AEROSO LMEASUREMENT

Principles, Techniques, and Application s

Edited byKlaus Willek ePaul A . Baron

Preface / xvList of Principal Symbols / xvi i

I PRINCIPLES / 1

1 Bridging Science and Application in Aerosol Measurement / 3Klaus WU/eke and Pau/ A. Baron

Introduction / 3

2 Aerosol Fundamentals / 8Pau/ A. Baron and Klaus W11/eke

Introduction / 8Desirable Versus Undesirable Aerosols / 9Units and Use of Equations / 9Common Technical and Descriptive Terms / 1 1Particle Size and Shape / 1 2Particle Suspensions / 1 5Particle Shape Measurement / 1 7Particle Forces / 19

3 Gas and Particle Motion / 2 3Paul A . Baron and Klaus Willeke

Introduction / 23Bulk Gas Motion / 23Transition and Gas Molecular Flow / 26Gas and Particle Diffusion / 28Aerodynamic Drag on Particles / 30Particle Motion Due to Gravity / 31

Particle Parameters / 3 3Particle Motion in an Electric Field / 3 6Particle Motion in Other Force Fields / 3 8

4 Physical and Chemical Changes in the Particulate Phase / 4 1William C. Hinds

Introduction / 41Condensation / 43Nucleation / 44Evaporation / 46Coagulation / 4 8Reactions / 5 1

5 The Characteristics of Environmental and Laboratory-Generated Aerosols / 5 4Walter John

Introduction / 54Atmospheric Aerosols / 5 4Indoor Aerosols / 5 8Industrial Aerosols / 5 8Laboratory Aerosols / 5 8Aerosols for Test Facilities / 72

6 Sampling and Transport of Aerosols / 77John E. Brockmann

Introduction / 77Sample Extraction / 8 1Sample Transport / 94Other Sampling Issues / 10 6Summary and Conclusions / 10 8

7 Measurement Methods / 11 2Matti Lehtimäki and Klaus Willek e

Introduction / 11 2Types of Aerosol Measurement / 11 2Collection Methods / 115Sample Analysis Methods / 119Dynamic Measurement Methods / 12 1

8 Factors Affecting Aerosol Measurement Quality / 13 0Paul A. Baron and William A . Heitbrink

Introduction / 13 0Some Indicators of Measurement Quality / 13 1Aerosol Measurement Errors / 13 3

9 Methods of Size Distribution Data Analysis and Presentation / 14 6Douglas W. Cooper

Introduction / 14 6Types of Particle Size / 148

Particle Size Distributions / 148Concentration Distributions / 152Summarizing Data With a Few Parameters / 15 3Summarizing Size Distributions Graphically / 15 8Confidence Intervals and Error Analysis / 16 1Testing Hypotheses With Size Distribution Data / 164Coincidence Errors / 16 9Data Inversion ("Deconvolution" or "Unfolding") / 169

II INSTRUMENTAL TECHNIQUES / 177

10 Filter Collection / 179K. W. Lee and Mukund Ramamurthi

Introduction / 179General Principles of Filter Sampling / 17 9Aerosol Measurement Filters / 18 3Filtration Theory / 18 7Filter Selection / 19 8

11 Inertial, Gravitational, Centrifugal, and Thermal Collection Techniques / 20 6Virgil A . Marple, Kenneth L. Rubow, and Bernard A . Olson

Introduction / 20 6Inertial Classifiers / 20 7Settling Devices and Centrifuges / 227Thermal Precipitators / 228

12 Atmospheric Sample Analysis and Sampling Artifacts / 233B. R. Appel

Introduction / 23 3Sampling and Storage Artifacts / 23 6Mass Determination / 23 8Elemental Analyses by Nondestructive Techniques / 23 9Elemental Analysis by Destructive Techniques / 24 3Carbon Determination / 246Water-Extractable Anion and Cation Analysis / 24 9Summary / 25 4

13 Analysis of Individual Collected Particles / 26 0R. A. Fletcher and J. A. Small

Introduction / 260Light Microscopy (LM) / 26 3Electron Beam Analysis of Particles / 26 7Laser Microprobe Mass Spectrometry (LMMS) / 27 9Secondary-Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) / 284Raman Microprobe / 28 6Infrared (IR) Microscopy / 289Complementary Capabilities of Microanalytical Instrumentation / 290

14 Dynamic Mass Measurement Techniques / 29 6Kenneth Williams, Chuck Fairchild, and Joseph Jaklevi c

Introduction / 29 6Beta Gauge Method / 29 6Piezoelectric Crystal Measurement Method / 303Tapered-Element Oscillating Microbalance Method / 30 8

15 Optical Direct-Reading Techniques : Light Intensity Systems / 313Josef Gebhart

Introduction / 31 3Light Scattering and Extinction by a Single Sphere / 31 4Light Scattering and Extinction by an Assembly of Particles / 32 1Single-Particle Optical Counters / 32 4Multiple-Particle Optical Techniques / 33 7Light Scattering by Irregular Particles / 339

16 Optical Direct-Reading Techniques : In Situ Sensing / 345Daniel J. Rader and Timothy J. O'Hern

Introduction / 345Overview / 346Light Scattering / 35 1Single-Particle Counters : Intensity-Based / 35 5Single-Particle Counters : Phase-Based / 35 9Single-Particle Counters : Imaging / 362Ensemble Techniques : Particle Field Imaging / 363Ensemble Techniques: Fraunhofer Diffraction / 366Ensemble Techniques : Dynamic Light Scattering / 369Performance Verification / 37 1Conclusions / 37 6Acknowledgment / 37 6

17 Direct-Reading Techniques Using Optical Particle Detection / 381Paul A . Baron, M. K. Mazumder, and Y. S. Cheng

Introduction / 38 1Electric Single-Particle Aerodynamic Relaxation Time Analyzer / 38 2Aerodynamic Particle Sizer / 39 2Aerosizer / 40 0Comparison of Aerodynamic Sizing Instruments / 403Fibrous Aerosol Monitor (FAM) / 40 3

18 Electrical Techniques / 41 0Hsu-Chi Yeh

Introduction / 410Particle Charging / 41 0Behavior of Charged Particles / 41 2Charge Neutralization / 41 4Charge Distribution Measurement / 41 6Aerosol Size Distribution Measurement / 418

19 Condensation Detection and Diffusion Size Separation Techniques / 427Yung-Sung Cheng

Introduction / 42 7Condensation Theory / 42 8Condensation Nuclei Counters / 43 0Theories of the Diffusion Technique / 43 5Diffusion Denuders / 43 7Diffusion Batteries / 44 1Conclusions / 448

20 Electrodynamic Levitation of Particles / 45 2E. James Davis

Introduction / 452Levitation Principles / 45 3Measurement Techniques / 45 8Evaporation/Condensation / 46 4Chemical Reactions / 46 7Concluding Comments / 46 8

21 Bioaerosol Sampling / 47 1Aino Neva/ainen, Klaus WU/eke, Frank Liebhaber, Jozef Pastuszka, Harriet Burge, and

Eva Henningson

Introduction / 47 1Bioaerosol Types / 472Sources of Bioaerosols / 475General Sampling Considerations / 47 6Collection Process / 47 8Collection Time / 48 3Selection of Sampler / 48 7

22 Instrument Calibration / 493Bean T. Chen

Introduction / 49 3Direct Measurement and Primary Standards / 494General Considerations / 494Calibration Apparatus and Procedures / 49 6Test Aerosol Generation / 49 8Calibration of Flow, Pressure, and Velocity / 50 6Instrument Calibrations / 51 3Summary and Conclusions / 51 7

23 Data Acquisition and Analysis / 52 1Dennis O'Brien

Introduction / 52 1Recording and Analysis of Pulses / 522Analog-to-Digital Conversion of DC Voltage Data / 52 5Future Trends / 532

III APPLICATIONS / 535

24 Industrial Hygiene / 537Paul A. Jensen and Dennis O'Brien

Introduction / 53 7Purposes of Sampling / 53 8Traditional Sampling Methods / 544Methods of Analysis / 55 0Real-Time Measurement / 55 2Future Trends / 55 5

25 Measurement of Asbestos and Other Fibers / 56 0Pau/ A . Baron

Introduction / 56 0Fiber Shape / 56 1Fiber Behavior / 56 2Laboratory Fiber Generation / 56 9Fiber Health Effects / 57 0Fiber Regulations / 57 1Asbestos Terminology / 572Measurement Techniques / 57 3Automated Fiber Analysis Techniques / 58 3Other Measurement Techniques / 585

26 Mine Aerosol Measurement / 59 1B. K. Cantrell, K. L. Williams, W. F. Watts, Jr., and R. A. Jankowski

Introduction / 59 1Mine Aerosol Sources / 59 2Physical Characteristics of Mine Aerosol / 59 5Measurement Technology / 59 6

27 Practical Aspects of Particle Measurement in Combustion Gases / 61 2David S. Ensbr

Introduction / 61 2Combustion and Control Devices / 61 3Supporting Measurements / 61 4Mass Measurement / 61 4Impactor Data Reduction / 61 9

28 Ambient Air Sampling / 622John G. Watson and Judith C. Chow

Introduction / 62 2Sampling System Requirements / 622Sampling Inlets / 623Sampling Surfaces / 627Filter Media / 62 8Filter Holders / 630

Flow Movement and Control / 63 1Sampling Systems / 63 2Selecting a Sampling System / 63 5Conclusions / 63 6

29 Fugitive Dust Emissions / 640Chatten Cowherd, Jr.

Introduction / 640Source Characterization / 64 1Emission Quantification Techniques / 64 6Emission Models / 65 2Emission Control Options / 656

30 Indoor Aerosols and Aerosol Exposure / 659Russell W. Wiener and Charles E. Rhodes

Introduction / 65 9Sources / 66 3Physical and Chemical Properties, Particle Size, and Health Effects / 66 5Sampling Considerations / 66 6Regulatory Aspects / 67 3Study Categories / 674Specific Aerosols / 677Design Considerations for Aerosol Exposure Studies / 68 0Modeling / 682

31 Measurement of Aerosols and Clouds From Aircraft / 69 0Charles A . Brock and James Charles Wilso n

Introduction / 69 0Current Research Involving Airborne Measurements of Aerosols and Clouds / 69 0Airborne Aerosol and Cloud Measurement Techniques / 69 1Effects of Airflow on Accurate Aerosol and Cloud Measurements / 69 6Aerosol Inlets on Aircraft / 698Conclusions / 70 1

32 Measurement of High-Concentration and High-Temperature Aerosols / 70 5Pratim Biswas

Introduction / 70 5Dilution Systems / 706EPA Method 5 Sampling Train / 71 2High-Temperature Impactors / 71 2In Situ Measurements / 71 4

33 Manufacturing of Materials by Aerosol Processes / 72 1Sotiris E. Pratsinis and Toivo T . Koda s

Aerosol Processes / 72 1Materials / 72 8Measurement Techniques / 731

34 Clean-Room Measurements / 747Heinz Fissan, Wolfgang Schmitz, and Andreas Trampe

Introduction / 74 7Measurement Tasks / 74 7Available Measuring Techniques / 757Problems / 76 3

35 Radioactive Aerosols / 768Mark D. Hoover and George J. Newton

Introduction / 768Radiation and Radioactive Decay / 769Radiation Detection / 77 1Sources of Radioactive Aerosols / 77 4Safe Handling of Radioactive Aerosols / 77 8Objectives for Measuring Radioactive Aerosols / 78 0Application of Standard Measuring Techniques / 78 2Special Techniques for Radioactive Aerosols / 78 7Practical Options for Data Transmission and Networking / 794Adequacy of the Existing Aerosol Science Data Base / 79 4Conclusions / 795

36 Radon and Its Short-Lived Decay Product Aerosols / 79 9Beverly S. Cohen

Introduction / 79 9Radon in the Environment / 79 9Radiometric Properties of Radon and Daughters / 802Aerosol Properties of Radon and Daughters / 802Human Exposure Parameters / 80 4Air Sampling for Radon and Its Short-Lived Decay Products / 80 7Calibration / 81 3Protocols for Indoor Measurement / 81 3Summary / 81 4

37 Aerosol Measurement in the Health Care Field / 81 6David L. Swift

Introduction / 81 6Measurements of Inhaled Therapeutic Aerosols / 81 7Aerosol Measurement of Diagnostic Aerosols for Inhalation / 824Aerosol Measurement of Noninhaled Therapeutic Aerosols / 82 7Inadvertent Exposure to Aerosols in Health Care / 82 7Future Aerosol Measurement Needs in Health Care / 83 1

38 Inhalation Toxicology: Sampling Techniques Related to Contro lof Exposure Atmospheres / 833Owen R. Moss

Introduction / 83 3Basic Exposure Atmosphere Generation and Control Systems / 833

Basic Sampling Techniques and Strategies / 83 7Summary / 842

Appendix A Glossary of Terms / 84 3

Appendix B Conversion Factors / 854

Appendix C Commonly Encountered Constants / 85 5

Appendix D Common Property Values of Air and Water / 85 5

Appendix E Dimensionless Numbers / 85 6

Appendix F Frequently Used Aerosol Properties at 20°C and 1 atm / 85 6

Appendix G Geometrical Properties of Particles / 85 7

Appendix H Bulk Density of Common Aerosol Materials / 85 7

Index / 859