o f a R u s s i a n -b a c k e d I ra n i a n

Q a j a r p r i n c e w h o re fu s ed t o p ay h i s t a xe s a n d w h o s u p p o r t e d R u s s i a n p o l i

cies,

i n c l u d i n g t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n .

M oscow, in re ta l ia t ion for S hu ster 's affront to i ts prince ly a lly, dem an de d

t h a t I ra n ' s p a r l i a m e n t d i s m i s s S h u s t e r . B r i ta i n re fus e d t o d e fe n d t h e A m e ri

c a n , e m b o l d e n i n g R u s s ia fu rt h er . A c r i si s e n s u e d . R u s s i a n s o l d i e rs p o u re d

i n t o I ra n ' s n o r t h e rn re g i o n a n d m a s s a c re d T a b ri zi C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t s . A m o n g

t h o s e k il l ed w a s M o h a m m a d I b r a h i m Q a fq a z ch i , a T a b ri z m e r c h a n t w h o

fo u g h t u n d e r t h e c o m m a n d o f H o w a rd B a sk e rv il l e . R u s s ia offe re d t h e P a r l i a

m e n t a n u l t i m a t u m : D i s m i s s S h u s t e r a n d g u a ra n t e e t h a t n o fo re i g n a d v i s e r

w o u l d b e h i re d i n t h e fu t ure w i t h o u t t h e c o n s e n t o f t h e B r i ti sh a n d R u s s i a n

legations , or I ran would be occupied by force . To add insu l t to this in jurious

221



P E R S I A N P I L p I U M A f E S

u l t i m a t u m , R u s si a d e m a n d e d t h a t I r a n ' s g o v e r n m e n t p a y R u s si a 1 5 0 ,0 0 0

rubles in re turn for the cost of i ts invasion of I ran.

I ra n ' s c o w e d c a b i n e t a c c e p t e d t h e R u s s i a n u l t i m a t u m a n d u rg e d t h e P a r

l i a m e n t t o d o t h e s a m e . I t re fu s e d . T h e R u s s i a n s b o m b a rd e d t h e P a r l i a m e n t

a g a i n , a n d S h u s t e r w a s fo rc e d o u t o f t h e c o u n t ry . T h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l m o v e

ment never reovered from this b low.

The Parliament of the Islamic R epublic of Iran

V

pon my re tu rn to Tehran, I v is ited the P ar l iament of the Is lamic R epu b

lic of Iran with a veteran reporter, M ehr dad S erjooie. H e had tol d m e to

meet him in the publ ic wait ing room. There I sa t among sun-baked

laborers , chador-c lad e lderly w om en, and you ng, bearded youths . M ost in th e

crowd w ere petitioners, w ho l ined u p to ask their local representatives for help in

finding jobs, low -cost housin g, better heal th insur anc e plans, or a myriad of othe r

small an d big favors. I had seen this a l l over the M iddle E ast, hud dl ed ma sses

anxiously l ining up to see important men for that important signature that would

solve so many problems.

1

to ok a seat on the f loor next to a middl e-aged m an

with gnar led brown hands and gray hair on his knuckles . He repeatedly rubbed

his hands together and wrung them nervous ly l ike an expectant ra ther in the

waiting room. He asked me the time on three separate occasions,

M e h r d a d a rr iv ed a t o u r a p p o i n t e d h o u r a n d s t r o d e t h r o u g h t h e c r o w d . H e

d i re c t e d m e t o a g l a ss w i n d o w w h e re I w a s a n n o u n c e d a s h i s g u e s t . A p h o n e

c al l w a s m a d e , a n d I e n d e d u p w i t h a p a s s t o e n t e r t h e h a l l . A w o m a n i n a

b lack chador, with one eye showing and a bi t of the c loth in her tee th,

a p p ro a c h e d m e a s I w a l k e d t o w a rd t h e e n t ra n c e . S h e h a n d e d m e a n e n v e l o p e .

"M y son , p lease give this le t ter to M r. S hirazi. P lease , my son." A s sh e p leaded,

a sm a l l c ro w d p u s h e d t o w a rd m e . T h e y w a n t e d t h e s a m e o p p o r t u n i t y a s t h e

w o m a n . " P l e a s e g i v e t h i s l e t t e r t o s o -a n d -s o , " a n o t h e r w o m a n s c re a m e d ,

h a n d i n g m e a n o t e . A c re s c e n d o o f l e t t e rs c a m e ra i n i n g d o w n o n m e a s

M e h r d a d h u r r i e d m e t h r o u g h t h e d o o r . I h e a rd t h e o l d w o m a n ' s v oi c e a g ai n

o u t s i d e t h e d o o r : " P l e a s e , m y s o n P l e a s e "

I asked M eh rd ad if he knew a M r. S hirazi. H e took the le t ter , saying he

w oul d d o his best to f ind th e m an. 1 imag ined he w ou ld . H e was l ike that .

O n c e i n s i d e , w e w a l k e d t h ro u g h s e cu r it y . I w a s to l d t h a t m y c a m e ra a n d t a p e

222



T E H R A N

re c o rd e r a n d b a g a l l w o u l d h a v e t o re m a i n b e h i n d . I w a s a l l o w e d o n l y a p e n

a n d a p a d . W e s t ro l l e d i n t o t h e P a r l i a m e n t g ro u n d s , c o n c re t e w a l k w a y s

shaded by ta l l brown trees and grass , the high wal ls shading us from the din

o n t h e o u t s i d e . M e h rd a d w a l k e d t h ro u g h t h e h a i l s of P a r l i a m e n t , i n t ro d u c i n g

m e a r o u n d , " M e e t m y f ri en d M r . M o l a v i, " h e to l d P a r l i a m e n t m e m b e r s . " H e

writes for the Washington Post" H e t o l d m e t h a t h e h a d p u l l e d s o m e s t r i n g s t o

get me in. "After a l l , today is a c losed session; the budget wil l be discussed."

A P a r l ia m e n t m e m b e r w i t h an o r a n g e -b r o w n b e a r d a p p r o a c h e d M e h r d a d .

H e t o o k h i m a s id e a n d w h i s p e re d s o m e t h i n g i n h i s e ar . I a s s u m e d t h a t h e

r e l a te d a n i m p o r t a n t l e ak t o M e h r d a d , w h o c o n s i st e n t l y s c o o p e d t h e c o m p e

t i t i o n . T h e d e p u t y w a l k e d aw a y, a n d M e h r d a d l a u g h e d .

" Yo u k n o w w h a t h e j u s t a s ke d m e ? " M e h r d a d s ai d. " H e w a n t e d t o k n o w

if I could get h im a copy of the movie

Titanic

He said his kids are constant ly

b o t h e r i n g h i m a b o u t i t "

M e h rd a d k n e w t h e P a r l i a m e n t b e a t w e l l , a n d h e o b vi o u sl y re l i s h e d h i s

j o b , b a c k s l a p p i n g M P s j u s t b e fo re t h ru s t i n g h i s t a p e re c o rd e r i n th e i r fac es for

spot in terviews. His dogged and t i re less pursuit of the news took no short

cuts . I often looked to him for ana lys is a lso because he adhered less overt ly to

a n id e o l o g i c a l s t re a m of t h o u g h t t h a n o t h e r re p o r t e rs . A s I q u e s t i o n e d h i m

about the current ideologica l leanings of the Par l iament, he cut me off:

" A fsh in , l o o k I t ' s N o u rb a k s h , t h e C e n t ra l B a n k g o v e rn o r L e t 's g ra b h i m "

R e l u c ta n tl y , I r a n b e h i n d M e h r d a d , w h o r an afte r M o h s e n N o u r b a k s h , I

w a s l e s s i n t e re s t e d i n t h e d a y - t o -d a y b u d g e t m i n u t i a e a n d m o re i n t e re s t e d i n

gett ing a fee l for the P ar l iam ent. Breath less , we reach ed the Cen tra l Bank go v

e rn o r. " M r . N o u r b a k s h , " M e h r d a d s a id , " M y f rie nd M r . M o l a vi f ro m t h e

Washington

Post w oul d l ike to ask you a qu est io n."

B e fo re I c o u l d s t a m m e r o u t m y q u e s t i o n , M r . N o u r b a k s h h a d o n e of h is

o w n : " W h a t i s t h e

Washington Post

d o i n g h e re i n a c l o s e d -d o o r s e s s i o n ? "

M eh rd ad sm iled. H e knew he had pul le d off an impress ive feat to get m e into

P ar l iam ent on this day and the Cen tra l Ban k governo r had ju s t aff irmed i t .

T h r o u g h o u t t h e d a y I p u m p e d M e h r d a d f or in f o r m a t i o n , a n d h e r u s h e d

a r o u n d , i n t r o d u c i n g m e t o P a r l i a m e n t m e m b e r s . O n e M P , a c o n se r va t iv e w h o

ra n fo r t h e p re s id e n c y i n 2 0 0 1 , H a s s a n G h a ffu ri F a rd, c o m p l a i n e d t o m e t h a t

his appl icat ion to a t tend a nationa l e lec tr ica l engineers ' conference in the

U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s d e n i e d b e c a u s e o f v i s a p ro b l e m s . " I a m a n e n g i n e e r b y p ro -

223



P E R S I A N P L L p l U M A C E S

fess ion," he sa id . " I s imply want to a t tend a conference. They should not deny

m e a v is a." A n o t h e r M P a p p r o a c h e d M e h r d a d , co m p l a i n i n g : "A l l y o u

re p o r t e rs d o i s c h a s e s c a n d a l a n d c o n f l i c t . W h a t a b o u t t h e g o o d t h i n g s w e d o

fo r o u r d is t r ic t s ? W h y d o n ' t y o u w ri te a b o u t t h e m ? " T h e 2 0 0 0 p a r l i a m e n t a ry

e l e c t i o n s w e re j u s t a ro u n d t h e c o rn e r . A fem a l e M P , w e a r i n g t h e c h a d o r ,

a p p r o a c h e d M e h r d a d a n d re m i n d e d h i m o f t h e i r s c h e d u l e d i n te rvi ew . L a t e i n

the day, in a quie t moment in the courtyard, as the sun grayed, I watched

M e h r d a d i n t e rvi e w a re form i s t m e m b e r of P a r l i a m e n t ,

"We want more freedom of the press ," the reformist sa id , "we want to give

m or e r ights to the peopl e . T he se de m ocr atic ideas are the wave of the future ,

and w e m u st n o t be left beh ind . W e sha l l fight. W e sha l l do ou r part in P ar

l i a m e n t , b u t t h e r e a re m a n y o b s t a c l e s ." A s I l i s t en e d t o t h e d e p u t y , I h a rk e n e d

b a c k t o I ra n ' s C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R e v o l u t i o n a n d t h e P a h l a v i e ra t h a t fol l o w e d i t.

The Consti tut iona l is t defeat s tymied the democratic hopes of some of that

era 's leading inte l lec tua ls . S t i l l , the prodemocracy aspect of the movement (as

opposed to the antiking or anti-foreign power aspect) was an e l i te one led by

inte l lec tua ls and l ibera l c lerics . I t was not unti l much la ter , s tart ing in the

1 9 5 0 s , t h a t t h e i d e a s o f d e m o c ra c y s p re a d a m o n g m i d d l e -c l a s s I ra n i a n s . E v e n

t h e n , t h e i r d e m o c ra t i c w i s h e s w e re o f t e n c o n fu s e d w i t h a n a n t i -k i n g a n d

a n t i - fo re i g n p o w e r s e n t i m e n t ( t h e k i n g s b e i n g t h e P a h l a v i S h a h s a n d t h e fo r

e i g n p o w e rs b e i n g t h e B r i t is h a n d A m e ri c a n s ) .

The defeat of the Consti tut iona l is ts in 1911 led to a chaotic period unti l

t h e v i r tu a l t a k e o v e r of t h e c o u n t ry i n 1 9 2 1 b y R e za K h a n , w h o c ro w n e d h i m

self k ing in 1 925. T h e era of the P ahlavi kings (1921-7 9) dea l t heavy b low s to

t h e d e m o c ra t i c h o p e s o f I ra n i a n s , t h o u g h i t c o n t r i b u t e d i m m e n s e l y t o t h e

m o d e rn i z a t i o n o f t h e I ra n i a n s t a t e , e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d t h e g ro w t h o f

the middle c lass—al l prerequis i tes for an effect ive democracy. The re la t ive ly

s u c ce s sfu l e c o n o m i c m o d e rn i z a t i o n o f t h e c o u n t r y c re a t e d a n e d u c a t e d m o d

ern middle c lass more receptive to the ideas of representat ive government.

N o l onger were dem ocra tic ideas th e bast ion of the e l i te.

M o d e r n m i d d l e -c l a s s s u p p o r t fo r t h e 1 9 7 9 re v o l u t i o n p ro v e d t o b e c ri t i

c a l t o i t s s u b s e q u e n t s u c c e s s . T h e h o p e - i n s p i r i n g re v o l u t i o n , t h e s o r t of

u p r i s i n g t h a t B a s k e rv i l l e a n d S h u s t e r w o u l d p ro b a b l y h a v e s u p p o r t e d , g a v e

w a y t o m o re d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t a s a g ro u p o f a n t i d e m o c ra t i c I s l a m i c c l e r i c s t o o k

over the state.

S e c u l a r I ra n i a n w ri t e rs o f t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s , m o s t o f w h o m s u p p o r t e d t h e

2 2 4



T E H R A N

re v o l u t i o n , l a m e n t e d t h e c o u rs e i t e v e n tu a l l y t o o k . A h m a d S h a m l u , a l e f ti st

poet and major f igure in Iranian le t ters who passed away in the year 2000,

wrote in the ear ly years fo l lowing the revolution that the king 's e l i te were s im

ply rep l aced by a c lerica l e l i te , th u s inf l ic ting a b low o n w orkin g peo pl e . In th e

ear ly tw entie th century, the l ibera l Cons ti tut ion a l is ts used I ran 's c lergy to

h e l p t h e m a c h ie v e t h e i r g o a l s, b u t w e re q u i c k t o d i sm i s s t h e m o n c e t h e P a r

l iament was achieved. In much the same way, secular , democratic , le f t is t , and

M a rx i st re v o l u t i o n a r i e s j o i n e d w i t h I ra n ' s c l erg y t o f ig h t t h e 1 9 7 9 re v o l u t i o n

a g a i n st t h e S h a h . O n l y t h i s t im e , t h e c l e rgy m a n a g e d t o p u s h e v e ry o n e el s e

a s i d e a n d c o n s o l i d a t e a n d h o l d o n t o p o w e r .

5

I h a d b e e n t ra v e l i n g a c ro s s I ra n a l m o s t c o n s t a n t l y fo r t w o m o n t h s , s e a rc h

i n g I ra n i a n h i s t o ry a n d t a l k i n g t o I ra n i a n s . S o m u c h o f t h e t a l k a n d w h a t I s aw

c e n t e re d o n " t h e re v o l u t i o n , " k n o w n s i m p l y a s enghelab in Pers ian. I t was t ime

for m e to visi t th e shr ine of A yato l lah K hom eini , the m ost forcefu l f igure of

Iran 's 1979 revolution.

^

Interestingly,

w o m e n p l ayed a key role i n b o t h th e C o n s t i t u t io n a l R e v o l u t i o n a n d the

1979 I r anian r e v o l u t i o n . A n d i n bo th cases, their needs w er e pushed as ide i n the afterglow

of

victory.

225



V I I

4-

My Tehran "The International Congress on the Elucidation of'the

Islamic

Revolution

and the Thoughts of Imam Khomeini" "A Jug of Love"

Mr Hashemi and the Pro-Khom eini "Oppressed" Reza Shah: Forgotten

Shrine,

Remembered

King The Khom eini Rise

**• Pilgrimage:

The Shrine of

Ayatollah K homeini

Cities; Tehran, Rey

My Tehran

1

i v e d i n a m o d e s t t w o - b e d r o o m a p a r t m e n t i n n o r t h - c e n t r a l T e h r a n w h e n

I w a s n o t t ra v e l i n g . T h e a p a r t m e n t w a s ol d a n d w o rn , w i t h t e a -s t a in e d

Pers ian carpets and ye l lowing wal ls , but there was p lenty of space and a

b a l c o n y o v e r l o o k i n g a p l e a s a n t g a rd e n . F ro m t h e ro o f

1

had a sp lendid view

of t h e b r o w n , s n o w - c a p p e d A l b o r z M o u n t a i n s . T h e h i g h e s t p e ak of t h e r a n g e,

M o u n t D e m a v a n d , ro s e m o re t h a n e i g h t e e n t h o u s a n d fe et i n t o t h e b l u e sk y,

a puff of w hite sn ow eterna l ly covering i ts top. M ou nt ai n views, in a sense ,

dic ta te Te hra n 's rea l es ta te va lues . T h e better t he view yo u hav e, the higher

the price you pay for the property . Farther north from where I l ived, in some

of Te hra n 's affluent sub ur bs , on c lear days, th e A lborz l ook l ike a pain ting

fram e d b y b l u e a ir . A s y o u m o v e i n t o S o u t h T e h ra n , w h e re t h e p o v e r t y o f re s

idents increases with the lower a l t i tude, there is l i t t le or no view of the moun

ta ins , obscured anyway by a haze of smoke,

fn be twee n trave ls , I a lways re turn ed to Tehran, to my apar tm ent on a quie t ,

leafy street, ju st a five-m inute w alk from the n oise and col or of

a

p o p u l a r s h o p

ping dis tr ic t . A fter the tragic destr uctio n of the W orl d Trad e C en ter in S ep

t e m b e r 2 0 0 1 , t h e s h o p p i n g a re a n e a r m y a p a rt m e n t , M a i d a n - e - M o h s e n i , a s it

is cal led, became the scene of candlelit vigils for the victims of the terrorist

assaul t . Th ose vigi ls were violent ly broken up by A nsar-e-Hezbol lah hard- l iners .

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T E H R A N

M y g ra n d fa t h e r u s e d t o l iv e i n t h e s a m e n e i g h b o rh o o d , b e fo re h e p a s s e d

away ten years ago. I bo ug ht my fruit a t a near by m arket from M r. P ou ron , a

wiry m an w ith dark eyes and a wide smil e , w ho kne w my grandfath er wel l .

" Y o u r g ra n d fa t h e r w a s a g re a t m a n / ' M r . P o u ro n a l w a ys sa i d. " L e t m e s h o w

y o u w h a t k i n d s o f o ra n g e s y o u r g ra n d fa t h e r l i k e d ." S o m e t i m e s M r . P o u ro n

s c o l d e d m e l i k e a s c h o o l b o y , " Y o u r g ra n d fa t h e r w o u l d h a v e c h o s e n b e t t e r

apples than that ," as he emptied my sack of carefu l ly chosen apples and

re p l a c e d t h e m w i t h h i s o w n b a t c h .

N e a r M r . P o u ro n ' s f ru it s t a n d w a s a c o rn e r m a rk e t ru n b y a fam i l y o f I ra n

ian Azeris from Tabriz , my bir thplace in the northwestern Iranian province of

A z e rb a i ja n . A t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r m a rk e t , m y b i r t h p l a c e a n d b a c k g ro u n d c o n

ferred u po n m e a specia l s ta tus as a nove l ty i tem, an Iranian from A merica

w ho c oul d say a few wo rds in A zeri and tel l s tories ab ou t sup erm ark ets in the

W est . A s a resu l t , the m arke t de l ivery boy, A bbas , was a lways put a t my d is

p o s al d u r i n g m y s h o p p i n g — w h e t h e r I w a n t e d h i m o r n o t . T h e r o u t i n e w e n t

l ike this : I saw a perfectab ly reachab le cheese . I th en po inted ou t the chee se

to A bbas . H e reache d over and pu t the chee se in m y sack. I sa id

chokh mam-

woofl, ."than k yo u" in A zeri, and th e delivery boy la ug he d at the I rani an from

A me rica speaking A zeri, with the proc ess repeated a l l over again for mi lk ,

eggs,

and other groceries .

D o w n t h e s tre e t from t h e A z e ri m a rk e t , a s m a l l h a m b u rg e r s h o p , B u rg e r

Zo gha l i , serves up f lame-broiled burg ers . O n T hu rsd ay evenings ( the Iranian

e q u i v a l e n t o f S a t u rd a y n i g h t ) , y o u n g T e h ra n i s g a t h e r a t Z o g h a l i t o se e a n d b e

seen: boys and gir ls s ipping sodas , munching on burgers and fr ies , and, per

h a p s ,

fu r t i v e l y e x c h a n g i n g p h o n e n u m b e rs u n d e r t h e t a b l e s .

A short walk from Burger Zoghal i , pas t the sweets sho p se l l ing cream-fil led

and chocola te pastr ies , the crowded bookstores , a f lower shop, c lothes s tores ,

and a taxi agency, I approached Sharia t i S treet , a broad avenue of shops and

new sstan ds a nd res tau rants am id a raging sea of cars , taxes, and buses , dar t

ing and s lashing l ike profess iona l race car drivers up and down the s treet . For

the uninit ia ted, driving in Tehran is a harrowing experience. I t is the u l t imate

example of survival of the fittest, a test of wil l and skil l in conditions more

c h a o t i c t h a n R o m e o r C a i ro . I ra n i a n d r iv e rs t h i n k n o t h i n g o f re v e rs in g o n

highways, driving the wrong way on one-way s treets , cutt ing off nearby driv

ers, and genera l ly breaking every driving ru le imaginable .

For the pedestr ian to survive, a s imilar a t t i tude is needed. Sharia t i S treet ,

211



P E R S I A N P L L £ R l M A p E 5

n a m e d a f t e r t h e 1 9 7 0 s re v o l u t i o n a ry i n t e l l e c t u a l w h o i n s p i re d D a v o u d a n d s o

m an y of his gener at ion , tes ted m y cross ing skil l s daily . T hr o ug h repeated

practice, I 've became adept at darting across the street in and out of traffic, as

if 1 were a f igure in a video game. O nce on the o the r s ide, 1 visited the Ca ra

van trave l agency, a te bo logna sandwiches with orange soda in a nearby cafe ,

or checked my e-mai l in one of the many Internet cafes a long the s treet .

In a s e n s e , S h a r i a t i S t re e t a n d m y leafy n e i g h b o rh o o d c o n s t i t u t e d m y o w n

li t t le Tehran. Despite the ervormousness of the c i ty ( thir teen mil l ion people) ,

m o s t re s i d e n t s h a v e t h e i r o w n l i t t l e T e h ra n s : c o l l e c t i o n s of n e i g h b o rs a n d

s h o p k e e p e rs a n d b re a d s e l l e rs a n d n e w s p a p e r v e n d o rs t h a t fo rm t h e b o n d s o f

c o m m u n i t y . T h e b o n d s a re t i g h t a n d s o m e t i m e s t ra n s g re s s t h e W e s t e rn ru l e s

o f " k e e p i n g t h e a p p ro p r i a t e d i s t a n c e " t h a t I w a s a c c u s t o m e d t o . F o r e x a m p l e ,

my f lower se l ler routine ly asked me deta i led quest ions about my sa lary; a

ne igh bo rh oo d taxi driver expressed con cer n ab ou t my sex l ife , w on der ing if I

need ed an y "female services"; th e loca l la und ry guy too k m e as ide once , after

handing me my c lothes , te l l ing me to s tay away from "that taxi driver," who

was "no good"; a loca l shopkeeper to ld me to s tay away from the laundry guy,

w ho charged to o m uc h; fighting back tears , a loca l key cutte r described to m e

his mari ta l woes in great deta i l and a lso to ld me to s tay away from that

"pimp" taxi driver; a loca l s treet sweeper s topped me to te l l me that I carried

my bag too noncha lant ly , an invita t ion to theft ; and f ina l ly , the newspaper

v e n d o r c a l m l y i n fo rm e d m e t h a t I w a s g e tt i n g fa t a n d s h o u l d c u t d o w n o n t h e

sweets he saw me regular ly buying.

T h o u g h i t was un sett l ing a t f irst , I grew to accept , and even l ike the fre

q u e n t a d v i c e , q u e s t i o n s , a n d c o m m e n t s f ro m m e m b e rs o f " m y T e h ra n . " I

l e a rn e d h o w t o b e a p p ro p r i a t e l y e v a s i v e o n u n c o m fo r t a b l e q u e s t i o n s a n d t o

s m i l e a n d o ffer t h a n k s w h e n u s e ful a d v i c e w a s d i s p e n s e d . S o m e h o w i t

soothed me to know that people were watching, even if i t was my weight . I t

a l s o t o l d m e t h a t

1

am n o l onge r the "Ira nian vis itor from A m erica" but a fu ll

m e m b e r o f t h e c o m m u n i t y , w h o t h e re fo re s h o u l d k n o w t h e p ro p e r w a y t o

c a rry h i s b a g a n d t h a t t h e l a u n d ry g u y c h a rg e d t o o m u c h .

Beyond the familiar confines of "my Tehran," the city is a massive, sprawl

ing urb an area rough ly the s ize of N ew York, with a N ew Y ork-sty le divers i ty

and energy. Tehran is loud, brash, and aggressive; it is a lso charming, gracious,

and sophis t icated. I t is fantas t ica l ly wea l thy and as tonishingly poor Every

w he re on e goes , the re are people , peop le walking and ta lking and argu ing an d

2 2 f t



T E H R A N

l a u g h i n g a n d s h o p p i n g a n d e a t i n g a n d re a d i n g a n d p i c n i c k i n g a n d , o f c o u rs e ,

te l l ing their compatriots how to eat or s i t or carry their bags proper ly . Then

t h e re a re c a rs , h o n k i n g a n d b e l c h i n g a n d s w e rv i n g a n d s p e e d i n g a n d d a r t i n g ,

Te hra n is a diverse and co lorfu l c ity. T he re are A rm enia n dis tric ts , Indian

ghertoes , Jewish neig hb orh oo ds. Th ere ar e parks for picnicking famil ies, for

art is ts , and even for dr ug addicts to cong egrate in . T he re are nea rby m ou nt ai n •

re treats , f ine m us eu m s, and wonde rfu l spots for evening walks . T he re is a

vibrant arts scene, decent In ternet connections , exce l lent res taurants , and f ine

c i n e m a s . T h e re is al s o a v i g o ro u s u n d e rw o r l d , of p ro s t i t u t e s a n d o p i u m

addicts and a lcohol boot leggers , a scene that one of the loca l taxi drivers

k n o w s a l l t o o w e l l -

T e h ra n ' s s p ra w l i s c o n n e c t e d b y w i d e h i g h w a y s t h a t l o o p a ro u n d t h e

major u rb an c ente rs in a com pl ex se t of overpasses an d exits . T h e c i ty 's

e x p l o s i v e p o p u l a t i o n g ro w t h b e g i n n i n g in the ear ly 1970s brought with i t

big-ci ty problems: choking traffic , crowded s lums, a ir po l lu t ion, crime. I t has

a lso spawned a diverse and ta lented popula t ion, a la rge force of ski l led and

u n s k i l l e d l a b o r , a n d a v i g o ro u s e n t re p e n e u r i a l s p i ri t. I t s e n o r m o u s e c o n o m i c

potentia l , however, has been considerably s t if led by the country 's poor eco

n o m i c m a n a g e m e n t . S t i l l , b u s i n e s s i s g o o d i n T e h ra n fo r t h e m e rc h a n t w i t h a

s t o re fro n t a n d g o o d s t o s el l . N o n t ra d i n g j o b s , h o w ev e r, a re s c a rce , a n d p u b l i c

s q u a re s a re p a c k e d w i t h u n e m p l o y e d , b o re d , a n d f ru s t ra t e d y o u n g m e n .

The c i ty is not conventiona l ly pre t ty . I ts architecture is a monotony of f la t ,

b o x l i k e b u i l d i n g s i n t e rs p e rs e d w i t h t h e o c c a s i o n a l c ru m b l i n g b u t e l e g a n t

fin-de-siecle Fr en ch stru ct ur e an d spo ts of glitzy hig h-r ises . S ti l l , in the m id

d l e o f t h e u rb a n s p ra w l , t h e re a re s p l e n d i d , w e l l - l i t p a rk s , w e l l p e o p l e d w i t h

picnicking famil ies and crowds of boys and gir ls f l i r t ing from across park

b e n c h e s , l o o k i n g o v e r t h e i r s h o u l d e rs fo r t h e ro v i n g b a n d s o f m o ra l s p o l i c e

that seek to prevent suc h "vice." T h o u g h th ere are few of th e great h is torica l

m o n u m e n t s f o u n d i n o t h e r M i d d l e E a s t e rn c a pi ta l s , t h e r e a re o l d h o u s e s o f

a s t o n i s h i n g b e a u t y i n t h e u n l i k e l i e s t ru n - d o w n n e i g h b o r h o o d s . W h i l e c it ie s

l ike Baghdad or Damascus have served as capita l c i t ies and major urban cen

ters for thousands of years , Tehran is a re la t ive ly new capita l , bare ly two hun

dred years o ld as the seat of government, so not many of the bui ldings evoke

his tory as they do in o lder I ranian c i t ies l ike Is fahan, Shiraz , and Tabriz .

T e h ra n s erv ed a s a b a se t h ro u g h o u t m y t ra v e l s . H e re I re t u rn e d t o c a t c h

up on th e la tes t po l i t ica l news, th e ups and do w ns of th e reformist m ov em ent ,

229



P E R S I A N P I L p E U M A f E S

th e la tes t po pu l ar fi lms. Her e I was emb raced warm ly by a large exten ded

fa m i l y o f a u n t s a n d c o u s i n s a n d u n c l e s w h o s e h o s p i t a l i t y , a n d d e l i c i o u s P e r

s ian coo king , refueled my energies for the ne xt t r ip , the n ext pi lgrimage. H ere

I visited with an eclectic group of friends and sources: a war veteran, a

Western-educated political analyst, a gray-bearded conservative c leric, a histo-

* na n, a street sweeper, a karaok e gr ou p ("Hotel California" was th e favorite West

ern song a t the gatherings), a hard- l ine s tudent leader, and an array of bazaar

m erc ha nts , go ver nm ent offic ia ls, s tud ent s , and midd le-c lass profess iona ls .

H e r e I a lso boo ked my p la ne t ickets , usua l l y a t the Carav an trave l agency

o n S h a r ia t i S t re e t, w i t h i ts b a n k s o f s m i l i n g y o u n g w o m e n i n b l u e h e a d

scarves, we aring foreign a ir l ine pins on th e loose-fi t ting m an tea us that cov

ered their body. S i t t ing down at the domestic f l ights desk, facing a young

woman with green eyes and wisps of brown hair f ighting against her head

scarf. I w o u l d t e l l h e r m y d e s t i n a t i o n . A s s h e p u n c h e d t h e c o m p u t e r k ey s, s h e

would ask me of my recent t rave ls .

"M r. M olavi ," she o nc e said , "forgive m e for being intrus ive , bu t I th in k

y o u s h o u l d b e ca re fu l h o w y o u h o l d y o u r b a g . T h e re a re m a n y t h ie v e s, a n d

y o u c a r r y i t t o o n o n c h a l a n t l y "

I smiled, thanked her, and put the bag s trap over my opposite shoulder,

sn ug against m y nec k and chest . "M uc h better ," she sa id .

The International Congress on the Elucidation of the

Islamic Revolution and the Thoughts of Imam Khom eini

T

he fax buzzed into my temporary Tehran office: "The Foreign Press Sec

t i o n o f t h e M i n i s t ry o f C u l t u re a n d Is l a m i c G u i d a n c e c o rd ia l l y i n v it es

y o u t o a t t e n d ' T h e In t e rn a t i o n a l C o n g re s s o n t h e E l u c i d a t i o n o f t h e

Is l a m i c R e v o l u t io n a n d t h e T h o u g h t s of Im a m K h o m e i n i / W h e n I a rr iv ed a t

the Tehran Internationa l Conference Center to a t tend the conference the fo l

lowing week, a burly, bearded guard with a walkie-ta lkie turned me away.

"I m possibl e," he said, "You are carrying th e w ro ng pass. You sh ou l d have

picked up the proper pass."

After a round of gent le p leading, he s tood f irm. "Impossib le ," he repeated.

" Y o u s h o u l d h a v e g o n e t o t h e m i n i s t ry a n d p i c k e d u p t h e a p p ro p r i a t e p a s s . "

H e lo oked away, spea king into his wal kie-ta lkie but posi t io ning himse l f in

front of the door, les t I m ake a darin g dash into the co nference ha l l .

230



T E H R A N

4_

H i s a b ru p t m a n n e r s u rp r i s e d m e . U s u a l l y , g a t e k e e p e rs a re n o r s o g ru ff

a n d d i re c t . T h e y u n d e rs t a n d a n u n w ri t t e n I ra n i a n ru l e : e v e ry t h in g is n e g o

t ia b l e , I ra n , l ik e m a n y M i d d l e E a s t e rn s o c ie t ie s , i s fo rm e d a r o u n d a c u l t u re i n

w h i c h h u m a n re l a t i o n s , c o n n e c t i o n s , a n d n e t w o rk s o f t e n t ru m p l a w s a n d

ru l e s . T h e s e c o n n e c t i o n s , k n o w n i n P e rs i a n a s

ashna

and in A rabic as

zvasta,

form an important part of dai ly l i fe . Even without an

ashna,

a c e r t a i n a m o u n t

of negotia t ion is common. This gatekeeper, however, seemed rigid, a lmost

lega l is t ic , l ike the sort of gatekeeper found in the United S ta tes or other lega l

is t ic socie t ies . In the West , the use of connections to accomplish goa ls is less

overt and rare ly f launted. In contras t , I ranians often brag about their connec

t ions in high- leve l p laces and their use to achieve a certa in end. Pres ident

K hatam i, in his efforts to avocate ad her en ce to th e ru l e of law, i t seem ed to

me, wa s f ighting against a deeply roo ted cu l tura l ph en om en on . A fter a l l , by

their very nature , laws are nonnegotiab le . A socie ty l ike Iran, one rooted in

h um an re l a t ions and netwo rks , wo ul d have a difficu l t t im e transi t io ning .

I wal ked away, and s tro l led th e gro un ds of the co nference center , w ith i ts

green trees and large grassy areas , hoping to spot another entrance and a

m o r e s y m p a t h e t i c g u a r d . T h e c e n te r, b u i l t t o a c c o m m o d a t e M u s l i m h e a d s o f

s ta te for an im po rtan t m eeting in 1 997. sa t p ic ture sque ly against a back dro p

o f th e A l b o rz M o u n t a i n s . T h e c l e a n , c o o l a i r p e c k e d a t m y e a rs . A l a rge b i l l

boa rd in the dis tance carried a massive drawing of A yato l lah K hom eini 's face

a n d h i s l o n g , f l o w i ng g ray b e a rd t ra n s p o s e d o n a b l u e -b l a c k t w i n k l i n g n i g h t

sky. Below the bil lboard, a sign read; W E L C O M E T O T H E R E S P E C T F U L A N D M E R I T

G U E S T S O F T H E I N T E R N A T I O N A L C O N E b R E N C E O N T H E E L U C I D A T I O N O F T H E

I S L A M I C R E V O L U T I O N .

I s p o t t e d n o " a l t e rn a t i v e " e n t ra n c e s , s o n e i t h e r a " res p e c t fu l " n o r a " m e ri t "

g u e s t, I w a l k e d b a c k t o t h e m a i n g u a rd . H e w a s s t a n d i n g n e x t t o a ro u n d -b e l

l i e d c l e r i c w i t h a t a n c l o a k a n d w h i t e t u rb a n , a l s o s p e a k i n g i n t o a

walkie-ta lkie .

" T h a t ' s t h e o n e , " t h e g u a rd s ai d, p o i n t i n g t o m e . " T h a t ' s t h e o n e w h o

doesn ' t have the r ight press card."

T h e c leric , w ho looked to be in his ear ly forties and had a deep b lack

beard, addressed me, "L et me see yo ur press card," he sa id .

I h a n d e d i t t o h i m . I t re a d : " A fsh in M o l a v i , c o rr e s p o n d e n t , W a s h i n g t o n

P o s t , A m e ri c a . "

H e e x a m i n e d t h e p h o t o , l o o k e d a t m e , t h e n l o o k e d a t t h e p h o t o a g a i n .

231





T E H R A N

M o s tl y t h e b o o k s c o n c e r n e d t h e l ife a n d t h o u g h t s o f A y a to l l a h K h o m e i n i :

his tories , b iographies , poems of pra ise , po l i t ica l speeches , chi ldren 's books,

p i c t u re b o o k s , p a m p h l e t s i n b ro k e n E n g l i s h a n d F re n c h , a n d c o l l e c t i o n s o f

the ayato l lah 's wri t ings .

I p ic k ed u p a p a p e rb a c k b i o g ra p h y of K h o m e i n i a n d l e afed t h ro u g h t h e

p a g e s. T h e b o o k o p e n s w i t h t h e fo l l o w i n g s e n t e n c e : " H i s E m i n e n c e A y a t o l l a h

R u h o l l a h K h o m e i n i , t h e R a d i a n t L i g h t of I r a n (M a y G o d R e st H i s S o u l ) , w a s

b o r n in t h e t o w n o f K h o m e i n . . . . " I t g o e s o n t o d e s c ri b e a y o u n g R u h o l l a h ,

a d m i re d b y h is e l d e rs fo r h i s " n o b i l i t y of t e m p e ra m e n t . " L a t e r i n t h e b o o k , a

c o n t e m p o ra ry o f K h o m e i n i is q u o t e d : " T h e I m a m w a s d i ffere nt f ro m t h e re s t

of the chi ldren. He was a lways peacefu l and never took part in any of the chi l

dren's fights."

A l o u d s p e a k e r c a l l e d t h e c o n fe re n c e d e l e g a t e s t o a s s e m b l e i n s i d e t h e h a l l .

I fou nd an e levated spo t with a f ine view of th e s tage and t he dignitary seats

on the f loor. The towering cei l ing of the conference ha l l was a dome of s i lver

gri l lwork, lending the onion-shaped conference ha l l a spaceship fee l . At the

b a s e of t h e s ta g e th e u b i q u i t o u s a n d a w k w a rd s ig n g ree t e d a t t e n d e e s in E n g

l ish: W E L C O M E T O T H E M E R I T A N D R E S P E C T F U L G U E S T S O F T H E C O N F E R E N C E O N

T H E

E L U C I D A T I O N O F T H E I S L A M I C E V O L U T I O N . A l a rg e b o u q u e t o f p i n k a n d

white f lowers hunkered a t the base of the s ign.

O n m a s s iv e s c re e n t e l e v is io n s a t b o t h e n d s o f t h e h a l l , i m a g e s o f K h o

m eini f lashed across the screen : K ho m ein i wav ing to a frenzied revol utionary

c ro w d , K h o m e i n i i n s i d e a c a r o n h i s t r i u m p h a n t re t u rn t o I ra n , K h o m e i n i

c ra d l i n g a b a by , K h o m e i n i p ra y in g , K h o m e i n i w a v in g , K h o m e i n i s i t t i n g ,

K h o m e i n i s t a ri n g .

A g ro u p of A fri ca n d i g n i ta r i es i n w h i t e s k u l l c a p s a n d c o l o rfu l ro b e s p ro

ceeded to the front row with an escort . Jus t beh ind t he m , a sm il ing A frican

mil i tary man in a s tr iking green uniform with a green s i lk shir t and b lack t ie

waltzed down the stairs as a te levision crew from Tanzania stumbled in front

of him. A fricans regular ly freque nt these sorts of K hom eini conferences , f low n

in a t the expense of I ran 's government to disp lay their revolutionary sense of

Th ird W orld so l idarity with A frica . A cross the ha l l , a group of M alaysian w om en

with tightly wrapped white head scarves walked into the hal l , trai led by an

In d i a n w o m a n i n a y e l l o w s a r i a n d y e l l o w h e a d scarf. In the top corner of the

ha l l , jus t above the sect ion reserved for wives of am bassa dor s from M us l im

n a t i o n s , a s e a o f t w o h u n d re d b l a c k -c l a d I ra n i a n w o m e n t o o k t h e i r

seats .

Just

2>J



P E R S I A N P l L £ R l M A f l 5

b e h i n d m e , a c o l l e c t i o n of fo rei g n j o u rn a l i s t s f ro m A fri ca , S o u t h a n d S o u t h

e a st A s ia , a n d t h e A ra b w o r l d — h o s t e d w i t h a l l e x p e n s e s p a i d b y I ra n ' s g o v

ernm ent— shuff l ed into their seats , wa it ing for th e conference to begin.

A s I l o o k e d a ro u n d t h e h a l l a t t h i s c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e T h i rd W o r l d ' s n o t s o

finest , I heard a murmur of applause when Iranian offic ia ls entered the ha l l .

W h e n P re s i d e n t K h a t a m i e n t e re d , t h e a p p l a u s e i n c re a s e d , a n d al l c o n fe re n c e

de leg ates s tood u p Th e ever-smil ing pres iden t waved to the crowd and took

h i s s e a t n e x t t o I ra n 's V i c e P re s i d e n t H a s s a n H a b i b i a n d A y a to l l a h K h o

m e i n i ' s g r a n d s o n H a s s a n A g h a K h o m e i n i . T o h i s ri gh t, t h e l e a d e r o f

L e b a n o n ' s H e z b o l l a h , S h e i k h H a s s a n N a s ra l l a h . f in g ere d p ra y e r b e a d s ,

A p r o m i n e n t t el e v i si o n n e w s a n c h o r o p e n e d t h e c o n fe re n c e w i t h a p o e m

in praise of K hom eini , Vice P res iden t H abibi fo l lowed by exto l l ing the vir tues

o f K h o m e i n i ' s t h o u g h t . N e x t u p , P re s i d e n t K h a t a m i , i n h i s t yp ic al m a n n e r ,

promoted his views on the need for democratic reform, c lever ly co-opting

K h o m e i n i f or h is o w n p u r p o s e s .

" S o m e p e o p l e are m i s u s i n g t h e K h o m e i n i l eg ac y," K h a t a m i t o l d t h e c ro w d .

"The imam came to power because of the wi l l of the people , and he governed

t h r o u g h t h e w il l o f t h e p e o p l e . T h e i m a m w a s al s o a p h i l o s o p h e r a n d a m a n o f

depth who unders tood that certa in t imes require certa in pol i t ica l sys tems,"

T h e o b v i o u s i m p l i c a t i o n t o ev e ry o n e in t h e h a l l : K h a t a m i , a s a p o p u l a r l y

e lected f igure , he ld th e wil l of the peop le m uc h as K ho m ein i did as a revol u

t iona ry f igure . I f K hom eini s t il l l ived, K hatam i seem ed to be saying, he wo ul d

p ro m o t e d e m o c ra t i c re fo rm . S u c h s k i l l fu l a n d d e l i c a t e p o l i t i c a l a rg u m e n t s

defined K hatam i 's speeches , th ou gh i t rem inde d m e on ce again of th e diffi

c u l t i e s i n h e re n t i n p ro m o t i n g d e m o c ra c y i n t h e l o n g s h a d o w o f a t h e o c ra c y

n o o n e c o u l d w a s h h i s h a n d s o f ,

I fo u n d K h a t a m i t o b e a n a l t e rn a te l y i n s p i r i n g , s h re w d , a n d e x a s p e ra t in g

political figure. He clearly believed in the principles of democracy, a free press,

and civil society, yet he had to navigate in a political world crowded with pow

erfu l people who opposed those ideas . He was, by nature , a persuader and not

given to confrontat ion. His cri t ics often charged him with softness , too wi l l

ing to ta lk th ro ug h a pro bl em w ith opp on en ts backed by heavy hands. Yet for

those who knew int imate ly the hard- l ine and vio lent tendencies a t the core of

key ins t i tut ions of the I ranian gover nm ent, K hatami 's s ty le of slow and consis

tent reform seemed ideal at the time. However, delicate balancing acts, replete

2 3 4



T E H R A H

with c lever interpreta t ions on the legacy of revolutionary f igures , cannot work

forever. They may offer a necessary Introduction to more radica l reform, but

eventua l ly a rup ture w ith the past m us t occ ur one way or another. W ith Iran 's

frustra ted and res t ive popula t ion, the day fas t approaches when a reformist

l ike K hatam i might have to be co m e a revol utionary ju s t in order to survive.

K hatami concl uded his remarks with a smile and a rem inder of the need for

dialogue. He thanked the attending delegates from abroad and officia l ly

ann oun ced the ope ning of th e conference. A s security officia ls led him out, I gath

ered m y no tes an d h eaded for th e exits with all the oth er del egates, to a terra ce

of tea and sweets. M un ch ing o n raisin cookies and honey-glazed biscuits , I met a

silver-haired professor of Is lamic and M iddle E ast history from N ew Z ealand .

The

professor's invitation to attend the conference had come from Iran's embassy in

N ew Z ea land. I t was his f irst t ime in Iran, he to ld m e. H e taught K homeini 's wri t

ings in his political Islam classes, he said, noting that he is more of a specialist on

E gyptian Is lamic mo vem ents. "I am eager to learn m ore abo ut K hom eini," he said,

pop ping a cookie in his mo uth , "M aybe I wil l be e lucidated." He winked.

A s we spoke, an I ranian journ a l is t , t ra i led by a camera crew, app roac hed us .

" A re y o u t h i s g e n t l e m a n ' s t ra n s l a t o r? " t h e j o u r n a l i s t a s k ed m e .

" N o , "

I sa id , "but i f you want to say something to him,

I

can he l p you out ."

"We want to interview him for te levision," he said.

3 re layed t he new s to th e professor, w h o bl us he d s l ightly at first b ut

seem ed p leased w ith the idea and sa id: "L et 's do i t ." I passed o n the profes

s o r ' s re s p o n s e t o t h e j o u rn a l i s t , a n d h e t o l d u s t o m e e t h i m d o w n s t a i rs i n t h e

studio in fifteen minutes.

" U s ? "

"Yes,"

he said, "you wil l translate."

"I

am not a ski l led trans la tor," I sa id . "You wil l need somebody e lse ."

" H a m i d is n o t h e re , " th e j o u rn a l i s t s a id . " H e is o u r t ra n s l a t o r / '

T h r o u g h o u t t h e c o n fe re n c e h a l l I h a d s e e n a b o u t fifty j o u rn a l i s t s w i t h

I ra n i a n t e l e v i s i o n . T h a t n o n e o f t h e m c o u l d t ra n s l a t e s e e m e d r i d i c u l o u s , p e r

haps another s ign of I ran 's iso la t ion.

A s I offered cou nt l ess reas ons n ot to do it , the jou rna l is t p l eaded with m e.

T h e p ro fe s so r l o o k e d c o n fu s e d b y o u r b a n t e r . F in al l y , I s u c c u m b e d a n d re l u c

tant ly turn ed to the professor. "W e sha l l mee t th em dow nstairs in f if teen m in

utes .

I s h a l l t ra n s l a t e fo r y o u . " H e s m i l e d a n d b i t i n t o a n o t h e r c o o k i e . T h e

2 3 5



P E R S I A N

P l L £ E U M A p E S

j o u r n a l i s t s c u rr i e d a w a y. I d ra n k a n o t h e r c u p o f te a . T h e c o n fe re n c e d e l e g a t es

c h a t t e d . D a rk n e s s h a d fa l l e n o u t s i d e t h e h a l l .

W e s h o w e d u p a t t h e m a k e s h i ft s t u d i o , a n d t h e j o u rn a l i s t t u rn e d t o m e

and expl a ined wh at he w anted to do. H e woul d ask the ques t ion in FarsL 1

w o u l d t h e n t ra n s l a t e t h e q u e s t i o n i n t o E n g l i s h . T h e n I w o u l d s p e a k c l e ar l y

i n t o t h e m i c ro p h o n e a n d t ra n s l a t e t h e p ro fe s s o r ' s re s p o n s e i n F a rs i — w i t h t h e

cam era ro l l ing on m el I refused imm ediate ly . I cou ld do the f irst two w itho ut

a p r o b l e m — u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e F a rs i q u e s t i o n a n d t r an s l a t in g it i n t o E n g

l i s h — b u t I w o u l d s t u m b l e if I h a d t o d o t h e t h i rd , t ra n s l a t i n g f ro m E n g l i s h t o

Fars i as the cameras ro l led. The fars i language has a conversat iona l and for

m al aspect . N ew s and speec hes are con du cted in the m or e formal Fars i, a skil l

t h a t

I

woeful ly lacked. I t w ou ld be a pit iful d isp lay, and I to ld the jou rna l is t I

would not subject h is viewers to such excrucia t ing pain.

W e se t tl e d o n a c o m p ro m i s e : T h e j o u rn a l i s t w o u l d a s k t h e q u e s t i o n ;

I

would trans la te the quest ion and take notes from the professor 's response.

L a t e r w e w o u l d p i e c e t o g e t h e r a n o ff-ai r t ra n s l a t i o n fo r h i m t h a t c o u l d b e

v o i c ed o v e r l a te r. W e a g re e d , a n d I p u l l e d o u t a n o t e b o o k , s o m e w h a t a n n o y e d

that I had got myse lf in to this mess . Before

I

k n e w it , t h e s p o t l i g h t s t u rn e d o n ,

the professor adjusted his tie, and I began working, for free, for conservative

s t a t e - ru n I ra n i a n ra d i o a n d t e l e v i s i o n .

T h e fi rs t q u e s t i o n c a m e ; " W h a t d o t h e p e o p l e of N e w Z e a l a n d t h i n k of

I m a m K h o m e i n i ? "

I dutifu l ly t rans l a ted the qu est io n. T h e professor looked confu sed and

u n c o m fo r t a b l e . " W e l l , N e w Z e a l a n d i s a s m a l l c o u n t ry , " h e s a id , " a n d w e a re

v e ry far a w ay f ro m I ra n . O u r p e o p l e d o n o t h av e m u c h i n fo rm a t i o n a b o u t

K h o m e i n i , " h e sa id s o m e w h a t d i p l o m a t ic a l l y .

T h e j o u rn a l i s t a s k e d t h e n e x t q u e s t i o n : " W h a t is y o u r i n t e re st i n Im a m

K h o m e i ni ? "

I t rans la ted, and the professor responded: "As a scholar of Is lamic pol i t i

c a l m o v e m e n t s myself, I t e a c h K h o m e i n i ' s w r i t i n g s in m y u n i v e rs i ty a s p a r t

o f a c o u rs e o n p o l i ti ca l I s l a m , I a m h o p i n g t o l e a rn m o re a b o u t K h o m e i n i ' s

th ou gh t in this conference," he sa id . "M aybe I wil l be e lucidated," H e laughed,

referring to the t i t le of the conference. The journa l is t looked a t me quizzica l ly ,

p e r h a p s w o n d e r i n g w h y t h e p r of e ss o r h a d l a u g h e d a t I m a m K h o m e i n i , T h e

professor looked a t me anxious ly , perhaps hoping he had not insu l ted anyone.

2*6



T E H R A N

T h e q u e s t i o n s i m p ro v e d a s w e w e n t a l o n g , an d I w ro t e d o w n t h e p ro fe s

sor 's resp on ses furiously . T h e interview ende d in a few min ute s . T he po st-

i n t e rv i e w t ra n s l a t i o n s d i d n ' t b o t h e r m e a s m u c h a s

1

e x p e c t e d . T h e j o u rn a l i s t

thanked me profuse ly .

T h e p ro fe s s o r w o n d e re d i f h e c o u l d g e t t h e n a m e o f t h e c h a n n e l o n w h i c h

he would appear. "We have a univers i ty newsle t ter ," he expla ined, "They l ike

to publ ish notices of media appearances of our univers i ty staff."

" C h a n n e l O n e e v e n i n g n e w s o f t h e V i s io n o f t h e I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c / ' I s ai d .

H e s m i l e d , p e rh a p s t h i n k i n g o f t h e re a c t i o n h i s c o l l e a g u e s m i g h t h a v e

when they opened their newsle t ter and saw the notice of his te levis ion

a p p e a ra n c e . H e re a c h e d i n t o h i s p o c k e t a n d p u l l e d o u t a n o t h e r c o o k i e .

Jug of Love

A

f ter the interview I moved back to the book disp lays in the front of the

c o n fe re n c e h a l l . I c a m e a c ro s s a s e n s u al l y d e s i g n e d E n g l i s h b o o k l e t i n

gold and b lue with birds , f lowers , and ye l low vines on the cover. The

E n g l i s h b o o k l e t , t i t l e d A Jug of Love, c o n t a i n s a c o l l e c t i o n of K h o m e i n i ' s m y s

t ica l poem s. Th ey have t i tles l ike "L angu id E yes" and "T he R etreat of the

D ru n k a rd s " a n d g e n e ra l l y fo l l o w t h e t y p i c a l fo rm a n d c o n t e n t o f m y s t i c a l

po em s: exaggerated express ions of love for G od , descrip t ions of Divine love

as a fee l ing of dru nk en ne ss , and sad lam ents ab ou t the futi l ity of t ime spe nt

i n t h e m o s q u e , ra t h e r t h a n In d ire c t e m b ra c e w i t h G o d . T h e p o e m s re c a l l , i n

genre , i f not in s ty le and ski l l , the mystica l poems that I ranians so revere—

p o e m s o f t h e t h i r t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Ja l a l a di n R u m i o r t h e tw e l f t h- t o t h i r t e e n t h -

cen tury m ystica l poet A ttar. In th e boo k, I cam e across the fo l low ing verses :

Open the door of

the

tavern before me night and day,

for I have become weary of the mosque and seminary.

I did not find the Friend in the books of the seminary.

At the top of the minaret, I saw n o sound of

the

Beloved.

I did not uncover anything in any scholarly books.

In the lessons of Scripture, I was led nowhere.

I spent my life in the temple, spent my life in vain.

237



P E R 5 1 A H

F L L p J U A U p E S

I am a supplicant for a goblet of wine

from the hand of a sweetheart.

In whom can I confide this secret of mine,

Where can I take this sorrow ?

In o t h e r p o e m s , K h o m e i n i d e s c r ib e s t h e s o rro w of h i s d i s t a n c e fro m " t h e

F r i e n d , " w h o m w e a re t o a s s u m e is G o d . H e w i s h e s h e c o u l d b e fre e f ro m

" t h e l i t tl e h o u s e o f t h e h o r i z o n s , " w h i c h m e a n s h i s e a rt h l y e x i st e n c e, a n d

t h e re b y m o v e c l o s e r t o G o d , T h e c o n c e i t s h e u s e d a n d t h e sy m b o l i c l a n g u a g e

would be recognizable to a l l Pers ian readers of mystica l re l igious poetry, but

t h e a u t h o r o f t h e p o e m s , a c h e s t - t h u m p i n g p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r w h o l e d a p o p u l a r

re v o l u t i o n a n d w h o o n c e s a i d a l l o p p o n e n t s s h o u l d b e " a n n i h i l a t e d , " s e e m e d

irreconci lab le with the soft Suri v iews.

In one sense , K hom eini , in his dem and s for an un be nd ing ad heren ce to a set

of Is lam ic laws as he defined the m , was an heir to M oh am m ad Bagher M ajlesi ,

th e Isfahan cl eric w ho deride d al l mystics and S ufis. I n fact, K hom eini 's onl y

public affectation of the mystic way was his ascetic nature as a man who sub

sisted on fruits and yogurt and rice and showed l itt le interest in materia l gain.

I n fac t, t h e K h o m e i n i p o e m s m i g h t n e v e r h a v e b e e n i n t e n d e d fo r p u b l i c

use. H e h a d w ri t t e n t h e m t o h i s d a u g h t e r- i n - l a w i n re s p o n s e t o q u e s t i o n s s h e

h a d o n

erfan,

S h i ' a I s l a m i c m y s ti c is m . T h e p o e t ry b o o k , A Jug of Love, e m a n a t e d

from on e of hu nd re ds of government-affil ia ted organs dedicated to preserving

a positive im age of K ho m ein i. I n offices across Teh ran , m en sit in pl ush offices

p ro d u c i n g w o rk s t h a t c a l l K h o m e i n i " t h e ra d i a n t o n e " o r " t h e e x a l te d o n e . "

T h e y a l s o d e c i d e o n t h e K h o m e i n i b i l l b o a rd s t h a t d o t t h e c o u n t ry . S o m e

w here in one of the se m any offices across Te hran , a fel low m u st have s tu m

b l e d u p o n t h e id e a o f p u b l i s h i n g K h o m e i n i ' s m y s t ic a l p o e m s . A f te r a l l ,

I ranians are a nat ion of poets and poetry lovers , h is reasoning must have been,

and every Iranian knows that the king ru les the s ta te but poets ru le the

h e a r t s . S o w h y n o t p u b l i s h t h e I m a m ' s p o e m s ?

E l e g a n t l e a t h e r - b o u n d v o l u m e s of K h o m e i n i ' s p o e tr y en s u e d . A s m a l l ,

p re t t y E n g l i s h - l a n g u a g e b o o k l e t o f t ra n s l a t e d p o e m s fo l l o w e d . T h e Im a m w a s

n o t o n l y a g re a t p o l i ti ca l l e a d e r a n d n o b l e M u s l i m , t h e s e v o l u m e s te l l u s in

their in troductions , but he was a lso a mystica l and sensi t ive poet . In much the

s a m e w a y M a o Z e d o n g w a s c e l e b ra t ed i n s o m e p o s t h u m o u s p r o p a g a n d a

tracts as a great m aster of ca l l igraphy ( the Chi nes e revere the ca l l igrapher as

238



T E H R A N

t h e I ra n i a n d o e s t h e p o e t ) , K h o m e i n i w a s p o s i t e d a s a g re a t m y s ti ca l p o e t .

In d e e d , I ra n b o a s t s a l o n g a n d i l l u s t r i o u s h i s t o ry o f " ru l e r -p o e t s . " B o t h S h a h

Is m a i l S a fav i a n d N a s i ru d d i n S h a h Q a j a r p re s e n t e d t h e m s e l v e s as p o e t s .

M o r e re c e n t l y h o w e v er , t h e P a h l a vi k i n g s s aw l i tt l e u s e in p re s e n t i n g t h e m

selves as poets as wel l as kings.

T h e b o o k s e l l e r a s k e d m e if I w a n t e d t o p u rc h a s e t h e b o o k .

I d id , yes , b ut f i rs t I asked him w hat h e tho ug ht of K hom eini 's poetry.

He smiled and sa id: " I t was not his poetry that inspired us to take to the

s t re e t s a g a i n s t t h e S h a h . "

T h e b o o k s e l l e r w a s r i g ht . K h o m e i n i w a s re n o w n e d fo r h i s fie ry a n t i -S h a h ,

re l igio us-nationa l is t sp eeches , no t h is S ufi poe m s. In a 1963 speech in th e

holy c ity of Q o m , K hom eini sho cked his l is teners with a f irm re ta l ia t ion

against what he viewed as government a t tempts , backed by Is rae l , to reduce

th e infl uence of Is lam an d I ran's c lergy: "S ha h . . . l is ten t o my advice, l is ten

to the u lama of Is lam. They desire the welfare of the nation, the welfare of the

coun try. D o n' t l is ten to Is rae l ; Is rae l can ' t do an yth ing for you. You m iserabl e

wretch, forty-five years of your l ife have passed; isn't i t t ime for you to think

and ref lect a l i t tle , to po nd er ab ou t w here a l l th is is leading you Israe l and

A m e ri c a d o n o t c a re a b o u t y o u . T h e y o n l y c a re fo r t h e d ol l a r . T h e y w i l l n o t

he lp you if you face trouble ."

L ater, in a 196 4 speech in re spo nse to a wide ly crit ic ized decis ion by th e

S h a h ' s g o v e r n m e n t t o g r a n t A m e r i c a n m i l it ar y p e r s o n n e l a n d t h e ir d e p e n d

e n t s i m m u n i t y f ro m p ro s e c u t i o n u n d e r I ra n i a n l aw , K h o m e i n i s h o o k t h e

esta b l ishm ent w ith th e fol low ing l ines , w hic h w ere sure to s t ir th e hearts of

I ra n i a n n a t i o n a l i s t s : " O u r d i g ni ty h a s b e e n t ra m p l e d u n d e rfo o t ; t h e d i g n i t y o f

I ra n h a s b e e n d e s t ro y e d . T h e d i g n i t y o f t h e I ra n i a n a rm y h a s b e e n t ra m p l e d

u n d e r f o o t . , . T h e y h a v e r e d u c e d t h e I r a n i a n p eo p l e t o a l ev el l ow e r t h a n t h a t

o f a n A m e ri c a n d o g . I f s o m e o n e ru n s o v e r a d o g b e l o n g i n g t o a n A m e ri c a n ,

he wi l l be prosecuted. Even if the Shah himse lf were to run over a dog

b e l o n g i n g t o a n A m e ri c a n , h e w o u l d b e p ro s e c u t e d . B u t if a n A m e ri c a n c o o k

ru ns over the S hah , th e head of sta te , n o o ne wi l l have the r ight to interfere

w i t h h i m . . . . G e n t l e m e n , I w a r n y o u of d a n g e r I r a n i a n a rm y , I w a r n y o u o f

d a n g e r I ra n i a n p o l i t i c ia n s , I w a rn y o u of d a n g e r I ra n i a n m e rc h a n t s , I w a rn

yo u of dang er U la m a of Ir an, maraji of Is l am, I w arn you of danger " T hi s

s p e e c h e a rn e d K h o m e i n i h i s l o n g ex il e . T h e S h a h , w h o re fu s ed a d v ic e f ro m

SA VA K offic ia ls to kil l the pesky c leric , ordere d hi m o ut of the coun try.

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T E H R A N

he promised free water, e lec tr ic i ty , and even cash from Iran 's o i l income,

promises that many of the "oppressed" e i ther be l ieved or, in their d ire

poverty , desperate ly wanted to be l ieve.

Twenty-three years after the revolution, I made a vis i t to the crumbling

h o m e of a p r o u d a n d b r o k e n m a n i n a S o u t h T e h r a n s l u m . M r . H a s h e m i ,

s ixty years o ld , we lc om ed m e with a il the hospita l i ty I had com e to expect in

Iran. When I arrived, his wife laid out a bowl of bruised fruits and cups of

s t e a m i n g g o l d -re d t e a . S h e w o re a l o n g , a l l -e n c o m p a s s i n g b l a c k c h a d o r a n d

plas t ic pink s l ippers with tiny rose designs . T he re were deep bags un de r h er

wide eyes , "P lease forgive ou r hu m bl e h om e," she said as she offered m e a

sugar cube. I t was a ta'rof co m m en t typica l in lavish res idences , but in th is

case i t ru ng tru e , and she sa id it w ith ou t the usua l smil e . T h e bare wal ls of the

smal l roo m w e sat in had turn ed ye l low and cracked. W e sat cross- le gged o n

a w o rn , c o a rse P e rs ia n c a rp e t . M rs . H a s h e m i o cc a s i o n al l y re t re a t e d b e h i n d a

door. M r. H as he m i leaned against the bare wal l , c ross- leg ged. H e ins is ted th at

I u s e a c u s h i o n .

I f irst m e t M r . H a s h e m i a t T e h ra n ' s m a r t y rs ' c em e t e ry , a v a st a n d h a u n t

i n g s i t e w h e re m i l e s o f t i g h t l y p a c k e d w h i t e t o m b s t o n e s a n d m e m o ri a l p i c

tur es of fresh-faced boy s attest to the traged y of war. H e had g on e th er e to

wash the tombs of two nephews who died in the war, a weekly r i tua l that he

had inheri ted after h is brother 's death.

" P e rh a p s i t is b e t t e r t h a t t h e y w e re m a r t y re d ," M r . H a s h e m i t ol d m e a t t h e

t ime, "They do not have to see the suffering of our people ," he sa id . He gave

me his home address . He urged me to vis i t h im sometime. He did not have a

phone, so I met him a few days la ter a t the government office in which he

wo rked as a jani tor/ te a server. W h en w e me t there , he spok e in a hurr ied

manner. "The minis ter needs his tea ," he sa id . " I must go. Here is my address .

See you on Tuesday."

1 arrived a t the appo inted h o ur o n Tuesday, and M r. H ash em i invited m e

into a smal l , carpeted room with a s i lver samovar of tea in the corner. He

w o re b a g g y b l u e w o o l t ro u s e rs w i t h re d -a n d -w h i t e p i n s t r i p e s . H i s g ra y h a i r

was combed to the s ide and looked as i f i t 'd recent ly been cut . He had shaved

for my vis i t . I asked about the hea l th of his three chi ldren. His son,

twe nty-eigh t years o l d , l ives a t hom e with M r. H ash em i and his wife , ear nin g

m o n e y a s a n a u t o m e c h a n i c / m e s s e n g e r / b re a d b a k e r / o c c a s io n a l d ri ve r. " H e

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P E R S I A N P I L f i U M A f E S

w a n t s t o g et m a rr i e d , " M r . H a s h e m i s ai d , " b u t h e h a s n o m o n e y . W h a t c a n w e

d o ? "

His two dau gh ters are m arried and l ive the ir ow n vers io ns of M r.

Hashemi's hard l ife in different parts of the city.

M r. H ash em i firs t cam e to Te hra n in the m id-19 60s. His fa ther, an agri

cu l tura l laborer in Iran 's north , received a deed of land as part of the la te

Shah 's a t tempt to redis tr ibute farmland away from large feuda l lords and

t o w a rd p e a s a n t s . L i k e m a n y o f t h e p e a s a n t fa rm e rs g ra n t e d l a n d d e e d s , M r .

Hashemi 's fa ther quickly so ld the deed and moved to the c i ty in search of

w h a t h e t h o u g h t w o u l d b e g o o d j o b s for h i s s o n s . M r . H a s h e m i a r ri ve d i n

Tehran in his la te twenties .

"1 beca m e a con struc tion worker, and I w ork ed o n ma ny of the big bu i l d

ings that were going up a l l over Tehran," he said, s ipping tea, as his wife

p e e l e d a p p l e s . " W i t h t h e m o n e y 1 w a s m a k i n g , I m a n a g e d t o b u y t h i s s m a l l

house and give a l i t t le bit of money to my father. It was not easy, but I could

m ake a l iv ing ou t of it , and J saved en ou gh m one y to get marrie d. Today my

son can bare ly survive, and he wor ks m uc h h ard er th an 1 did. Today even

g o v e rn m e n t w o rk e rs a n d p ro fe s so rs c a n n o t b u y h o u s e s In t h e t im e of t h e

S h a h , t h i n g s w e re m u c h c h e a p e r , G o d b l e s s h i s s o u l . If o n l y t h e S h a h w e re

not opposed to Is lam," he sa id , " then maybe the revolution would not have

h a p p e n e d . "

W h e n M r H a s h e m i ' s fa t he r b ro u g h t h i s fa m il y t o T e h ra n , h e w a s p a r t of

a m a s s i v e ru ra l -u rb a n m i g ra t i o n t a k i n g p l a c e a l i o v e r I ra n . T h e m i g ra t i o n

brought not on ly an abundance of labor but a lso vi l lage va lues to the big c i ty .

T h e s e fo rm e r v il l a g e rs w h o h o s e d t h e g a rd e n s , e re c t e d t h e h o u s e s , c o o k e d t h e

food, and washed the cars of I ran 's modern middle and upper c lasses l ived

both geographica l ly and socia l ly apart from their masters . For many, inc lud

ing M r. H ash em i, their l ives revolved aro un d l ong wo rkdays. Is l amic hol idays ,

a n d t h e l o c a l m o s q u e .

A rou nd 1977 , constru ction projects s lowed, and infla t ion began to take a

t o l l o n M r . H a s h e m i ' s i n c o m e . H e a l s o b e g a n t o re s e n t t h e o s t e n t a t i o u s w e a l t h

h e s a w i n m a n y o f t h e T e h ra n n e i g h b o rh o o d s w h e re h e l a b o re d . " T h i n g s w e re

gett ing out of hand," he sa id . " I remember the bi l lboards of the women in biki

nis. Th is was no t r ight . I d id no t wan t my mo the r to have to see that . T he re

were cas inos and people drinking in the s treet . I t was uncomfortab le ."

A s re v o l u t i o n a ry fo rc e s g a t h e re d i n s t re n g t h i n 1 9 7 7 . a n o v e rh e a t e d e c o n -



T E H R A N

o m y s l o w e d n e w p ro j e c ts . A t t h e l o c a l m o s q u e , w o rs h i p e rs t a l k e d e x ci te d l y

a b o u t a n ex il e d c l e ri c n a m e d K h o m e i n i . O n e c l e ri c t o l d M r . H a s h e m i t h a t

K h o m e i n i h a d s e m i -D i v i n e q u a l i t i es . In o n e s e rm o n , a n o t h e r l o c a l cl e r i c

referred to the corruption and deceit in the e ighth-century court of Yazid, the

A r a b k i n g w h o k il l ed t h e f a m o u s S h i 'a M u s l i m I m a m H o s s e i n , E v e ry o n e in

th e audie nce kn ew that the c leric wa s impl icat ing th e S ha h with Yazid, the

most hated leader in Shi 'a h is toriography,

"Before I began a t tending the mosque lec tures and ta lks , I never rea l ly

t h o u g h t m u c h a b o u t t h e S h a h po l i t ic a l l y / ' M r . H a s h e m i s ai d . " A f ter a l l , I w a s

m e re l y a w o rk i n g m a n a n d h e w a s t h e k i n g o f k in g s . T h a t i s j u s t t h e w a y t h e

worl d was, and I never imag ined i t w ou ld be c han ged ,

" W h e n I l i s te n e d t o s o m e o f t h e t a p e s of t h e I m a m [K h o m e i n i ] t h a t w e re

dis tr ib uted in the m osq ue, J was deeply m oved . I fel t som eth ing s t irr ing in my

stomach. He was so brave to say the things he sa id . For the f irs t t ime, I fe l t

s tro ng in the face of th e king of kings . I fel t tha t we had a ch am pi on in th e

I m am . I a lso fel t m or e re l igious after l is ten ing to his tapes . I w ante d to f ight

for t h i s m a n I h a d n e v e r s e e n o r k n o w n .

" W h e n I l o o k b a c k o n i t n o w , I n o w re al i z e t h a t t h e S h a h w a s n o t a b a d

l e a d e r. H i s o n l y p ro b l e m w a s t h a t h e o p p o s e d Is l a m . T h e s e c l e r ic s w h o p r o m

ised us freedom and prosperi ty now are a l l a f ter money and power. They s tea l

o u r m o n e y al l th e t im e . T h e y a re n o t rea l M u s l i m s , "

A n d w h a t of K h o m e i n i ? I as k ed .

"If the Imam were a l ive today, he would be deeply disappointed."

S o m e t i m e s M r . H a s h e m i w o n d e r s w h a t w e n t w r o n g . " T h e I m a m t ri e d, "

he expla ined. "He tr ied to make l i fe bet ter for us , but a l l those devious people

a ro u n d h i m d i d n ' t l e t h i m . I f h e w e re s t i l l a ro u n d , t h i n g s w o u l d b e b e t t e r . I

rea l l y t h i n k t h i n g s w o u l d b e b e tt e r . W e a re a M u s l i m p e o p l e . W e n e e d g o o d

M u s l i m l e a d e rs. T h a t i s t h e o n l y w ay ."

We ta lked for another hour. He asked me quest ions about my l i fe in

A m e ri c a , a n d I a sk e d a b o u t h i s c h i l d re n . I t g o t l a t e, a n d 1 t h a n k e d M r .

H a s h e m i fo r h i s t i m e .

I carried with m e a smal l e nve lo pe of bi l l s , equiva l ent to abo ut twenty U .S .

d o l l a rs , p ro b a b l y a p p ro x i m a t e l y m o re t h a n o n e m o n t h ' s s a l a ry fo r M r .

H ash em i. I kne w l i fe wa s hard for hi m and his family , and I w ant ed to give

h i m s o m e t h i n g s m a l l t o e a s e t h e h a rd s h i p , y e t I fe l t e m b a rra s s e d a b o u t

243



P E R S I A N

P U f & l M A f E S

b ro a c h i n g t h e s u b j e c t . W o u l d i t h u r t h i s p r id e ? W a s i t a p p ro p r i a t e ? N e r

vous ly , 1 m utter ed som eth ing a bo ut a gift and reache d int o my pocke t a nd

p ro d u c e d a n e n v e l o p e .

His face turn ed red. "I invited you here to be ou r gue st , M r, A fshin. I d id

no t have any h idd en motives . You are l ike my own so n." His wife looked on

from th e bac kg rou nd , her head low ered. Fro m the paine d look o n his face , 1

could see that he was not mere ly p laying the

ta'rof

gam e of feigned refusal an d

e v e n t u a l a c c e p t a n c e . H e w a s g e n u i n e l y h u r t b y m y a c t i o n . *

1 fel t aw fu l . M y o w n fac e m u s t h a v e g ro w n c r i m s o n re d t o o b e c a u s e M r .

Hashemi tr ied to reassure me. " I t 's a l l r ight , you have a good heart ," he sa id .

I mumbled an apology, thanked them profuse ly for their hospita l i ty , and

wal ked out , marve l ing a t my insensit ivi ty and M r. H ashem i 's profou nd dignity .

Reza Shah; Forgotten Shrine, Rem embered King

N

o t f ar f ro m M r . H a s h e m i ' s h o m e , t h e S h a h A b d o l a z im s h r i n e b e c k o n s

Iranian Shi 'a p i lgrims to i ts s lender, r is ing minarets and gold domes.

The shrine is a few miles to the southeast of Tehran in the s toried o ld

city of Rey. E a r l y - t e n t h -c e n t u ry t ra v e l e rs t o R e v ( t h e n c a l l e d R a g e s ) c o m p a re d

the c i ty with Baghdad, the pear l of the East . Rages has even been mentioned

in the Bible and th e o ld P ers ian Zo roa str ia n holy boo k, th e A vesta . I t is a c i ty

w i t h a s b c - th o u s a n d -y e a r h i s to ry . In 1 2 2 0 , t h e M o n g o l h o rd e s u t t e r l y

destroy ed i t , d ispers ing the po pu l a t io n to nearby vi l lages and c i ties. Today R ey

is a smal l , moderate ly busy c i ty that a t tracts many Tehrani laborers , c ivi l ser

vants , a n d s m a l l m e rc h a n t s b e c a u s e o f t h e l o w e r-c o s t h o u s i n g . I t w a s t h e s o r t

o f p l a c e w h e re re v o l u t i o n a ry s u p p o r t fo r K h o m e n i w a s h i g h i n t h e 1 9 7 0 s .

Today 's Rey res ident , from what I could te l l f rom a few days spent there ,

genera l ly agrees with M r, H ashe m i. T he rev ol ution 's prom ise of materia l gain,

no t necessarily i ts po l i t ica l d im ensio n, a t tracted th em . Today they fondly

reca l l the o ld days , w hen ho usi ng was mo re affordable a nd jo bs were ap lenty.

T h e S h a h A b d o l a z i m s h r i n e h a s se rv ed a s b a c k d ro p fo r m a n y o f I ra n ' s

n a t i o n a l d ra m a s i n t h e l a s t 1 5 0 y e a rs . T h e Q a j a r k i n g N a s i ru d d i n S h a h w a s

assass inated jus t outs ide the shrine in 1896 after a t tending Friday prayers

the re . T he assass in , wh o was interro gated la ter , sa id h e was a fo l lower of Jam al

a d - d l n a l -A fg h a n i, a l i b e ra l -m i n d e d Is l a m i c s ch o l a r , re v o l u t i o n a ry , a n d i n v e t -

244



e ra t e o p p o n e n t o f t h e t y ra n n y o f I ra n ' s s h a h s . D u r i n g t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R e v

o lut ion, the shrine served as a sanctuary for leading Consti tut iona l is ts , Short ly

afterward it became a center of anti-constitutional activity led by Sheikh Fazlol

lah N ou ri . In the days preceding the 197 9 revolution, w orsh ipers hea rd f iery

anti-Shah pol i t ica l speeches outs ide the wal ls .

Just outs i de the sh rine , R eza S ha h, th e f irst P ahlavi king, l ies bur ied. R eza

S h a h , l ik e K h o m e i n i , w a s o n e o f t h o s e s e m i n a l f i g u re s o f t w e n t i e t h -c e n t u ry

Ira n i a n h i s t o ry w h o s e i m p a c t w a s i m m e d i a t e a n d fa r- re a c h i n g a n d w h o s e

l o n g s h a d o w w il l b e ca s t o n I ra n ' s fu t u re . In a n a t t e m p t t o e ra se R e za S h a h ' s

m e m o ry , a n a n g ry re v o l u t i o n a ry m o b d e s t ro y e d t h e m a u s o l e u m h o l d i n g t h e

la te king, a m an w ho m K hom eini referred to as "vi le" and "devi l ish ." A lead

i n g a y a t o l l a h w h o u rg e d t h e m o b t o a t t a c k t h e s h r i n e e v e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t a

publ ic toi le t be erected above Reza Shah 's grave s i te .

N ow th er e is virtual ly no th in g left of that grave site, n o way to te l l i t was

o n c e a n i m p re s s i v e m a rb l e m a u s o l e u m . I t h o u s e s a s e m i n a ry , a c l e r i c a l t ra i n

i n g g ro u n d . T h e re i s o f c o u rs e i ro n y i n t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h i s s e m i n a ry . R e z a

S ha h, du rin g his re ign, sou gh t to di l u te the pow er of th e c lergy, v iewing it

with open contempt as a backward and regress ive force in a socie ty that he

w a n t e d t o m o d e rn i z e . T h e n e w s e m i n a ry is l o c a t e d in M o d a rre s S q u a re ,

n a m e d a f t e r a n a y a t o l l a h w h o o p p o s e d t h e P a h l a v i d y n a s t y . S o m e w h e re i n t h e

courtyard leading up to the madreseh Reza Shah l ies buried. The para l le l marble

pools that once led up to the marble fountains are s t i l l there , but the marble is

chip ped and dirty . T h e p ool s are dry, f il led with d ying sh ru bs and weeds.

G i v e n it s p ro x i m i t y t o t h e A b d o l a z i m S h a h s h r i n e , b u s l o a d s o f p i l g r i m s

c a n b e s e e n n a p p i n g a n d p i c n i c k i n g in M o d a rre s S q u a re , j u s t o u t s i d e t h e

m a u s o l e u m . In t e re s t i n g l y , m o s t o f t h e w o m e n a re d ra p e d i n b l a c k c h a d o rs ,

the Is lamic garb that Reza Shah had banned near ly seventy years before . Reza

S ha h viewed the vei l as a sym bol of backw ardness . In on e s troke, he cha l

l e n g e d e s t a b l i s h e d t ra d i t i o n a n d d e -v e i l e d I ra n i a n w o m e n .

W h e n R e za K h a n , l a te r n a m e d R e za S h a h , s e rv e d a s a y o u n g m i l i ta ry o ffi

cer in th e R ussia n-tra ined Cossac k brigade in th e early twe ntie th cen tury, he

watched with a larm as his nat ion deteriorated pol i t ica l ly , socia l ly , and eco

nomica l ly . S ordid p rim e m inis ters , Bri t ish and R ussian r ivalry, co rru pt and

w a s t re l k in g s , p ro fo u n d e c o n o m i c d e g ra d a t i o n , w i d e s p re a d t r ib a l u n re s t , a n d

the dis integrat ion of I ranian terr i toria l in tegri ty p lagued the ten years prior to

2 4 *



P E R S I A N

P L l f R l M A C E S

R e za K h a n ' s 1 9 2 1 c o u p d ' e t a t . T h e p re v i o u s S h a h h a d v i r tu a l l y l o s t c o n t ro l o f

th e coun try. A fter an ab orte d effort by Britain to sub juga te Iran ful ly as its

pro tecto rate , a Bri tish mil i tary officer. G enera l E dm un d I ronside , wro te ab ou t

t h e y o u n g , b ro a d -s h o u l d e re d C o s s a c k - t ra i n e d R e za K h a n i n hi s d ia ry ; " I h a v e

seen one man in the country who is capable of leading the nation, and that is

R e za K h a n . " I ro n s i d e s aw in R e za K h a n a s t ro n g m a n w h o c o u l d b r i n g o rd e r

to the disord ered Ira nian rea lm . In fact, som e of the inte l l ec tua l jo ur na l s of

t h e t i m e a l s o e x p re s s e d a l o n g i n g fo r a s t ro n g m a n , p e rh a p s a s a c o n s e q u e n c e

o f t h e c h a o s t h a t fo l l o w e d t h e fa i l u re o f t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n a l R e v o l u t i o n . T h e

p o e t E s h q i , a n a rd e n t C o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s t , w ro t e a p o e m a t t h i s t i m e c a l l i n g fo r

"a season of blood" as a sort of c leansing of the i l ls affl icting Iranian society

a n d i ts c u l t u re a n d p o l i t ic s . A s t h e s c h o l a r A h m a d K a r im i H a k k a k n o t e s ,

" [T ] h e c o n d i t i o n s a n d t h e c u l t u re n e c e s s i ta t e d t h e n e e d fo r a R e za K h a n f ig

ure to s tep forward the way he did. I f he did not exis t , he would have to have

been invented."

R eza K han , l ike Iro nside, had th e so ldier 's d is tas te for I ran 's co rru pt

pol iticians. In a spe ech t o his fe l low sol diers, he said: "You have offered every

pos sibl e sacrifice in th e defense of th e la nd of yo ur fathe rs But we hav e to

confess that a l l our loya l ty has served mere ly to preserve the interes ts of a

handfu l of t ra i tors in th e capita l , . , . T he se ins ignificant m en are the sam e

t re a c h e ro u s e l e m e n t s w h o h a v e s u c k e d t h e l a s t d ro p s o f t h e n a t i o n ' s b l o o d . "

In 19 21 he too k act ion. T he Bolshevik R evol ution in R ussia led to the cre

a t ion of th e sel f-dec lared S oviet republ ic of G i lan in Iran 's nort h . T h e B ri tish

w e r e u n d e r s t a n d a b l y a l a r m e d b y t h e R u s s ia n i n c u r si o n a n d d e m a n d e d c o n

t ro l o f I ra n ' s w e l l - t ra i n e d C o s s a c k b r i g a d e . R e za K h a n , a r i si n g s t a r a m o n g t h e

Cossacks , led a march on Tehran accompanied by Iranian nationa l is t po l i t i

c ians. Th eir de m and s: I r anian co ntro l of th e Cossack brigade in ord er to defeat

t h e G i l a n se p a ra ti s ts th e m s e l v e s . O n c e p e rm i s s i o n h a d b e e n g ra n t e d b y t h e

fearfu l k ing, R eza K han ord ered his m en to arres t the cab inet . T h e king, w ho

just if iab ly feared the ambit ion of th is upstart genera l , then appointed him the

co m m an de r of a l l a rm ed forces. His forces cru shed the G i l ian separat is ts .

R eza K han ha rbo red a deep m is trus t of I ran 's c lergy. L ike A tat i i rk in

Turkey, he hoped to curb the power that Is lam he ld on the masses . He

dreamed of se t t ing up Iran as a republ ic on the Turkish model . I ran 's c lergy,

however, feared the idea of a republic, s ince it could conceivably break its

2 4 6



pow er base , w hic h res ted on a de l icate com pro m ise with the king; th e c lergy

gave the king the legit imacy he needed to ru le . So i t forged a compromise

with th e r ising minis ter of war, R eza K han . I f he agreed to b eco m e the next

Ir anian kin g, th e clergy w oul d back him with the ap prop ria te re l igious legit i

m a c y. R e za K h a n a g re ed , a n d o n A p r il 2 5 , 1 9 2 6 ,

a

s o l e m n c e r e m o n y a t t en d e d

by c lerics , pries ts , e thnic and tr iba l leaders , and su l len princes of the o ld

m o n a rc h y m a rk e d h i s c o ro n a t i o n .

The new king, now ca l led Reza Shah, wasted l i t t le t ime in molding Iran on

his term s. A s a nat iona l is t , he despised Ir an 's backw ardn ess and largely

b l a m e d fo u r g ro u p s fo r h is l a n d ' s t ro u b l e s : M u s l i m c l e ri cs , fe u d al l a n d o w n

ers, due l ing tr ibes , and foreign powers . Systematica l ly , he a t tacked a l l of them.

He took dramatic s teps to l imit the power of the c lergy by creating s ta te

schools , thus s tr ipping c lerics of their educationa l ro le . He a lso rep laced c ler

ica l jud ge s with c ivil courts . Tu rnin g to la ndo wn ers , he s tr ipped m an y of their

property but a lso took important s teps toward creating individua l property

rights by demanding the use of deeds in a l l lands . He que l led tr iba l revol ts ,

b ru ta l l y p u t t i n g d o w n t h e Q a s h q a i t r i b e . T h o u g h h e e m p l o y e d s e ve re t a ct ic s ,

h e b ro u g h t o rd e r t o t h e re s t i v e p ro v i n c e s . H e a c h i e v e d s o m e m e a s u re o f s u c

cess in dis tancing Iran from B ritain and R ussia, th ou gh his f l i r ta t ions with

Hit l er 's G erm any in the la te 1930s undi d his efforts . For tho se f l i r ta t ions he

was push ed as ide by the Bri t ish in favor of his son , M oh am m ad R eza.

W h e n t h e B r it is h s h u n t e d R e za S h a h a s i de in 1 9 4 1 , h e h a d ru l e d I ra n a s

king for onl y fifteen years. In tho se years, he re un ite d a fractured cou ntry,

he lped create a middle c lass , ensured property r ights (even if he had a pen

chant for amassing his own property i l lega l ly) , bui l t a so l id infras tructure , and

c re a t e d I ra n ' s f i rs t b a t c h o f t e c h n o c ra t s . S i m u l t a n e o u s l y , h e c ru s h e d d e m o

c ra t i c o p p o s i t i o n , re d u c e d t h e P a r l i a m e n t t o a ru b b e r-s t a m p i n s t i t u t i o n , e l e

vated the mil i tary to unprecedented leve ls of power, and s t if led a l l a t tempts a t

free express ion. Some of his secular in te l lec tua l supporters weathered his

a u t h o r i t a r i a n n a t u re b e c a u s e t h e y s h a re d s o m e o f t h e s a m e o p p o n e n t s , e s p e

cia l ly the c lergy and feuda l landowners whom they b lamed for perpetuating

Ira n ' s " b a c k w a rd n e s s . "

In today 's I ran, there is

a

m i n i -R e z a S h a h rev iv al a m o n g m i d d l e -c l a s s I ra

n i a n s .

F ru s t ra t e d w i t h t h e c u rre n t o rd e r , m a n y I ra n i a n s s e e R e z a S h a h a s a

nationa l is t , a bui lder, and a patr iot , preferring to forget h is sometimes bruta l

247



P E R S I A N

P I L f

R L M A p E S

a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m i n fa v o r o f h i s n a t i o n -b u i l d i n g . B i o g ra p h i e s o f R e z a S h a h

sel l brisk ly , A tr ick l ing of I ranian s kno ck o n th e door s of th e seminary, ho p

ing to pay a furt ive pi lgrimage to Reza Shah 's unmarked tomb.

Today young c lerica l s tudents shuff l ing across the courtyard walk over

t h e b o d y o f t h e k i n g w h o s o u g h t t o d e m o t e t h e i r i n f l u e n c e . J u s t o u t s i d e t h e

seminary, however, m ost res ide nts of R ey expressed a fond ness for R eza S hah .

A s o n e s h o p k e e p e r p u t i t, "A t l e a s t h e b u i l t s o m e t h i n g i n I ra n . T h e g u y s i n

power today only destroy."

A fe w m i l e s a w a y f ro m t h e R e z a S h a h s h r i n e , t h e g o l d d o m e s a n d s l e n d e r

m i n a re t s o f a n o t h e r s h r i n e , t h e s h r i n e o f a n o t h e r p o l i t i c a l f i g u re w h o m a d e

an inde l ib le s tamp on Iran, beckons pi lgrims from a l l over Iran. The shrine to

A y a to l l a h K h o m e i n i , t h e re v o l u t i o n a ry fo u n d e r o f t h e I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c , c o v

ers an area rough ly th e s ize of th e dow nto w n dis tr ic t of a smal l E ur op ea n c ity.

I t w a s t im e fo r m e t o m a k e m y p il g r i m a g e t o t h e K h o m e i n i s h r i n e .

The Khom eini Rise

A

y a t o l l a h K h o m e i n i b e n ef it e d f ro m p ro p i t i o u s t i m i n g , a n i ro n w i l l , a

s h a rp e c o n o m i c d o w n t u rn , a n d a s t ro k e of l u c k . W h e n K h o m e i n i f irst

o p e n l y c h a l l e n g e d t h e S h a h i n 1 9 6 3 , I ra n p ro c e e d e d o n a n a m b i t i o u s

a n d m a s s i v e t o p -d o w n m o d e rn i z a t i o n p ro g ra m t h a t a i m e d a t c re a t i n g w h a t

t h e S h a h c a l l e d " a E u ro p e a n s ta n d a rd o f l i vi ng ." N a m e d t h e " S h a h a n d P e o

p l e ' s R e v o l u t i o n " , a n d a l s o k n o w n a s t h e W h i t e R e v o l u t i o n , t h e p l a n s o u g h t

to redis tr ib ute land away from feuda l l andl ords tow ard peasant farmers,

increase the r ights of women and minori t ies , modernize industr ies , and cre

ate a powerful, centralized military.

T h o u g h t h e S h a h ' s W h i t e R e v o l u t i o n p l a n s w e r e l a u d a b l e s o c i a l l y , t h e y

prov ed fatal po l i tical ly (and exceedingly difficu l t to im pl em ent) . M any of

Iran 's c lerics fe l t uneasy with the reforms, part icu lar ly the emancipation of

w o m e n a n d e q u a l r ig h t s for rel i g i ou s m i n o r i ti e s . M o re o m i n o u s l y , t h e S h a h

t h re a t e n e d t h e e c o n o m i c l i v e l i h oo d o f I ra n ' s c l e ri cs , m a n y o f w h o m m i g h t

l o s e s o m e o f t h e i r l a rg e l a n d h o l d i n g s t o t h e p l a n n e d re d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e t ra

d i t i o n a l b a z a a r m e rc h a n t s a l s o fe l t t h re a t e n e d , a s t h e i r m o n o p o l i e s o n b a n k

i n g a n d c o m m e rc e g a v e w a y t o n e w m e rc h a n t s w e l l c o n n e c t e d t o t h e W e s t

a n d t h e S h a h . L a rg e l a n d o w n e rs a l s o d i s l ik e d t h e refo rm s b e c a u s e i t c u t t h e i r

hol dings . T h e S hah , m os t of a l l , w ant ed th e land reform s to be seen as a

2 4 $



T E H R A N

d i re c t l i n k t o t h e p e a s a n t s a n d ru ra l w o rk e rs , b u t s h o d d y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n

c o u p l e d w i t h u rb a n e c o n o m i c g ro w t h l e d t o w i d e s p re a d m i g ra t i o n f ro m ru ra l

t o u rb a n a re a s. In s t e a d o f e m b ra c i n g t h e S h a h , I ra n ' s p e a s a n t s w h o m o v e d t o

the c i ti tes beca m e key sup po rters of K hom eini .

T h e W h i t e R e v o l u t i o n l e d t o t h e f irst o p e n s t ra i n s b e tw e e n t h e S h a h a n d

the c lergy. Before 1963 Iran 's l eading c lerics had deve loped an a l l iance w ith

the S hah th at offered a certa in m od us vivendi. T h e leading c leric a t th e t im e,

A yato l l ah Borujerdi , advocated the tradit iona l S hi 'a v iew of abst entio n from

poli t ics. T h e S hah sh ow ed his apprecia t io n by paying regul ar visi ts to him and

a l lowing a certa in amount of dia logue on socia l and re l igious issues between

co ur t officials an d th e ayatol lah . A fter Boru jerdi d ied, in 19 63 , no singl e c leric

e m e rg e d a s t h e c o n s e n s u s

marja-e

taqlid,

o r l e a d e r o f t h e S h i ' a M u s l i m s , a n d

t h e S h a h i n c re a si n g l y i g n o re d t h e I s l a m i c cl e rg y. K h o m e i n i , a s e m i n a ry s t u

d e n t a n d y o u n g l e c t u r er d u r i n g R ez a S h a h ' s a s sa u l t o n t h e c o u n t r y ' s M u s l i m

clerics and ins t i tut ions , d is trus ted the young Shah from the beginning, even

though the new king showed less overt host i l i ty to Is lamic tradit ions .

B y 1 9 6 4 K h o m e i n i h a d b e g u n s p e a k i n g o u t a g a i n s t t h e S h a h ' s p o l i c ie s o n

a wide range of issues from women's r ights to Iran 's c lose t ies with Is rae l and

t h e U n i t e d S t a te s . A ro u n d t h i s t i m e m a n y I ra n i a n n a t i o n a l i s t s a l s o m u r m u r e d

c o n c e rn s o v e r t h e S h a h ' s c l o s e a l l i a n c e w i t h t h e A m e ri c a n s . K h o m e i n i ' s o u t

s p o k e n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h i s a l l i a n c e e a rn e d h i m n a t i o n a l i s t c re d e n t i a l s t o g o

a long with his re l igious credit . In that same year, I ran 's Par l iament passed a

l a w g ra n t i n g i m m u n i t y fro m p ro s e c u t i o n fo r a ll A m e ri c a n m i l i t a ry p e rs o n n e l

and their dependents s ta t ioned in Iran. I ranian nationa l is ts saw i t for what i t

w a s :

a b la tant v io la t ion of I ranian integri ty and a reminder of the debi l i ta t ing

" c a p i t u l a t i o n " a g re e m e n t s o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u ry t h a t t h e B r it is h o r R u s

s i a n s fo rc e d o n I ra n . K h o m e i n i l e d t h e c h a rg e a g a in s t it . In l a n g u a g e s u re t o

r il e h i s s u p p o r t e rs , K h o m e i n i sa id t h a t t h e P a r l i a m e n t " h a s s i gn e d t h e d o c u

m e n t o f e n s l a v e m e n t of I ra n . . . i t h a s g i ve n A m e ri c a a d o c u m e n t a t t e s t in g

that the na tion of M us l im s is barb arou s , i t has s truck ou t al l our Is lamic an d

nationa l g lories with a b lack l ine ." In one of his most memorable l ines , a l ine

t h a t w e n t b e y o n d h i s t ra d i t i o n a l b a s e o f s u p p o r t t o w a rd n a t i o n a l i s t i m p u l s e s

i n t h e I ra n i a n p s y c h e , K h o m e i n i s a id : " If t h e S h a h s h o u l d ru n o v e r a n A m e r

i c an d o g , h e w o u l d b e c a l l e d t o a c c o u n t b u t if a n A m e ri c a n c o o k s h o u l d ru n

o v e r t h e S h a h , n o o n e h a s a n y c l a im s a g a i n s t h i m . "

A ft e r n e a r l y s e v e n t e e n m o n t h s o f o u t s p o k e n c r i t i c i s m o f t h e S h a h b y

249



P E R 5 L A N F U £ R L M A £ E S

K h o m e i n i , i n c l u d i n g t h i n l y v ei l ed re fe ren c e s t o t h e S h a h as re m i n i s c e n t o f

S hi 'a Is lam 's mo st reviled figures , K hom eini 's a t tack o n the par l iam entary law

wa s th e las t offense . A dvisers to the S hah su ggested ex ecuting K hom eini or ,

p e rh a p s , " a n a c c i d e n t a l d e a t h . " T h e S h a h re fu se d , i n s te a d s e n d i n g t h e A y a t o l

lah into fourteen years of exile in Turkey, Iraq, and final ly France. Former roy

a l is t offic ia ls no w l iving in L on do n, Paris , and L os A ngeles s ti l l gru m bl e abo ut

the decis ion no t to kil l K hom eini in 1964.

T h o u g h p u b l i c l y t h e S h a h t r i e d t o c u l t i v a t e a c o rd i a l re l a t i o n s h i p w i t h

Iran 's c lerics after the K hom eini conf ronta t ion, he privately despised th em

j u s t a s m u c h a s h i s fa t h e r h a d . D u ri n g a 1 9 6 3 c e re m o n y i n w h i c h t h e S h a h

h a n d e d o u t l a n d d e e d s t o p e a s a n t s a s p a r t of h is W h i t e R e v o l u t i o n , h e d e v i

a t e d f ro m t h e se t p u b l i c p ro n o u n c e m e n t a n d l e t fl y w i t h a b l i s t er i n g , u n re

hearsed attack on Iran's c lerics that ended up heavily edited in the next day's

papers . In the impromptu a t tack, the Shah sa id; "They [c lerics] were a lways a

s t u p i d a n d re a c t i o n a ry b u n c h w h o s e b ra i n s h a v e n o t m o v e d fo r a t h o u s a n d

y e a rs . " H e w e n t o n t o d e s c r i b e t h e m a s " p a ra s i t e s " w h o w e re m o re d a n g e ro u s

t h a n I ra n ' s C o m m u n i s t s . " T h e R e d s u b v e rs i v e s h a v e c l e a r i n t e n t i o n s a n d ,

incidenta l ly , I have less hatred towards them. They openly say they want to

hand over the country to foreigners , without ly ing and hypocrisy. But those

who l ie about being patr iot ic and in practice turn their backs on the country

a re w h a t I m e a n by b l a c k re a c t i o n , . . t h e s e m e n a re o n e h u n d re d m o re t i m e s

t r e a c h e r o u s t h a n th e T u d e h [ C o m m u n i s t P a rt y ."

1

T h e S hah 's off- the-cuff

re m a rk s d i d n o t m a k e t h e n e x t m o rn i n g ' s n e w s p a p e rs . H e c e n s o re d himself.

By the la te 1960s the S ha h had be com e increasingly confident and no

longer bothered to offer even a semblance of in teres t in cu l t ivat ing cordia l

t ies with I ran 's c lerics, I ran ne st led into a posi t ion of chief A m erican a l ly in

t h e P e rs i a n Gulf. W h e n U .S . P re s i d e n t R i c h a rd N i x o n v is it e d I ra n i n 1 9 7 1 ,

W a s h i n g t o n o n l y v o i c e d c o n s t e rn a t i o n a b o u t t h e c o n t i n u e d , u n i n t e rru p t e d

f low of P ers ian G ulf oi l s ince the Bri tish de pa rtu re from th e region in 196S .

N i x o n , a c c o rd i n g to p u b l i s h e d a c c o u n t s , l o o k e d a c ro s s t h e t ab l e at t h e S h a h

a n d s a id , " P ro t e c t m e . " A f te r t h a t m e e t i n g I ra n v ir t u a l l y b e c a m e t h e

U . S . -a p p o i n t e d g u a rd i a n of t h e P e rs ia n G u l f re g i o n , A m e ri c a n m i l i ta ry s u p

p l ies poured into the nation, sapping large chunks from i ts o i l revenue and

helping create one of the world 's top ten mil i tary powers .

1 A s reported i n

B aq ir M o i n ' s

excel lent

bi ogra phy of A y a t o l l a h

K h o m e i n i .

250



T E H R A N

Just one year before N ixo n 's v is it , K hom eini , l iv ing in the Iraqi S hi 'a re l i

gious shrine c i ty of Najaf, Iraq, had given a series of lectures tit led "Is lamic

G o v e rn m e n t . " K h o m e i n i o u t l i n e d h i s v i si o n o f a n id e a l I s l a m i c g o v e rn m e n t

as one led by learned re l igious e l i tes , much l ike P la to 's idea of ru le by phi loso

p h e r-k i n g s (K h o m e i n i , w h o rea d P l a t o , s i m p l y re p l a c e d p h i l o s o p h e r w i t h

cleric).

T h o u g h m a n y S h i ' a s c h o l a rs a n d c l e r i c s h a d e x p re s s e d a d e s ire t o

have a supervisory ro l e in gov ernm ent, n o c leric of K hom eini 's s ta tu re ever

ca l led for direct c lerical ru le over th e popu la t ion . S t i l l , th ou gh th e l ec tures

caus ed a min or s t ir am on g S hi 'a clergy, they bare ly mad e a r ipp le in Iran.

In t h e e a rl y 1 9 7 0 s s ev e ra l k ey a s p e c t s of t h e S h a h ' s W h i t e R e v o l u t i o n

b e g a n t o c ru m b l e . P e a s a n t s g ra n t e d d e e d s o f l a n d h a d n e i t h e r t h e m a n a g e r i a l

capacity no r the wi l l to ti l l their ow n soi l . M any so ld their deeds for quick

profits and hea de d to th e cities, w he re high -sp eed indu stria l ization offered th e

p r o m i s e o f a b u n d a n t

j o b s .

W h e n re v o l u t i o n a ry c o n d i t i o n s b e g a n t o b o i l i n t h e

la te 1970s, many of these former peasants formed part of the urban subprole-

t a r i a t t h a t t h ro n g e d t o t h e s t re e t d e m o n s t ra t i o n s i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e S h a h .

By the m id-1 97 0s a diverse pol i t ica l oppo sit ion m ov em ent against th e

S h a h h a d g a t h e r e d m o m e n t u m . A l o o s e c o a l it io n of n a t io n a l i s ts , C o m m u

nis ts , M arxis t guerri l las , l ibera l in te l lec tua l s , bazaar m erc han ts , c lerics , and

re l igious ly inspired diss idents ra ised their co l lec t ive voices in opposit ion to

t h e S h a h ' s a u t h o r i t a r i a n g r i p o n p o w e r . F ro m a b ro a d , i n I ra q , K h o m e i n i ' s

voice bo om ed defiant ly. "T he S hah m us t go," he sa id lou dly in his ser m on s

dis tr ibuted on casset te in mosque networks across Iran. " I t is too la te for

reforms," he sa id . "T he t im e is ripe for act ion. T h e S hah m us t go."

In t h e ea r l y 1 9 7 0 s M a rx is t u rb a n g u e rr i l l a n e t w o rk s s p ro u t e d a c ro s s I ra n

a n d v i o l e n t l y c h a l l e n g e d t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e g o v e rn m e n t . I ra n i a n w ri t e rs

q u ic k l y j u m p e d o n t o t h e b a n d w a g o n o f s u c h g r o u p s . A c u l t u r e o f r e v o l u t io n

g r i p p e d I ra n i a n th i n k e rs a n d s t u d e n t s . A s o n e s t u d e n t d e s c r i b e d i t, " W e s a w

everything as po l i t ica l and revolutionary. We woke up a t s ix

A M

a n d w e n t

ru n n i n g i n t h e m o u n t a i n s a n d s a w t h a t a s a p o l i t ic a l a c t. W e w e re s t re n g t h

ening ourse lves for the inevitab le revolution to come."

In t h e m i d -1 9 7 0 s t h e g o v e rn m e n t b e g a n a h e a v y c ra c k d o w n o n t h e u rb a n

g u e rr i l l a m o v e m e n t s . T h e S h a h , s h o w i n g m o r e s i g n s o f m e g a l o m a n i a ,

announced the formation of a s ingle po l i t ica l party of which a l l I ranians must

b e c o m e m e m b e r s . T h e o p p o s i t i o n m o v e m e n t e x p a n d e d a n d g r e w m o r e v o ca l

a s t h e gu l f b e t w e e n ru l e r a n d ru l e d w i d e n e d . T h r o u g h o u t t h is p e r i o d K h o -

251



P l itS L A N P I L p JU M A p E S

meini engaged in a running commentary on Iranian affa irs from his exi le in

I ra q . H e s t e p p e d u p h i s a t ta c k s o n " t h e A m e ri c a n l a c k ey ty ra n t " a n d " t h e

a n t i -M u s l i m k i n g ." S t il l , i n 1 9 7 5 , K h o m e i n i h im s e l f c o u l d n o t c l a i m t o b e a

nationa l f igure . Beyond pol i t ica l c irc les and urban mosque networks , few

middle-c lass Iranians had heard of him. Events over the next few years cre

a ted th e con dit io ns for K hom eini 's r ise .

In 197 3, oil prices qu adr up l ed, bring ing Iran, and the S hah , r iches beyond

a n y o n e ' s i m a g i n a t i o n . T h e S h a h u s e d m u c h o f t h i s n e w w e a l t h t o g o o n a

b u y i n g s p re e o f A m e ri c a n m i l i t ary e q u i p m e n t . A t h o m e , h e c ra c k e d d o w n fu r

t h e r o n a n y d o m e s t i c o p p o s i t i o n . E m b o l d e n e d b y h i s n e w p o s i t i o n a s t h e

g u a rd i a n o f t h e P e rs ia n G u l f a n d f l u s h w i t h t h e n e w w e a l t h , t h e S h a h

a n n o u n c e d t h e fo rm a t i o n of t h e R a s ta k h i z p o l i ti ca l p a rt y in 1 9 7 5 . T h i s n e w

party, he proc la imed grandly, would be the only pol i t ica l parry Iranians

n e e d e d . M e m b e r s h i p i n t h e p a rt y w a s n o t o p t i o n a l . N e e d l e s s t o sa y, m u c h of

Iran 's growing and pol i t ica l ly as tute middle c lasses bris t led a t th is imposit ion.

O p p o s i t i o n t o t h e S h a h h a r d e n e d .

In 1 9 7 6 , t h e S h a h t o o k a n o t h e r c o n t ro v e rs ia l s t e p : h e c h a n g e d t h e

n a t i o n a l c a l e n d a r . T h e S h a h d e c i d e d t h a t I ra n i a n s s h o u l d d i s c a rd t h e i r

Is l a m i c l u n a r-y e a r c a l e n d a r a n d a d o p t a n e w c a l e n d a r t h a t b e g i n s w i t h t h e

b i r t h of C y ru s t h e G re a t . S u d d e n l y , a l m o s t o v e rn i g h t , I ra n m o v e d f ro m t h e

year 1355 to 25 35 . T h e c lergy saw th e mov e as a gra tui to us affront to th e

fa it h . I ra n i a n o p p o s i t i o n f i g u res p ro c l a i m e d t h e S h a h a w h i m s i c al d e s p o t .

A n d t h e I ra n i a n p o p u l a t i o n l a rg el y fo u n d t h e c h a n g e i n y e a rs a n u n n e c e s s a ry

a n n o y a n c e .

S h o r t l y a f t e r t h e c a l e n d a r c h a n g e , a n o t h e r i m p o rt a n t e v e n t o c c u rre d , a n d

in re trospec t , i t can be seen as yet an ot he r s tep toward revol ution. In 197 7,

I ra n i a n w ri t e rs re c o n v e n e d t h e W ri t e rs A s s o c i at i o n , e m b o l d e n i n g t h e i n t e l

l e c t u a l o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e S h a h a n d c u l m i n a t i n g i n t h e fa m o u s " t e n n i g h t s " o f

o p p o s i t i o n p o e t ry i n O c t o b e r 1 9 7 7 .

A t a b o u t t h e s a m e t i m e I r a n ' s o n c e - b o o m i n g e c o n o m y h i t a s h a r p r e c e s

s ion. A fter years of gro wth and su bs eq ue nt r is ing expec ta t ions the n ation

suddenly found i tse l f facing inf la t ion, shortages , increased urban unemploy

m e n t , a n d a n o v e rh e a t e d e c o n o m y . A t t h i s s a m e t i m e , t h e S h a h b e g a n a g ra d

u a l l i b e ra l i z a t i o n p ro g ra m i n t e n d e d t o a p p e a s e t h e ru m b l i n g o p p o s i t i o n a n d

n e w h u m a n r i g h t s -m i n d e d P re s i d e n t J i m m y C a rt e r. In fe et, t h e S h a h ' s l i b e ral

ization emboldened the opposition and loosened its fears of political activity.

252



T E H R A N

In this period

of

re la t ive l ibera l ization, K hom eini 's voice grew loud er,

and

t h e S h a h a s k e d I ra q to exile the a y a to l l a h o n c e a g a i n . T h i s t i m e the aging and

i n t ra n s i g e n t c l e r i c t u rn e d up in P a r i s , w h e re he w o u l d be far f ro m I ra n i a n

trave lers

to Najaf, who

re turned from their p i lgrimages with sacks fu l l

of

fiery

K h o m e in i se r m o n s

on

casset te . Paris , however, proved

an

e v e n m o r e d a m a g

ing base

for

K h o m e i n i . S u d d e n l y , a l m o s t o v er n i g h t,

he

b e c a m e

the

s o r t

of

i n t e rn a t i o n a l f i g u re he n e v e r c o u l d h a v e b e c o m e had he r e m a i n e d in Najaf,

T h e w o r l d ' s j o u r n a l i s t s w a i t e d on his d o o r s t e p in a c h a t e a u o u t s i d e P a r i s ,

re p o r t i n g

his

every word back

to an

i n t e rn a t i o n a l a u d i e n c e i n t r i g u e d

by the

bearded c leric with the audacity to c h a l l e n g e the a l l -p o w e rfu l S h a h , P e rh a p s

m o s t i m p o r t a n t ,

the BBC

P ers ian S ervice , wide ly l is tened

to in

I r a n , b e c a m e

a

v e h ic l e t h r o u g h w h i c h K h o m e i n i c o u l d r e a ch

a

m a s s a u d i e n c e u n a t t a i n a b l e

by

the

m e r e d i s t r ib u t i o n

of

casset tes

in

m o s q u e s .

L e a d e r s

of

I ra n i a n s t u d e n t g ro u p s a b ro a d t u rn e d

up to pay

the ir re spec ts

t o K h o m e i n i . N a t io n a l i st s m a d e the p i l g r i m a g e to N e a u p h l e - l e - C h a te a u .

I r a n ' s C o m m u n i s t T u d e h p a r t y s e n t its e m i s s a ri e s . W e s t e rn -e d u c a t e d t e c h

n o c r a t s l ik e A b o l H a s s a n B a n i - S a d r

and

S a d eq G h o t b za d e h b e ca m e K h o

m e i n i ' s de fa c t o s p o k e s m e n to the W estern med ia , effective ly spin nin g an

i m a g e

of a

p i o u s , d e m o c r a t i c - m i n d e d

man of

re ligion facing

an

ogrelike,

a u t h o r i t a r i a n k i n g . F re n c h j o u rn a l i s t s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e f ro m Le

Monde,

fell

o v e r t h e m s e l v e s to praise Iran 's revolutionaries and a t t a c k the S h a h .

Back

in

I r a n , d e m o n s t r a t i o n s t u r n e d b l o o d y w h i c h s p u r r e d t r a d i t i o n a l

m o u r n i n g c e r e m o n i e s , w h i c h led to m o r e c o n f r o n t a t i o n s . W i t h the s i tuat ion

t u r n i n g g r i m , a d e l e g a t i o n of I ra n ' s l e a d i n g g e n e ra l s a p p ro a c h e d the S h a h and

asked

his

b l e s s i n g

for a

massive

and

b l o o d y c r a c k d o w n .

He

refused, saying

t h a t too m u c h b l o o d had been spi l led a l ready. Bowing to history, the

teary-eyed Shah, carrying

a jar of

I ra n i a n s o i l , b o a rd e d

a

p l a n e i n t o

an

u n k n o w n e x i l e .

S h o r t l y b e fo re

the

re v o l u t i o n ,

the

S h a h p u b l i s h e d

a

v o l u m e e n t i tl e d

Toward

the

Great C ivilization.

He described his d r e a m of I ra n as "a d e v e l o p e d

and free country equipped with advanced industry

and

t e c h n o l o g y

and a

h e a l t h y and p r o s p e r o u s e c o n o m y ; a p o w e rful s o c ie t y p o s s e s s i n g h u m a n d i g

nity to the maximum extent , enjoying individua l freedom and socia l jus t ice ,

b l e s s e d w i t h h i g h m o ra l

and

c u l t u ra l v a l u e s ,

and

devoting

its

creativ e efforts

to achieving both for itself and for the w o r l d an e v e r g re a t e r a d v a n c e m e n t on

t h e n e v e r e n d i n g ro a d

to

perfection."

2 S3



P E R S I A N P I L C M M A C E S

T h e S h a h ' s a m b i t i o n s fo r h i s l a n d w e re n o b l e . S t i l l , h e s e e m e d t o b e t h e

a rc h e t y p a l " n a t i o n a l i s t " w h o s p e n t m o re t i m e c o n c e rn e d a b o u t " t h e n a t i o n "

than he did about his people . His inabi l i ty to connect persona l ly with his

p o p u l a t i o n , a n d h i s u n w i l l i n g n e s s t o h e e d t h e i r c a l l s fo r m o re o p e n n e s s ,

proved to be a fata l political f law, one that a l lowed for a mystical- looking,

white-bearded c leric to r ide the t ide of revolutionary dissent to lead the over

t h ro w of t h e n a t i o n a l i s t b u t m i s g u i d e d a n d a l o o f K i n g o f K i n gs .

E l e v e n d ay s a ft er t h e S h a h ' s d e p a r t u re , o n F e b ru a ry 1 , 1 9 7 9 , K h o m e i n i

boa rded a 747 je t from P aris with l eading me m be rs of his de leg ation a nd

m e m b e rs o f t h e i n t e rn a t i o n a l p re s s c o rp s o n a n i m p ro b a b l e re t u rn t o I ra n .

K h o m e i n i re t u rn e d t o n e a r ra p t u re i n T e h ra n , H o p e fu l fac es l i n ed t h e s t re e t s

for m i les . A savior had arrived. A l l w ou ld be wel l on ce again in th e tort ure d

land of I ran. The newspaper headl ines sa id i t a l i : S H A H RAFI, I M A M AMAD. T h e

S h a h ' s g o n e . T h e I m a m h a s c o m e .

Pilgrimage: The Shrine of Ayatollah Khom eini

D

r iving a long the Tehran-Qom highway, past b i l lboards advert is ing soft

d r i n k s a n d s i g n s c e l e b ra t i n g t h e d e a t h o f p ro m i n e n t " m a rt y rs " o f t h e

Iran-Iraq war, the soft green l ights of a magnificent mosque twinkle

against the b lu e-b l ack nig ht sky. I t is f i tt ing th at th e shrin e to A yato l lah

R u h o l l a h K h o m e i n i w o u l d b e o n t h e h ig h w a y h e a d e d t o Q o m , I r a n 's a n c i e n t

re l igious c i ty and home of Iran 's most pres t igious Shi ' i te seminaries . After a l l ,

Q o m fathered K hom eini , the fierce , brave c leric w ho first den ou nc ed the

S h a h f ro m a p u l p i t th e r e . A n d i t w a s t o Q o m t h a t K h o m e i n i p r o m i s e d h e

w o u l d re t u rn a ft er h e c o m p l e t e d t h e t a s k o f o v e r t h ro w i n g t h e S h a h .

2

B u t K h o m e i n i w a s a t t ra c te d t o T e h ra n m o re t h a n Q o m . In T e h ra n , t h e re

w a s p o w e r. O n l y f rom t h e re c o u l d h e re m a k e I ra n a n d d i re c t t h e " Is l a m i c

R e v o l u t i o n " t h a t w o u l d d ra m a t ic a l l y c h a n g e t h e w o r l d . A n d s o e v e n t h e g e o g

ra p h y o f t h e s h r i n e i s a p p ro p r i a t e : i t is c l o s e r t o T e h ra n t h a n t o Q o m , p e rh a p s

s y m b o l i z in g K h o m e i n i a s m o re p o p u l i s t p o l i t ic i an t h a n q u i e t i s t cl e r ic .

H ere in the shrine erected for K hom eini , a s teady s trea m of pi lgrims

t o u c h e d a n d k i s s e d t h e g o l d g r i l l e s u rro u n d i n g h i s t o m b . B a re fo o t , s l e e p i n g

2

T h e

1979 CIA

report that

described K h o m e i n i

as "a

k i n d

o f

p h il o s o p h e r - ki n g w h o

w o u l d

retire to

Q o m

after th e revolut ion"

wa s wi shfu l t h i nki ng on

the part of the

Am e ri c a ns.

2 5 4



T E H R A N

pi lgrim s do tted the m assive ha l l , w ith i ts exposed rafters an d i ts re la tively

S p a r t a n i n t e r i o r T w o y o u n g s e m i n a ry s t u d e n t s in c r is p b ro w n f ro c k c o a t s a n d

carefu l ly c l ipped b lack beards sa t cross- legged, f ingering beads and whisper

ing prayers , A g ro up of yo un g schoolgir ls in l ight b lue shir ts and w hite head

scarves sa t in a c irc le on a red-and-blue machine-made Pers ian carpet , l is ten

ing to their teacher te l l them about " the noble Imam." Boys in dir ty socks ran

and s l id across the vast ha l l . Friends g leefu l ly dragged a cardboard box carry

ing one yo un g boy across the ha l l by a rope. A t the e nd of th e ha l l , boys jo s

t led for a posi t ion to be next in the cardboard s led.

I sa t down in a corner of the sh ri ne N ext to me , an e lder ly m an prayed on

the hard marble f loor. He prostrated himself, h i s h e a d t o u c h i n g t h e g ro u n d . H e

stood, w hisperin g prayers. O nc e again he low ered his body an d placed his fore

h e a d o n t h e g ro u n d . T h i s c o n s t a n t p ro s tra t i o n — u p t o t e n t i m e s i n s o m e M u s

l i m p ra y e rs — re m i n d s t h e b e l ie v er o f h i s s u b m i s s i o n t o G o d . ,

A s I w a t c h e d t h e m a n p ra y, I re m e m b e re d a n i n te rv ie w I h a d re a d w i t h t h e

p ro m i n e n t re fo rm i s t M u s l i m c l e r ic M o h s e n K a d iv a r. In t h e in t erv ie w , K a d iv a r

describe s Is l am's sub m issio n as directed a t G od a lo ne. H e cri tic izes w ha t he

thought has become submission to Iran 's ru l ing c lergy. He ardent ly cri t ic izes

clerical rule. For his views, he received a brief jai l sentence.

B u t K a d iv a r w a s n o t a m a v e ri c k . A n e n t i re g e n e ra t i o n o f y o u n g I ra n i a n

c l e r ic s h a v e re t h o u g h t t h e K h o m e i n i s t i de a of vekxyat-e-faqih. F r om M r .

M o h s e n i in I s fah a n t o c o u n t l e s s o t h e r y o u n g s t u d e n t s I m e t in t h e o l o g i c a l

schools across the country, many young c lerics have drif ted away from the

notion of c lerica l ru le .

These young c lerics are , in a sense , ca tching up with the res t of the pop

ula t ion. I t d id not take long for the average Iranian to fee l uncomfortab le with

c lerica l ru l e . T h e execu tions of lea ding writers and form er g ov ern m ent offi

cia ls in the early days of the revolution turned off many. The excessive social

re s t r i c t i o n s o n t h e p o p u l a t i o n a n d t h e d ra w n -o u t w a r w i t h I ra q f ru s t ra t e d

m a n y m o re . B u t m o s t i m p o rt a n t , I ra n ' s e c o n o m i c t ro u b l e s — t h e fa l l i n g c u r

re n c y , t h e u n e m p l o y m e n t , t h e i n f l a t i o n , t h e m i d d l e c l a s s ' s d e c i m a t i o n — t o l d

of an incapable government, one unable to meet the needs of i ts people ,

K h o m e i n i , l i ke o t h e r t w e n t i e t h -c e n t u ry I ra n i a n l e a d e rs , d e c re e d h i m s e l f a

patriarch, a fa ther f igure eager to guide his chi ldren down the r ight path.

Im plicit in this bargain was th e patriarc h's protec tion of the family. O n this

acco unt, the family coul d be forgiven a certa in disa pp oin tm ent. N ear ly

255



P E R S I A N P i L C R l M A p E S

twenty-five years after K hom eini thun der ed o nt o the Iranian s tage prom ising

s o m u c h t o s o m a n y , I ra n i a n s w o n d e r a l o u d w h a t w e n t w ro n g . T h o s e h e a d y

days of revolution that inspired Iranians to dream of an equitable, free society

soo n gave way to a mo re sob erin g reality: violent p ow er struggle s, th e deadly

1 9 8 0 -8 8 w a r w i t h I ra q , e c o n o m i c m i s m a n a g e m e n t a n d d e c l i n e , c o n t i n u e d

socia l and pol i t ica l repress ion, and internationa l iso la t ion.

The chi ldren have found fau l t with their fa thers , yet l ike so many chi ldren

of dysfunctiona l famil ies , they re ta in an enduring loya l ty to the fa ther f igure

and a therapeutic s i lence about his fau l ts : In some of the unl ike l ies t of se t t ings ,

I h e a rd d e fe n se s o f K h o m e i n i ; A w h i s k e y -d r i n k i n g p ro fe s s o r t o l d a n A m e ri c a n

j o u rn a l i s t t h a t K h o m e i n i b ro u g h t p r id e b a c k t o I ra n i a n s . A w o m e n ' s r i g h t s

activis t to ld m e that K hom eini w as no t th e probl em ; it was his conservative

a l l ies w ho ha d directed him w rongly. A nationa l is t w ar veteran, w ho he ld

Iran 's ru l ing c lerics in contempt, carried with him a pic ture of " the Imam."

O f co urse , a code of s i lence, a wal l of cens orsh ip, s ti l l shie ld s K hom eini .

Direct a t tacks on the former leader in Iran 's newspapers lead to swift re tr ibu

t i o n . T h e w o rd s a l o n e c a n g a rn e r i n c a rc e ra t i o n . L i k e t h e l e g a c y o f o t h e r

" fo u n d e rs " o f re v o l u t i o n s t u rn e d a u t h o r i t a r i a n s t a te s , t h a t o f K h o m e i n i is

jea lous ly guarded by his loya l adherents . In the ear ly years after the revolu

t i o n , K h o m e i n i w a s n o t t h e u n t o u c h a b l e p o l i ti c al ic o n h e h a s m o rp h e d i n t o

t o d a y O t h e r c l e r ic s , w h o s e re l i g i o u s l e a rn i n g far e x c ee d ed K h o m e i n i ' s , s p o k e

o u t o p e n l y a g a i n s t t h e s y s t e m o f g o v e rn m e n t t h a t h e p ro p o s e d a n d t h e re v o

lu t ion 's excesses . In ear ly 19 81 , A yatol lah R eza Za njan i sa id of the Is lamic

R e p u b l i c a n d it s l e a d e r : " T h e m o n o p o l y o f j u d i c i a l a n d t h e o l o g i c a l

dec is ion -m a king es tab l ished in Iran is contrary to Is l am. Th e t it le of G uide

a n d S u p r e m e G u i d e a r e n o t I s l a m ic . N o c o m p a r i s o n c a n t h e r e b e b e t w e e n

t h e C a t h o l i c C h u rc h w i t h i t s h i e ra rc h y a n d s t ru c t u re , a n d t h e l e a d e rs h i p o f

th e S hi ' i tes . A ny pre ten sion of th is sort is n ot I s lam ic."

A n o t h e r c l e r ic . G ra n d A y a to l l a h S h a r i a t m a d a r i o f T a b r i z, o p e n l y d ef ie d

K h o m e i n i a n d u rg e d h i s fol l o w e rs t o d o t h e s a m e . In re s p o n s e , K h o m e i n i , in

an unprecedented act , "defrocked" Sharia tmadari , depriving him of his t i t le .

N eed le ss to say, the defrocking did no t s it wel l with I ran 's t radit iona l c lerics ,

w ho viewed the t it le "G ran d A yato l lah," achieved after m or e tha n forty years

of r igorous s tudy, sacrosanct .

W h en S haria tm adari 's fol low ers in Tabriz fai led to put up mean ingful

2 5 6







T E H R A N

We walked toward the main shrine a t the center of the vast f loodl i t ha l l .

M o t h e r a n d d a u g h t e r s t o o d i n f ro n t o f t h e g ol d g ri l l e o f t h e s h r i n e ' s o u t e r

cage.

I waited for a few pi lgrims to pass and snapped the photo. She asked if

1 w o u l d t a k e a n o t h e r , o f h e r w o rs h i p i n g a t t h e s h r i n e .

1

agreed .

S h e w ra p p e d h e r f in ge rs a ro u n d t h e gr il l e . S h e w h i s p e re d M u s l i m p ra y e rs .

S h e b e g a n w e e p i n g a n d s p e a k i n g d i re c tl y t o K h o m e i n i . " O h

T

I m a m / ' s h e

w h i s p e re d , " H e l p u s . W e n e e d y o u n o w m o re t h a n e ve r,"

259



v i a

My Friend Hossein Hossein's War Journey to Akvaz *

War Miracles 4- Pilgrimage: War Martyrs'Shrine 4- Haji Agha Abu Torabi

and the

Prisoners

of War

Cities; Tehran, Ahvaz, Abadan , Khoram shahr, Shalam cheh

My Friend Hossein

M

y final Iranian pilgrimage began on a motorcycle, I heard the buzz of

H o s s e i n 's H o n d a C G 1 2 5 o u t si d e m y a p a r t m e n t w i n d o w . H e h ad t o l d

me he p lanned to bring the motorcyc le , but I had not be l ieved him.

" W h e re w i l l w e p u t o u r l u g g a g e ? " I a s k e d ,

"D o n' t worry, A fshin, I ' l l take care of i t ," he sa id . H osse in us ed th at ph rase

often. W h en I need ed new pipes for my water, he sa id , "D on ' t worry, I 'l l tak e

care of i t ," and ca l led a re l iab le p l um ber. W h en I w ant ed to secure an inter

view with

a

leading conservative c leric , he sa id , "Don' t worry, ['Uptake care of

i t ," and arranged the interview within forty-eight hours . He a lways popped up

i

at appropria te t imes to lend a he lping hand, and he did i t s toica l ly , quie t ly ,

h o n o ra b l y , w i t h o u t a n y s t r i n g s a t t a c h e d . H e h a d n o u l t e r i o r m o t i v e ; h e m a d e

no effort to shak e down the jour na l is t w ith dol lars in his pocket and n o effort

to push a po l i t ica l opinion or ideology on me. In fact , he large ly shunned

p o l i t i ca l d i s c u s s i o n s , t h o u g h I k n e w h e s y m p a t h i z e d w i t h I ra n ' s c o n s e rv a ti v e s.

He va lued fr iendship, above a l l , as the highest honor.

O n l y o n c e d i d h e a s k m e fo r a fav or . " W h e n y o u g o t o A m e ri c a , c o u l d y o u

s h o w m y X ra y t o a g o o d A m e ri c a n d o c t o r , " h e sa i d , h a n d i n g m e a

black-and-white image of his shattered shoulder, a re l ic of his days as a so l

d i e r i n t h e I ra n - I ra q w a r. T w o o p e r a t i o n s i n G e rm a n y — a t g o v e rn m e n t

260



T E H R A N

expense—foi led t o res tore his sho ul de r to ful l u se . Today he c an no t l ift h is

arm to his head. E very night he goes to s leep with a du l l pa in. By m or ni ng th e

pain wakes him , amplif ied and th ro bb ing . A t t ime s, he sa id , " i t feels l ike

1

have

a thousand pins poking me a t once," S t i l l , every day he wakes up a t 5 :30

A . M . ,

says his prayers , goes to w ork a t a go ve rn m en t-ru n insu ranc e f irm, and refuses

pain pi l l s . " I do no t want to bec om e ho ok ed on d rugs ," he to ld m e. " I have

s e e n t o o m a n y w a r v e t e ra n s b e c o m e d ru g a d d i c t s . I h a v e a fam i l y t o s u p p o r t . "

O n t h i s d a y o f o u r j o u rn e y h e e n t e re d m y a p a r t m e n t b e a r i n g a l arge b o x

of cookies in his le f t hand, his good hand. "We must begin our journey with

something sweet ," he sa id , leaning in for the tradit iona l cheek kiss that

acco m pan ies a l l I ranian greetings , I po ur ed two cu ps of tea , an d we picked a t

t h e h o n e y - a n d s u g a r-s o a k e d b i s c u i t s a s w e t a l k e d o f o u r u p c o m i n g t r i p .

"I brought the motorcyc le ," he sa id , a t race of mischief in his eyes . He

k n e w m y u n e a s e a b o u t r i d i n g o n t h e b a c k o f t h e m o t o rc y c l e o n T e h ra n ' s

chaotic highways. S t i l l , I fe igned courage.

"it wil l be a refreshing ride," I l ied.

H e l a u g h e d , p e rh a p s s e e i n g t h ro u g h m y p o o r a c t i n g j o b . " D o n ' t w o rry , i t

wi l l be f ine . W e can s l ip th ro ug h t he a irport t raffic m uc h easier with th e

m o t o rc y c l e . "

I 'd picked A hvaz as my fina l des t in ation , a so ut he rn Ira nian c ity in t he

prov ince of K l iuz estan, a cyoe--4wjr f l ight from Te hr an . Fro m the re w e wou ld

d r i v e a b o u t t w o h o u rs t o S h a l a m c h e h , a s m a l l t o w n n e a r t h e I ra q i b o rd e r

w h e re s o m e o f t h e b l o o d i e s t b a t t l e s t o o k p l a c e i n t h e 1 9 3 0 -8 8 I ra n - I ra q w a r .

O n t h e q u i e t, d u s t -s w e p t p l a i n s of S h a l a m c h e h , u p t o f if ty t h o u s a n d I ra n i a n s

a n d a n u n t o l d n u m b e r o f I ra q i s d i e d i n t h e k i n d o f g ru e s o m e g ro u n d w a rfa re

no t seen s ince W orl d Wa r L "We saw the eyes of the Iraqi so ldiers as they

died," Hossein sa id , "and they saw ours ."

A s h r i n e s p ra n g u p i n S h a l a m c h e h fo r I ra n ' s w a r d e a d . T o g e t t o t h e

shrin e , auth ori t ies requ ired a specia l pass . W h en I asked H osse in if he cou ld

sec ure a pass for m e, he said: "D on 't wo rry, I ' l l take care of it ." A few d ays l ater

he ap pea red w ith a ir l ine tickets and a g l im m er in his eye. "We are going to

S h a l a m c h e h , " h e s a i d . " I t o l d y o u I w o u l d t a k e c a re o f i t .

"Hamid wi l l be meeting us a t the a irport ," Hossein sa id , referring to our

other t rave l partner, another Basij i war veteran. I f i rs t met Hamid a t the mar

t y rs '

c e m e t e ry i n T e h ra n , w h e re t h o u s a n d s of I ra n ' s y o u n g w a r d e a d l ie

burie d. A thir ty -three-y ear-o l d recent fa ther of a baby girl , he to ld m e of the

26l



P E R S t A M

P U f J U M A f E S

d e a t h s of his two b r o t h e r s in the war and t a l k e d e m o t i o n a l l y of the day one

b ro t h e r ' s b o n e s a r r i v e d at the front door in a box. "One day, a few years after

t h e

war had

e n d e d , a s o l d i e r k n o c k e d

on my

m o t h e r ' s d o o r , i n s i d e

a box he

carried the b o n e s of my b r o t h e r / ' he s a i d

r

his l o w e r lip t r e m b l i n g . "We t o o k

t h e b o n e s

and

gave

him a

p r o p e r b u r ia l .

He was

seventeen years

old

w h e n

he

d i e d / ' he sa id . "He was a great soccer player. He c o u l d h a v e b e e n a m e m b e r

of the n a t i o n a l t e a m . "

S h o r t l y b e fo re our trave l date , Hamid asked Hossein and me if we c o u l d

c h a n g e

our

trave l p lans ,

to go a day

later.

His

b ab y d a u g h t e r

had

fa l len

ill. He

w a n t e d to t a k e her to the d o c t o r b e fo re we left . Typica l ly Hossein sa id , "Don' t

worry, I'll take care of it," and set a b o u t c h a n g i n g our t i c k e t d a t e s — n o t an

easy task given

the

s h o r t a g e

of

seats

on the

fl ight. Because

of

w h a t s e e m e d

like the re lative ease that Hossein got t h i n g s d o n e , m a n a g i n g j u s t a b o u t a n y

t h i n g w i t h

a few key

p h o n e c al l s ,

I

a s s u m e d t h a t

his

s t a t u s

as war

veteran

b r o u g h t him extensive connections . Veterans of the war benefit from special

t re a t m e n t — u n i v e rs i t y s l o t s , g o v e rn m e n t j o b s , a i r l i n e d i s c o u n t s — a n d o f t e n

call

on

t h e i r m y ri a d c o n t a c t s

to

c i r c u m v e n t

the

n o r m a l c h a n n e l s

of the

sys

t e m . F a m i l i e s of the war d e a d , the "martyrs ," get similar privileges and s o m e

financia l co m pe nsa tio n from

the

g o v e r n m e n t , c r e a t i n g r e s e n t m e n t a m o n g

the

p o p u l a c e , who t e n d to exaggerate the benefits and perks.

T o c h a n g e the tickets, we b o a r d e d H o s s e i n ' s m o t o r c y c l e one day and

buzzed from

my

a p a r t m e n t

to the

travel agency.

In the

smal l , bright agency

with 1970s posters of S w i s s ski re s o r t s on the w a l l and red swivel chairs

s p l a y e d a b o u t , H o s s e i n b y p a s s e d the l ine of w a i t i n g c u s t o m e rs and asked for

M r. G h a z im p o o r

A

w o m a n

in

a

b l u e h e a d

scarf,

w e a r i n g

a

s tr ing

of

foreign

a i r l i n e p i n s on her l o o s e -f i t t i n g b l u e m a n t e a u , w e n t to the back to ca l l Mr.

G h a zi m p o or ,

A few

m i n u t e s l a t e r

a

c h u n k y fe l l o w w i t h

a

t h re e -d a y b e a rd

and

c h e s t h a i r c u r l i n g up to his exposed neck, entered from a b a c k r o o m . Mr.

G h a z i m p o o r t r a d e d t h r e e k is se s

on the

c h e e k w i t h H o s s e i n

and

s h o o k

my

h a n d in g re e t i n g . H o s s e i n i n t ro d u c e d me as "the A m e r i c a n j o u r n a l i s t i n t e r

ested in our war." Mr. G h a z i m p o o r , a l s o a v e t e ra n , t h a n k e d me and invited us

to

sit

d o w n

in a

pair

of red

swivel chairs

in the

c o m e r

of the

travel agency.

M r G h a z i m p o o r , i ne vi ta bl y , o ffered us tea as he b e g a n p e c k i n g at a c o m

p u t e r

and

t ra d i n g s m a l l ta l k w i t h H o s s e i n a b o u t m u t u a l f ri en ds

and

recent

m a rr i a g e s and n e w b o r n b a b ie s . An e lder ly , gaunt man with spotted skin shuf

fled

up to us,

carrying

a

tray

of

t iny

tea

g lasses that c l inked with

the

m a n ' s

262



T E H R A N

u n s t e a d y g a it . H e re m i n d e d m e o f M r . H a s h e m i , t h e t ea s erv e r a t t h e g o v e rn

m e n t m i n is try , I t h a n k e d t h e e l d e rl y m a n a s H o s s e i n e x p l a i n e d o u r p ro b l e m .

M r. G h a z i m p o o r b e g a n s e a rc h i n g for a n e w t ic k e t . W i t h ev ery p u n c h i n t h e

c o m p u t e r , h e s aw b o o k e d f l i gh ts . H e k e p t g ru m b l i n g , " N o t h i n g a v a i l a b l e / ' t o

himself.

H e c o n t i n u e d p u n c h i n g , c o n t i n u i n g h i s t al k w i t h H o s s e i n a b o u t a

m u t u a l f r ie n d w h o re c e n tl y h a d s urg e ry . " T h a n k G o d

P

" he said repeatedly as

Hossein described the fr iend 's recovery or the hea l thy bir th of a newborn or

a recen t spate of go od w eather. A fter a few m inu tes of searching an d a few

m o r e t h a n k G o d ' s , M r . G h a z i m p o o r c a m e u p e m p ty . " I s h al l p u t y o u o n a

wait ing l is t ," he sa id . " I ' l l check every hour or so to see if anything comes up."

Hossein thanked him, and we left the agency.

I 'd expected a bi t more pampering from the encounter. I t hard ly seemed

as if H osse in 's t reat m ent differed from the average cus tom er 's o th er th an that

he had a friend in the travel agency who al lowed him to skip to the front of

th e l ine . In fact, a fr iend of my own w ith con ne ctio ns in the trave l indu stry

could eas i ly have found us t ickets (once he even offered to bump someone

for m e, an offer I refused). I did not say anyt hin g to H os sei n, how ever, abo ut

th e friend w ho m ight he l p us . I t ma de m e apprecia te his efforts even m or e to

t h i n k t h a t h e d i d n o t a c c o m p l i s h t h e m w i t h e a s e .

W h e n w e w a l k e d o u t o f t h e a g en c y, H o s s e i n s e e m e d p e n s i v e . P e rh a p s h e

was embarrassed that the t icket process did not go smooth ly in front of me.

A fter a l l , th e abil i ty to get th ing s do ne us in g conn ect ion s is an art that is

highly praised in Iran. Having an askna, an important contact in a t rave l

agency or a government office or wherever something needs to get done,

o p e n s m a n y d o o rs a n d h a n g s p ro u d l y o n o n e ' s c h e s t a s a b a d g e o f h o n o r .

P e o p l e w i t h l a rg e c o l l e c t i o n s o f i m p o rt a n t ashnas c a n b e c o m e v e ry p o p u l a r—

and usefu l . 1 kno w of one suc h fel low wh o seemingl y can get wh atever he

w a n t s t h ro u g h h i s c u l t i v a ti o n o f c o n t a c t s o v e r t h e y e a rs . M o s t l y h e l i k e s t o

use them for fr iends and family to ease the burden of going through the reg

u lar , ineffic ient , som etim es ma dd en ing pr ocess of ge ni ng passp orts or wait ing

in bank l ines or , indeed, securing a seat on an a irp lane.

"I am sure we sha l l get the t ickets ," I assured Hossein. "With your con

n e c t i o n s , h o w c a n w e g o w r o n g ? "

Just across th e s treet from t he travel agency, the wind ow of an A rm en ian

bakery, fu ll of ho ne y and c hoco la te and cream-fi l led sweets , ca l led ou t to m e.

I ins is ted that we go in . Hossein, l ike me, had a sweet tooth, so i t d id not take

2G3



P E R S I A N P L l f A L M A P E S

m uc h con vincing . T h e p leasa nt bakery bust l ed with act ivity. A few m eta l

chairs and wood tab les leaned up against the walk We ordered a p la te of

crea m puffs laced in chocol a te an d two c up s of tea . A s we sat do w n to eat ,

H o s s e i n s a id , " D o n ' t w o rry, A fsh i n. M r G h a z i m p o o r is a g o o d m a n . H e w i l l

help us get the tickets."

U l t i m a te l y , M r . G h a z i m p o o r (an d H o s s e i n ) c a m e t h r o u g h . A few da y s l a t e r

I found myse lf on the back of Hossein 's motorcyc le , dodging traffic , on our

way to the a irport . A s we passed bi l lbo ards disp laying th e faces of pr om ine nt

" m a rt y rs " o f t h e w a r , I h e l d f i rm l y t o t h e b a c k o f t h e m o t o rc y c l e . H a u n t i n g

pictures of the war raced through my mind. The night before , Hossein had

spoken to me for the f irs t t ime about his own persona l war experience. The

images he described s t i l l chi l led and amazed me.

Hossein's War

V

sua l ly Hossein def lected my queries about his war experiences . "I

h o p e , w e c a n si t d o w n a n d t a l k s o m e t i m e l a t er ," h e w o u l d sa y. W h e n

e v e r I t r i e d t o p i n d o w n a d a t e , " s o m e t i m e l a t e r" e n d e d t h e d i s c u s

s ion. A fter a whi l e I s to pp ed inq uiring , co nte nt with interviewing othe r

veterans . Fina l ly , the day before our pi lgrimage, he showed up a t my door a t

dusk with a pack of cigarettes in his front shirt pocket, a sharp pain in his

s h o u l d e r , a n d a s t o m a c h fu l o f h a u n t i n g w a r t a l e s .

"[ have been riding the motorcycle too much late ly," he said

T

m a s s a g i n g

his shoulder with his good arm as he sa t down. "I t puts a s tra in on my injury."

I b ro u g h t h i m a n a s h t ra y a n d p o u re d t w o c u p s o f t e a . H e s a t d o w n , p u l l e d

out the c igaret tes , and p laced the pack on the wood tab le in front of him, a

t a b l e c o v e re d i n a n e a r l y - t w e n t i e t h -c e n t u ry R u s s i a n ta b l e c l o t h t h a t l o o k e d

every bit its age. I offered h im so m e Sw iss choco la te, on e of his favorites.

"This Swiss chocola te is beautifu l ," he sa id , breaking off a piece and lean

ing it up against his tea glass inside the saucer. "It is l ike medicine. It can take

your mind off any pain for the moment i t is in your mouth."

He asked me if I needed anything before we left on our journey. I thanked

h i m , s a y i n g h e h a d a l re a d y d o n e e n o u g h a n d I c o u l d h a n d l e a n y t h i n g t h a t

m i g h t c o m e u p b e t w e e n n o w a n d t o m o rro w .

A b ru p t l y h e c u t t o t h e h e a r t o f t h e m a t t e r. " Y ou p ro b a b l y w a n t t o k n o w

wh y I fought in the war,"

2 6 4



T E H R A N

"Wel l , yes , that would be a good p lace to s tart / ' I sa id , pu l l ing out my

n o t e b o o k .

H e p o p p e d a s u g a r c u b e o n h i s t o n g u e a n d s i p p e d t h e t e a . H e p a u s e d

f or a m o m e n t a n d t h e n b e g a n : " S o m e t i m e s w e d o n ' t d o t h i n g s f or t h e

s a k e of m o n e y o r h o n o r , b u t b e c a u s e it i s j u s t t h e r i g h t t h i n g t o d o . "

"When Iraq invaded us , i t was not on ly invading our sacred soi l but was

seeking to end our Is lamic revolution," He referred to the ini t ia l I raqi invasion

of s o u t h e rn I ra n o n S e p t e m b e r 2 2 , 1 9 8 0 . " I w a s v ery p ro u d o f o u r I s l a m i c

R e v o l u t i o n , a n d I w a s v e ry p ro u d of o u r c o u n t ry a n d p e o p l e , I s i m p l y c o u l d

no t s tand b y as th at d ir ty th ug a t tacked us . For m e, to go to the w ar was the

right thing to do."

He then l i t a c igaret te , took a deep

puff,

a n d c o n t i n u e d . " I w a s o n l y s i x t e e n

y e a rs o l d w h e n I ra q i n v a d e d . T h e re w e re m a n y p e o p l e o f m y a g e w h o b e g a n

vol unte ering to go to the war. I w ant ed to f ight too, bu t my m ot he r objected.

S he did n ot wa nt m e to go, so I d id no t vo l un teer r ight away. M y o ld er

b ro th er said I was crazy eve n to th in k of fighting, b u t I felt differently. I felt

t h a t

1

needed to defend our soi l and our revolution," he sa id , taking a s ip of

tea . " I be l ieved deeply in the Im am [K hom eini] and s t i l l do. A fter abo ut on e

year and a half I co ul d n o l ong er resist. I jo in ed t he Basiji fighting force an d

prepared for my miss ion "

W h e n I raq i n v ad e d I ra n , A y a to l l a h K h o m e i n i d e cl a re d t h e d e fe n se o f I ra n

"a holy war" and promised that a l l so ldiers who died in the war would die as

m a rt y rs a n d a s c e n d d i re c tl y t o h e a v e n . T h e Is l a m i c R e p u b l i c fo u n d e d t h e

B a s i j i o rd e rs t o re c ru i t y o u n g m e n l i k e H o s s e i n a n d H a m i d , w h o w e re n o t o l d

enough to qua l ify for the regular mi l i tary. What with vigorous recruit ing in

most ly lower-income urban and rura l areas of I ran, employing heavy ta lk of

m a rt y rd o m a n d re l i g i o u s s a c r i f i c e , t h o u s a n d s o f y o u n g m e n l i k e H o s s e i n

j o i n e d t h e B a s i j i s . R a g t a g g ro u p s o f c o u n t ry b o y s a n d w o rk i n g -c l a s s u rb a n

kids , they arrived u np rep are d o n t he batt lefie lds . In so m e cases , the Basijis

acted as human mine-c learing f ie lds , a key to heaven wrapped around their

necks as they "martyred" themselves for th is "holy war/ ' As the war proceeded,

the Basij is became more sophis t icated in their t ra ining and preparat ion.

While s t i l l shrouded in a cu l t of martyrdom by the government, the Basij is ,

w h o b o a s t t h a t t h e y c h a rg e d a h e a d i n t h e b a t t l e w i t h " n o b ra k e s , " e v e n t u a l l y

c a m e t o b e u s e d a s m o re t h a n j u s t m i n e -c l e a r i n g m a r t y rs . M o re o v e r , m a n y o f

them wil l say that nat iona l ism, more than re l igion, f i red their zea l .

265



P E R S I A N P U G M M A f E S

Hossein 's f i rs t ass ignment sent him to the eas tern front to batt le drug

s m u g g l e rs . " W e h a d s o m a n y v o l u n t e e rs t h a t I w a s n o t n e e d e d i n t h e s o u t h

and west , wher e the wa r was being fought. I was sen t eas t to f ight against

d ru g s m u g g l e rs . M a n y of t h e sm u g g l e rs i n c re a se d t h e i r o p e ra t i o n s b e c a u s e

t h e y t h o u g h t w e w o u l d b e t o o o c c u p i e d w i t h t h e w a r . T h e Im a m d i d n o t w a n t

us to forget our nat iona l duties to f ight against drugs amid the chaos of

t h e w a r / '

After near ly two months in the eas t , Hossein received transfer orders to

th e war front in the west . "W he n I got there , I was excited. I wa s yo un g and a

b i t e a g e r t o s e e t h e w ar . W e h a d re t a k e n K h o r a m s h a h r a n d o t h e r p a r t s o f I ran

tha t I raq h ad ca ptu red . W e w ere no w on the offensive, I s tayed in the cam p

for a few days , and t he n I jo in ed a larger gro up th at was prepa ring an offen

sive into Iraq."

Had he received any tra ining by this t ime? 1 asked.

" I k n e w h o w t o u s e a m a c h i n e g u n . " H e s m i l e d , " I a l s o w a s g i v e n s o m e

g u i d a n c e i n t h e c a m p . N o t m u c h , b u t it w a s e n o u g h fo r m e . "

H e pul l ed o n his c igarette and low ered his voice to a ju s t a udib l e w hisper.

I leaned in to l is ten to him.

"1

rem em be r th e night I w as injured vivid ly ," he sa id . "I t was A ban 1361 / '

h e sa id , u s i n g t h e I r a n ia n d a t e ro u g h l y c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o O c t o b e r - N o v e m b e r

1982. "I t was ab ou t e ight P . M . We were preparing for an offensive. It was cold.

T h e re w e re a b o u t fo u r t h o u s a n d o f

us.

M a n y p e o p l e w e r e pr a yi n g. S o m e w e r e

crying, I app roa che d m any of my fel low so ldiers , and we asked each oth er for

forgiveness for any thing we mig ht have sa id or don e that b oth ered us . O ne

young man paid off a few debts. He did not want to die in debt.

" A s for m e , m y m i n d s o a re d t o Im a m H o s s e i n . I t h o u g h t o f h i s m a t ry rd o m

and his bravery, and E w an ted t o cry, bu t I he ld it in . O n e of m y friends, a

w re s t l i n g c h a m p i o n n a m e d B a h ra m H a j a l i a , h a d j u s t re t u rn e d f ro m a n

a d v a n c e d s c o u t i n g m i s s i o n . H e t o l d u s t h a t t h e I ra q i s w e re u n p re p a re d . H e

predicted an easy vic tory/ '

A s h e s p o k e , n i g h t a p p ro a c h e d , d a rk e n i n g t h e ro o m . W h e n I m o v e d t o

fl ick a Light switch, he asked that the room remain dark. The only l ight was the

pa le g low of the moon through my windows and the haze of smoke and orange

ash from his cigarette. He then described, in a quietly chil l ing way, the offen

sive in which he was injured, "I was carrying a heavy machine gun and

26$



T E H R A N

checked to see if everything was in order By the t ime our commander ordered

u s t o a t t a ck , w e h a d c ri ed a n d p ra ye d a n d h u g g e d o n e a n o t h e r S o m e p e o p l e

expressed the hop e that they wo ul d be ma rtyred. I prayed to Im am H osse in as

we began jogging toward th e ene m y amid abou t a th ou sa nd othe r Basijis. T he

j o g t u rn e d t o a s p r i n t , a n d I ra n ful l s p e e d t h ro u g h a v al l e y f l a n k ed b y m o u n

ta ins . We expected to engag e th e enem y on th e oth er s ide of the va l ley "

The survei l lance was f lawed, however. The Iraqis were wait ing on top of

t h e m o u n t a i n s t h a t f l a nk e d t h e v al l ey . A s t h e I ra n i a n s a p p ro a c h e d , th e I ra q i s

fired down on the advancing soldiers l ike target practice. Bahrain fe l l early on.

"Suddenly, as we ran, a ra in of bu l le ts and f irepower came down on us

from the s ides of th e val ley. T h e I raqis were on th e m ou nta ins , shoo ting from

al l d irect ions . People were fa l l ing a l l a round me. I heard screams and shouts . I

saw a friend die . H is head was spew ing b lo od, and his body lay o n th e gr ou nd ,

contorted in a most s trange manner. His leg was twis ted in such a way that h is

b o o t t o u c h e d h i s h e a d .

1

tr ied to duck away into a r idge in the mountain, to

get away from the f ire. Th ey w ere ju s t h i t t ing u s on e by one , ju s t p icking us

off from their mountain posit ions , and there was l i t t le we could do."

A s h e s p o k e , I n o t i c e d h i s h a n d t re m b l i n g , t h e c i g are t te s m o k e d a n c i n g

n e rv o u s l y i n q u i c k j e rk s in t h e d a rk e n e d ro o m .

"T he re was a lso m ort ar f ire and expl osions . I t wa s so lo ud, so very lou d.

S om e of the expl osions were so powerfu l tha t my bod y was l if ted in the a ir.

This happened about three t imes. I fe l t my rib cage shattered " Ins t inctive ly ,

he reached for his r ibs as he spoke, perhaps remembering the pain.

"I found a spot in a r idge of the mountain base and lay on the ground. I t

was dark, so I waited for the Iraqis to fire , and th en I w oul d s ho ot a t the l ight

com ing from th eir gun s above. S om e of m y fe l low so ldiers with antia ircraft

ro c k e t s a n d a n t i t a n k b u l l e t s b e g a n s h o o t i n g u p a t t h e I ra q i s o l d i e rs . I h e a rd

screams from above.

"A t o n e p o i n t , j u s t a s I w a s g e t ti n g u p t o c h a n g e p o s i t i o n s ,

I

was h i t with

a b u l l e t i n m y sh o u l d e r . I h i t t h e g ro u n d . M y b o d y b e c a m e w a rm . I t r ie d

reac hing for my gu n, bu t I coul d no t get it . Fina l ly, I reached i t bu t I coul d no t

p u l l t h e t r i g g e r . I w a s i n t o o m u c h p a i n . A f t e r a fe w m i n u t e s o n t h e g ro u n d ,

I

realized

1

was hurt badly ."

H e pau sed, breat hing heavi ly, I asked him w hat h e tho ug ht of at th e t ime.

"I t h o u g h t o f m y m o t h e r , a n d

I

t h o u g h t o f Im a m H o s s e i n . I l ay o n t h e

267



P E R S I A N P I L f R I M A f E S

g ro u n d i n a n d o u t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s fo r a b o u t t w o h o u rs . I w a s s h o t t w o m o re

times—once in the leg, once in the wris t . I was sure that

1

was going to die . I

was going to become a martyr,"

By this time he had extinguished his cigarette, so I could see less of his

face . His voice began to crack, the memories breaking his normal ly s toic

d e m e a n o r .

"Some of my fe l low so ldiers saw me on the ground and l i f ted me up and

hid me in an a lcove in the mountain. A few minutes la ter a group of so ldiers

c a m e ru n n i n g i n t o t h e a l c o v e w i t h a s t re t c h e r . T h e re w a s f i re a n d e x p l o s i o n s

a l l a r o u n d t h e m . T h e y p u t m e o n t h e s t r e t c h e r a n d b e g a n r u n n i n g t h r o u g h

th e dark va l ley. E verything we nt quie t , and th en th e f ir ing bega n again. A bul

le t h i t one of the guys carrying the s tre tcher The s tre tcher fe l l , and I lay on

the ground again. The s tre tcher was picked up, and again we ran, and again I

fe l l off the s tre tcher. This happened about three or four t imes. I t may have

h a p p e n e d m o r e , b u t

1

d o n ' t r e m e m b e r . "

He paused and l i t another c igaret te , h is face l ighted momentari ly by the

match, t noticed a tear ro l l ing down his s tubbly cheek. "We fina l ly made i t to

a barricade- I was so co ld- Someone wrapped me in a b lanket . I was saying

prayers.

1

w a s s u re I w a s g o i n g t o d ie . T h e n o u r m u n i t i o n s i n t h e b a rr i ca d e

were hi t . Fire swir led around me, and the b lanket caught f ire . A fe l low so ldier

l i f ted me up away from the burning b lanket . He was about to put me m an

ambulance, but i t was fu l l . They put me in the next car , a b ig van fu l l of o ther

i n j u re d s o l d i e rs . L a t e r

L

fo u n d o u t t h a t t h e a m b u l a n c e t h a t w a s fu l l w a s s h o t

a n d e x p l o d e d . E v e ry o n e i n t h a t a m b u l a n c e w a s m a r t y re d . "

He was pushed into the back seat of a van with four other injured so ldiers .

" W e l a y a t o p o n e a n o t h e r , o u r a rm s a n d l e g s c ro s s i n g , o u r b l o o d m i n g l i n g .

E v e ry o n e w a s s c re a m i n g a n d c ry i n g , a n d

I

w a s p ra y i n g t o I m a m H o s s e i n .

A f t e r t h a t , 3 d o n ' t r e m e m b e r a n y t h i n g u n t il 1 woke up in a mi l i tary hospita l

near K ho ram sha hr. I los t a lo t of b l ood. I w as very weak. I was f lown from

K h o ra m s h a h r t o T a b r iz . T h e T e h ra n h o s p i t a l s w e re al re a dy t o o fu l l o f i n j u red

soldiers,"

After a few days in Tabriz , he recovered enough to use the phone. He

ca l led his brother in Tehran. He to ld him about his in juries and p leaded with

h i m n o t t o t e l l h i s m o t h e r .

" W h e n I a r r i v e d a t t h e a i rp o r t i n T e h ra n a n d m y b ro t h e r s a w m e w i t h a l l

m y b a n d a g e s , h e h u g g e d m e a n d c r i ed . S o di d I. M y m o t h e r c r ie d s o m e m o re

265



T E H R A N

w h e n I g o t h o m e . F o r a l m o s t t h re e m o n t h s s h e t o o k c a re o f m e , " h e s a i d .

"M ay G od res t her soul . S he fed m e l ike a chi ld , and sh e cried al l the t ime."

S til l , despite his m oth er 's cries, H osse in 's m ind tur ne d back to the war.

" I t h o u g h t o f m y f ri en d s a n d t h e b a t t l e s , a n d I w o n d e re d w h a t w a s h a p

p e n i n g . I w a n t e d t o g o b a c k . P e o p l e t h o u g h t I w a s c ra zy . I t w a s h a rd t o e x p l a i n

t o t h e m . T h e y c o u l d n o t u n d e rs t a n d u n l e s s t h e y e x p e ri e n c e d i t. T h e re w a s a

certa in mystica l s ide to the war. I needed to get back to that ."

M an y war veteran s , especia l ly th e re l igious ones , often spoke of this "m ys

t ica l" aspect of the war. Sure , i t was b loody and fr ightening and debi l i ta t ing,

b u t s o m e h o w i t h a d a p u l l , " a n e m o t i o n a l a n d re l i g i o u s s t a t e o f h i g h e r u n d e r

s t a n d i n g , " a s o n e I ra n i a n p s y c h i a t r i s t w h o s t u d i e d w a r v e t e ra n s p u t i t . H o s

sein sa id: "When you are faced with death every day, somehow everything e lse

bec om es so trivia l . You beg in to see so clearly . You beco m e as c lose to G od as

you ever wi l l be . I w ante d to get back to th at . I cou ld no t s tay in Te hra n and

complain about the r is ing price of meat ."

A n d s o , h i s a rm i n a s l i ng , h e t u rn e d u p a t t h e l o c a l m o s q u e , w h e re v o l

un tee rs w ere recruited for the war. A few wee ks la ter he was back on the front

l ines.

T hi s t ime he was mo re carefu l . H e s tayed in th e back duri ng offensives .

He ducked behind secure posi t ions before f ir ing on the enemy. He did not

vol unte er for the m ost daring m iss ions . S t i l l , he saw m or e fr iends die . He

fainted severa l t imes from heat exhaustion. He drank water from a b loody

stream. He exacerbated his shoulder injury and broke his ankle .

After a few months a t the war front , he re turned home, os tensib ly for

goo d. H e ha d served his cou ntry an d, in his view, his fa i th . N o n eed to go

back. He got m arried, had a son , an d se t t led back dow n to a famil iar r ou tin e

of work. S t i l l , he fe l t the pul l , the urge to go back one las t t ime. He volun

teered again.

"By this t ime I noticed some of the origina l re l igious fervor dec l ining

a m o n g t h e t ro o p s . I fo u g h t i n t w o m o re o ffen si ve s i n t h e w e s t a n d w e n t h o m e

again." T hi s wa s in 1984 . H e did not go back. T he w ar las ted ano the r four

y e a rs . K h o m e i n i re je c t ed n u m e r o u s c e as e -f ire o p p o r t u n i t i e s . T h e s l o g a n —

W a r, W a r , u n t i l V i ct o ry — g ra c e d b i l l b o a rd s a n d n e w s p a p e rs a n d g o v e rn m e n t

bui ldings a l l over the country.

By 1985 open demonstra t ions against the war had surfaced in Tehran and

o t h e r m a j o r c i t ie s . T h e g o v e rn m e n t b ra n d e d t h e w a r p ro t e s t e rs a s t ra i t o rs.

T h e w a r w o u l d c o n t i n u e , K h o m e i n i t h u n d e r e d , u nt i l S a d d a m H u s s e i n f el l .

269



P E R S I A N P L l f M M A p E S

g r o u n d i n a n d o u t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s for a b o u t t w o h o u rs . I w a s s h o t tw o m o r e

tim es— onc e in the leg, once in th e wris t. [ was sure m at I was going to die . I

was going to become a martyr."

By this t ime he had extinguished his c igaret te , so I could see less of his

face . His voice began to crack, the memories breaking his normal ly s toic

d e m e a n o r .

" S o m e of m y fel l o w s o l d i e rs s a w m e o n t h e g r o u n d a n d l i fte d m e u p a n d

h i d m e i n a n a l c o v e i n t h e m o u n t a i n . A fe w m i n u t e s l a t e r a g ro u p o f s o l d i e rs

came running into the a lcove with a s tre tcher. There was f ire and explosions

a l l a r o u n d t h e m . T h e y p u t m e o n t h e s t r e t c h e r a n d b e g a n r u n n i n g t h r o u g h

the dark va l ley E verything wen t quie t , and then th e f ir ing began again. A bu l

le t h i t one of the guys carrying the s tre tcher. The s tre tcher fe l l , and

1

lay on

the ground again. The s tre tcher was picked up, and again we ran, and again I

fe l l off the s tre tcher. This happened about three or four t imes. I t may have

h a p p e n e d m o r e , b u t I d o n ' t r e m e m b e r . "

He paused and l i t another c igaret te , h is face l ighted momentari ly by the

m atc h. I notice d a tear ro l l ing down his s tubbl y cheek. "W e fina l ly m ade i t to

a b a rr ic a d e . I w a s s o c o l d . S o m e o n e w ra p p e d m e i n a b l a n k e t . I w a s s a y i n g

p ra y ers . I w a s s u re I w a s g o i n g t o d i e. T h e n o u r m u n i t i o n s i n t h e b a rr i c a d e

were hi t . Fire swir led around me, and the b lanket caught f ire . A fe l low so ldier

l i f ted me up away from the burning b lanket . He was about to put me in an

ambulance, but i t was fu l l . They put me in the next car , a b ig van fu l l of o ther

i n j u re d s o l d i e rs. L a t e r I fo u n d o u t t h a t t h e a m b u l a n c e t h a t w a s fu l l w a s s h o t

a n d e x p l o d e d . E v e ry o n e i n t h a t a m b u l a n c e w a s m a r t y re d . "

He was pushed into the back seat of a van with four other injured so ldiers .

"We lay a top one another, our arms and legs cross ing, our b lood mingl ing.

E v e ry o n e w a s s c re a m i n g a n d c ry i ng , a n d I w a s p ra y i n g t o Im a m H o s s e i n .

A f te r t h a t , I d o n ' t re m e m b e r a n y t h i n g u n t i l I w o k e u p i n a m i l i t ary h o s p i t a l

ne ar K ho ram sha hr. I los t a lo t of b l ood . I w as very weak, I was f lown from

K h o ra m s h a h r t o T a b r iz . T h e T e h ra n h o s p i t a l s w e re al re a dy t o o fu l l o f i n j u red

soldiers."

After a few days in Tabriz , he recovered enough to use the phone. He

ca l led his brother in Tehran. He to ld him about his in juries and p leaded with

h i m n o t t o t e l l h i s m o t h e r .

" W h e n I a r r i v e d a t t h e a i rp o r t i n T e h ra n a n d m y b ro t h e r s a w m e w i t h a l l

m y b a n d a g e s , h e h u g g e d m e a n d c r i e d . S o d id I, M y m o t h e r c r i ed s o m e m o re

26$



T E H R A N

w h e n I g o t h o m e . F o r a l m o s t t h r e e m o n t h s s h e t o o k c a r e o f m e / h e s a id .

"M ay G od res t he r soul . S he fed me l ike a chi ld , and she cried a l l th e t ime."

Sti l l , despite his mother 's cries , Hossein 's mind turned back to the war.

" I t h o u g h t o f m y f ri en d s a n d t h e b a t t l e s , a n d I w o n d e re d w h a t w a s h a p

pen ing. I wa nted to go back. P eopl e tho ug ht I was crazy. I t was h ard to exp la in

t o t h e m . T h e y c o u l d n o t u n d e rs t a n d u n l e s s t h e y e x p e r i en c e d i t. T h e re w a s a

certa in m ystica l side to the wa r I ne ede d to get back to tha t ."

M an y w ar veterans , especial ly th e re l igious on es , often spo ke of this "m ys

t ica l" aspect of the war. Sure , i t was b loody and fr ightening and debi l i ta t ing,

b u t s o m e h o w i t h a d a p u l l , " a n e m o t i o n a l a n d re l i g i o u s s ta t e o f h i g h e r u n d e r

s tanding," as one Iranian psychiatr is t who s tudied war veterans put i t . Hos

sein sa id: "When you are faced with death every day, somehow everything e lse

bec om es s o tr ivia l . You begin t o see so clearly . You beco m e as c lose to G od as

you ever wi l l be . I wanted to get back to that . I could not s tay in Tehran and

complain about the r is ing price of meat ."

A n d s o , h i s a rm i n a s l i n g , h e t u rn e d u p a t th e l o c a l m o s q u e , w h e re v o l

un tee rs were re cruited for the war. A few w eeks la ter he w as back on th e front

l ines .

T hi s t im e he wa s m or e carefu l . H e s tayed in the back dur ing offensives .

He ducked behind secure posi t ions before f ir ing on the enemy. He did not

volunteer for the most daring miss ions . S t i l l , he saw more fr iends die . He

tainted severa l t imes from heat exhaustion. He drank water from a b loody

stream. He exacerbated his shoulder injury and broke his ankle .

After a few months a t the war front , he re turned home, os tensib ly for

goo d. H e h ad served his coun try and , in his view, his fa i th . N o ne ed to g o

back. He got married, had a son, and se t t led back down to a famil iar routine

of work. S t i l l , he fe l t the pul l , the urge to go back one las t t ime. He volun

teered again.

"By this t ime I noticed some of the origina l re l igious fervor dec l ining

among the troops, I fought in two more offensives in the west and went home

again." This was in 1984, He did not go back. The war las ted another four

y e a rs . K h o m e i n i re je c te d n u m e ro u s c e a se -fi re o p p o r t u n i t i e s . T h e s l o g a n —

W a r, W a r , u n t i l V i c t o ry — g ra c e d b i l l b o a rd s a n d n e w s p a p e rs a n d g o v e rn m e n t

bui ldings a l l over the country.

B y 1 9 8 5 o p e n d e m o n s t ra t i o n s a g a i n s t t h e w a r h a d s u rfa c e d i n T e h ra n a n d

o t h e r m a j o r c it ie s . T h e g o v e rn m e n t b ra n d e d t h e w a r p ro t e s t e rs a s t ra it o rs .

T h e w a r w o u l d c o n t i n u e , K h o m e i n i t h u n d e r e d , u n t il S a d d a m H u s s e i n f el l .

269



P E R S I A N F IL fJU M A f£ S

I a s k e d H o s s e i n a b o u t t h e n u m e r o u s i n t e rn a t io n a l l y b ro k e re d c e as e -f ire

opportunit ies re jected by Iran,

" T h e I m a m k n e w w h a t h e w a s d o i n g / ' H o s s e i n s a i d . " H e k n e w w h a t a n

a n i m a l S a d d a m H u s s e i n w as . H e k n e w t h a t S a d d a m w o u l d o n l y u s e a

cease-fire to re load and attack us again. Iraq had to pay a price for its inso

l e n c e " h e s a i d . " I t w a s t h e r i g h t t h i n g t o d o . "

T o d a y q u e s t i o n s a b o u n d c o n c e rn i n g t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e w a r b e y o n d

1983. After Iran had successful ly ousted Iraqi forces from Iranian territory in

1982,

a S audi A rabian-back ed p l an to end the war was agreed to by Iraq. Th e

terms were extraordinari ly favorable to Iran: seventy bil l ion dol lars in war repa

ra t ion s to Iran paid by th e oi l -r ich A rab gulf s ta tes on beha lf of I raq and co m

ple te Iraqi evacuation from Iranian terr i tory. I ran dismissed the p lan, ins is t ing

o n S a d d a m H u s s e i n ' s re m o v a l a s h e a d o f s t a te , a d e m a n d t h a t I ra n i a n d i p l o

m a t s k n e w w o u l d b e re j e c t e d . W h e n I ra q re fu s e d , I ra n p re p a re d fo r m o re w a r .

T h e Is l a m i c R e p u b l i c ' s w a r p ro p a g a n d a m a c h i n e k ic k e d i n t o o v erd r iv e .

T e l e vi si on p r o g r a m s s h o w e d m o t h e r s t h a n k i n g G o d t h a t t h ei r s o n s w e r e

" m a rt y re d , " O n e w o m a n t o l d t e l e v i si o n v i ew e rs t h a t s h e w i s h e d fo r t h e m a r

tyrdom of her two remaining toddlers , as they sa t , p laying with toys next to

h e r. T h e g o v e r n m e n t n e w s p a p e rs a p p ro v i n g l y c al l e d I ra n " a m a r t y r-b re e d i n g

n a t i o n . " I ra n i a n ra d i o c a l l e d I ra q i s o l d i e rs " t h e m e rc e n a r i e s o f S a d d a m H u s

s e i n , t h e A m e ri c a n -s u p p o r t e d i nf id e l ." T h e fo l l o w in g c o l u m n i n t h e g o v e rn

m e n t - o w n e d

Etelaat

new spaper, pu bl ishe d on A pri l 4 , 198 3, typifies the

mind-set : "There is not a s ingle school or town that is exc luded from the

happiness of waging war, from drinking the exquis i te e l ixir of death or from

the sweet death of the martyr, who dies in order to l ive forever in paradise ."

O f c o u rs e , I ra n i a n g o v e rn m e n t p ro p a g a n d a , a s u s u a l , o f fe re d a p o o r

ref lect ion of real i ty . M ost I ra nian m oth ers do n ' t wish for th e mar tyrd om of

the ir sons . M os t I ran ians hated th e war; i t tor e famil ies apa rt and disrupte d

l ives . Few towns or schools saw death as " the exquis i te e l ixir ." Though the

e i g h t h -c e n t u ry m a r t y rd o m o f Im a m H o u s s e i n m o v e s I ra n i a n S fu ' a s , t h e w a r

had more to do with rea lpol i t ik than re l igion. In re trospect , the war served an

i m p o rt a n t p u rp o s e fo r t h e n e w re v o l u t i o n a ry g o v e rn m e n t . I t g a v e t h e l e a d e rs

a c h a n c e t o c o n s o l i d a t e t h e i r ru l e a m i d p o w e r s t ru g g l e s w i t h l ef tist a n d M a rx

i st g u e rri l l a o p p o s i t i o n g ro u p s . T h e w a r a l s o fu el e d s o m e o f t h e g e n u i n e re v

o lut ionary euphoria fe l t by a certa in segment of I ranians , the recent ly

270



T E H R A N

e m p o w e r e d u r b a n a n d r u r a l w o r k i n g c l a s s e s . P e r h a p s m o s t i m p o r t a n t , t h e

w a r d e f l e c t e d a t t e n t i o n f ro m t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m o f t h e I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c ,

h e l p i n g s i l e n c e t h o s e w h o o p p o s e d t h e p o s t re v o l u t i o n t h e o c ra c y (a n d t h e re

w e re m a n y ) . A k b a r H a s h e m i R a fsa n ja n i , t h e w il y c l e ri c w h o m a s t e rm i n d e d

the war effort and has since held a variety of senior positions in the Is lamic

R e p u b l i c , i n c l u d i n g p re s i d e n t a n d p a r l i a m e n t s p e ak e r, p u t it b l u n t l y i n 1 9 8 5 :

"We have been ab le to use the war to awaken the people and to f ight the

p r o b l e m s t h a t t h r e a t e n t h e r e v o l u t i o n . "

W a s t h e w a r c o n t i n u e d b e y o n d t h e n e c e s s a ry t i m e i n o rd e r t o c o n s o l i d a t e

p o l i ti ca l p o w e r? S h o u l d i t h a v e e n d e d s o o n e r? W a s t h e re a c o l o s sa l a b u s e o f

youthfu l idea l ism and re l igious innocence by Iran 's leaders? These are fa ir

q u e s t i o n s a n d t h e p i e rc i n g a n d p a i n fu l k i n d s t h a t I ra n i a n s p o n d e r t o d a y

A k b a r G a n ji , t h e j a il e d j o u rn a l i s t a n d w a r v e t e ra n , h a s a l s o ra is e d q u e s

t ions about the war. He to ld me: " If i t were tru ly necessary to f ight the war for

an oth er ten years , we w oul d hav e don e so. I t wa s our du ty to defend ou r

coun try. But my qu est ion is: W as it necessary to f ight as lo ng as we d id ?"

H o s s e i n w o u l d ra t h e r n o t a s k t h a t q u e s t i o n . " I t h i n k t h e s e d i s c u s s i o n s

a b o u t w h e t h e r t h e w a r s h o u l d h a v e e n d e d s o o n e r o r n o t a re a n i n s u l t t o o u r

martyrs ," he sa id . "Even if we f ind evidence that the war should have ended

five years ear l ier or four or three . That wi l l not re turn our martyrs , wi l l i t?

T h e i r s a c r i f i c e s h o u l d h o n o re d . W e s h o u l d n o t t a l k o f s u c h t h i n g s . "

He s tood up. He f l icked a l ight switch. The sudden rush of l ight was dis

orien ting. He b l ink ed his eyes . "A fshin, I have ta lked too m uc h. I have t i re d

y o u . W e h a v e a bi g j o u rn e y t o m o rro w . "

H e wal ked to ward th e door. H e was no t angry, j us t seem ingly t i red of th e

questions he is faced with today, quest ions that threaten the s imple , noble

g o a l o f t h e w a r : d e fe n d i n g t h e n a t i o n a n d t h e re v o l u t i o n a n d t h e Im a m . F o r

H o s s e i n , t h a t w a s e n o u g h . H e d i d n o t n e e d t o a s k a n y q u e s t i o n s . Q u e s t i o n s

ra is e t h e p o s s ib i l it y t h a t m a y b e , j u s t m a y b e , t h e e s t i m a t e d t w o h u n d re d t h o u

sand Iranian so ldiers who died after 1982 died because a po l i t ica l sys tem

needed them to die to mainta in i ts ho ld on power.

Such thoughts gra te heavi ly on the nerves of pious patr iots l ike Hossein.

H is fe l low Basijis d ied no bl e deaths . Th ey were n o t paw ns of po l i t ica l gam es.

They were g lorious martyrs , and that was the only way i t could be . I heard the

buzz of his motorcycle as he drove away.

271



P E R S I A N

P i t ? R I M A p E S

Journey to Ahvaz

efore every I ran A ir fl ight, brief pray ers from th e Q u r a n are said over

the loudspeaker to ensure a safe journey. The prayer is repeated in

E ngl ish- O n ou r f l ight to A hvaz, in addit ion to the prayers, the female

f l ight a t tendant asked us to remember the martyrs of " the sacred defense/ '

Is lam ic R epubl ic-speak for the Iran-I raq war. W h en they repeated the prayer In

Engl ish, they dropped the l ine about the martyrs , a tac t I p o i n t e d o u t t o m y

travel partners.

H a m i d s h r u g g e d a n d s m i l e d , h i s a u b u r n b r o w n , n e a t l y t r i m m e d b e a r d

r i s i n g o n h i s fac e t o w a rd h i s b l u e e y es . " T h e fo re i g n e rs d o n ' t c a re a b o u t

o u r m a r t y r s a n yw a y ," h e s a i d , " s o w h y b o t h e r r e p e a t i n g t h e l i n e in E n g

l i s h ? "

H o s s e i n n o d d e d i n a g re e m e n t . " T h e W e s t e rn w o r l d w a s a g a i n s t u s d u r i n g

the war. In fact , they are the reason we have so many martyrs ."

He was r ight . The Western world , for the most part , s ided with Iraq,

t h o u g h s e ve ra l co u n t r ie s — e s p e c i a l l y t h e U n i t e d S t a te s , F ra n c e , a n d W e s t G e r

m any — tunn el ed arm s to bot h sides. S t il l , despite the occasiona l arm s transfer

to Iran, the geopol i t ica l ca lcu la t ion in Washington and other Western capita ls

wa s the sam e: A vic tory by Iran w oul d b e unaccep tabl e , a dang erou s t il t in th e

regiona l ba lance of power in a region that contro ls near ly two-thirds of the

world 's o i l reserves .

S o i n 1 9 87 t h e U n i t e d S t at e s i m p l e m e n t e d O p e r a t i o n S t a u n c h , a p l a n

i n t e n d e d t o p re v e n t a n I ra n i a n v i c t o ry t h a t i n c l u d e d t h e s h a r i n g o f s a t e l l i t e

i n t e l l i g e n c e w i t h I r a q , p r o t e c t i o n o f K u w a i ti a n d S a u d i o i l t a n k e r s , a n d b r ie f

n a v a l c o n f r o n t a t i o n s w i t h I r a n i a n s h i p s i n t h e P e r s i a n Gulf. I n a m o m e n t o f

c o n f u s i o n , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s s h o t d o w n a n I r a n i a n p a s s e n g e r p l a n e , k i l l i n g

m o r e t h a n f o u r h u n d r e d o n b o a r d . W a s h i n g t o n e x p r e s s e d a p o l o g i e s f or t h e

m i s t a k e a n d c o m p e n s a t e d t h e f a m i l y ' s v i c t i m s . I r a n i a n l e a d e r s d o n ' t b u y

t h e " a c c i d e n t " v e r s i o n o f e v e n ts . W a s h i n g t o n d i d n o t h e l p m a t t e r s m u c h

w i t h t h e o u t r a g e o u s p r o m o t i o n o f t h e a d m i r a l w h o o r d e r e d t h e t r a g i c

s h o t s .

"A c o u n t ry t h a t s h o o t s d o w n o u r p a s s e n g e r p l a n e s c e r ta i n l y d o e s n ' t c a re

a b o u t o u r m a r t y rs ," H o s s e i n s a id . " T h e A m e r i c a n s d o n ' t ca r e a b o u t o u r m a r

tyrs and injured war veterans . Don' t even bother wri t ing what I am te l l ing you

in your notebook. Your editors wi l l not publ ish i t ."

272



A H V A Z

W h e n w e s t e p p e d o u t o f t h e p l a n e i n t h e A h v a z a irp o r t , a b l i s t e r in g , h o t w i n d

assaul ted us . I fe l t an a l m ost im m ediate thirs t for w ate r I w ore sho rt s leeves

a n d l o o s e -f i t t i n g c o t t o n p a n t s . H o s s e i n t u rn e d t o m e a n d s a i d : " Im a g i n e

wearing two layers of mi l i tary gear in this weather. We spent more t ime

dreaming of co ld water than we did of our famil ies ."

H a m i d , H o s s e i n , a n d I w a l k e d a c ro s s t h e ru n w a y t o w a rd a s m a l l , b u s y

b a g g a g e cl a i m a re a. A t a l l , s l e n d e r m a n w i t h a d a rk m u s t a c h e a p p ro a c h e d u s

a n d g re e t e d H o s s e i n w a rm l y . A f te r a ro u n d o f f l ow e ry i n t ro d u c t i o n s a n d

g re e ti n g s , t h e m a n , M r . M o h a m m a d i , l e d u s t o h i s c ar , a P e u g e o t w i t h a p o w

e rfu l a i r -c o n d i t i o n i n g u n i t . " I t i s n o t e v en s u m m e r y et ," M r . M o h a m m a d i

said, wip ing away bead s of sweat on his forehead. "You cam e ju s t in t im e. O n e

m o n t h f ro m n o w i t w i l l b e u n b e a ra b l e , "

M r , M o h a m m a d i w o r k e d w i t h H o s s e i n in o n e of t h e l a rg e, g o v e r n m e n t -

ow ne d ins ura nc e agencies. H e was the A hvaz representat ive of the f irm. L ike

m o s t re s i d e n t s o f A h v a z , h e i s e t h n ic a l l y a n A ra b A t h o m e , w i t h h i s w ife a n d

chi ldren, he speaks A rabic ra ther than Fars i and teaches his chi ldren to be p rou d

o f t h e ir A ra b h e r i t a g e W h e n I raq in v a d ed I ra n , S a d d a m H u s s e i n a s s u m e d t h a t

t h e e t h n i c A ra b s o f s o u t h w e s t e rn I ra n , p e o p l e l ik e M r , M o h a m m a d i , w o u l d r is e

up in so l idarity with their A rab brothers . N o su ch thing happ ened .

" W e a re e th n ic a l l y A ra b, " M r , M o h a m m a d i e x p l ai n ed , " b u t o u r n a ti o n al i t y

and loya l ty are with Iran. Saddam misunders tood this ."

M r, M oh am m adi, w ho l ived in the heavily besieged c ity of K ho ram shah r a t

the beginning of the war, helped out with the evacuation of women and children.

"We arranged for bus transport . Everyone tr ied to push his way into the buses .

When there was not enough room on the ins ide , people sa t on top of the buses .

T h e bu ses ha d to mo ve very s lowly, so the peop le o n to p wou l d no t fal l off."

After a short drive from the a irport , he pul led up to the driveway of a

t w o -s t o ry h o u s e b e h i n d ta l l , w h i t e w a s h e d w a l l s t h a t e x p o s e d o n l y t h e t o p

f loor. We s l ipped off our shoes a t the door and entered a large l iv ing room

with a cream carpet on the f loor and red, embroidered cushions leaning

against the wal l . In on e corner, a c lus ter of moc k L ouis XI V chairs with faux

gold frames c lu ng to the wal l . We ch ose the f loor, cross-legged, o ur backs su p

p o r t e d b y t h e w al l c u s h i o n s . A b ro w n a i r -c o n d i t i o n i n g u n i t j u t t e d o u t o f t h e

wal l , em it t ing lo ud , wh irring gu sts of co ld a ir . W e dran k tea and ta lked ab ou t

o u r u p c o m i n g j o u r n e y .

W e p l a n n e d t o d r iv e t o A b a d a n , t h e p o r t c it y t h a t w a s o n c e t h e p r i d e of

273



P E R 5 L A W

P I L p i U M A C E S

B ri t a in ' s A n g l o - I ra n i a n O i l C o m p a n y u n t i l t h e n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f I ra n i a n o i l

i n 1 9 5 3 , E v e n af te r t h e n a t io n a l i z a t i o n , A b a d a n re m a i n e d a n i m p o rt a n t o i l

t o w n , p u m p i n g a n d re f i n i n g n e a r l y o n e - t h i rd o f I ra n ' s t o t a l o u t p u t b e fo re t h e

1 9 7 9 re v o l u t i o n . I ra q i b o m b e rs s u c ce ss fu l l y t a rg e te d A b a d a n re f in e ri e s, h o p

ing to choke Iran 's o i l f low. The c i ty has yet to recover from the bombings.

T o d a y A b a d a n p u m p s l e s s t h a n w h a t i t d i d b e fo re t h e w a r .

F ro m A b a d a n , w e w o u l d g o t o K h o ra m s h a h r , t h e c it y t h a t w a s i ni ti al l y

occu pied by Iraq and dram atica l ly l iberated in 1982 . S o vio lent were th e f ight

i n g a n d d e s t ru c t i o n i n K h o ra m s h a h r t h a t t h e c it y c a m e t o b e c a l l e d

K h o o n i -s h a h r , o r B l o o d y C it y.

" Yo u c a n n o t b el ie ve t h e t h i n g s I s a w i n K h o r a m s h a h r , " M r . M o h a m t n a d i

said. "For a lm ost a m o n th Iraqi so ldiers sh ot and ki l led us and rape d o ur

w o m e n . W e fo u g h t b a c k , b u t w e w e re o v e rw h e l m e d , u n t i l o u r s u p p o r t l i n e s

came from the eas t ."

F i n a l l y , w e w o u l d g o t o S h a l a m c h e h , a s t o n e ' s t h ro w fro m t h e I ra q i b o r

d e r , w h e re u p t o fi fty t h o u s a n d I ra n i a n s o l d i e rs d i e d . T h e w a r m a r t y rs ' s h r i n e

h u g s t h e b o rd e r w i t h I ra q .

" F o r t u n a t el y , " M r . M o h a m m a d i s a id , " w e w o n ' t h a v e t o fa ce I ra q i t a n k s o n

o u r j o u rn e y . "

War Miracles

A

fter a short tour of the city at dusk, a dinner of saffron and lemon fish

with white r ice in a loca l res taurant and a seemingly endless round of

t in y t e a c u p s b ac k a t M r . M o h a m m a d i ' s h o m e , w e w e n t t o sl e e p o n

r o i l - o u t m a t t r e s se s i n t h e l iv in g r o o m . T h r o u g h o u t o u r st ay i n M r . M o h a m

madi 's home, we never met his wife and three daughters . We heard their voices

coming from the kitchen, but they never entered the l iving area where we drank

t ea a n d t al k e d . T h e y p r e p a r e d t h e m e al s , b u t M r M o h a m m a d i s er ve d u s h i m

self. T h i s " h i d i n g " o f t h e w o m e n d o e s n o t o c c u r o f te n i n I ra n . In m o s t h o m e s ,

e v e n c o n s e rv a t i v e re l i g i o u s o n e s , w o m e n u s u a l l y e a t w i t h t h e m e n . H a m i d

c o m m e n t e d o n t h e w o m e n ' s i s su e w h e n M r . M o h a m m a d i w e n t t o k i t ch e n t o

retr ieve ou r breakfast, " Th ese A rabs are very conservative ," he sa id quie t ly .

In fact , the absence of women in socia l s i tuat ions l ike this one is not an

A rab/I ranian divis ion. M or e l ikely , i t is a c ity/vi l lage or big tow n/sm al l tow n

one. S t il l , th e fact th at H am id viewed i t th at way interes tingly ref lec ted th e

274



A B A D A N

I ra nian se l f-perception of difference a nd perh aps , a se l f-assu me d supe riori ty

o v e r I ra n ' s A ra b n e i g h b o rs a n d , i n d e e d , o v e r A ra b I ra n i a n s .

With our s tomachs fue led by a breakfast of eggs , fe ta cheese , bread, and

w a t e rm e l o n , w e b e g a n o u r p i l g r i m a g e . T h e d r iv e f ro m A h v a z t o A b a d a n i s

marked by a s tr ing of id le cranes , dust brown houses with baby b lue meta l

doors , smal l b i l lboards of war martyrs , dry c ircu lar fountains , and a few gut

ted, shu tte red bui l dings . A hvaz wa s an im po rta nt l ogis tics center for th e war,

an d the city stil l bea rs scars from this expe rience . A s we drov e farther,

t h r o u g h A b a d a n , t h e n o n t o K h o r a m s h a h r a n d S h a l a m c h e h , t h e s c a rs g o t

d e e p e r , t h e n u m b e r o f g u t t e d b u i l d i n g s i n c re a s e d , a n d h o u s e s w i t h b u l l e t

h o l e s b e c a m e m o re p re v a l e n t .

O n t h e h i g h w a y j u s t b e fo re re a c h i n g A b a d a n , a d i sp l a y o f t h re e d e s t ro y e d

Iraqi tanks sa t quie t ly on the tan, dry landscape abutt ing the road, one of

m any rem ind ers of the war that rocked the c i t ies c lose to Iraq 's border. A s we

approached the c i ty , we passed by date t rees swaying in the hot wind and

m o r e c r u m b l i n g d u s t - c o l o r e d h o m e s w i t h b a b y b l u e m e t a l d o or s . N e a r a

s m a l l re l i g i o u s s h r i n e , w e d ro v e b y a b u s y o u t d o o r m a rk e t w h e re p e d d l e rs

so ld ye l low apples and red pom egr ana tes and fresh greens . O n on e of th e

c ru m b l i n g , m u d b r i ck h o m e s , I s p o t t e d a " D e a t h t o A m e ri c a " s ig n . A few

h o u s e s d o w n , s o m e o n e s c r i b b l e d i n E n g l i s h : " W e l o v e P i n k F l o y d / '

W e p a rk e d t h e c a r n e a r a d o c k j u t t i n g i n t o t h e b l u e w a t e rs o f t h e P e rs i a n

Gulf, a b u s y d o c k w h e re s m a l l w o o d e n d h o w s w i t h m a s s i v e w h i t e s a i l s

f loated, wait ing for their next ship m ents . G lea m ing ba les of s ilver f ish w ith

bl ue eyes fel l in to gargan tuan ta nk s of ice as su n- ba ke d, coffee-skinned deck

h a n d s c h a t t e d i n A ra b i c . N e a rb y, a c i n e m a h o u s e a d v e r t is e d a n I ra n i a n a c t i o n

fi lm. The c inema led to a road f lanked on both s ides by a series of photos of

yo un g, fresh-faced m artyrs , l ike street signs.

W e g o t ba c k i n t h e c ar a n d d ro v e b y t h e H o t e l A z a di A b a n . M r . M o h a m

m a d i t o l d u s t h a t t h e h o t e l o n c e h o s t e d t h e a re a ' s h o t t e s t n i g h t c l u b . T o d a y

t h e c l u b b e l o n g s t o a re v o l u t i o n a ry fo u n d a t i o n i n t h e n a m e o f I ra n ' s w a r v e t

erans and has a decidedly less g l i t tering night l i fe .

A s w e d ro v e t o w a rd K h o ra m s h a h r , H a m i d t o l d m e s t o r i e s of " w a r m i r a

cles,"

O n e y o u n g s o l d ie r , h e s a i d , h a d h i s h e a d b l o w n o ff b y a m i n e . H i s h e a d

l e s s b o d y t h e n m i ra c u l o u s l y s p o k e a n d s a i d : "Salam alayk ya Abu Abdullah

[ano ther n am e for Im am H osse in] ." N ext , he to ld m e the famil iar s tory of th e

b r i g h t re d t u l i p s t h a t g re w s p o n t a n e o u s l y i n a re a s i n w h i c h I ra n i a n s o l d i e rs

27$



P E R S I A N P l L p R l M A f E S

were martyred. I had heard these types of s tories before from other war veter

ans, s tories of graves tha t emitted the sm el l of perfum e, of so ldiers d ream ing

their own deaths exact ly as they happened the next day, of appari t ions of

I m a m H o s s e i n a p p e a r i n g a h e a d o f c h a rg i n g I ra n i a n t ro o p s . I s u p p o s e a i l w a rs

have their own share of mirac le s tories , but these Iranian "mirac le" s tories

h a d a p u r p o s e . T h e g o v e r n m e n t w a r p r o p a g a n d a m a c h i n e fe d a n d e n c o u r

a g e d t h e m , re p e a t i n g t h e m o n t e l e v i s i o n a n d p r i n t i n g t h e m i n b o o k s o n t h e

w a n T h e " m i ra c l e s " h e l p e d t h e i r c a u s e . I t m a d e t h e i r w a r j u s t ; G o d w a s o n t h e

side of I ranian so ldiers . For the so ldiers who be l ieved in the mirac les , they

offered a certa in so lace for a los t leg or dead bro the r or shattered sh ou l de r

A s we ta lked of m ore mirac les , we passed a bi l l board of on e of the m ost

fa m o u s o f t h e y o u n g m a rt y rs o f t h e w a r , t h e y o u n g S h a h i d F a h m i d e h ( t h e

w o r d

skahid

m e a n s " m a rt y r" ) . S h a h i d F a h m i d e h , t h e c h ro n i c l e rs t e l l u s ,

s trapped a grenade to his body and "g lorious ly" knocked out an Iraqi tank in

a "noble , martyr-breeding a t tack." For that , the chronic lers of the war ce le

b ra t e h i s s a c r i f i c e . T h e s e c h ro n i c l e rs , t h e m e n a n d w o m e n w h o w o rk i n g o v

e rn m e n t -f i n a n c e d i n s t i t u t i o n s , c h u r n o u t p a m p h l e t s a n d v i d e o s a n d b o o k s

on Iran 's martyrs and "the sacred defense" against I raq.

But there is another series of s tories that the chronic lers won' t wri te

about: the young so ldier who did not want to go to war but was forced into i t

b y p e e r p re s s u re ; t h e y o u n g m a n w h o t r i e d t o e m u l a t e S h a h i d F a h m i d e h w i t h

a fau l ty grenade but who died less "g lorious ly" under the whee ls of a crush

i n g I ra q i t a n k ; t h e re l i g i o u s y o u n g m a n a t t h e w a r f ro n t w h o w o n d e re d w h y

no c leric went to the front l ine to martyr himse lf

T h e c a s e o f M o h a m m a d f ro m S h i ra z ref l ec ts t h e l e s s g l o r i o u s v e rs i o n of

"m arty rdo m ." In an interview with a w ar vetera n in S hiraz , he to l d m e of

M o h a m m a d ' s d e a t h , a s k i n g t h a t I n o t u s e h i s l a s t n a m e . M o h a m m a d i s c e l e

b ra t e d i n h i s h o m e t o w n b y t h e l o c a l c h ro n i c l e rs a s a w a r h e ro w h o d i e d i n " a

m a rt y r-b re e d i n g m i s s i o n " t h a t k n o c k e d o u t t w o I ra q i j e e p s a n d t o o k h i s l ife

in the pro cess . T he real i ty is far less "g lo rious ." In real i ty, M o ha m m ad died

i n s i d e a g re n a d e h o l e w h i l e g o i n g t o t h e b a t h ro o m . I ra n i a n s o l d i e rs u s e d t h e

hol es m ade by gren ade ex plo sions as makeshift to i le ts . W hil e us ing on e of

t h e s e t o i l e ts , M o h a m m a d fe ll vi c ti m t o a n I ra q i c l u s t e r b o m b . " Y ou m u s t n o t

use the las t name because i t wi l l d isgrace his family ," the so ldier sa id . "Every

on e thi nk s of him as a hero , bu t he was ju s t a scared so ldier who w anted to

go back home, l ike many of us ."

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K H O R A M S H A H R

T h e b o t t o m l i n e : N o t e v ery w a r d e a rh s h i n e s w i th g l o ry . N o t e v e ry o n e

dies a "sweet m artyr 's de ath " with l ips parted in a sm ile , as on e oft-pu bl ished

p i c t u re s h o w s , o r a n o b l e , " m a rt y r-b re e d i n g " d e a t h t h a t i n c l u d e s t a k i n g o u t a

c o u p l e of e n e m y so l d i e rs in th e p ro c e s s . In H a m i d ' s a n d H o s s e i n ' s p e rs o n a l

s tories , sweetness garnered few paragraphs. Hamid sp l i t h is chin open when

his jee p f l ipped over and tu m bl ed dow n a ravine. A fr iend of his cru she d his

ribs in that same crash. "For nearly a year, i t hurt him every time he took a

b re a t h , " H a m i d e x p l a i n e d . T h e s t i n g i n H o s s e i n ' s s h o u l d e r re m i n d s h i m e v e ry

day of th e pain of war. O n e of H os se in 's c losest friends w il l never have the joy

o f b e c o m i n g a fa t h e r : S a d d a m ' s c h e m i c a l a t t a c k s m a d e h i m s t e r i l e .

A large s ign on th e road notified u s tha t K ho ram shah r, th e c ity devasta ted

by the initia l Iraqi invasion, was c lose by.

E N T E R W I T H R E L I G I O U S C L E A N L I

N E S S , th e s ign sa id, referring to the c leanl iness one m ust have w he n enterin g

a m o s q u e for p ray e r. T h e c h ro n i c l e rs d e c l a re d t h e c it y h o l y g ro u n d .

Everywhere we drove by she l ls of bui ldings , ske le ta l reminders of the Iraqi

bombings. In the dis tance I spotted an id le Ferris whee l . We drove over a

recent ly reconstructed bridge, fresh ly painted with sea b lue ra i l ings .

" T h e I r a qi s h e l d t h i s city fo r t w e n t y - o n e m o n t h s , " M r . M o h a m m a d i s a id .

"You can ' t imagine what they did here ," he sa id , shaking his head, "you can ' t

imag ine," We drove by m or e gutted bui l dings and a n entire b lock of leveled

ho us es . "T he city is onl y ju st recov ering," he said, twelv e years after the wa r

e n d e d ,

"The center of the city has shifted," he said, "because the old city center

h a s n o t b e e n re c o n s t ru c t e d . W e a re n o w d r i v i n g t h ro u g h t h e o l d c i t y c e n t e r , "

he sa id as we drove through eeri ly quie t s treets .

E m ergin g from th e s i lent ci ty center , w e got back on the m ain roa d, ju s t a

few miles away from our dest ination, the war veterans ' p i lgrimage s i te , A

two-lane highway f lanked by vast , tan, shrubby emptiness led to the shrine ,

" T h e r e w e r e m a n y v il l a ge s a l o n g th i s ro a d b e fo re t h e w a r," M r M o h a m m a d i

s a i d . " N o w t h e re a re o n l y m i n e s / ' A d a n g e ro u s c o l l e c t i o n o f n o n a c t i v a t e d

m i n e s l u rk b e y o n d t h e re c e n t l y re c o n s t ru c t e d t e l e p h o n e c a b l e s f l a n k i n g t h e

h i g h w a y A n o v e r t u rn e d I ra q i t a n k , b u r i e d h a l fw a y i n t o t h e g ro u n d p o k e s o u t

of the ground in the dis tance, casua l ly lef t there because of the enormous

expense of moving i t . Perhaps the mines made i t d iff icu l t to move the tank or,

b e t t e r ye t , s e t u p a p ro p a g a n d a m e m o ri a l a ro u n d i t.

" W e a re a l m o s t t h e re ," M r . M o h a m m a d i s ai d as w e a p p ro a c h e d a s m a l l

277



P E R S I A N ? I L C H i M A C E S

o u t p o s t m a n n e d b y a l a n k y t e e n a g e g u a rd w i t h s u n -b a k e d c h e e k s a n d a r i f l e .

T h e ca r s l o w e d . T h e g u a rd g l a n c e d a t t h e l i c en s e p l a t e . M r . M o h a m m a d i

ro l led down the window and showed the guard an offic ia l permit to enter the

w a r m a r t y r ' s s h r i n e . T h e s k y d ra p e d o v e r o u r h e a d s w a s p a l e b l u e

r

as if tired

from heat and war. A n overtu rned jeep an d a large ch un k of an o ld , rus ted

p i p e l i n e d o t t e d t h e l a n d s c a p e a h e a d o f u s . T h e g u a rd l o o k e d i n t o t h e c a r a n d

d i s i n t e re s t e d l y w a v e d u s o n . I t w a s t o o h o t t o s h o w e m o t i o n .

Pilgrimage: War M artyrs' Shrine

O

ur car rumbled to a s top amid a rocky dir t parking lo t . There was only

on e othe r car there , a rus ted w hite Toyota picku p truck . A t th e

entrance to the shrine , a s ign in Fars i read: S H A L A M C H E H : W E L C O M E

TO I R A N ' S K A R B A L A

.

T h e w o rd " S h a l a m c h e h " in t h e si g n w a s w ri t t e n i n g re e n

le t ters , with red, painte d sp l otches d ripping from th e wo rd l ike b l ood. K ar-

b a l a , w h i c h i s n o w i n I ra q , i s w h e re t h e e i g h t h -c e n t u ry m a r t y rd o m o f Im a m

H o s s e i n t o o k p l a c e . T h e I m a m H o s s e i n s h r i n e i n K a rba l a d ra w s S h i 'a p i l

g r i m s f ro m a ro u n d t h e w o r l d .

Just beyond the b loody s ign, a smal l prayer area awaited with r ich Pers ian

c a rp e t s l ai d o u t d i re c tl y o n t o t h e c o n c re t e . A c ru d e a l u m i n u m c e il i n g, c r i s s

crossed by s tee l g irders , protected worshipers from the b l is tering midday sun.

The prayer area inc luded a smal l b i l lboard with pic tures of martyrs . I looked

a t s o m e o f t h e p h o t o s o f t h e s e d e a d y o u n g m e n .

R ah im A hvazi ha d a fresh, ear nes t face w ith soft eyes.

A bd ul S aid R ashid wo re a fat 197 0s disco co l lar and had a dark goatee .

M o h a m m a d T a g h i m i A z im i l o o k e d l i k e a f il m s t a r w i t h a b ro a d , c u r l i n g

black mustache and his dapper mil i tary uniform.

Al i Reza Dezfu l i was a young man, who Looked no more than s ixteen, with

a hard, co ld s tare and a severe bowl haircut .

O n a n d o n t h e p h o t o s w e n t , e v e n tu a l l y l e a d i n g t o a d i sp l a y o f g ru e s o m e l y

d i s m e m b e re d b o d i e s , o f d e a d y o u n g m e n w i t h t h e i r i n t e s t i n e s o n d i s p l a y a n d

the ir heads near ly s l iced off, th e sort of sho ck ph oto that h u m a n rights

gro ups use to cri tic ize the use of tortur e . Jus t off to the s ide of th e sho ck p h o

tos, there was a pic ture of a woman c leaning her martyred son before buria l ,

a c c o m p a n i e d b y a l e t t e r s h e s u p p o s e d l y w ro t e . T h e l e t t e r re a d s in p a n ; " L e t

ou r en em ies kn ow this . We are not afra id to martyr o ur son s for the cause."

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S H A L A M C K E H

Just be l ow that le t ter wa s a ph oto of a yo un g m an w ith bul l e t ho l es in his bare

chest , ye l low f lowers scat tered around his neck.

From the prayer area , we had a c lear view of the shrine: an open-air dome

of green steel girders covering a five-foot-ta l l g lass coffin s ur ro un de d by an

assortment of f lapping Iranian f lags and b lack-and-white f lags with re l igious

sayings . Set amid a dust-swept desola te landscape, the open-air shrine had a

q u i e t s o m b e r n e s s a b o u t i t. H o s s e i n , H a m i d , a n d M r . M o h a m m a d i d e c i d ed t o

say their no on p rayers as I walked tow ard the shrin e .

A ir so un ds wh oo she d by my ear as I app roa che d th e glass coffin. Ins ide

the coffin disp l ay I saw a co l l ec t ion of war paraph erna l ia ; h e l m ets of fa l len

s o l d i ers , d u s t y b o o t s , b l o o d s t a i n e d h e a d b a n d s , a ru s t e d A K -4 7 , a n d w o rn s o l

d i e rs ' d i ar ie s . T h e re w a s a l s o a p i c t u re of A y a to l l a h K h o m e i n i a n d h u n d re d s

of sm al l - den om inatio n bi l l s scat tered ins ide the coffin. L ike al l re l ig ious

shrines , th is martyrs ' shrine a l lows pi lgrims to make donations for the shrine 's

upkeep and for chari tab le purposes .

I

dropped a bil l in the s l it at the top and

watched i t land on a so ldier 's he lmet. Al l a round me, I heard the pop of f lags

f lapping in the w ind. H am id and H ossein s oo n join ed m e a t the shrine , M r.

M oh am m ad i s tayed a few feet back, leaning u p against one of the s tee l g irders ,

I w a t c h e d H a m i d a n d H o s s e i n a s th e y l o o k e d i n t o t h e g l a s s c offi n. T h e y

stared a t the disp lay of he lmets and guns and boots , their faces drawn, their

l ips taut, their foreheads crinkled. Hossein put two fingers on the glass coffin

and began whispering prayers , Hamid ra ised his hands to chest leve l , pa lms

tow ard his face, and c l osed his eyes, s inging verses from th e Q ur an . M r

M o h a m m a d i a p p ro a c h e d t h e co ff in , h i s h a i r a n d l o o s e s h i r t f l a p p in g i n t h e

hot wind, and joined the prayers .

A f t e r t h e p ra y e rs e n d e d , w e a l l l o o k e d i n t o t h e g l a s s c a s e i n ra p t c o n t e m

p l a t io n , I w o n d e r e d w h a t e m o t i o n s m u s t b e r u n n i n g t h r o u g h H o s s e i n ' s

m ind , w ond ered if he reca l l ed martyred friends or his ow n near- dea th experi

ence, Hamid s l ipped a bi l l in to the s l i t of the g lass coffin . Hossein broke the

silence, askin g m e if I wo ul d l ike to wal k to the Iraqi bor der. "It is onl y a few

m in ute s from here ," he sa id , po inti ng to an ou tpo st in the dis tan ce w here a

s ingle Iraqi f lag f lu t tered in the wind. "We can take you there ."

We walked in s i lence over din and scrub and rocks toward the border. In

the dis tance, I saw an Iraqi so ldier in a lone ly ou tpo st , less th an a th ou sa nd

feet away. H e had a gu n s lu ng over his shou ld er. H e waved a t us . A n Ira nian

guard, another teenage boy with a peach-fuzz beard and a long gun, ca l led

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P E K 5 1 A N

P l L C R l U A f E S

out to us from the Iranian post that faces Iraq. Hossein to ld the Iranian so l

dier that we were war veterans walking up to the border. He pointed in the

direct ion of the Iraqi outpost , where the young so ldier with a gun waved a t us

a g a in . M r . M o h a m m a d i re a c h e d i n t o a b a g h e c a rri e d a n d h a n d e d t h e g u a rd

a pair of smal l insu ran ce c om pa ny c l ocks as a gif t. M any war veterans ,

1

was

to ld , bring sweets and frui ts and gif ts to the young guards as gif ts for man

n i n g t h e m a r t y rs ' s h r i n e . T h e y o u n g g u a rd s o f te n s h a re t h e i r b o o t y w i t h t h e

I ra q i g u a rd s o n t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e b o rd e r , a p o i g n a n t re m i n d e r of s i m p l e

h u m a n i t y o b s c u re d b y p o w e r p o l i t i c s . P e rh a p s t h e I ra q i g u a rd ' s w a v e s s e n t

thanks tor leftover gifts he expected to receive later.

The Iranian guard apologetica l ly to ld us we could not go any farther.

"L ast n ight , we cau gh t two 'hyp ocri te s ' c ross ing the border," he sa id referring

t o t h e I r a q - b a s e d a r m e d r e si s ta n c e g r o u p k n o w n as t h e M o j a h e d i n - e - K h a l q ,

w h o m t h e I r a n i a n g o v e r n m e n t c a l l s monafeqin, o r h y p o c r it e s . M o s t I ra n i a n s

seem ed to agree , the re being l i tt le su pp or t for th e I raq- base d gro up tha t on ce

fought with Saddam's so ldiers against their fe l low Iranians .

H o s s e i n d i d n o t p ro t e s t . H e u n d e rs t o o d t h a t a s o l d i e r s h o u l d fo l l o w

orders , and w e tur ne d back. W e looked over a t the I raqi s ide , an d the so ldier

waved again. A s we wa lke d, Ho ssein quie t ly sa id: "M any of my fr iends died o n

this soil we are wal king on now. W e are wal king on th ou sa nd s of martyrs ."

Haji Agha Abu Torabi and the Prisoners of War

W

h e n w e re t u rn e d t o T e h ra n , H o s s e i n t o o k m e t o a d o w n t o w n

m o s q u e w h e r e I w o u l d m e e t H a ji A g h a A b u T o r a b i, a c o n s e r v a

t ive c leric w ho s pe nt e ight years in an Iraqi P O W cam p. Haji

A gha, as Hossein ca l led the cleric , served in Iran 's P ar l iam ent and had c lose

t i e s t o I ra n ' s S u p re m e L e a d e r , A y a to l l a h A J i K h a m e n e i , w h o m H o s s e i n re ve r

e n ti a l l y c a l l e d A g h a . H a ji A g h a al s o s erv e d o n t h e C l e rg y C o u rt , t h e c o n s e r

v a ti v e b o d y t h a t j a il e d re fo rm i s t c l e r i c s l i k e M o h s e n K a d i va r a n d t h e

p r o d e m o c r a c y cl e r ic A b d o l l a h N o u r i .

Before we vis ited with Haji A gha, H osse in invited m e to his hom e to

watch an Iranian f i lm on video t i t led From

Karkheh to Rhine.

T h e f ilm depicts

th e l ives of I rania n w ar vetera ns wa it ing hopefu l ly in a hos pice in G erm any in

the ear ly 1990s for the operat ions that might res tore their s ight or repair their

tor n legs or so oth e their with ered bodies , bu rne d by Iraqi chem ica l a t tacks . A t

230



rEHRAN

th e entra nce to his ho use , J s l ipped off my sho es , loo king u p a t a smal l p ic

tur e of K hom eini pasted on the wal l . H osse in 's wife , a sweet-faced w om an in

the traditional chador, offered me tea and fruit. His e lderly father, who l ived

with them, greeted me, before re treat ing to the back for a nap.

In the movie , there is a scene in which one of the veterans watches a video

rep l a y of K h o m e i n i ' s fu n e ra l . M e l a n c h o l y m u s i c e m e rg e d . T h e v e te ra n s h o o k

with deep sobs . H e grabbe d a t the te levis ion, tou ch ing it and crying. T h e

scene in the movie seemed over ly melodramatic , a lmost contrived. I looked

over a t Hossein to gauge his reaction. His chest heaved. His eyes teared; his

h a n d s s h o o k : t h e s a m e re a c t i o n , b u t l e s s d ra m a t i c .

A fter th e m ovie end ed, we ven ture d o n the back of his motorcy c le to the

Im a m H o s s e i n m o s q u e , w h e re w e w e re t o m e e t H a ji A g h a A b u T o ra b i . In s i d e

t h e m o s q u e c o u r t y a rd , w e w a l k e d t o w a rd a s i m p l e w h i t e d o o r . W h e n w e

o p e n e d t h e d o o r , I s a w a g r o u p o f m e n , m o s t l y w i t h b e a rd s , s it t i n g

cross-legged on the f loor, a l l eyes fixed on a s l im elderly c leric with a black

t u rb a n , H a ji A g h a A b u T o ra b i .

T h e c leric s too d an d insis ted t h a t s it a t h is r ight. W e exch ange d P ers ian

g re e t in g s a s H o s s e i n t o l d H a ji A g h a a b i t a b o u t m y b a c k g ro u n d .

"M r. M olavi , if you do no t m ind, I have som e bus iness to take care of. B ut

p lease remain seated, and we sha l l ta lk soon."

T h e m e n s i tt i n g i n t h e s e m i c irc l e a ro u n d H a ji A g h a t h e n c a m e fo rw a rd ,

one by one, asking the Par l iament member and c leric for ass is tance with var

ious issues: an insurance policy, his attendance at a crafts fair for war veter

a n s , a m e s s a g e of t h a n k s f ro m a g ro u p o f P O W s t o K h a m e n e i , a w h i s p e re d

requ est for f inancia l ass is tance. Haji A gha dea l t with a l l the peti t ioner s qu ie t ly

a n d a t t e n t i v e l y . H e t o o k t h e i r n a m e s a n d a d d re s s e s . H e m a d e p ro m i s e s . H e

agreed to attend the crafts fair.

W h e n t h e p e t i t i o n i n g e n d e d , H aji A g h a t u r n e d t o m e a n d s a id : " S o ,

I

h e a r

y o u h a v e b e e n t o S h a l a m c h e h ? "

Yes, Haji A gha , I h ad.

" O u r m a r t y rs fo u g h t w i t h g re at c o u ra g e t h e re , " h e s a i d .

Yes, I knew.

" S o m e t i m e s , " h e s a id , " I w i s h I w e re a l s o m a r t y re d . T o b e c l o s e r t o G o d .

In s tead, I was taken to priso n,"

I a s k e d h i m w h y h e h a d g o n e t o t h e w a r M o s t m e n h i s a g e (h e w a s i n h i s

late forties then) had stayed home.

231





I X

Storming the Gates with the Software Engineers Children of

the Revolution

4-

Visas and Billboards "In Dam ascus. I Can Breathe" +

The Canadian Emba ssy Visa Pilgrimage * Farewell, Iran &

Cities: Tehran, Dam ascus (Syria)

Storming the Gates with the Software Eng ineers

O

u t s i d e t h e G e rm a n E m b a s s y i n T e h ra n , a s m a l l c ro w d o f I ra n i a n s o ft

w a re e n g i n e e rs h u d d l e d a n x i o u s l y a ro u n d a s e c u r i ty g u a rd , " P l e a s e , l e t

us in ," one of the young Iranians p leaded with the guard. "We jus t

want to find out if i t 's true "

T h e guard refused s tern ly . "C om e back, tom orrow ," he said . "E very one h as

left already."

T h e y o u n g m a n p e rs i s t e d . " S u re l y , t h e re m u s t b e s o m e o n e s t i l l i n t h e re ,

any on e? P lease , le t us ju s t take a lo ok "

The guard, a meaty middle-aged Iranian with a ta t tered r if le s lung over his

shoulder, refused again, s taring down the most ly recent univers i ty graduates

in their m id-tw enties . "N o, it is imp ossib le " he sa id . "O ut of the qu est io n,"

T w o m o re b re a t h l e s s y o u n g I ra n i a n s a p p ro a c h e d t h e c ro w d o f a b o u t t h i rt y .

" Is i t t ru e ? " t h e y a s k e d u rg e n t l y . " W h a t h a v e y o u h e a rd ? W h a t ? T e l l u s "

A t a l l y o u n g m a n , a l e a t h e r l a p t o p c a s e s l u n g o v e r h i s s h o u l d e r ,

re s p o n d e d : " W e d o n ' t k n o w y e t. T h i s g e n t l e m a n , " h e s ai d , p o i n t i n g t o t h e

gua rd, "w on ' t le t us in to ask." T he tw o new com ers s ighed, their ha nd s ra ised

in the air, their eyes begging the guard.

" N o , " the guard said f lat ly. "I 'm sorry. It is against the rules. How can I let

you in when everyone has lef t?"

2 8 3



FE B.51A N P t L C M M A p E S

"You're ly ing " one of the software engineers shouted defiant ly . ' 'We' l l jus t

wait ou t her e unti l on e of th e dip l om ats wal ks ou t I t ' s on ly f ive o 'c lock. T hey

can ' t a l l be gone "

S o they waited for up to an h o ur for a G erm an dip l om at, a secretary, any

one from the ins ide to walk out the door, to confirm the breathtaking news:

G erm any, they had heard , was ready to op en i ts do ors to Ira nian software

engineers .

F o r t h e I ra n i a n s a s s e m b l e d o u t s i d e t h e e m b a s s y , m a n y o f t h e m u n e m

p l o y e d o r u n d e re m p l o y e d , t h e G e rm a n o p e n i n g c o u l d c h a n g e t h e i r l iv es. A

l a c k o f j o b s a t h o m e a n d t h e p ro m i s e o f p ro fe s si o n a l a d v a n c e m e n t a n d r i c h es

abroad have sent these software engineers , l ike many of the country 's edu

c a t e d e l it e, l o o k i n g fo r a w a y o u t . T h e n e w s o f t h e p o t e n t ia l G e rm a n o p e n i n g

trave led fas t in their t ight-knit community. In Internet cafes and univers i ty

c o m p u t e r l a b s , b y E -m a i l a n d t e l e p h o n e , t h e n e w s h a d s e n t t h e m s c u rry i n g t o

the embassy and the s tandoff with the intractab le guard.

"You are wasting your time," the guard said. "I told you they a lready left."

T h e s o ft w a re e n g i n e e rs h e l d t h e i r g ro u n d . "W e s h a l l s ee ," o n e o f t h e m

said with s tee ly determination. "We sha l l see ."

A s t h e y w a i t e d , c o n v e rs a t i o n d ri ft ed t o th e re c en t l y l a u n c h e d M i c ro s o ft

W ind ow s 2000 software pack age. " I t 's to o man y megab ytes ," on e of the

young men said. " I had to erase ha lf of the appl icat ions on my hard drive so

that it would fit "

A no th er sa id mockingl y: "W ind ow s 2000 is f ine . You ju s t need a new

c o m p u t e r Y o u r c o m p u t e r is f ro m t h e e ra of N a s ru d d i n S h a h , " re ferr in g t o

t h e n i n e t e e n t h -c e n t u ry I ra n i a n k i n g , e l i c i t i n g l o u d c h u c k l e s f ro m t h e a s s e m

bled software engineers .

S u d d e n l y o n e m e m b e r o f t h e w a i t i n g g ro u p s a i d : " D o y o u t h i n k i t ' s a

h o a x ? L i k e l a st ti m e . " T h e c ro w d s i g h ed , a l m o s t i n u n i s o n . A few m o n t h s e a r

l ier, a ru m or h ad spread by E -ma i l that the Sw iss E mbassy, w hich repres ents

A me rican interes ts in Te hra n, was takin g appl icat ions for co m pu ter software

e n g i n e e rs t o w o rk i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s — i n S i l i c o n V a l l e y

"No,

this can 't be fa lse," on e said. "It was prin ted in a G erm an newspaper."

H e a d s t u r n e d t o t h e y o u n g m a n w i t h t h e n e w i n f o r m a t i o n . " W h a t ?

W h e re ? " A c a c o p h o n y o f v o i c e s a s k e d fo r t h e W e b a d d re s s o f t h e n e w s p a p e r ,

b u t h e c o u l d n o t re m e m b e r i t . M o r e s i g h s .

" B e s id e s , n o n e of y o u re a d s G e rm a n , " h e s a id sm u g l y , h i n t i n g t h a t h i s

2S4



T E H R A N

k n o w l e d g e o f t h e l a n g u a g e w o u l d m a k e h i m a v i r t u a l l o c k fo r o n e o f t h e

highly coveted visas.

T h re e m o re s of tw a re e n g i n e e rs j u m p e d o u t o f a ca r. " W h a t ' s h a p p e n i n g ?

Is t h i s t h e l i n e fo r a p p l i c a t i o n s ? "

T h e t a l l b o y w i t h t h e l a p t o p , t h e d e fa c t o g ro u p s p o k e s m a n , re p l i e d w i t h

his usua l l ine , poin ting to the guard: "Thi s gent l em an w on ' t le t us in to f ind

o u t / ' H e s a i d " g e n t l e m a n " i n a m o c k i n g t o n e .

T h e g ro u p s hu ff l ed a n g r i l y a l l e y es o n t h e g u a rd . S u d d e n l y t h e g u a rd

snap ped . "A ttention, everyone You m us t leave th e area now o r I ' l l ca l l my

supervisor " He reach ed for his wal kie-ta lkie . "T his is no t r ight I to ld y ou

that everyone has gone home You must a l l leave the area "

T h e t al l y o u n g m a n s t e p p e d i n . " C a l m d o w n . W e a re s o rry . W e a re l e a v

ing." H e tur ne d ba ck to his su l len fe l low software en ginee rs . "L et 's go. W e're

giving the poor guard a heart a t tack."

O n e b y o n e a n d i n s m a l l g ro u p s , t h e s o ft w a re e n g i n e e rs re t re a t e d . A s t h e

crowd dispersed, one young man ca l led back a t the guard: " I ' l l be back here

at eight

A M

tomorrow. You'd better le t me in "

T h e g u a r d t o u c h e d h i s g u n .

Children of the Revolution

A

t an Internet cafe in an aff luent sect ion of Tehran, I met with two of

t h e so f tw a re e n g i n e e rs w h o h a d g a t h e re d o u t s i d e t h e G e rm a n e m b a s s y

gates a we ek earlier. W e sat on ta l l b lack ch airs aro un d a ta l l g l ass tabl e

as young Iranians surfed the Web on four computers se t up against the wal l .

W e b s it e s for B r i tn e y S p e a rs , T i m b e r l a n d s h o e s , s k a t e b o a rd i n g , a n d t h e L o s

A n g e l e s - I ra n i a n p o p m u s i c s c e n e fl a s he d a c ro s s t h e sc re e n s . T w o t e e n a g e

gir ls typed messages , g iggl ing. They were in a cyberchat room that l inked

t h e m w i t h o t h e r t e e n a g e g i rl s i n A m e ri c a , B r it a in , H o n g K o n g , In d i a , a n d

s o m e w h e re t h e y h a d n e v e r h e a rd o f , t h e C a y m a n Is l a n d s , T h e c o rre s p o n d e n t

f ro m t h e C a y m a n s w a s p a r t i c u l a r l y e m o t i o n a l a b o u t t h e s u b j e c t i n d i s c u s

s i o n , t e e n h e a r t h r o b L e o n a rd o D i C a p r i o . " I l o v e h i m I l o v e h i m s o ," t h e C a y

m a n I s l a n d s m e s s a ge w e n t . T h e L o n d o n c o r r e s p o n d e n t p i p e d i n w i t h h e r

o w n m e s s a g e : " D o y o u l o v e h i m m o re t h a n D a v i d B e c k h a m ? " C a y m a n ' s

resp ons e? "Yes Way, way m ore "

The Iranian gir ls a t the cafe thought that Cayman khanom (M r s. C a y m a n ) ,

2 8 5



P E R S I A N F I L f l U M A C E 5

as they cal led her

T

was a bi t too obsessed. "This gir l is s trange," one of them

s a i d . S h e b e g a n t y p i n g a re s p o n s e t o C a y m a n khanom, taking the high road: "1

am a l so love M r. D iCa pro , bu t I love ho w h e is good ac tor Very good a ctor

[sic].

S h e p re s s e d t h e k e y t o s e n d t h e m e s s a g e . S h e g r i n n e d w i t h a s m u g s a t

isfaction.

N earb y tw o boys in their ear ly teen s we re surfing a skate boa rdin g s i te.

" W o w L o o k a t t h a t o n e , " o n e o f t h e l o n g -h a i re d b o y s s ai d . " H o w d i d h e d o

t h a t ? "

In a c o rn e r o f t h e ro o m a m i d d l e -a g e d m a n c h e c k e d o n h i s s t o c k p o r t fo

l i o from a n A m e ri c a n o n - l i n e s t o c k - t ra d i n g s it e. I ra n ' s g ra y -b e a rd e d S u p r e m e

L e a d er , A y a to l l a h A l i K h a m e n e i , a re g u l a r c ri ti c o f " W e s t e rn c u l t u ra l i m p e r i

a l ism," looked down upon the Web surfers from a framed photo high in one

corner of the cafe.

T h e two software specia l is ts and I order ed N escafe , w hic h was served with

t h i n w a fer c o o k i e s o n t h e s i d e. M a d i , a t w e n t y -s e v e n -y e a r-o l d g ra d u a t e o f

Teh ran U nivers ity , was c lean -shav ed with a m op of unru l y b lack hair a top h is

round face. His university c lassmate Pooya was a s l ightly buil t twenty-six-

year-o ld man, with bright eyes and a dimple that appeared a t the top of his

r i g h t c h e e k w h e n h e l a u g h e d . N e i t h e r o f t h e m h a d s t u d i e d c o m p u t i n g o r

software a t the univers i ty— M adi is a b ioche m istry gradu ate and P ooya a c ivil

engineer—but both had learned software packages in their free t ime, spend

i n g h o u rs b e h i n d t h e c o m p u t e r b e t w e e n c l a s s e s a n d o n w e e k e n d s . S i n c e

g ra d u a t i o n t h e y h a d c o n t i n u e d s t u d y i n g , s e t t i n g u p a g ro u p t h a t m e t re g u

l a r l y t o t e a c h o n e a n o t h e r n e w p ro g ra m s .

O n e day, in 19 93 , they signed up for a specialized software co ur se at a

l o c a l c u l t u ra l c e n t e r . " T h e t e a c h e r w a s a m i d d l e -a g e d m a n w h o h a d s t u d i e d

i n A m e ri c a i n t h e m i d -1 9 8 0 s , " M a d i e x p l a i n e d . " H e w a s s o o u t o f t o u c h w i t h

the la tes t t rends that i t was comica l . We s tudents knew far more than he did,

so we deve loped a game in c lass to enterta in ourse lves . Every sess ion one of

u s w o u l d a s k h i m a v e ry t e c h n i c a l q u e s t i o n t h a t h a d n o m e a n i n g w h a t s o e v e r .

H e wo ul d fum bl e a bi t and say, 'We wil l get to tha t quest io n in a la ter sess ion . '

We a l l had vis ions of the poor guy going home that n ight to s tudy the answer

t o t h a t m e a n i n g l e s s q u e s t i o n . "

P o o ya s m i l e d , " M a d i p u t t h a t p o o r fel l o w t h r o u g h a g re a t d e a l o f t ro u b l e

w i t h h i s q u e s t i o n s . I a l m o s t b ro k e d o w n o n c e , t o t e l l h i m t h a t w e w e re j u s t

fo o l i n g w i t h h i m , b u t t h e o t h e r s t u d e n t s d i d n ' t l e t m e . "

286



Today they both teach an evening course on basic computer ski l l s a t the

s a m e c u l t u r a l c e n t e r. " E v e ry o n e of m y c l a s se s is o v e r s u b s c r i b e d " M a d i

said. "T he s t ud en ts are diverse . I teac h housew ives , chi l dre n, universi ty s tu

dents , even a m an in his e ighties . T h e e lder ly m an said he w ante d to learn

h o w t o se n d E -m a i l s t o h i s g ra n d c h i l d re n i n A m e ri c a . O n e of t h e y o u n g e r

s t u d e n t s w a n t e d t o l e a rn h o w t o t y p e ra s t e r , s o h e c o u l d s e n d o u t m o re

E -mai l s to his cyber gir l friends aro un d the worl d I sen t h im t o a typin g class

ins tead."

B o t h of t h e m h e l d d ay j o b s a s w e l l , M a d i a t a p h a rm a c y a n d P o o y a w i t h

a n e n g i n e e r i n g f i rm . T h e y a l s o h a d w e e k e n d j o b s , p ro v i d i n g c o m p u t e r s u p

port to private-sector companies , "We do a l l the basic computer s tuff an

office nee ds ," P ooya expla ined. "I t is very s impl e work . M os t of the peop le in

my office do not even know how to send E-mai l , so we do i t for them."

S o w h y d id t h e y w a n t t o g o t o G e r m a n y ?

"In Iran the work is very basic and the pay is very low," Pooya said. "We

cannot survive on our sa laries a lone. Even with pay from the night c lasses

a n d t h e w e e k e n d j o b , I c a n n o t a fford t o b u y a c a r. " T h e t w o y o u n g m e n , l i ke

m a n y I ra n i a n s i n t h e i r m i d - t w e n t i e s , i n c l u d i n g s o m e m a rr i e d c o u p l e s , s t i l l

l ived with their parents . "We are s tagnating profess iona l ly and suffering eco

n o m i c a l l y T h a t ' s w h y w e al l w a n t t o g o t o t h e W e s t . O u r b i g g e st d re a m is

A merica . S i l icon Val ley. But we ' l l ta ke w hatever w e can get . 1 curre nt l y have

an appl icat ion in the works for Canada,"

M adi agreed. "T he re is no future for us in Ir an. Th is is no t a cou ntry that

treats i ts profess iona ls wel l . I t is a great p lace for the businessman or the

trader. You can m ake a lo t of m one y if yo u kn ow th e r ight peop le an d trade

i n t h e r i g h t g o o d s . B u t fo r t h e e d u c a t e d ? I t i s t e r r i b l e . I m a k e a b o u t o n e h u n

d re d a n d t w e n t y t h o u s a n d t o m a n s a m o n t h [a p p ro x i m a t e l y $ 1 7 5 ] w i t h t h re e

j o b s . H o w c a n I re n t a n a p a r t m e n t , b u y a c a r , a n d g e t m a rr i e d w i t h t h a t

sa lary? I don ' t want to leave Iran, but I have no choice ."

W h a t o f t h e G e r m a n r u m o r ? D i d it t u r n o u t t o b e t r u e ?

"Part ia l ly , yes ," M adi sa id . "G erm any has expressed an intere s t in software

engineers , but I ran was only one of the countries mentioned. I t is s t i l l unc lear

how many Iranians they wi l l invite to apply, but I am sure they wi l l be over

w h e l m e d w i t h I ra n i a n a p p l i c a t i o n s . "

M a d i a n d P o o y a re p re s e n t e d a t ro u b l i n g a s p e c t o f I ra n ' s e c o n o m y , t h e

massive bra in drain of th e cou ntry 's educated profess iona ls t o foreign co un -

287



P E R S I A N P L L p U M A £ E S

t r ie s s in c e t h e 1 9 7 9 re v o l u t i o n . A d i s t o r t e d , a n e m i c e c o n o m y t h a t fav o rs t h e

trader and specula tor has sent many of I ran 's e l i te profess iona ls outs ide the

cou ntry . I ran ha s on e of th e highest ra tes of bra in drain in th e M iddl e E ast .

N e a r l y o n e i n fo u r I ra n i a n s w i t h a c o l l e g e d e g re e w o rk s o u t s i d e t h e c o u n t ry .

I n t h e y e a r 2 0 0 0 , m o r e t h a n t w o h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d I r a n i a n s e m i g r a t e d .

The f irs t wave of the brain drain occurred short ly after the revolution as

I ra n i a n t e c h n o c ra t s f l e d t h e c o u n t ry . T h e y w e re d i s i l l u s i o n e d b y t h e a u t h o r i

t a r i a n i s m o f t h e n e w g o v e rn m e n t , a n g e re d b y t h e g o v e rn m e n t ' s e m p h a s i s o n

re l igious puri ty over technica l ski l l , and fearfu l over the war with Iraq. S ince

t h e n , a s I ra n ' s e c o n o m y h a s s h o w n l i t t l e s i g n o f i m p ro v e m e n t , I ra n i a n p ro

fess iona ls have s teadi ly lef t the country, employing their ski l l s successfu l ly

t h r o u g h o u t t h e W e s t . M a jo r A m e r i c a n c it ie s— e s pe ci al l y L o s A n g el e s , S a n

F ra n c i s c o ( i n c l u d i n g S i l i co n V a l l ey ), N e w Y o rk , a n d W a s h i n g t o n — h o s t a w i d e

range of highly successfu l I ranian immigrants . Success s tories of I ranian dot

com mil l ionaires and ce lebrated surgeons f i l ter back to Iran, further entic ing

Ira n i a n y o u t h w i t h d re a m s o f t h e W e s t . S o m e t i m e s t h e s t o r i e s a re g re a t l y

e x a g g e rat e d . " Is it t ru e , " M a d i a s k e d m e , " t h a t t h e r e a re m o re I ra n i a n m i l l i o n

a ir e s i n A m e r ic a t h a n A m e r i c a n o n e s ? "

T h o u g h M a d i a n d P o o y a m i g h t b e g u l l i b l e e n o u g h t o fal l for s o m e o f t h e

u r b a n l e g e n d s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e i r c o m p a t r i o t s in A m e r i ca , t h ey u n d e r s t o o d

the implicat ions of their decis ion to leave the country and i ts effect on their

generat ion 's psyche. "We know that by leaving Iran, we are in a sense aban

d o n i n g o u r c o u n t ry m e n , " P o o ya sa i d . " T h e e d u c a t e d e l it e s h o u l d s ta y t o h e l p

b u i l d t h e c o u n t ry . B u t o u r c o u n t ry d o e s n ' t w a n t u s . H o w e l s e c a n y o u e x p l a i n

the feet that a taxi driver makes twice as much money as a physics professor?"

" I t ' s n o t o n l y j o b s o r m o n e y , " M a d i s a id . " O u r g e n e ra t i o n i s o b s e s s e d w i t h

t h e W e s t . In t h e s c h o o l s o f t h e I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c w e w e re c o n s t a n t l y t o l d t h a t

the West was bad and evi l . But on sa te l l i te TV and on the Internet and in

mag azines , we saw a different W est . W e saw a land of freed om — both pol i t ica l

a n d s o c i a l — a n d a p l a c e of e c o n o m i c s e c ur i ty . W e h e a rd s o m a n y s u c c e s s s t o

ries of I rania ns l iv ing in the W est , especia l ly A m erica . M an y of th e drea m s of

t h e p e o p l e o f m y g e n e ra t i o n a re w ra p p e d u p s o m e h o w i n g o i n g t o t h e W e s t .

" S t i l l , o u r d e p a r t u r e c o n t r i b u t e s t o a s ee m i n g l y n e v e r-e n d i n g c y cl e . I f

P o o y a a n d I l e av e t h e c o u n t ry , o u r y o u n g e r b ro t h e rs a n d s i st e rs, w h o a re a l s o

educ ated, wil l wan t to fo l low u s . W e' l l sen d back pic tures of us a t ou r desks ,

28S



T E H R A N

on the beach, in front of ta l l bui ldings , and our younger re la t ives who see

those pic tures wi l l a lso burn for a chance to see the same beach, work in the

same office, ride to the top of the same ta l l building. It is a cycle of departure

a n d l o n g i n g fo r d e p a r t u re . I t c a n b e b ro k e n o n l y w h e n t h i s e c o n o m y i s t a k e n

a w a y f ro m s t at e c o n t ro l a n d t h e n a t u ra l t a l e n t s of o u r p e o p l e c a n p ro g re s s i n

a competi t ive market ."

M adi breathe d in deeply. P ooya nodd ed his head, looking a t h is fr iend

appreciatively, as if to say, "Wel l pu t," W e finished ou r coffee in silence, th e

so un d of the giggl ing girls in th e L eon ard o D iCaprio chat ro om fil l ing the a ir.

C a l c u l a t i n g q u ic k l y in m y h e a d , I re al i z e d t h a t M a d i h a d b e e n

sue

years o ld

at the t ime of the revolution and Pooya must have been f ive . In a sense , they

w e re j u s t a s m u c h " t h e c h i l d re n o f t h e re v o l u t i o n " as t h e 5 5 p e rc e n t o f t h e

p o p u l a t i o n b o m a ft er 1 9 7 9 . A il t o l d , n ea r l y t w o -t h i rd s o f a l l I ra n i a n s a re

u n d e r t h i r t y , m a k i n g i t o n e o f y o u n g e s t p o p u l a t i o n s i n t h e w o r l d . T h i s m a s s

o f y o u t h — u n b o rn o r u n w i t t i n g a t t h e t i m e o f t h e re v o l u t i o n — w a s e x p e c t e d

to become the vanguard of the Is lamic Republ ic , " the future foot so ldiers for

Is l a m , " a s K h o m e i n i p u t it . In s t e a d m o s t of t h e m h a v e b e c o m e t h e v a n g u a rd

for chang e. I ra nian yo uth voted overwhel mingl y for the reformist K hatam i in

1 9 9 7 a n d 2 0 0 1 , a n d t h e y a re t o d a y d i sp l a y i n g i m p a t i e n c e w i t h t h e s l o w p a c e

of chang e. M ore im po rtan t , their ac ts of daily defiance against th e r igid ru l es

that govern their l ives have chipped away a t the power of I ran 's ru l ing con

servatives . E ach act of defiance em bo l de ns ano ther.

M adi and P ooya, however, we re in no m oo d for a f ight . Th ey were , in

L e n i n ' s fa m o u s p h ra s e , " v o t i n g w i t h t h e i r fee t. " T h e t w o y o u n g m e n fl ew t o

Damascus, Syria , in what has become a contemporary r i te of passage for the

y o u n g I ra n i a n e d u c a t e d e l i te , t h e C a n a d i a n E m b a s s y v is a p i l g r im a g e . T h e

C a n a d i a n E m b a s s y i n D a m a s c u s p ro c e s s e s a l l t h e I ra n i a n w o rk v i s a a p p l i c a

t ions . Canada has opened i ts borders to Iranian profess iona ls , especia l ly com

p u t e r s p e ci a l i st s, e n g i n e e rs, a n d d o c t o rs . E v e ry d a y t h e C a n a d i a n E m b a s s y

re ce iv e s h u n d re d s o f a p p l i c a t i o n s f ro m I ra n i a n s . B o t h M a d i a n d P o o y a p a s s e d

the f irs t cut . They were wait ing to be ca l led back to Damascus for a persona l

interview that would determine their f ina l s ta tus .

" T h e v is it t o t h e C a n a d i a n E m b a s s y i s o u r g e n e ra t i o n ' s p i l g r im a g e , " M a d i

said, shrugging his shoulders . " I t rea l ly is . You wil l see what it is l ike soon. You

w i l l se e . " I h a d t o l d t h e m o f m y p l a n s t o c h ro n i c l e a n I ra n i a n v is a s e e k e r o n

2 8 9



P E R S I A N

P l L p R l M A p E S

h i s v is it t o D a m a s c u s , T h e p i l g r i m a g e , t h o u g h n o t a tra d i t io n a l o n e a n d n o t

o n I ra n i a n s o i l , s e e m e d t o d e f i n e s o m e t h i n g a b o u t I ra n ' s c h i l d re n o f t h e re v

o l ut io n, and I tho ug ht I need ed to und ers tan d i t. I was to leave in a few days .

"I t is a very sad thing to see ," P ooya said, "O u r be st min ds are l ined up

o u t s i d e t h e C a n a d i a n E m b a s s y l i ke c o m m o n b e g g ars . If y o u a re a n I ra n i a n

nationa l is t , you should cry a t the s ight ." I to ld t h e m t h a t t h e s c e n e o u t s i d e t h e

G e rm a n E m b a s s y c o u l d b e s e e n as e q u al l y s a d . "Y es, t h a t w a s b a d t o o / ' P o o y a

a d m i t t e d . " I s u p p o s e w e l o o k e d p re t t y d e s p e ra t e . "

W e o rd e re d a n o t h e r ro u n d o f N e s ca fe s. In ev i ta b l y t a l k t u r n e d t o t h e re v

o lut ion, a subject of conversat ion that is seemingly inexhaustib le in Iran.

M a d i ' s fa th e r s u p p o r t e d t h e re v o l u t i o n , h e t o l d m e , b u t h e c o u l d n ' t fi g ure o u t

w h y . " M y fa t h e r t h o u g h t it w o u l d b r i n g g re a t er d e m o c ra c y t o I ra n , b u t f ro m

m y re a d i n g , I k n o w t h a t t h e l e a d i n g re v o l u t i o n a ry f ig u re s w e re e i th e r M a rx

ists

o r

m u l l a h s . W h a t k i n d o f d e m o c r a c y c o u l d t h ey p r o d u c e ? " M a d i' s s t a t e

m e n t ref l ec te d a re c u rr i n g s e n t i m e n t a m o n g t h e c h i l d re n o f t h e re v o l u t i o n : a

diff icu l ty in unders tanding the revolution 's motivations , a d is trus t of I ran 's

clerics, and a skepticism toward some of the leftist ideals of their parents.

"O ne year after th e revol ution," M adi sa id , "as i t bec am e c lear that the

c lerics would take over and democracy would be sacrif iced, my fa ther turned

a g a i n s t t h e g o v e rn m e n t . S t i l l , s o m e t i m e s I h a v e h e a t e d a rg u m e n t s w i t h h i m . I

bec om e angry. I say: 'H ow c oul d you have been so b l ind? T h e leftists tha t you

supported were a l l s tooges of the Soviet Union, and the c lerics that you

cheered for never had any experience with democracy ' "

P ooya interjected: "You m us t be fair , M adi. N ot a l l th e left is ts w ere S oviet

s t o o g e s , a n d t h e re w e re m a n y , m a n y I ra n i a n s w h o fo u g h t fo r t h e s a m e re a

so ns you r fa ther did: dem ocra cy a nd freedom . If we 'd l ived in th os e days , we

w o u l d p ro b a b l y h a v e b e e n re v o l u t i o n a ry t o o . T h e S h a h w a s a d i c ta t o r. H e d i d

not a l low for any pol i t ica l freedom. He forced people to choose revolution.

O u r p a r e n t s ' g e n e ra t i o n w a s al s o po l i ti ca l l y u n s o p h i s t i c a t e d , s o t h e y c h a s e d

after every Utopian idea there was. W h en the re is no ro om for dissen t and no

room for po l i t ica l freedom, i t doesn ' t take much to get people excited about

c h a n g e . T h e y w il l fo l l o w a n y o n e w h o c a l l s fo r e q u al i t y a n d d e m o c ra c y

w h e t h e r h e i s a m u l l a h o r a M a rx i st . "

H e con tin ue d: *Ybu know , A fshin, ou r gener at ion is no t as po l i t ica l as

we re our pa rents , w ho we re obsessed with C he G uevara and leftist po l i t ics.

You see , t im es were different. The y had jo bs and s om e eco no m ic securi ty , so

2 9



T E H R A N

they had the luxury to be fashionable lef t is ts . We don ' t have that , so we want

very basic things: a good job, a l iv ing wage, and some persona l freedoms."

M adi interjected defiantly: "I long for the S hah, I wish he s ti l l ru led I ran.

T he re were jo bs and socia l freedom s a t leas t. N ow w e have neither po l i t ica l

freedom no r social freedom . A t leas t th e S hah a l l owed for re l igious freedom "

He looked a t Pooya meaningful ly , h is s tare l ingering longer than normal .

" T h i s i s s o m e t h i n g

that you

s h o u l d a p p re c i a t e . "

P ooya fidgeted w ith his coffee sp oo n. T h en he said: "Yes, yo u are right,

M a d i . R e l i g io u s fre e d o m s a re ve ry i m p o rt a n t . " H e t h e n l o o k e d a t m e a n d

said: "1 am Jewish, T ha t is w hat M adi m ean t."

T

had n ot kn ow n P ooya was Jewish. L ike m ost of I ran 's th ir ty-five tho usa nd

Jews, the largest com m un ity of non-I srae l i Jews in the M iddle E ast , P ooya

seem ed wel l ass imila ted. I ran 's Jewish com m uni ty dates back mo re than

twenty-rive hu nd re d years, even before th e rise of Cy rus the G reat. S til l , despite

their ass imila t ion, th e revol ution created s tra ins in th e Jewish c om m unit y.

"It was not easy for us in the early days of the revolution," Pooya said. "We

were not persecuted, of course , but we fe l t uneasy. You know what I mean,

r i g h t ? " H e w h i s p e re d t h e l a s t s e n t e n c e , l o o k i n g a ro u n d a s h e s p o k e .

1

k n e w

w h a t h e m e a n t . A y a to l l a h K h o m e i n i , t h e n t h e n e w l e a d e r o f I ra n, reg u l a r l y

ci ted the s ta te of Is rae l and Jews as internationa l conspira tors in p lots to

destroy Iran. Revolutionary tr ibuna ls branded former government offic ia ls as

"Z ionis t agents ." O n e ayato l lah g leefu l ly to ld a crow d tha t the revo lu tion

hum il ia ted th e Jews and th e Bahais (a perse cute d re l igious m inori ty tha t f irst

e m e rg e d i n t h e m i d -n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u ry a s a n I s l a m i c re fo rm m o v e m e n t a n d

that today pr eache s a re l igion of universa l ism and peace).

"T

w a s t o o y o u n g t o re m e m b e r m u c h , " P o o y a s a id , " b u t I d o re m e m b e r a

loud argument between my parents over my fa ther 's go ld necklace with the

S tar of David on i t . M y m ot he r to l d my fa ther to s top wearing th e neckl ace .

S he th ou gh t it m ight cause probl em s. M y fa ther, however, refused to take off

the necklace . He sa id that he was a proud patriot of I ran, and no Iranian gov

ernment could ever te l l h im otherwise . He kept saying that he was an Iranian

a n d v e ry p ro u d H e w a s y e l l i ng it l o u d l y M y m o t h e r c r ie d . S h e sa id t h a t i t

would only be temporary, in case the new government checked for these

thing s . But my fa ther refused. In the end h e tur ne d o ut to be r ight . N ob od y

b o t h e re d h i m . "

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e u n e a s e t h a t s e t tl e d a c ro s s t h e c o m m u n i t y s e n t m a n y

291



P E R S I A N P L L f R I M A p E S

I r anian Jews to the exits , A large gr ou p of th em mo ved to th e Un ited S ta tes ,

especia l ly L os A ngeles . P ooya 's family , however, w ent a bo ut the ir busi ness as

usua l , and he , l ike m ost I ranians his age, rem ain s intense l y nationa l is t ic a bo ut

his country, though skeptica l of i ts government. " I love Iran," he sa id . "This is

my country. Al l my dear fr iends are here . I do not equate the country of I ran

with the government of I ran. However, my fa ther, i t seems, has los t some of

his former patr iot ism s ince the revolution. Today he ta lks more of his fa i th

t h a n h i s c o u n t ry . H e h a s b e c o m e m o re J e w i s h t h a n b e fo re . H e re a d s t h e

T o ra h m u c h m o re s o t h a n b e fo re . "

M adi s t i rred his coffee, leaned into the tab le , and w hispere d to P ooya:

" W h y d o n ' t y o u a s k A fsh i n a b o u t t h a t is s u e w e d i s c u s s e d ? "

Pooya shot a sharp g lance toward his fr iend. " I t is bes t i f we do not dis

cuss these things ," he sa id .

" Y ou c a n t ru s t h i m , P o o y a , " M a d i to l d h i m . " D o n ' t w o rry. "

"I don ' t want to do i t that way," Pooya responded tes t i ly . " I t ' s nothing," he

said, turning to me. " I t 's rea l ly nothing."

V i si bl y a n n o y e d , M a d i l e a n e d i n a n d w h i s p e re d t o m e : " P o o y a w a n t s t o

k n o w a b o u t t h e J e w i s h g ro u p s i n A m e ri c a a n d E u ro p e t h a t m i g h t h e l p h i m

get a visa . Have you heard about these groups?"

" N o " P ooya said in an agitated wh isper, s tart l ing th e giggling girls am id

t h e i r L e o n a rd o D i C a p r i o c y b e rc h a t . T h e y l o o k e d a t u s . In s t in c t iv e l y w e al l

reache d for ou r coffee m ugs, t rying to act casua l . Th ey tu rne d back to the

m o n i t o r , w i t h o n e o f t h e m s h r ie k i n g : " O h m y g o d , l o o k w h a t C a y m a n

khanom

h a s w ri t t e n n o w "

M ad i s t i rred his coffee again. " I 'm ju s t t rying to he lp ," he sa id . "You

s h o u l d u s e e ve ry o p p o r t u n i t y y o u c a n g e t. M a y b e A fs h in c a n p a s s o n a l e t t er

for you to one of the groups."

"I don't want to do it that way," Pooya said again, visibly angry. He took a

s ip of coffee and sa id: " If I make it to C anad a or G erm any or A merica , I

should l ike to know that I made i t because of my ski l l s , not because of my

re l igion. I don ' t want re l igion to have anything to do with i t , I don ' t want to

use re l igion for an ything . I ju s t d on ' t wan t i t tha t way."

M a d i n o d d e d i n u n d e rs t a n d i n g , re a c h i n g for h is c offee m u g . P o o y a

breathed in , as i f a burden had been l i f ted from his shoulders . The giggl ing

g ir l s p e c k ed a t t h e c o m p u t e r I p u t aw a y m y n o t e b o o k . A y a to l l a h K h a m e n e i ' s

pic ture s t i l l looked down on us from the wal l .

zn





P E R S I A N P L L £ M M A f E 5

younger than his th ir ty-five years . I f he shaved the mustache, I thought, he

could pass for a twenty-five-year-o ld . He la id out reasons for his visa pi lgrim

age:

"The average engineer makes approximate ly one hundred and f if ty to

t w o h u n d re d a n d f i f t y d o l l a rs a m o n t h , s l i g h t l y l e s s t h a n t h e m o n t h l y i n c o m e

of a taxi driven A verage m on th l y expe nses for

a

middle-class family of four far

exceed that sa lary range. I have a baby da ug hte r to sup po rt and m aybe

a n o t h e r o n e c o m i n g s o o n . E c o n o m i c a l l y i t i s v e ry t o u g h t o s u rv i v e , a n d I

d o n ' t h a v e m u c h fa m i l y f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t . I d o n ' t w a n t t o b e o n e o f t h o s e

people who hold two or three jobs to survive. Besides , I don ' t l ike the socia l

res tr ic t ions w e are l iv ing under. M y wife doe s not co m e from a family th at

veils.

She doesn ' t l ike the forced vei l ing.

"E very year I to ld myself tha t the eco no m y w oul d get better , and every

year

1

waited and waited an d did not apply for the Ca nad a visa . A lready th ree

of my c lassmates are in Canada. This year I am doing i t . I sha l l put in my

a p p l i c a t i o n . T h e re s t I l ea v e t o G o d . "

T h e a i rp l a n e ro s e i n t o t h e n i g h t s k y , a s m o o t h takeoff. T h e g r o u p o f p i l

g r i m s i n t h e f ro nt p ra is e d G o d . O n e o f t h e m , a g ra y -h a i re d , g ra y -b e a rd e d

man holding b lue prayer beads , unfas tened his seat be l t , s tood up to face his

fe l low pi lgrims, and urged them to say a

salavat

(prayer) for the P ro ph et

M u h a m m a d a n d h i s fam i ly . T h e y d u ti fu l l y c o m p l i e d : " B l e s si n g s a n d g re e t in g s

t o t h e P r o p h e t M u h a m m a d a n d t h e fam il y of M u h a m m a d . " A f ew of t h e

y o u n g e c o n o m i c p i l g r im s j o i n e d t h e m i n p ray e r.

A m o n g t h e vi sa p i l g r im s , M a z i a r w a s o n e o f t h e o l d e s t . M o s t w e re i n t h e i r

ear ly and mid-twenties . I sa t on the a is le . In a nearby row, three young visa

p i l g r im s , A l i a n d h i s c o u s i n N a z il a a n d a n o t h e r w o m a n , N i l o o fa r , u n fa s t e n e d

t h e i r s ea t b e l t s a n d l e a n e d i n fo r a c o n v e rs a t i o n . S u rp r i s e d t o h e a r t h a t M a z i a r

was on his first visa run, they traded "war stories" of visa rejections by various

E u r o p e a n e m b a s s ie s .

T h e A m e ri c a n s a n d t h e B r i t is h w e re t h e w o rs t , t h e y t h o u g h t . " T h e y

alm ost seem ed to enjoy re ject ing us ," N azila sa id . S he sh oo k her he ad and

said: "T ha t guy in th e A m erican c on sul a te in Dub ai is the wo rst of the worst "

H e r c o m m e n t w a s re c e i v e d w i t h m u c h h e a d n o d d i n g f ro m t h e o t h e r t w o .

"Yes, y o u s h o u l d a v o i d D u b a i a t a ll c o s t s, " A l i s a id . " U s e t h e A m e ri c a n

E m b a s s y in A b u D h a b i . T h e y a re m u c h f r ie n dl i er ," h e a d d e d .

N i loo far had even better advice . "Try the A m erican em bassies in E astern

E ur op e," she said. "I t 's not difficult to get

a

visi t v isa to R om ania or Bulgaria ,

294



D A M A S C V S

and th e adva ntage is that the A m erican consu l ar offic ia ls are no t acc usto m ed

to seeing educ ated Iran ians , so they are no t inc l ined to re ject u s ." G oo d idea,

everyone said.

A l i l e a n e d forw a rd t o te l l a j o k e . " D i d y o u h e a r t h e o n e a b o u t t h e y o u n g

Iranian who went to Dubai for a visa and threw his passport in the Dubai

cree k?" N azi la nod de d in kno win g appr ecia t ion , but the res t of us we re eager

to hear the joke. "This poor fe l low was re jected by every consula te in Dubai;

t h e F re n c h , t h e I t a l ia n s, t h e G e rm a n s , t h e A m e ri c a n s , t h e B r it is h , t h e E a s t e rn

E u ro p e a n s , ev e n t h e C h i n e s e a n d t h e A fri ca n s

1

. S o h e w a l k e d a l o n g t h e D u b a i

creek and dejected ly sa t on a bench. He opened his passport and f l ipped

t h ro u g h a l l t h e re j e c t i o n s t a m p s . In a m o m e n t o f a n g e r h e t h re w h i s p a s s p o r t

into the waterway that in tersects the c i ty . A few minutes la ter a f ish jumped

out of the water and handed him back his passport . He opened the wet pages

and saw a new s ta m p: 'R ejected for entry into D uba i creek. '" Th ey lau ghed

bitterly,

"T ha t 's a goo d on e," M aziar said , "bu t a lso sad, so sad, is it n o t? "

T h e p l a n e l a n d e d b u m p i l y i n D a m a s c u s , a n d t h e t i re s s h r i e k e d l o u d l y a s

t h e j u m b o j e t s l o w e d . A n I ra n i a n n e a rb y j o k e d t h a t t h e p i l o t m u s t b e i n a

h u rry t o h a v e a d r i n k . (S y r i a , u n l i k e I ra n , d o e s n o t p ro h i b i t a l c o h o l c o n

s u m p t i o n . M a n y I ra n i a n s w a s t e n o t i m e , d r i n k i n g b e e r a t a n a i rp o r t b a r

shortly after arrival .) "I am myself in a hurry to have a drink," another Iranian

q u i p p e d .

A t t h e b a g g a g e c l a i m , s e v e ra l y o u n g v i s a p i l g r i m s e x c h a n g e d p h o n e n u m

bers and wished on e ano th er L uck, N i loofar p l ann ed to m ake a vis it to th e

Z ay nab shrin e before going to the C ana dia n E mb assy, "I sha l l pray for m y

visa," she said.

W e p u l l e d o u r b a g s f ro m t h e c o n v e y o r a n d w a l k e d i n t o t h e D a m a s c u s

midnight a ir underneath a large ye l low airport s ign that read W E L C O M E T O

A S S A D ' S

S Y R I A

. P ic tures of the la te Syrian pres ident Hafez A ssad, with his th in ,

g ra y m u s t a c h e a n d h i s l o n g h e a d , d o t t e d t h e a i rp o r t . T h e i m a g e d i s c o n c e r t e d

m e fo r a m o m e n t . I h a d b e c o m e a c c u s t o m e d t o s e e i n g g ra y -b e a rd e d , t u r

b a n -w e a r i n g I ra n i a n c l er ic s o n t h e w a l l s, n o t m u s t a c h i o e d , t i e -w e a r i n g A ra b

auto crats . W e hai led a taxi and head ed for ou r hote l . A lon g the wide, quie t ,

t ree- l ined highway into th e c ity , we passed severa l A ssad b i l l boards .

A s M a z i a r d o z e d , I ru m i n a t e d o n t h e to t a l i t a ri a n i m p u l s e t o p a i n t c it ie s

w i t h p i c t u re s of t h e L e a d e r. In I ra n , p i c t u re s o f A y a to l l a h R u h o l l a h K h o m e i n i

29S



P E R S I A N P t L C J U M A p E S

a n d h i s su c c e s s o r , A y a to l l a h A l t K h a m e n e i , a re s e e n i n p u b l i c p l a c e s a n d o n

b i l l b o a rd s a l l o v e r t h e c o u n t ry . O n o n e s t re t c h o f T e h ra n h i gh w a y , sm a l l

d ra w i n g s o f t h e t w o m e n r u n a c ro s s a l o n g g re e n w a l l , a l t e rn a t i n g o n e , t h e n

t h e o t h e r , s o t h e b o re d p a s s e n g e r l o o k i n g o u t t h e w i n d o w c a n b e re m i n d e d

con tinu al ly of th e faces of his lead ers past and pre sen t. I t was no different

before the revol ution, with pic tu res of th e S ha h seen everywhere .

The effect of the towering face painted on the wal l or on the grand bi l l

board looming out over the highway is curious . For the f irs t- t ime vis i tor , the

pictu res are jarr in g, a s tark rem inde r of w ho 's in charge an d th e nat ur e of

g o v e rn m e n t . T h e re i s l a t e n t t h re a t i n t h e p i c t u re s , b u t t h e re i s a l s o d a rk c o m

edy. To uris ts to Iran often s ta nd in front of th e large bi l lb oards of K hom eini ,

sm il ing , as their fr iends sna p ph oto s . Back ho m e, in Frankfurt or R om e o r

Tokyo, the touris t laughs, as he shows his fr iends the pic ture , a backpacking

foreig ner st an din g in front of an an gry -l oo kin g cleric. H is friends no d in

apprecia t ion, wondering if they too might one day go to Iran or Syria and take

an "exotic" pic ture with an autocrat on a bi l lboard.

F o r t h e re s i d e n t , t h e re i s n o t h i n g " e x o t i c " a b o u t t h e p i c t u re s . T h e y

b e c o m e j u s t a n o t h e r p a r t o f t h e s c e ne ry , n e i t h e r p a r t ic u l a r l y t h re a t e n i n g n o r

inspiring. T h e taxi driver w h o drov e by th e ph ot o of A ssad every day coul d

not possib ly be "inspired" each t ime he saw his leader, even if he had been a

b i g s u p p o r t e r . T h e s a m e g o e s fo r K h o m e i n i o r S a d d a m H u s s e i n o r S t a l i n o r

Castro or any number of ru lers whose visages peer or once peered over their

p o p u l a t i o n s . T h e n a g a i n , p e rh a p s t h a t i s t h e u n i n t e n d e d re s u l t o f t h e b i l l

bo ard s and th e pho to s: T he y tra in the eye to fee l a certa in norm al i ty in t he

p h o t o s . T h e Is l a m i c R e p u b l i c w il l b e h e re a s l o n g a s t h e s u n s h i n e s o n

K h o m e i n i ' s b i l l b o a r d b e a r d .

O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e b il l b o a rd s a l s o b e c o m e t h e fac e o f g o v e rn m e n t

m i s m a n a g e m e n t . A b a d e x p e r i e n c e a t t h e p a s s p o r t o f f i c e b l e m i s h e s t h e b i l l

b o a rd . A ro u g h e n c o u n t e r w i t h t h e p o l i c e t a rn i s h e s t h e b i l l b o a rd . H i g h e l e c

tr ic i ty bi l l s or the r is ing price of meat are b lamed on the men on the bi l lboards .

In a s truggl ing economy l ike Iran 's , the faces on the bi l lboard come to repre

sent a l l the im ped im ents to a bet ter l i fe . T h e bi l l boards bec om e gui l ty , and in

Iran, people do not shy away from pointing the finger.

Iran is not a po l ice s ta te the way Syria is . I ranians are far more wi l l ing to

crit ic ize their gove rnm ent pu bl ic ly th an are S yrians . T h e S yrian taxi driver

rarely ta lks pol i t ics ; th e Ir ania n wil l ta lk of no th in g e lse . In Ir an o ne doe s n ot



D A M A 5 C V S

get the sense of an overwhelming inte l l igence presence monitoring every

w ord on e ut ters . O n e do es not fee l s ti fled as on e does in Dam ascu s. (To use

the Internet In Damascus, I had to go the s ta te l ibrary, regis ter my name, and

l is t a l l the Web s i tes I p l ann ed to view. A s I wro te ou t my addresses l on gh an d

o n a bu rea uc rat 's form , I th ou gh t of the giggl ing gir ls a t the I ntern et cafe in

Tehran.) Yet despite the active civil society of student protesters and political

associa t ions and the genera l wi l l ingness (and loquaciousness) of the Iranian

people to cri t ic ize their ru ler openly, I ran 's government has tota l i tarian e le

m e n t s , e sp e ci al l y t h e e l e v a ti o n of t h e S u p r e m e L e a d e r A y a t o l l a h A l i

K h a m e n e i t o a n a l m o s t u n t o u c h a b l e p o l i ti c al i c o n a n d , of c o u rs e , t h e b i l l

b o a rd s d o t t i n g t h e c o u n t ry .

A s w e d r o v e i n to a n e o n - l i t ci rc l e i n d o w n t o w n D a m a s c u s , u n d e r a n o t h e r

massive bi l lb oard of A ssad, I s tum bl ed up on an idea: I ran 's re la t ive l ibera l iza

t ion s ince the e lect ion of K hatam i in 199 7, especial ly th e ope nin g of the

f loodgates of cri t ic ism, undermines the faces on those bi l lboards above the

roads . T h e A ssad bi l lboa rds , however, were no t indic ted in the sam e way

b e c a u s e t h e p o l i t i c a l c u l t u re o f D a m a s c u s w a s m o re s t i f l i n g , m o re c o n d u c i v e

to the tota l i tarian face on the wal l . W h e n I ran 's l ibera l ized press cri tic ized

Iran 's conservative ru l ing c lergy in that moment of press freedom from 1997

to 2000, the targets of the art ic le s tared down at people from the bi l lboards .

When the taxi driver t i l l s a passenger 's ear with s tories of " those thieving

m u l l a h s , " t h e p a s s e n g e r n e e d o n l y l o o k u p t o t h e s k y t o s e e w h o m h e i s t a l k

i n g a b o u t . W h e n ra d i o s h o w h o s t s t a k e p h o n e c a l l s f ro m l i s t e n e rs w h o s p e w

invective against the poor s ta te of the country 's economy, the bi l lboards

a b o v e th e ro a d m u s t s h a k e j u s t a l i t tl e . S u d d e n l y t h e p e o p l e — n o t t h e p o l i t i

ca l ac t ivis ts or reformist in te l lec tua ls , but the average people—pine for the o ld

b i l l b o a rd , fo r t h e c l e a n -s h a v e d , d a p p e r S h a h w h o p ro v i d e d a s t ro n g e c o n o m y .

T h e y s e e m t o fo rg e t t h a t o n c e t h e S h a h ' s fa c e o n b i l l b o a rd s a c ro s s t h e c o u n

try was the source of a l l their troubles, and they forget their view that "if only

t h e k i n g w o u l d g o a n d t h e Im a m [K h o m e i n i] w o u l d re t u rn , a l l w o u l d b e

wel l ."

W h e n t h e S h a h , re s p o n d i n g t o t h e u n re s t , p a r t i a l l y l i b e ra l i z e d t h e I ra n i a n

pol i ty , he m igh t as wel l have take n do w n his face from th e wal l . W ha t I m ean

by this is: I f yo u are goin g to put up tota l i tarian-s ty le bi l l board s a l l over the

country, you 'd better be a fu l ly tota l i tarian s ta te . Part ia l l ibera l izat ion only

engenders demands for more l ibera l izat ion and u l t imate ly for fu l l l ibera l iza-

297



P E U 1 A N P t L p M M A p E S

l i o n . T h e fa c e s o n t h e b i l l b o a rd s a n d t h e s t a t u e s o n t h e s t re e t s b e c o m e m e re l y

marked men, f i l l ing up a irspace for a few years unti l new bi l lboards crop up

or, bet ter yet , a re rep laced by ads for chicken and soap. I ranian chicken and

s o a p p ro d u c e rs , i t s e e m e d t o m e , s h o u l d b e m o re o p t i m i s t i c t h a n t h e i r S y r ia n

c o u n t e r p a r t s .

In Dam ascus? I Can Breathe

T

he taxi driver dropped us at a small hotel in a s l ightly seedy district in

d o w n t o w n D a m a s c u s . T h e h o t e l c l e r k , a r o u n d m a n w i t h a b r o w n

b e a rd w e a r i n g a n a rro w b ro w n t i e a n d b ro w n s l i p p e rs d i s p l a y i n g

c h u n k y t o e s , h e l p e d u s w i t h o u r b a g s.

"Khosh amadadeed/'

he said in Farsi, with

an A rabic accent , us in g th e famil iar we lc om e ph rase that he had learned from

h i s re g u l a r I ra n i a n g u e s t s. T h e h o t e l w a s p o p u l a r w i t h I ra n i a n p i l g r im a g e

t o u rs . M a z i a r a n d I h a d a r ra n g e d a p a c k a g e d ea l w i t h a t o u r a g e n c y t h a t s p e

cia l izes in re l igious pi lgrim ages . M an y of the yo un g Ira nian visa pi lgrim s use

these tour agency package dea ls because they offer the most economica l

means of t rave l .

"Your bus for pi lgrimage ready nine o 'c lock," the hote l c lerk sa id in bro

ken Fars i . "Breakfast , e ight o 'c lock," We thanked him and re t ired to our

room. Two iron beds with thin mattresses and heavy b lankets greeted us .

M aziar was not p leased . " I asked for a thre e-s ta r hot e l . T hi s is no t r ight ," he

s a id . " T h i s is n o t r i g h t . I s h a l l t a l k t o s o m e b o d y t o m o rro w . " O u t s i d e , I h e a rd

the occasio na l beat of a ho nk in g ho rn as I t r ied to s leep. T h e coarse b l anke t

i tched my body, and unable to s leep, I dressed and walked downstairs to the

smal l l obby decorated with gold teap ots and co lorfu l A rabic textiles on th e wal l .

The bleary-eyed clerk smiled and looked at his watch. It was 1:30

A M

"Bar is

c losed," he sa id in E ngl ish. "A l l bars c losed. N o drink."

I a s k e d h i m w h y h e a s s u m e d I w a n t e d a d r i n k .

"Al l I ranians want drink," he sa id somewhat tes t i ly . "Sometimes even the

re l igious m an w ant drin k. You n o can dri nk in Iran. You drink h ere ."

His summary was r ight , in a sense . Curbs on socia l freedoms tend to cre

a te a la rger appeti te for contraband, whether i t be sex or whiskey. I have l ived

t w i c e i n so c ie t ie s t h a t c u rb e d s o c ia l f ree d o m s — S a u d i A ra b ia i n 1 9 9 3 -9 4 a n d

Ira n 1 9 9 9 -2 0 0 0 — a n d k n o w fro m e x p e r i e n c e t h a t d e p r i v a t i o n c a n b re e d

u n h e a l t h y b i n g e i n g w h e n o n e i s a b ro a d . I t i s n o t w i t h o u t c a u s e t h a t a s t e re o -



D A M A S C U S

t y p e o f t h e w h i s k e y -s w i g g i n g , w o m a n i z i n g S a u d i e xi st s i n m a j o r E u ro p e a n

capita ls . I ranian m en , m ore im poverished than the S audis , m ust d o their d rin k

ing and w om anizing in less expensive spots , in Da m ascu s or Is tanb ul or Dubai ,

" S o m e t i m e s t h e I ra n ia n m a n d r i n k t o o m u c h , " t h e h o t e l c l e rk a d d ed , " H e

com e here at n ight an d he fal l dow n and he can no s tand u p. T hi s no goo d.

D rin k is against Is lam . You Ira nians n o good M us l im s," he said in a sco lding

ton e. I noticed that h e had a br ow n m ark o n his forehead, the s ign of a p i o u s

M u s l i m , c re at e d b y re p e a t e d p ro s t ra t i o n s of t h e fo re h e a d t o t h e g ro u n d .

" I ra n i a n m a n a l s o g o a f t e r w o m a n . T h e y a l w a y s a s k , ' W h e re f i n d w o m a n ? '

N o t far from here , the re is w om an in hote ls ," he said . I assum ed he m ean t

p ro s t i t u t e s , b u t I w a s n ' t s u re .

"Y es, w o m e n fo r m o n e y F ro m R u s s ia , f ro m L e b a n o n , f ro m A fg h a n is t an .

T o o m u c h w o m a n " H e l o o k e d a t h i s w a t c h . " N o w a v a il a bl e w o m a n . O n e

hour more." Despite his avers ion, he was a profess iona l , a he lpfu l c lerk who

t h o u g h t h e s h o u l d p l e a s e t h e c u s t o m e r , s o h e p o i n t e d t o t h e s t re e t s I s h o u l d

avoid and the ones that might interes t me.

1

thanked him pol i te ly (what e lse

wa s I to do ?) and wen t back upsta irs to s leep.

T h e next m or ni ng we join ed the large crowd of re l igious pi lgrims in t he

c ra m p e d b re ak fa st s a l o n . G ra y -h a i red m e n w i th ro u n d p a u n c h e s a n d h ea v il y

veiled women ate breakfasts of eggs, bread, feta cheese, and sweet rea. Syrian

waiters in s ta ined shir ts rushed around, de l ivering meta l pots of tea and white

s labs of feta cheese to th e tab les . A fter a shor t wait M aziar and I were sea ted.

A waiter dro pp ed a long piece of f la t bread o n ou r tab le , I lo oked ar ou nd the

r o o m a t a s ea o f g ra y -h a ire d m e n a n d c h a d o r-c l a d w o m e n , M a z i a r a n d I w e re

by far the youngest in the room, by at least twenty-five years.

Seated next to us , a m an in the baggy pants and th e conica l wh ite cap of

a rura l worker scooped up his egg yolk with a piece of bread as he described

his year l ong pi lgrimage tour. " I v is ited K arba la and N ajaf th is year," he to l d

u s, referring to the shrines of the S hi 'a imam s H osse in an d A l i , "an d I v isi ted

m o r e t h a n t w e n t y imamzadeks [shrines of family members of the twelve sacred

S hi'a im am s] in Iran in this past year, and after I visit th e Z ay na b s hrin e, I

s h a l l , A l l a h w i l l i n g , g o to M e c c a .

M a zia r

and I expressed our hope that h is pi lgrimages would be accepted

by G od: the typica l re joinder.

"G od w i l l ing," he sa id . "M y sons are your age. I hop e they wil l com e to

p i l g ri m a g e h e re s o o n . M a y y o u r p il g r i m a g e a l s o b e a c c e p t e d . "

299



P E R S I A N

P I L f f U M A £ E S

He s tood up and offered us the remainder of his tea , perhaps having

noticed that o ur p ot of tea had no t yet arr ived. We dec l ined with app rop ria te

ta rof. Just th en a p l a te of ru nn y eggs s l am m ed against ou r tab le , fo l lowed by

a rusty pot of tea.

A fter breakfast I l ingered in the lobby as M aziar gathe red his papers for

t h e C a n a d i a n E m b a s s y v is it . A g ro u p o f el d e rl y , p l u m p I ra n i a n w o m e n i n d a rk

c h a d o rs c h a t t e d a b o u t t h e i r c o m i n g p i l g r im a g e w i t h a t h i n , b l u e -e y e d , m i d

d l e -a g e d I ra n i a n w e a r i n g a w i d e -b a n d e d g o l d w a t c h . " R e s p e c t e d l a d i es ," h e

s a id , " I p ra y t o G o d t h a t y o u r p i l g r i m a g e w il l b e a c c e p t e d . I h o p e y o u r b re a k

fas t w a s s u i t a b l e . T h e b u s w i l l b e h e re i n t e n m i n u t e s . R e m e m b e r t o p ra y fo r

me "

He smiled, walked away, and approached the front desk c lerk, who looked

l ike a younger vers ion of the paunchy, bearded c lerk of the night before ,

i n c l u d i n g t h e b ro w n p ra y e r s p o t o n h i s fo re h e a d . T h e I ra n i a n w i t h t h e g o l d

w a t c h s p o k e a n i m a t e d , a l b e i t b ro k e n , A ra b i c i n a F arsi a c c e n t w i t h t h e h o t e l

c l e rk . " H o w m a n y , m y f r i e n d ? W h a t a b o u t g ro u p fo r t o m o rro w , m y f r i e n d ?

D o y o u h a v e ro o m n e x t W e d n e s d a y ? I a m n e e d j u s t o n e ro o m , m y f r ie n d

Please , I know you can do i t " He patted the c lerk on the shoulder. " I bring you

pis tachios ," he sa id . "M any, m any p is tachios " T he c lerk smiled, jo t t ed note s

o n h i s p a d , a n d a s s u re d h i m h e w o u l d c h e c k i n t o t h e ro o m a s s i g n m e n t s .

The Iranian walked away from the desk, l ighting a c igaret te , and sa t down

in a chair next to mine. S trapped to his wais t was a mobi le phone, which I

t h o u g h t p e c u l i a r b e c a u s e D a m a s c u s d i d n o t h a v e a m o b i l e s y s t e m a t t h e t i m e .

I a s k e d h i m a b o u t t h e p h o n e .

"I t is th e ph on e I us e in Te hran ," he sa id .

D i d i t w o r k i n D a m a s c u s ?

" N o . " H e l a u g h e d . " N o t h i n g w o r k s h e r e . "

He inha led the c igaret te deeply, and smoke emitted from his thin nostr i ls .

He was fa ir-skinned and l ight-haired, s l ight ly ba lding a t the top. His thin

hairs were s l icked back, giving him a faintly seedy look. His skin was sal low

yel low, l ike the co lor of his tee th. His eyes constant ly shif ted around the

ro om . H e asked if I was s taying in th e hote l . W ha t par t of I ran was I from?

W h a t w a s m y n a m e ?

"A h, yes ," he sa id , "you w ere bo oked by the Zafar t ou r agency. I am

A hm ad ," he sa id , offering h is th i n ha n d in greeting. " Is yo ur fr iend with yo u?

A r e y o u r a c c o m m o d a t i o n s O K ? I f y o u n e e d a n y t h i n g , l e t m e k n o w ."

300



D A M A 5 CV S

A pparen t ly he w ork ed as a f ixer in Da m asc us with severa l of the T eh ran

t o u r a g e n c i e s, i n c l u d i n g t h e o n e M a z ia r u s e d . " I s p e n d s i x m o n t h s h e re a n d

six months in Tehran. I l ike i t here . In Damascus, I can breathe, have a drink,

y o u k n o w h o w i t i s. Y o u a re t o o y o u n g t o re m e m b e r , b u t D a m a s c u s re m i n d s

m e a b i t o f T e h ra n u n d e r t h e S h a h . T h e re i s t h e s a m e s o r t o f s t ra n g l e h o l d o n

talk of politics, but at least you have personal freedoms. You can get a drink,

go to a cabaret, have a l i t t le fun."

He puffed his c igaret te , h is go ld watch g l int ing. "Life cannot be a l l jus t

m ou rn in g for the im am s and re l igion as th os e c lerics wa nt. I am a re l igious

man," he sa id . " I go to pi lgrimage. I pray. But that does not mean I cannot

breathe a l i t t le . Everybody needs to breathe, no?" He looked a t h is go ld

w a t c h , m u t t e re d , " f i v e m i n u t e s , " u n d e r h i s b re a t h , a n d l o o k e d a ro u n d t h e

lobby a t the gathering t ide of e lder ly pi lgrims.

"In Iran, in the t ime of the Shah, we had socia l freedom. You are too

y o u n g t o re m e m b e r , " h e re p e a t e d , " b u t I re c a l l w h e n F ra n k S i n a t ra c a m e t o

T e h ra n . I t w a s w o n d e rfu l . M a n y i n t e rn a t i o n a l a c t o rs a n d a c t re s se s vi si te d u s .

J a ck i e O n a s s i s c a m e t o T e h ra n S h e b o u g h t j e w e l ry from M o z affa r ia n [a

p r o m i n e n t T e h r a n

j e w e l e r ] .

T h e y a l l c am e . T h e A m e r i c a n s l o v e d I r a n

"Today we can write po l i t ica l ar t ic les unti l we are choking in newspapers ,

bu t if I w ant to have a drin k in a bar, I m us t go to D am asc us. If I w ant to go

t o a n i g h t c l u b , I m u s t g o t o D u b a i . M a n y o f t h e I ra n i a n s w h o c o m e h e re

drin k whiskey to their eyeba l ls . T he h ote l c lerks ask m e, 'W ha t kind of Is l am

i s t h a t ? ' I d o n ' t k n o w w h a t t o s a y I a m a S u fi , T h e y d o n o t u n d e rs t a n d , s o I

point to a l l of the re l igious pi lgrims, the e lder ly people who do their p i lgrim

ages , w ho are pious . I do n ot want th em to have a bad impress ion of I ran. We are

M us l im s after a l l , b ut s ti l l , we need to breathe, don ' t w e?"

H e s to o d u p , a n d s t u b b e d h i s c i g a re t te i n t o a n a sh t ray . " T h e b u s s h o u l d

b e h e re s o o n , " h e s a i d , t h e n a d d e d w i t h a s m i l e , " b u t I a s s u m e y o u w o n ' t b e

o n i t. Y o u w il l b e g o i n g t o t h e C a n a d i a n E m b a s s y, n o ? A l l y o u y o u n g p e o p l e

g o t o t h e C a n a d i a n E m b a s s y I w i s h y o u l u c k . R e m e m b e r , if y o u n e e d a n y

thing, I am at your service ." He hurried away and s tepped to the front of the

l o b b y t o m a k e a n a n n o u n c e m e n t : " A t t e n t io n , e v e ry o n e E v e ry b o d y m u s t b e

i n s id e t h e b u s i n five m i n u t e s . L e t u s s ay a p ra y e r for t h e P ro p h e t M u h a m

m a d a n d h i s fa m il y " T h e g ro u p m o v e d o u t i n s m a l l s t e p s , m u t t e r i n g t h e

familiar salavat as they walked. T he m an in th e gold w atch disappea red into

t h e b r i g h t m o rn i n g l i g h t .

301





D A M A S C U S

I asked him how he felt about his own prospects.

"They never reject engineers with my kind of experience in the first

round. I shall be concerned about the second round/ '

As we inched closer to the front of the line, people gathered around a

just-posted notice on the bulletin board. They were yesterday's applicants,

huddled at the board, hoping to see that they had made it past the first round

of vetting (the Canadian Embassy offered next-day notice for first-round cuts).

I heard shrieks of joy and hugs as people spotted their names on the list. The

remaining young men and women continued looking, scanning the lines,

checking to see if their applicant numbers matched the ones on the list. There

were a few sighs of relief as two more applicants walked away from the board.

Those left behind kept searching, hoping to hnd something on that paper

on the wall that simply was not there. A young woman wiped away a tear. A

young man cursed loudly. Another young man insisted that there must be a

mistake. "This is impossible/' he said.

"1

am an accredited engineer I am an

accredited engineer i have papers. This is a mistake."

Maziar looked on with concern as the rejected engineer walked toward

the embassy and was stopped by the Syrian guard. "This is a mistake " the

young man repeated. "A terrible mistake/' As he walked away from the

embassy he shook his head and kept muttering, "But I am an accredited

engineer, an accredited engineer."

A few minutes later Maziar dropped off his application with the Syrian

guard. We bade good-bye to Ali and Nazila and decided to walk back to the

hotel. A few hundred yards down the road from the Canadian Embassy, we hap

pened upon the embassy of the Islamic Republic of Iran. There were no lines

of young people waiting outside the embassy. We laughed at the obvious irony.

After a short walk we approached the gates of Damascus University,

I

saw

clusters of young men in jeans and clunky black shoes and young women—

some veiled, some dramatically unveiled—stroll the stone walkways of the

campus. Two young women in tight-fining black jeans and heavy makeup

walked past us. Just behind them three young women in head scarves and

long manteaus chatted amiably. Noting the juxtaposition, Maziar said:

"That's how it should be. Women should be given a choice. The Iranian way,

in which we force our women to veil, is wrong. The Turkish way, in which

they force their women to unveil, is also wrong [Turkey bans the head scarf

on college campuses]. Women should have a choice."

303




W e s a t d o w n o n a g re e n p a rk b e n c h o n t h e u n iv e rs it y g ro u n d s . T h e d e l i

cate scen t of m int perfum ed th e air. I asked M aziar ab ou t his ear l ier co m

ment, h is sadness a t seeing his country 's e l i te l in ing up outs ide the embassy.

"Yes, i t 's sad, of cou rse , bu t we are th e lucky on es . W e have an e duc ation .

We have some hope of going abroad. For those without education, i t is very

d if fi cu l t. M a n y y o u n g p e o p l e try t o s m u g g l e t h e m s e l v e s i n t o W e s t e rn E u r o p e

illegally."

H e w a s r i g h t . I t o l d h i m of t h e h u n d re d s o f I ra n i a n y o u n g p e o p l e w h o fl y

i n t o B o s n i a e ve ry m o n t h , h o p i n g t o c ro s s i n t o W e s t e rn E u ro p e o v e r l a n d . T h e

on es w ho do m ak e it l ive the l ives of refugees in E ur op ea n she l ters . "We get

t h re e m e a l s a n d f re e e d u c a t i o n , " o n e o f t h e y o u n g I ra n i a n s w h o h a d m a d e i t

as far as H ol la nd to ld me. A fter a year in Ho l l and , however, he beca m e h o m e

sick for his m ot he r and flew back, a no rm al nine teen- year -o l d 's reaction. S ev

era l of h is fr iends s tayed on and eventua l ly landed jobs and res idence permits .

He wondered if he had made the r ight decis ion.

"Yes, I he ard ab ou t this Bosnia rou te ," M aziar sa id . " I t is very dang ero us

too." W e b o t h h a d re a d t h e n e w s p a p e r s t o ry a b o u t t h e t w e n t y y o u n g I ra n i a n s

who died in a capsized boat while trying to cross a river in Croatia.

" W h a t h a v e w e c o m e t o ? " h e s a i d , s h a k i n g h i s h e a d .

A S y r i a n p ro fe s s o r w i t h a t h i n m u s t a c h e w h o w o re a n a rro w t i e w a l k e d

p a s t u s , p e e l i n g a n o ra n g e , A s t u d e n t , a w o m a n w i t h l o n g b l a c k h a ir ,

a p p ro a c h e d h i m . T h e y t a l k e d a b o u t t h e d a y ' s l e c t u re .

M aziar and I w atch ed th e cam pu s l ife in front of us ; a boy reading un de r

a t re e , s t u d e n t s b e i n g f l i r t a t i o u s , a p ro fe s s o r s u rro u n d e d b y t h re e h e a d -

n o d d i n g s t u d e n t s . W e t a l k e d l i tt l e. M y m i n d ra c e d w i t h w h a t I h a d s e e n i n

D a m a s c u s s o far, a n d I b ro k e t h e s i l e n c e by t e l l i n g M a z ia r a b o u t m y c o n v e r

s a t i o n w i t h t h e h o t e l c l e rk (" I ra n i a n s d r i n k t o o m u c h " ) , a b o u t t h e m a n w i t h

t h e g o l d w a t c h (" In D a m a s c u s , I c a n b re a t h e " ) , m y ru m i n a t i o n s o n b i l l b o a rd s

and on the s t if l ing nature of Syrian pol i t ics versus the re la t ive dynamism of

I ra n i a n . I t o l d h i m a b o u t t h e e x c i t e m e n t I ra n h a s e n g e n d e re d i n t h e W e s t a s

a great ho pe for dem ocracy in th e M iddl e E ast . I to ld him of my own view,

b o r n o f m o n t h s o f t rav e l t h ro u g h o u t I ra n , t h a t I ra n i a n civ il s o c ie t y h a d m a d e

g e n u i n e p ro g re s s , b u t t h a t t h e p ro g re s s w a s in t a n g i b l e t o t h e p e o p l e . T h e re a l

tangib l e things were jo bs an d socia l freedom s and a de cen t l iv ing wage.

He l is tened quiet ly , perhaps sensing that I had much to le t out .

I c o n t i n u e d m y s o l i l o q u y , s a y i n g I ra n ' s p o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t i s i m p o rt a n t

304



DAMASCUS

because i t gets the nation c loser to what i t rea l ly needs , a t ru ly democratic

s y s t e m w i t h a n o p e n s o c i e t y t h a t a l l o w s fo r d e b a t e a n d g o v e rn m e n t a c c o u n t

abi l i ty . But i ts c losed economy which s t if les opportunit ies , and i ts s tr ic t ru les

o n s o c ia l f re e d o m s m a k e d a il y l ife a rd u o u s . T h e a t t e m p t b y t h e g o v e rn m e n t

t o c o n t ro l m o ra l i t y is e m i n e n t l y a n t i d e m o c ra t i c b e c a u s e it p re v e n t s h u m a n

choice , and th at is, in m y opi nio n, the mo st profo undl y exhi lara t ing aspect of

dem ocracy and o pe n socie t ies : I t g ives peopl e choices . I get the sense th at I ra

n i a n s a t b o t t o m j u s t w a n t m o re c h o i c e s , w h e t h e r t h e y a re fo r m o re s o c i a l

freedoms, more pol i t ica l freedoms, or both.

A utho ri tarian systems, however, have a way of dis tort ing everything, I c on

t i n u e d . T h e y d i s t o r t t h e e c o n o m y , t h e c u l t u re , re l i g io n , a n d h u m a n c h o i c e s. A s

a resu l t , the natura l order of th ings is d isrupted. People react against the sys

t e m : T h e y d r i n k t o o m u c h w h e n t h e y g o a b ro a d , o r t h ey b e c o m e i rre l i g io u s o r

funda m enta l is t or M arxis t , they s tand o uts id e embassies begging for visas , or

they give their l ives to cross a surging Croatian river because of some

Utopian

hope that they may rea l ize on the other s ide of the r iver.

M a z i a r t u r n e d t o w a rd m e , a s if t o s ay , " G o o n , I ' m l i s t e n in g . "

T h i s d i s ru p t i o n , t h i s u n n a t u ra l s t a t e

o f

t h i n g s w o n ' t e n d u n t i l t h e p o l i t i

ca l sys tem is opened further, unti l the economy is l ibera l ized, unti l socia l

f re e d o m s a re s a feg u a rd e d . U n l e s s t h e s e h a p p e n , t h e re w i l l b e m o re I ra n i a n s

dying in Croatian r ivers , more l in ing up outs ide embassies for visas , and more

p ro t e s t i n g t h e c u rre n t o rd e r b a c k i n I ra n .

L

am not sure i f the cyc le wi l l end

soon, but the only way i t wi l l end is i f people are given choices on how they

want to l ive and how they want to be governed.

Interes t ingly , young Iranians , i t seemed to me, are less idea l is t ic than their

parents ' generat ion and, in fact , less

so

t h a n t h e i r c u l t u re . T h i s i s g o o d . I ra n i

ans have constant ly sought the idea l a t the expense of

the real,

in their

art,

poetry, architecture, even politics. In a sense , t h e

vektyat-e-faqih,

the system o f

ru le by c lerics , is a K ho m einis t idea l based on t he view th at a j u s t m a n o f re l i

g i o n will guide his f lock to th e r ight pa th. Tradit iona l I ra nian art , with i ts

bright co lors and exaggerated beauty, represents the idea l a t the expense of

the rea l . T h e socia l is t

Utopia

pol i tics of th e 19 70s is yet an ot he r man ifes ta t ion

of this constant quest for the idea l .

B u t t o d a y ' s y o u n g I ra n i a n s s e e m b e t t e r g ro u n d e d . T h e y s e e m t o u n d e r

s tand intui t ive ly that the idea ls in l i fe that matter

are

c h o i c e

and

o p p o r t u n i t y .

This vis i t to Damascus, th is effort to secure a visa and go to Canada, a t bot-

305



P E R S I A N

P

I L f i UM A f ES

t o rn c o m e s d o w n t o c h o i ce a n d o p p o r t u n i t y , d o e s it n o t ? I b re a t h e d i n , w o n

d e r i n g i f I m a d e a n y s e n s e , w o n d e r i n g i f m y m a d ru s h o f t h o u g h t s a b o u t I ra n

while I sa t on a green bench in Damascus Univers i ty made any sense a t a l l .

"Yes,

i t doe s ," M aziar sa id , s trokin g his m usta ch e. "Yes, i t does . You m us t

w ri t e t h e s e t h o u g h t s d o w n , " h e s a i d . " I t h i n k y o u a re b e g i n n i n g t o u n d e r

s tand us ."

I dem urr ed , express ing my h op e that I had n ot bored him . I fel t fa int ly

e m b a rra s s e d b y m y o u t b u rs t . I s u g g e s te d w e m o v e o n t o d o s o m e s i g h ts e e in g .

O ver th e next few h ou rs we vis ited o ld , impress ive mo squ es , smal l , e legant

ch urc hes , a fashionable A rm enian dis tr ic t , and th e twis t ing a l leyways of the

centra l bazaar. W e re t ur ne d to ou r hote l in the evening. W h en we entered the

l o b b y , t h e t h i n m a n w i t h t h e g o l d w a t c h w a s a rg u i n g w i t h t h e h o t e l d e s k

clerk, a cigarette dan gl ing from his l ips, a pen cil in his ha nd , furiously w riting

s o m e t h i n g o n t h e h o t e l l e d g e r .

"We promised you fifty, not sixty-five. We cannot pay for the extra rooms

if we did no t use th em " he sa id , to the o bvious cha grin of th e hot e l c lerk w ith

t h e b ro w n s p o t o n h i s fo re h e a d . A s w e w a l k e d p a s t, t h e I ra n i a n s m i l e d a t u s —

"So,

a re y o u g o i n g t o C a n a d a o r n o t ? " — b e fo re c o n t i n u i n g h i s a rg u m e n t w i t h

the hote l c lerk.

T ha t nigh t after d in ne r M aziar and I head ed for a nearby bar. A s we

wal ked tow ard th e bar, pas t som e of th e seedier hote ls , yo un g S yrians

a p p ro a c h e d u s q u i et l y , w h i s p e r i n g i n A ra b ic , " W o m a n , w o m a n , w o u l d y o u

l i k e a w o m a n ? " A fe w o f t h e m a p p ro a c h e d u s , a n d s p o k e i n F a rs i : " F i n e

w o m e n . S p e c ia l p r ic e for I ra n i a n b o y s C o m e i n . V e ry c h e a p V e ry n i c e R u s

s ians , L eban ese, any thing yo u l ike ."

W h en we sat dow n in the bar, M aziar sa id: "1 thi nk this area is the ir ver

s ion of S hah r-e- N ow ," referring to a red l ight dis tr ic t in prere vol ution Iran.

"T ha t t ravel agency rea l ly gave us the bu sines s I 'm sorry. I f I 'd kn ow n, I

w o u l d n o t h a v e b o o k e d a ro o m h e re . " I t o l d h i m h e w o rr ie d h i m s e l f for n o

rea son . T he dis tric t had a certa in rog uish ch arm . I genu ine l y l iked it .

We sat on chairs a t tea-s ta ined f la t wooden tab les , s ipped co ld Syrian beer,

a n d a t e g re e n o l iv es . S m o k e fil l ed t h e ro o m . O l d m e n i n t a t t e re d s w e a t e rs

suck ed o n shees ha pipes . You nger m en in b l ue jea ns , sm ok ing c igaret tes ,

h u d d l e d a ro u n d a c a r m a g a z i n e . A g ro u p o f fo u r y o u n g I ra n i a n m e n , o t h e r

visa seekers , s ipped beer. O n e of th em app roa che d us to ask if we wou ld l ike

3 0 6



T E H R A N

t o j o i n t h e m a t a c a b a re t. " T h e r e w il l b e R u s s i a n w o m e n d a n c i n g , " h e s a id .

A fter a few drin ks M aziar and I , t i red from a long day of wal king, we nt back

t o o u r h o t e l .

T h e n e x t da y M a z ia r m a d e t h e 6 rs t c u t . W e s p o t t e d h i s n u m b e r o n t h e

white paper a t tached to the embassy 's brick wal l . He smiled and breathed in

d e e p l y . I c o n g ra t u l a t e d h i m . H e re a c h e d o u t t o e m b ra c e m e . P e rh a p s h e h a d

b e e n m o re n e rv o u s t h a n h e l e t o n . H e w a s a l l o w e d i n t o t h e e m b a s s y g ro u n d s

to f i l l out a series of forms. I f he made the second cut , to be determined in

t w e l v e m o n t h s , h e w o u l d b e c a l l e d b a c k t o D a m a s c u s fo r a p e rs o n a l i n te rvi ew .

W h i l e M a z i a r w e n t in s i d e t h e C a n a d i a n E m b a s s y t o g e t t h e form s , 1 m et a

t e a ry -e y e d y o u n g w o m a n w h o h a d fa i l e d t o m a k e t h e c u t . S h e s t i l l w o re t h e

h e a d s c arf a n d m a n t e a u , t h e I ra n i a n fe m a l e u n i fo rm o f t h e I s l a m i c R e p u b l i c ,

e v e n t h o u g h s e v e ra l o f t h e I ra n i a n w o m e n h a d t a k e n a d v a n t a g e o f S y r i a ' s re l

ative social freedom a nd discarded t h em .

"I w ant to l ive in Can ada or A m erica so badly. I t is l ike a dream to m e," she

said, adjust ing her head scarf. "I d o n ' t w a n t t o g o b a c k t o I ra n . I w a n t t o g o

a n d s t u d y p h a rm a c y . I w a n t t o b e a p h a rm a c i s t . W h y w o u l d n ' t t h e y a c c e p t

m e ? W h y ? "

S h e w a l k e d a w a y , h e r s h o u l d e rs s h a k i n g , h e r s i l h o u e t t e g e t t i n g s m a l l e r

against the horizon. To her r ight , a few hundred yards away from the Cana

dian E mbassy, she passed by the em bassy of the Is l amic R epub l ic of I ran. S he

paused, looked a t the b lack gate , then continued walking, her head scarf

b l o w n d o w n b y t h e w i n d .

Farewell

7

Iran

h e n I re t u rn e d f ro m D a m a s c u s , I b e g a n m y p re p a ra t i o n s fo r m y

d e p a r t u re b a c k t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . S u re l y i t w o u l d n o t b e t h e

las t t ime

1

visi ted Iran , bu t so m ehow , I fel t mel anchol y. I fou nd

myse lf l ingering a l i t t le b i t longer over cups of tea with fr iends , wandering

d e e p e r i n t o t h e b a z a a r , s p e n d i n g h o u rs o n t h e t e l e p h o n e b i d d i n g a d i e u t o

new friends in dis tant c it ies . I spoke w ith Da vo ud , M r. Zari , M rs . Te im our i ,

M r . M o h s e n i t h e cl e ric , M r . M o h a m m a d i i n A h v az , a n d m a n y o t h er s . O n m y

l a s t few d a y s I w e n t s h o p p i n g i n t h e l o c al m a rk e t s , j u s t t o h e a r M r . P o u ro n ,

the frui t se l ler , sco ld me one las t t ime about my poor choice in frui t and to

307



P E R S I A N

P I L f J U M A p E S

w a t c h t h e A z e ri b o y s c u rry a c ro s s t h e m a rk e t , g ra b b i n g c h e e s e s a n d m i l k s

th at I sure ly n o l onge r needed, f d id no t say good -bye to the m . 1 could no t

bring myself to it .

Hossein, the war veteran, ins is ted on driving me to the a irport . Hossein,

ever th e goo d fr iend, was l ike tha t . A t six on a w arm la te-sp ring m or ni ng , he

b u z z e d m y d o o r , h i s w h i t e P a y k a n c h u rn i n g o u t s i d e m y b u i l d i n g . I h a d b e e n

up s ince three , unable to s leep. Had I seen everything I needed to see? Had I

t a l k e d t o e n o u g h p e o p l e ? W h a t w a s t h i s s e n s e o f l o s s I fe l t ?

We drove in s i lence, pas t the bi l lboards disp laying Iran 's war martyrs , pas t

t h e d i r t -c o l o re d a p a r t m e n t s j u t t i n g o u t o v e r t h e h i g h w a y s , p a s t b u z z i n g

m o p e d s , a n d b l e a ry -e y e d l a b o re rs . A t t h e a i rp o r t H o s s e i n p a rk e d t h e c a r. I

w a t c h e d e v e ry t h i n g c l o s e l y a s w e w a l k e d t o t h e t e rm i n a l , h o p i n g t o i m p ri n t

p e rm a n e n t l y i m a g e s of I ra n , of m y j o u rn e y , i n t o m y m i n d . T h e re w a s s o m e

thing specia l about this t r ip , th is journey of discovery. I l l be back, I thought,

b u t i t w o n ' t b e t h e s a m e .

A t t h e t e rm i n a l H o s s e i n a n d I e m b ra c e d . N e i t h e r o f u s e n g a g e d i n t h e

u s u a l ta'rof p l easantries . We s imply sa id good -bye. He kne w tha t I ran had cas t

a s pe l l o n m e . H e k n e w I w o u l d b e b a c k .

Just before we parted, Hos sein sa id to me: "Just rem em ber, A fshin, p lease

r e m e m b e r o u r m a r ty r s ." I a ss u r e d h i m I w o u l d . " A l s o, r e m e m b e r o n e m o r e

thing," he sa id .

Yes, what was i t?

" D o y o u h a v e y o u r n o t e b o o k ? "

Yes. 1

pul l ed o n e of th e near ly fifty no teb oo ks I ha d f il led o ut of my bag.

H e t o o k t h e n o t e b o o k f ro m m e a n d b e g a n w ri t i n g . H e t h e n h a n d e d m e

t h e n o t e b o o k .

In i t he had writ ten, in Fars i , "Zendebad Iran"

L o n g l iv e I ra n .

30$



INDEX

A bbas 1, S hah o f P ersia, 169-70 , 1 7 1 , 1 7 2 ,

195

Abra ha m i a n, Ervand.

200

Abtahi. M o ha m ma d A l i . 162-67

Ac ha e m e ni a n dynasty.

1 3 .

27, 52, 53, 76

ad-din

al-A fghani, Jamal, 244-45

Afaiy

r

Janet. 194, 212

A fghanis ran. 46

88

A h m a d

M irza, S hah of Tran, 13

A hura M azda, 28,

29

A hvaz, 261-62, 272-75

a l - e - A h m a d , JalaL

76

r

77 ,1 31 , 144, 209 ,214

Alexander the G reat, 27, 28, 30, 33, 39, 40, 41,

52, 143

A l i

ibn Talib (Imam

A l i ) ,

19 , 64-65 , 7 6-79,

1 6 7 , 1 6 8 , 1 7 8

Anglo- I ra ni a n

O i l

C o m p a n y

(A l O Q, 20, 32,

45-47, 273-74

A n j o m a n - e - E s l a m i ,

97-99

anjumans

(debasing societies),

2 1 1 ,

213. 214,

219

Annals ofthe

Apostfca and

the K ings (Tabari), 55

Ansar-e-HezboJIah, 97-98, 201-2, 203,

226

A rabic language, 55, IDS, 17 8, 18 6, 23 1, 273

A r n o l d , M atthew, 72-73

A ssad, Hafez,

295,296

Assurbanipal , K i n g of Assyria,

36

Ataturk, K e m a l , 13. 56, 246

Avesta, 28, 244

Babylonian

Empire ,

1 2 ,

29,

36-37

Bagher

K h a n ,

213

Bakhtiar, Shahpoor, 205

Bani-Sadr. A b oi Hassan, 26, 253

BaqirVahid Behbehani, M o h am m a d, 188

Basijis,

88-89, 99-101, 119, 148-50, 201-2,

261,265, 267, 271

Baskerville,

Howard, 216-19, 220, 221, 224

Batebi,

A h m a d,

206-8

bazaars, 174-77, 184, 204

Bazargan,

M e hd i. 26

Behrangi, Sam ad .

20S-9

Behrooz

(student protester},

201-6, 212-19

B e l l , G ertrude, 137

Bible,

1 2 ,

2 9 , 3 8 . 2 4 4

Bonyad-e-M o?tazcfan va Janbazan, 176

Borujerdi, Ayatollah. 160, 249

Boyce,

M a ry ,

29

Browne,

E . G . , 2 1 1 - 1 2 , 216,

220

Byzantium,

52, 54, 90-91

Cambyses

II,

K i n g

of Persia, 39

Carter, Jimmy,

252

Central Intelligence A gency (CIA ), xvin, 20,

3 1 , 32, 47-19, 79-80, 1 3 1 . 254fl

clerks. Islamic:

bazaar and, 175-77,185. 24B

British support for, 31-32

in government, 162-67,175-77, 280

historical influence of, 159-62

intelligentsia vs., 124-34,154-58,164-65,

180-83,186-87, 214

Islam misrepresented by, 156, 161-62,

1S0-S1

moral authority of, 9-10, 79-82, 88-59, 96,

104-6,149-54, 229

nonpolit ical vs, political, 79-SO

Pahlavi

suppression of. 45. 46. 160 , 16L ,

239,246-SO

political

power of, xix, 5-9,

25-27,

49,

79-80, 159-67, 178-79 ,186-87,

224-25, 255

political reform

supported by, 184-90,

209-10, 212, 215, 220, 255, 282

popula r

resentment

against, 5, 1 0 - 1 1 , 25,

31-32,

45, 50, 96-97,118-19, 163-64,

167, 176, 214-15,290-91, 301

roya( support for, 159-60 , 168-69

rule

by

{wlam-e-faqih),

5 ,6-9. 79-80.

SI.

1 2 3 , 1 4 9 , 1 6 1 , 1 6 6 ,

l & S . 189, 207,240.

251, 255, 305

seminaries

{madresehs)

of, 5t>. 16 9, 17 0,

1 7 9 - 8 0 , 1 8 1 , 1 8 ^ 9 0 , 245

Shi 'a vs. Sunni, 159,187-88

as war

veterans, 280-82

Western influences opposed by, 79-82,

93- 94, 133 -34 , 144, 197, 204, 205, 286

C o l d War, 32,131

Com m unis ts , 8, 9,

20, 24-25, 47. 49, 65, 131,

133-34,144, 250,

253

Consti tutional Revolution (19(16-1911), 75,

130-34, 1&4-65. 181. 192-94. 200,

209-22. 224, 225,245,246

Cvunienante of the Pure (M ajlesi), 180

Cur zon, G eorge N athaniel, 142

Cyrus Cylinder, 36-37,

38

309



I N D E X

C yrus the Great'

a s c ul tu ra l i c o n . xv ii, 1 2 - 1 4 , 2 4 . 3 5 , 3 6 - 4 2 ,

46, 7 5 , 7 6 , 2 5 2

his tor ica l evaluat ion o f , 13-14 , 33-34 ,

3 6 - 3 9 , 4 4

m i lit a ry c o n q u e s t s o f, 1 1 - 1 2 , 3 6 - 3 9

tomb of , xvn, 11 . 2 4 , 3 & 4 2 , 4 3

D a m a s c u s , C a n a d i a n E m b a s s y i n . 2 8 9 - 9 0 ,

2 9 2 - 3 0 7

D a n i e l , E l t o n , 3 7 - 3 8

Darius , King of Pers ia , 14

p

1 9 -2 0 . 2 3 , 3 5 , 3 9 ,

46 , 75 , 76

Darkroom of th e Ghosts (Ganji) , 155

Da vo ud (author's travel ing co m pan ion),

1 1 - 1 3 ,

2 1 - 4 2 , 1 2 9 , H O , 1 3 4 - 3 6 , 1 4 5 - 50

D i C a p r io , L e o n a rd o , 4, 1 5 , 2 4 , 2 3 5 - 8 6 , 2 8 9

P

2 9 2

Divan ( H a f e z ) . 1 2 8 - 2 9 , 1 4 6

E b ad i, A y a to l la h , 8 0 - 8 2

e lec t ions , Iranian:

o f 1 9 9 7 , 4 , 9 0 , 1 6 5 , 2 2 4 , 2 8 9 , 2 9 7

o f 2 0 0 0 . 2 2 4

o f 2 0 0 1 , 1 6 5 , 2 2 3 , 2 8 9

Encyclopaedia Iranim, 3 7 - 3 8 , 7 8 - 7 9

"Ending of Shahnameh, The" (Akhavan Sal les) ,

7 3 - 7 4

e x a m s , c o l l e g e , 9 2 - 9 4 , 9 8 , 1 0 0 , 1 1 7 . 1 9 6 , 2 0 1

Fard, Hassa n Ghaff tj ri , 2 2 3 -2 4

Farrokhzad , Forough , 132

Farsi lan gu ag e, 3 , 1 9 , 1 0 8 , 1 4 6 , 1 4 9 , 1 S 7 , 1 9 6 ,

2 3 1 , 2 3 5 - 3 7 , 2 7 3

Farzad, M asud , 1 1 0

F e r d o w s i , 6 9 - 7 5

death o f, 70 -71

e p ic c o m p o s e d by, 3 4 , 4 3 - 4 4 , 4 5 , 4 9 - 5 0 ,

7 0 - 7 3 ,

7 5 , 7 6 , 7 8 - 7 9

Imam Reza compared wi th , 44

a s n a t io n a l is t p o e t, 4 6 , 4 9 - 5 0 , 5 5 - 5 6

p o p u la ri ty o f. 3 4 , 4 3 - 4 4 , 4 5 , 4 9 - 5 0 . 7 4 ,

7 8 - 7 9 , 8 5 , 1 1 2 , 1 4 3

shr ine o f , 56 . 69-75 , 78 , 79

F it zG e ra ld , E d w ar d, 1 0 6 , 1 1 0 - 1 2

Fowden , Gar th , 52

From K arkeh

to

th e

Rhine, 2 8 0 - 8 1

Frye , Richard, 37 , 54

Fryer , Jo hn , 13 6

G a n ji , A k b ar . 1 0 5 , 1 5 4 - 5 8 , 1 5 9 . 1 6 0 . 1 3 5 . 2 0 S ,

2 7 1

Genghis Khan , 137

G h a s s em i , M r . 4 4 - 5 1 , 7 4 , 7 8

G h o t b z a d e h , S a d e q , 2 5 3

G r a m sc i, A n i o n i c 2 4

G u e v a r a , C h e , 2 4 , 2 9 0

Habcrmas , Jurgen. 1 8 9

Habibi . Hassan , 234

H a f e z , 1 3 0 , 1 3 5 - 4 2

all egor ica l sat ire by, 1 2 6 .1 39 -4 0

K ha yy am c o m pa re d w it h , 1 2 9 , 1 3 8 , 1 3 9

F

1 4 0 , 1 4 6

life o f, 1 3 6 - 3 7 , 1 5 9

p oe try o f, 1 2 8 - 2 9 , 1 3 7 - 4 2 , 1 4 5 ^ 7

p o p ul ar it y o f, 5 8 , 1 1 0 , 1 1 2 , 1 2 S - 2 9 , 1 3 6 .

1 4 0 - 4 1 , 1 5 2 , 1 8 2

Q u r an as i n fl u en c e o n , 1 3 8 , 1 4 0 - 4 1

s hr in e o f, 1 2 8 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 5 - 3 6 , 1 4 5 - 5 0

S u f i s m a n d , 1 3 7 - 3 8

trans la t ions o f, 1 37 ,1 46

HajiAgh,

( tax icab dr iver ) , 69-70 , 74-7S , 78 ,

1 0 6 - 9

H a kk ak , A h m a d K a rim i. 7 3 - 7 4 , 1 0 6 , 1 2 7 , 1 4 1 ,

1 8 0 , 2 4 6

H a l m , H e i n z , 1 6 1

H a m i d ( s t u d e n t p r o t e s t e r ) , 2 0 8 , 2 0 9

H a m i d (w ar v et er an ), 2 6 1 - 6 2 , 2 6 5 , 2 7 2 - 8 0

Haroun a l -Rashid , 54

Hashemi , Faezeh , 97n

Hashem i , Mr . ( s lum inhabi tant ), 2 40 -4 4

H a s s a n (w ar v e t er a n ), 1 1 5 . 1 1 9 - 2 3

H e d a y a t , S a d e q , 1 1 1 , 1 1 8

H e g e l , G e o r g W i l h e l m F r ie dr ic h , 1 8 6 , 1 8 9

Heritage of

Persia,

Th e

(Frye), 37

H i l lm a n , M i c h a el , 1 1 1 - 1 2

History

of th e

Persian

Empire

(Olmstead) , 34

H o s s e i n (w ar v e te ra n ). 2 6 0 - 8 1 , 3 0 8

H u s se in , S a d da m , 5 3 * , 2 6 9 - 7 0 , 2 8 0 , 2 9 6

Identity

(Kundera) , 133

I m a m H o s s e i n , 2 5 , 6 4 , 6 5 - 6 6 , 7 6 , 7 7 , 1 4 4 .

161 ,

1 6 8 , 1 8 1 , 1 8 3 - 8 4 , 2 1 8 , 2 4 0 ,

2 6 6 - 70 , 2 7 5 . 2 7 6 . 2 8 1 , 2 8 2

Imam Reza, 1 0 7- 9

Ferdows i compared wi th , 44

a s i m a m , 5 4 , 1 2 6

m i r ac le s p e rf o rm e d b y, 6 9 , 7 0 , 7 8 , 1 0 7 - 9

s h r in e s o f, 4 3 , 4 4 , 5 b . 5 7 , 6 2 - 6 8 , 7 4 , 7 9 ,

8 2 - 8 6 , 1 0 7 - 9 , 1 1 7 - 1 8

Iran:

ancien t c ivi lizat ion of. xvi ii , xix , 1 9- 2 0 ,

3 3 - 3 5

A r a b c o n q u e s t o f ( 6 3 6 - 6 3 8 ) , 1 4 , 3 0 , 4 1 - 4 2 ,

44, 4 6 , 5 2 - 5 6 , 7 3 - 7 4 , 1 4 3

A z er ba ij an p r o v i n ce o f. 2 0 1 , 2 1 3 , 2 2 7

Br m ?h i n fl u en c e i n , 2 0 , 3 0 - 3 2 , 3 8 , 4 5 - 4 7 .

48 , 7 3 . 1 3 1 . 1 3 5 - 3 6 , 1 6 5 , 1 9 2 , 1 9 6 , 1 9 9 ,

2 1 0 , 2 1 6 , 2 2 0 - 2 2 , 2 2 4 , 2 4 5 - 4 6 , 2 4 7,

249 , 2 5 0

calendar o f , 13 , 252

civ il w ar o f ( l 9 0 6 - l U , 7 5

d e m o c r a c y m o v e m e n t i n , 5 - 6 , 2 6 , 4 8 , 6 0 ,

97 , 1 0 0 , 1 0 1 , 1 0 5 . 1 1 8 . 1 3 2 , 1 3 3 - 3 4 ,

M 0



1 5 5 - 5 8 , 1 6 3 - 6 6 , 1 8 2 - 8 3 . 1 8 6 - 8 7 , IBS,

1 9 3 - 9 4 , 2 9 0 - 9 1 , 3 0 4 - 6

e c o n o m y o f , * v i . , 10, 1 6 - 1 8 . 22, 24, 30,

3 4 - 3 6 , 47

r

6 1 , 7 4 , 77, 1 1 4 - 1 5 , 123,

1 7 4 - 7 7 , 1 9 1 - 9 2 , 1 9 8 . 206, 2 2 0 - 2 2 ,

2 4 0 - 4 1 , 2 5 1 , 255, 258, 2 8 3 - 3 0 7

e d u c a t i o n in, 9-10, 9 2 - 9 4 , 98, 300, 117,

1 9 6 .

20 1, 204, 218. 288

fore ign media coverage

of.

1 0 2 - 4 , 2 0 6 - 7 ,

2 0 8 , 232

fore ign vis i tors to, xviii, 3 0, 42, 1 1 5 - 1 6 , 1 7 1 ,

2 1 6 - 1 9 , 2 3 5 - 3 7 , 3 0 1

inte l l igents ia of, 4 6 - 4 7 . 73, 75, 7 6 , 1 0 6 ,

1 1 7 - 1 9 , 1 2 « 4 , 1 4 4 , 1 4 7 - 4 8 , 1 5 4 - 5 8 ,

1 6 4 - 6 5 , 1 8 0 - 8 3 , 1 8 6 - 8 9 , 1 9 7 , 2 0 0 , 210,

2 1 1 . 2 1 4 , 251

Islamic Republic of, se e Lslamic Republic of

Iran

Khora^an region of, 53, 5 4 - 5 5

middle dnss of, 17, 67, 77, 97, 1 4 9 - 5 4 , 175,

1 8 5 , 2 0 3 - 6 , 224. 2 4 1 , 247, 252

nat ional ident i ty of, 46, 5 5 - 5 6 , 7 6 - 7 9 ,

1 4 3 - 4 5 . 1 5 6 , 1 7 0

nat ional i sm in,

4 3 - 5 1 .

5 4 - 5 6 . 75, 76. 88,

1 1 1 - 1 2 , 2 0 4 - 5 , 239

Oil indusuy of, 17, 20, 32. 4 5 - 4 7 , 7 5 - 7 6 , 97,

2 4 1 , 250 , 252, 272

parl iament

of,

3 1 , 7 5 , 1 6 5 ,

181,

1 9 1 , 1 9 4 ,

2 0 5 , 2 0 9 - 2 2 ,

247, 249, 280

poverty in, 17, 51, 226, 2 4 0 - 1 4

pre-Is lamic his tory of, 14, 49. 5 4 - 5 6 , 7 6 - 7 8

rural-urban migrat ion in, 241

Russian inf luence in. 3 0 - 3 1 . 16S, 192, 194.

1 9 6 , 1 9 9 , 2 1 0 - 1 1 , 2 1 3 - 1 4 . 2 1 6 , 217,

2 1 9 , 2 2 0 - 2 2 , 2 4 5 , 249

taxat ion in, 2 2 0 - 2 2

u n e m p l o y m e n t

in

F

x vii , 1 5 - 1 8 .

25 1.

2 8 3 - 3 0 7

upper c lass of, 8 4 - 8 5 , 9 6 - 9 7

U S .

e c o n o m y

and,

1 5 - 1 6 , 3 4 - 3 6 ,

S2

U S . inf luence in, .cviii, "20, 3 1 , 32, 4 7 - 1 9 ,

7 9 - 8 0 , 1 3 1 , 1 7 1 , 1 9 9 , 224

U.S. percept ion of, 1 4 8 - 4 9 , 216, 232

U S .

popular cu l ture in, 4, 14 , 24

working c las s

of,

7 4 -7 5 , 1 6 0 , 1 6 3 ,

225,

2 4 0 - 4 4 , 258, 2 7 0 - 7 1

Iran Air, 6, 1 0 - 1 1 , 1 4 - 1 6 , 272

Iran

between

Ti&t Retwtutkms (A brahamian) , 200

Iranian Niimmdl

Identity ( M e s k o o b ) , 180

Iranian Revolut ion-

failure

of,

1 5 5 - 56 , 2 2 4 - 2 5 ,

289,

3 0 4 - 6

K h o m e i n i as leader of, 7-9, 75

r

77, 97, 98,

1 6 1 - 6 2 , 198, 2 0 4 -5 , 225, 2 3 9 - 4 0 ,

2 5 5 - 5 6

leftist support for, 8- 9, 2 5 - 2 7 . 2 2 4 - 2 5 ,

2^0-91

m o b v i o l e n c e in,

8-9 ,26

Persian culture suppressed by, 14, 1 9 - 2 0 .

2 9 , 4 1 , 7 6 - 7 7

propaganda of, 9-10, 1 9 - 2 1 , 5 9 , 1 9 3 , 195,

1 9 7 , 2 3 8 - 3 9 , 270, 276

Iranians:

a l c o h o l c o n s u m e d by, 2 9 8 - 9 9 , 301, 305

A rabs vs . , 12, 6 1 , 1 6 8 . 2 7 4 - 7 5

beards

of,

8 7 - 9 0 , 1 2 0

decept ion used

by,

1 4 1 - 4 3

emigrat ion of, x vu . 1 6 - 1 8 , 3 4 - 3 6 , 217,

2 8 3 - 3 0 7

private vs. public l ives of, 1 0 5 - 6 , 2 0 5 - 6

social life of, 9 4 - 9 7 , 1 4 9 - 5 4

ta'rof ritual of, 21, 22, 3 0 , 4 0 , 58. 62, 109,

1 4 2 , 1 6 3 , 241, 300. 308

Iranians, The (Mackey) , 210

Iron-Iraq war:

cease-Tire in, 1 5 1 , 2 6 9 - 7 0

e c o n o m i c c o n s e q u e n c e s of, 10, 30

Iranian volunteers in, 88, 2 6 5 - 6 6

Iraqi invasion in, 53n, 265

Khomeini ' s po l i cy on, 53n, 2 6 9 - 7 0

martyrs of, xvii, 119, 1 2 2 - 2 3 , 1 9 5 , 2 4 1 , 254,

2 6 0 - 8 0

polit ical objective* of. 2 6 9 - 7 1

U S i n vo l v e m e n t in, 272

veterans of, 4 9 , 1 1 5 . 1 1 9 - 2 2 , 146, 149, 203,

2 6 0 - 8 2

Iraq,

64,

2 6 9 - 7 0 , 2 7 9 - 8 0

Irons ide , Edmund, 246

Islam:

A bbas id cal iphate of. 5 3 - 5 4

Qiuhnim ( m a s s e d

vs, hh mnuss

(elites)

in,

1 0 4 - 6 , 108-9

calendar of, 13

hajj

(pilgrimag e to Mecca) in, 69

interpretat ion of, 5, 45, 52, 5 6 , 1 5 6 , 1 6 1 - 6 2 ,

1 8 0 - 8 1 , 186, 1 8 7 -8 S

jdhilliya age of ignorance) before . 14, 55

law

of.

6 - 7 , 1 4 ,

9 0 - 9 1 ,

162,

1 6 3 , 1 7 0 ,

186,

2 1 0 ,

240

Persian influence on, 5 2 - 5 6

schism in,

In,

6 3 - 6 5

spread of, 5 2 - 5 6

Umayyad cal iphate of, 53, 6 4 - 6 5

veiling in, 90-91

Z o r o a s t r ia n i sm c o m p a r e d w it h , 5 2 - 5 3 .

63

se e

jlso

Shi'a Islam

Jslambouli , Khaled, 20-21

"Islamic Government" (Khomeini) , 251

Islamic Republic

of

Iran:

authori tar ianism

of, 288,

3 0 4 - 6

censorship by , 48, 75, 9 2 - 1 0 7 , 1 1 8 , 1 2 4 - 3 4 .

1 3 9 - 4 0 , 1 5 4 - 5 8 . 2 0 1 , 2 3 4 , 297

corrupt ion

in, 39, 85, IS,

1 6 3 , 1 7 5 - 7 7

g o v e r n m e n t s of, 2 6 - 3 7

G u a rd ia n C o u n c i l of 5-6

311



I N D E X

Islamic Republic

of Iran (continued)

judicial system of, 8-9. 39. 159-60, 247,

2S0

legal system of, 94

parliament of,

220-25

personal freedoms restricted by

r

x v i i , 88-89,

96. 149-5*. 229

political and social reform in, xx, 88, 104-5.

154-58,163-66, 193-94

slate-control led media of, 9- 10 ,5 9, 14 4,

179, 204,235-37

studem demonstrations against (1999), 60,

80-81, 8% 97.194, 200-209

supreme leader ya<jt>i) of, 6-7

veiling as symbol of, 90-91, 92

see

alio

Iranian R evol ution

Ismail Safavi, Shah, 167,168,169, 239

Israel,

81, 102, 239, 249, 291

Jews, 12, 29. 37, 291-92

jug of Love, A (Khomeini), 237-39

Kabir, A mir, 19^-200

Kadivar, M ohs en, 137, 255. 280

K afka,

Franz. 117

K a n t . Immanuef, 186

K a s h a n , 194-98, 200

Kas hani , Ayatollah, 47, 44

K asravi, A hmad , 181-83 ,

19 9 n ,

216

K eddie, Nikkie, 191

K hjehpour. Bijan, 17

Khalkhal i . AyaiolJah Sadeq, 8-9, 14, 41

Kham enei , Ayatollah

A l i :

Ansa

r-e-Hezbollah and , 97-98

economic policies of, 176-77

political power of, 5, 130, 280

popular

support for, 74

public images of, 18, 286. 291, 295-96,

297

security services of,

89

Sirjani silenced by, 127

student

protests against. 201

Western

influences opposed by, 286

K h a ta m i, M o h a m m e d

conservative opposition to, 4, 5

"dialogue

of civilizations" concept

oi

120

election

campaign

of 1997, 4, 90,165, 289,

297

election campaign of 2001, 165, 289

at K h o m e i n i conference.

234-35

political

reforms

by. six. 4, 5,

S S

91 , 105.

1 3 1 .

132,163-6o. 183,198, 199-200.

201,206, 215,231.234-35

popula r

support for, 10, 74, 97,100, 193

religious

training of, 169

K h a y y a m .

O m a r , 1 1 0 - 1 9 , 1 3 0

death of, 116

Hafez compared with, 129, 136, 139, 140,

146

life of, 1 1 6 , 159

as nationalist poet, 1 1 1 - 1 2

poetry of, 1 0 6 , 1 1 0 - 1 2

popularity

of. 1 1 0 - 1 2 ,

116-17

fombof. 93.

1 1 2 , 1 1 5 - 1 9

K h o m e i n i .

Ayatollah

Ruhol l ah:

authoritarianism of,

256-57

biographies of, 233, 250n

CI A

report

o n , 254n

clerical rule established by. 7. 8-9,79-80 ,

1 6 1 , 1 6 6 , 1 8 8 . 240, 251

death of. 5. 99, 281

economic

policies of, 74, 240-41, 258

exile of, 204-5, 233, 239-42, 243, 250, 251,

254

inner

circle of,

98-99

International conference on, 230-40

as Iranian leader, 26, 74, 149, 197,

255-57,

291

Iranian revolution led by, 7-9, 75, 77, 97,

9 8 , 1 6 1 - 6 2 , 1 9 8 , 204-5, 225, 239-40,

2S5-56

Iran-Iraq war and, 5 3R , 269-70

M ajlests influence o n , 170.

238

official line [khat-e-Eimim) of. 149

poetry

written

by, 237-3 9. 240

popula r

sup por t for, 7-9, 20, 25- 26 , 74-75,

144.

17 9, 19 8, 204-5, 243, 244

public

images of, 3, 18 , 201. 231 , 238, 279,

295-96

religious training d£

r

169

Rus hdie farwa of, 198n

Shah

attacked

by, 7-S, 239^10,

249-54

S heikh Fazlol lah N ouri's influence o n ,

192-93

shrine of, 225. 248

tomb of. 74-75,254-59

U.S.

criticized by, 239

veiling

supported by, 90, 92,152

Western influences opposed by, 205

writings of. 3, 9,180,1 95, 233, 235, 237-39

K h o m e i n i . Ha ssan A ga, 234

K horamshahr ,

274, 275-80

K horasan andSe istan (Yates),

1 1 5 - 1 6

K huda banda ,

Uljaitu, 167-68

Killing of Iran's Elites, The (Rezagoli), 199

K unde ra ,

M i l a n , 1 4 , 1 3 2 , 1 3 3

L a m b . Harold, 37

Land

of th e Great Sophy (Stevens), 43

L e n i n , V . I, x v i i , 289

L e w i s ,

Bernard.

29

Little BlOik Fish, Th e (Behrangi), 209

M ackey,

Sandra, 210

312



INDEX

M ajlesi, M o h am m a d

Bagher:

shrine

of,

174, 177-78,183-84

Teachings of, 1 5 9 - 6 0 , 1 6 9 - 7 0 , 1 7 2 , 1 7 8 - 8 0 ,

238

M a l co l m ,

John, 191

M a l k u m

K h a n ,

M irza, 192, 212

M al ouf ,

A m i n ,

218- 19

M a o

Zedong, 25,

238-39

M a rxi sm, 8, 24-25, 147 ,15 7, 225, 251,

290-91

M a s hh a d,

4 1 , 42, 43, 53, 54, 56-62,106

M e hd i A k h a v an Salles,

73-74

M e s ko o b, Shahrokh, 54, 55, 180

M inistry

of Culture and Islamic G uidance,

1 2 6 - 2 8 , 1 2 9 , 1 3 3 , 2 3 0

M ohajerani,

AtaoIIah,

93,130

M o ha m ma d Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran:

authoritarianism of, 49, 77,129-30, 249-52,

290-91,297-98

British supp ort for, 3 2 , 1 3 1 , 247

clerics suppressed by, 45 ,4 6, 16 1, 23 9,

248-50

C o m m u n i s t s suppressed by, 133-34

econom ic

reforms

by, 24,4 6, 75-76,

1 1 4 - 1 5 , 1 9 7 ,

290-91,297

Ferdowsi as used by, 49, 56, 70

K h o me in i ' s attacks against,

7-8,239-40,

249-54

l and

reforms

by, 24 1, 248-49, 251

M os sadeq's overthrow approved by,

47-48

overthrow of, 7-8, 32, 74, 75,

249-54

Persepolis

celebrations of (1971), 13,23-24,

39-40

Persian

culture promoted by,

1 3 ,1 4 ,

75-76,

252

popula r

opposition to, 7-9, 23, 74, 204,

251-54

popula r support

for,

74, 75, 301

public

images of,

297-98

U.S. support

for, 7,

32, 249, 250-52

White

Revol ut ion

of, 248-49, 250, 251

M o i n ,

Baqir, 25 On

M o j ah e d in - e- K h a iq , 8, 280

M okhtar i, M o h am m ad ,

131

M o me n, M o o ja n,

172, 178

M ongol ian invasion, 7 1 , 1 1 6 , 1 3 6 - 3 7 , 1 4 3 ,

1 5 9 , 1 6 7 - 6 8 , 244

M ontazeri,

A yatol lah, 161,257

M o or e, M .

A _ , 217

M o s sa d eq , M o h a m m ad :

CIA-backed

c o u p

against,

x v i i i ,

20 ,

3 1 ,

32,

47-49, 79-80,131

o i l

industry nationalized by, 20, 32,

46-47

M ottahedeh, R o y , 1 4 1 , 1 4 5 , 182

M u h a m m ad :

cons ens us

used by, 98

descendants of, 43, 64-65,161

i n flight to M e d i n a , 13

Islam as preached by, 52

M u h a mm a d , M uba r iz u 'd-Di n, 139-40

Narges (literature teacher), 132-34

N as iruddin Shah Qajar, 196-200, 239,

244-45, 284

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein,

77-78

N as ra l lah, Hassan, 234

Nationalism (Smith), 76

Navab-e-Safavi,

182,

199tt

Neishapour,

106-9,

1 1 2 - 1 5 ,

119

New

York

Times, 48,232

Nietzsche, Friedrich, 189

N bfon,

R ichar d

M . ,

250-51

N o u r b a k s h , M o hs en ,

223

N o u r i , A b d o l l a h, 1 6 4 , 1 8 8 , 280

N ouri, Fazloliah, 192-93, 209, 220, 245

N o u r i ,

M i rz a

A g h a

K h a n ,

196

O ' D o n n e l l , Terence,

jcviii,

59

Ol mstead, A . T., 34

O m a r ,

52-53, 64

On

Islam andSh i'ism (K asravi), 181- 8 3

Open S ociety and Its

Enemies,

The (Popper), 157

O t t om a n E m p ir e, 6 4 , 1 4 3 , 1 6 8

Palestinians, 57,

59,89

Persepolis;

author's visit to, 21-36

G ate of A l l N ation s of, 30, 33

proposed

destruction of, 1 4, 41

ruins of, 27-28, 30, 33-36

Shah's celebrations at

(1971),

1 3 ,

23-24,

39-40

Persian

E mpir e:

decline

of, 39-£2

founding

of,

xvii

G r e e k city-states vs„ 12, 33, 39

religion

of,

2S -29

rise

of, 1 1 - 1 2 ,

36-39

Persian

Mirrors

(Sciolino), 142

Plato,

12, 180,189, 251

Pope, Arthur, 28, 83

Popper,

K a r l , 1 5 7 , 1 8 9

P our davoud, Ibrahim, 46

P ouyandeh,

M o ha m ma d

Jafar, 131

press, Iranian:

conservative vs. reformist, 4-5, 1 1 , 57, 93,

1 0 3 , 1 5 4 - 5 8 , 1 8 5

freedom

of,

48, 75,

1 0 1 ,

1 2 9 - 3 1 , 1 5 4 - 5 8 ,

201,234, 297

prostitution, 1 6 , 60-61,173-74, 228, 298-99,

306

Qa da m ga h,

107-9

Qadisslya,

Battle

of, 53

313



I N D E X

Qafqazchi, M o h am m ad Ibrahim, 221

Qajar dynasty, 13, 160, 191-92.239

Qazwim, H amdai l ah M ustawfi . 136

Quran:

commentaries o n , 186. 187-88

Divan

compared with, 123

influence of, 1 9, 45, 67, S3, 86, 9 0 ,1 1 6 - 1 7 ,

1 2 2 , 1 3 3 , 1 4 0 - 4 1 , 2 7 2

as used for divination, 180

R afiqdoost, M ohs en, 176

Rafsanjani, A l l Akbar Hashemi:

Ansa

r-e-He zbol lah use d by, 97n

Ferdowsi

conference

convened by, 50

Iran-Iraq war and, 271

as member of elite, 104

Swiss bank account of, 163

Ra ma z a n i , R . K . , 78

Republic (Plato), 180, 189

R ey (city),

244-45,

248

Rezagoli,

A l i ,

199

Rtv

.a,

Shah:

authoritarianism of, 247^48

British su ppo rt for, 3 1 , 32. 1 3 1 , 247

clerics suppres sed by, 160.

246-47,

250

c o u p d'etat by

(192lY 245-46

econom ic

reforms by, 32

enth ron eme nt of, 224, 246-47

Ferdowsi as used by. 56, 70

grave site of, 245, 247-48

military career of,

245-46

Persian

culture

promoted by, 1 3 , 1 4

veil ing opposed by, 245

Reza Takhti,

G h o l a m ,

*vm

R oberts,/ . M . , 41

Ros tam

(epic hero), 71-79

Rubaiyat

of O mar Khayyam, The

(FitzG erald,

transl.),

1 0 6 , 1 1 0 - 1 2

R u m i j a l a l a d i n ,

1 1 2 , 1 2 9 , 1 4 6

Rus hdie , S a lm a n, 198n

S a a d i , 5 8 , 1 1 2 , 1 4 2 ^ 3 , 1 4 6

Sadat,

A n w a r,

20-21

Safavid dynasty. In, 6 4 , 1 0 7 . 1 4 3 , 1 5 9 - 6 0 ,

1 6 7 - 7 0 , 1 7 1 , 1 7 7 , 1 6 0 - 8 1 . 1 8 2

San, Sheikh, 167

Samarkand (M a louf), 218-1 9

Sarkuhi, Faraj, 124

Sassanian Empire, 52,

53-54,

77, 90-91

Sattar

K h a n, 212-14

S A V A K , 4 9 ,

77,129, 239

Sciol ino,

E laine, 142

Seljuk dynasty, 70-71,106. 137,159

September

l l t h attacks. 104, 226

Serjooie,

M e h rd a d, 222-24

Shat inameh (Ferdowsi), 34, 43-44, 45, 49-50,

70-73, 75, 76, 78-79

Shah of Iran, s e c M o h a m m a d R eza Pahlavi,

Shah of

Iran;

Reza, Shah

Shakespeare, W[l l iam, 128

Shalamcheh, 261,274, 281

S h a m l u .

A h m a d,

2225

Shamsolvaezin,

M ashal l ah, 208

Shariati, A l i , 24-25,

27, 77,144,180-81, 214,

227-28

S hariatmadari, G ran d A yatollah, 256-57

S hi

h

a Islam

i n Bahrain, 108-9

Hidden Imam of. 63. 92- 94, 161

history

of,

34-35.

44,

63-65,

77

ijtihati tradition

of, 187-88

llluminattonist (Eshraqi) school of, 29, 169

ima ms

of, 63 »

leader {marja-e taqlid) of, 249

martyrs of, 64, 65-66,119-22, 144, 209

m o u r n i n g rituals

of, 1 8 - 1 9 , 22, 44, 50-51,

66-67, 84-85,

120, 122-35, 170,

183-84.218

mysticism in. 169;

se e also

S ufism

political

invol vement as viewed in, 7,1 61

as religion of

Iran. 1 1 ,

13. 4L -42, 44,

143_44, 159

h

167-70

shrines

of.

xvii-xviii, 43-44,

215

S u n m [slam vs.. In, 63-65.106,159,

1 6 1 - 6 2 , 1 6 7 , 1 8 7 - 8 8

Twelver teachings in , 168-69, 17 0, 17 8, 18 8

Zoroastrianism as influence on, 29

Shiraz, 1 1 , 1 9 - 2 1 , 36, 129,134 -37,149 -54

Shuster, W M o r g an , 220-22, 224

Sirjani,

A l l

Akba r Sa ' i d , 124-26.129,130

S mith, A nthon y. 76

Sohrab

and Rustum

(Arnold). 72-73

Songs of

Khayyam (Hedayat), 111

Soroush. Abdol

K a ri m ,

97 ,15 6, 186-87

Stevens, Roger, 43

Strangling

of

Pe rsia,

The

(Shuster), 221

Sufism. 45,

89-90,

1 1 8 - 1 9 ,

137-38, 167,169,

178, 182, 183,

233,240,

301

Suhrawardi, 63

S u n n i

Islam.

In,

6 3 - 6 5 , 1 0 6 , 1 5 9 , 1 6 1 - 6 2 .

167,

137-88

Syria, 289-90,

292-307

Tabriz, 167. 194.

200-206.

211-20

' l a h m a s p .

Shah, 168-69

Talatoff, K a m ra n , 208-9

Tehran.

author's

neighborhood in.

226-30,

307-3

G e r m a n

Embassy in,

283-85,

287, 290

N o r t h ,

94-96

popul a t ion of, 14, 229

s l um s

of. 17, 226,240^14

Tehran Times,

57

514



Documents

Afshin Molavi Persian Pilgrimages_ Journeys Across Iran