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Advanced Studies in Media
Joe Nicholas and John Price
Additional contributors:
Samantha Bakhurst John Scotney
Andrew Webber
Nelson
Contents
About the authors About the contributors Acknowledgements
Section 1: Key concepts
CHAPTER 1 - ANALYSING MEDIA TEXTS
IX
ix x
Introduction Why analyse media products? Understanding the language of media studies
Text analysis Image analysis
Denotation and connotation Verbal language
Vocabulary Code or grammar The relationship between verbal language and images
Semiotics and media languages Codes and conventions Genre analysis
Analysing the Western genre Analysing the TV soap opera genre Comment on genre
Intertextuality CASE STUDY: The intertextuality of Have I Got News
For You Narrative
A code of dimensions A code of action and change A code of character The links between narrative codes in Babe
Representation Bias and ideology
Ideology Analysing bias and ideology
ACTIVITIES BIBLIOGRAPHY
1 1 1
2 2 3 3 4 5 5 5 6 9 9 9
10 10
11 11 11 11 11 11 12 13 13 14 14 18
CHAPTER 2 - MEDIA INSTITUTIONS: LOCAL AND NATIONAL 19
Introduction 19 Studying a local media organisation 19 The company's ownership 19 The company's history 20 Involvement with the local community 20 Competition 20 Advertising 20 Product costs 21 Staffing 21
Studying Channel 4 21 Channel 4's remit 22 Providing for minorities 22 How institutional characteristics affect programmes 23 Programming and scheduling 24
Seasons of programmes 24 Film on 4 25 Factual programming 25 Minority programming 25 Innovation and experimentation 25 Educational programmes 25
Advertising revenue 25 The audience 26 ACTIVITIES 26 BIBLIOGRAPHY 28
CHAPTER 3 - MEDIA INSTITUTIONS: FREEDOM AND CONTROLS 29
Introduction 29 Attitudes to media freedom 29 There is too much violence in the media 29 There is too much sex on television 29 Too much regulation damages artists' creativity 29 Freedom of expression should take precedence
over everything else 30 The danger of prohibition 30 Some sections of society need protection 30 The media cause and exacerbate social and
behavioural problems 30
The media's attempt to control excesses 30 Voluntary controls 30 British Board of Film Classification 31 Press Complaints Commission 31
Complaints against newspapers 32 Broadcasting Standards Council 32
Broadcasting Standards Council's views on violence 33 Broadcasting Standards Council's views on sex 34 Broadcasting Standards Council's views on swearing 34
Other controlling bodies 34 Organisations which deal with censorship 34
Legal constraints 35 Defamation 35 Official Secrets Act 35 Contempt of court 36 Race relations 36 Military conflict 36
The effect of new technology 36 CASE STUDY: David Cronenberg's film Crash 37
ACTIVITIES 39 BIBLIOGRAPHY 42
i n
l'V C O N T E N T S
CHAPTER 4 - REPRESENTATION 43 Introduction 43 What is representation? 43 Representing gender 43 Content analysis and stereotypes 43 The importance of the audience 44
Differing interpretations 45 Boys and masculinity 45 Social context 46
CASE STUDY: Disability 46
Portrayal 52 ACTIVITIES 53 BIBLIOGRAPHY 56
CHAPTERS-AUDIENCE 57 Introduction 57 Who is the audience? 57 The audience and media producers 57 Communication models . 58
Measuring media audiences 59 What does audience research involve? 59
Quantitative research 59 Qualitative research 60
Audience research organisations 60 Print media: audience research 60 Radio: audience research 60 Television: audience research 61 Cinema: audience research 62 Studying media in terms of audience 62 Thinking about audiences 62
Views on mass audiences 62 CASE STUDY: The Sun reader 63 Academic research methods and studies 64
Experiments 64 Observation studies 65 An interesting question? 65
The debate about effects and ideology 65 How can media effects be classified? 66 The agenda setting model 66 The uses and gratifications model 66 Media ideology and audience decoding 67
Conclusion 68 ACTIVITIES 68 BIBLIOGRAPHY 71 USEFUL ADDRESSES 72
Section 2: Applying key concepts
CHAPTER б - POPULAR CULTURE AND TELEVISION 73
What is popular culture? Popular culture, folk culture and carnival Television and popular culture Television in Britain Television in America Popular television and the home Popular television and melodrama The X-Files as popular culture The context of The X-Files The X-Files and reality Why is The X-Files so popular? The imagery of The X-Files The X-Files and genre The X-Files, folklore and melodrama The key characters Messages of The X-Files Postscript on postmodernism ACTIVITIES BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 7 - NEWS: SELECTION
SOURCES AND
Introduction News sources Sources and power The relationship between sources and the media Ostracism Economic influence 'Feeding' the media The lobby system Stifled sources Subverting sources The leak The maverick The hoax
News selection News values Selecting crime news ACTIVITIES BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 8 - NEWS: AND EFFECTS
PRESENTATION
Introduction 73
Introduction How do media professionals interpret
the news? Mode of address Creating themes
News presentation News on television
Question styles Presenting a confrontational view How can TV news improve?
73 74 74 75 75 76 77
77 78 78 78 79
81 82 82 84 86
87 87 87 88
89 89 89 90 90 90 91 91
92 92 93 93 96
97 97
97 97 97
98 98 99 99 99
C O N T E N T S V
A different style of TV news News in print
Brevity Structure Quotations Attribution Headlines Still pictures
Radio news Context Voices
Background noise
Impartiality Complaints about bias Can news be too impartial?
The influence of the news Researching effects Does social group affect understanding? Reception studies ACTIVITIES BIBLIOGRAPHY
CHAPTER 9 - FILM FICTION: NARRATIVE STRUCTURES AND STRATEGIES
99 100 100 100 101 101 101 102 103 103 103 103
104 104
104
105 105 106 106 106 110
111
Introduction 111 Analysing stories 111 Looking at themes 111 Analysing mystery, suspense and contrast 112 The use of cinematic techniques 113 Choice of shot 113 Lighting 114 Framing 114 Sound 114 Montage 115
Manipulation of time 115 The effect of the narrator 115 The effect of settings 115 Geographical location 115 Social setting 117
Analysing characters 117 An actor's influence 117 A character's role 117
Analysing underlying structure 118 The Classic Five Part Narrative and Unforgiven 118
Inciting incident 118 Complications 118 Crisis 119 Climax 119 Resolution 119
CASE STUDY: Don't Look Now 119
ACTIVITIES 121 BIBLIOGRAPHY 122
CHAPTER 10 - FILM AND TV DOCUMENTARY 123
Introduction 123 What do we mean by documentary? 123 Forms and conventions of documentary 124 Actuality 124 'Fly on the wall' filming 124 The use of film originally shot for other purposes 125 Voice-over 125 Written text 125 Graphics 125 Visible recording and disruption 125 The use of interviews 125 The use of the 'talking head' 125 The use of the 'expert' 126 Vox pop 126 The use of eyewitnesses and participants 126 The use of music 126 Reconstruction 126
Simulation 127 Reconstruction using actors 127
What types of documentary are there? 127 CASE STUDY: Analysis of The World at War 128
CASE STUDY: Analysis of Night Mail 130
Drama documentaries 132 Mixing fact and fiction 132 Terms and definitions 132 Analysing the overlap between documentary and drama 133 ACTIVITIES 133 BIBLIOGRAPHY 136
CHAPTER 11 - RADIO 137
Introduction 137 Radio: a unique medium 137 Radio today 137 How has recording changed? 137 Sound sources 138 Receiving equipment 139
The radio industry 140 BBC radio 140 Commercial radio 140 Types of radio station available 141 Public service and public accountability 141 Independent companies 141 Producer choice 142
The audience 142 The targeted listener 142 Radio Joint Advertising Research (RAJAR) 142 Is there anyone out there? 143 Listener loyalty 143 Scheduling 143
V I C O N T E N T S
Choice of programmes 143 Speech-based programmes 143 Music programmes 144
Making an impact on the radio 144 Radio is fleeting 145 The 'grammar' and sounds of spoken language 145
Pauses 145 Pace and timing 145 Volume and pitch 145 Inflection/intonation 145
Analysing a radio programme 146 ACTIVITIES 146 BIBLIOGRAPHY 148
CHAPTER 12 - POP MUSIC 149
Introduction 149 Why study pop music? 149 The record label 150 Major labels 150 Independent labels 150
The recording artist 150 Codes and conventions used to present artists 151
The representation of men 152 The representation of women 152 Dress codes 153 Codes and conventions over time 153
CASE STUDY: 4AD 154
The recording 155 Production factors 155 Record titles 156 Cover artwork 156 The lyrics 157
Music without dialogue 157 The composer 157 Analysing the recording itself 157
The pop video 157 The limitations of the pop video 157 Analysing a pop video 158 The Internet as an alternative 158
Approaching pop music 158 ACTIVITIES 159 BIBLIOGRAPHY 160
CHAPTER 13-SPORT IN THE MEDIA 161
Introduction 161 Sport on television 161 The history of televised sport 161
Sport on commercial stations 162 Duplication and alternation 162 The start of satellite 163 Money in TV sport 163
Analysing live sport on television 164 Planning and the unpredictable 164
Reporting and entertaining 164 Maximum action in minimum space 164 Manipulating time 164 What's missing? 164 Variations in production techniques 164 Crossing the line 165 Personalisation 165 Commentary 165 Television screens at events 166 Experts 166 Narrative continuity 166 Frames of reference 166 Stars 167 Immediacy and suspense 167
Sport on radio 167 Commentary techniques 167
The development of commentary conventions 167 Local radio 168 Analysing live sport on radio 168
Background noise 168 Commentary 168 Modes of address 168
Newspaper sports coverage 168 Broadsheets and tabloids 169 Local papers 169 Analysing sports coverage in newspapers 169
Personalisation 169 Language style 170 Deciding an angle 170 Choice of photographs 170
Women and sport 171 Media and audience attitudes 171 Women and sport in the future 171 ACTIVITIES 172 BIBLIOGRAPHY 174
CHAPTER 14 - ADVERTISING 175
Introduction 175 The advertising industry 175 Meet the adman 175
Analysing advertisements 176
CASE STUDY: Murphy's stout 176
CASE STUDY:'It's Good to Talk' 179
Media planning 180 Comparing the effectiveness of advertising methods 180
Advertising spread 181 Positioning 181 Cost 181 Location 181
Advertising and ideology 181 Representation in advertising 182
The role of men in society 182 Cars as cultural signs 184
C O N T E N T S Vl' i
Advertising and the media Advertising, newspapers and magazines Advertising and television The promotion of media commodities ACTIVITIES BIBLIOGRAPHY
184 184 185 185 186 188
Section 3: Practical production
CHAPTER 15 - PRE-PRODUCTION 189
Introduction 189 Preparing for a practical media project 189 Coming up with ideas 189 Deciding on a form 189 Describing your purpose 189 Identifying your target audience 190 Organising resources 190
Printed products 190 Video products 190 Audio products 190
Outlining content 190 Printed products 190 Audio products 191 Video products 191
Researching content 191 Recces 191
Drawing up a schedule 192 CASE STUDY: Planning a children's radio programme 192
ACTIVITIES 195 BIBLIOGRAPHY 196
CHAPTER 16 - PRINT PRODUCTION 197
Introduction 197 Writing a magazine or newspaper article 197 Writing an opening 197 Personalising stories 197 Keeping focused 198 Writing tight 198 Keeping it brief 198 The structure of a standard newspaper story 198
Using photographs 198 CASE STUDY: Donna's Directory 199
Post-production 201 The basic elements 201 Designing the text 201
Typography 202 Making a page plan 202
Design checklist 203 Making stories fit 203 Proofreading and style guides 203
Common misspellings 204 Common misuse of vocabulary 204 Punctuation and sentence construction 204
Non-standard grammar, or common grammatical errors 204 ACTIVITIES 205 BIBLIOGRAPHY 208
CHAPTER 17 -AUDIO PRODUCTION 209
Introduction 209 What type of programme are you going
to produce? 209 A studio drama 209
CASE STUDY: Mad Dan 209
A dramatised documentary 210
CASE STUDY: Murder Most Foul 210
A magazine programme 211
CASE STUDY: Meridian 211
An actuality feature 211
CASE STUDY: The Square Mile 211
A soap opera 212
CASE STUDY: The Archers 212
Making your own programmes 212 Equipment 212 Studios 213 Recording actuality 213 Recording dramas 214 CASE STUDY: Making a children's radio programme 214
Post-production 217 Music reporting 217 Tape editing 217
Interviews 217 Montage 217
Complicated pre-recorded programmes 217 Drama 217 Actuality features 218 How to edit 218 Hints on editing 219
ACTIVITIES 219 BIBLIOGRAPHY 220
CHAPTER 18 -VIDEO PRODUCTION 221
Introduction 221 Making a video 221 CASE STUDY: Making a student video 221
What can you learn from the case study? 225
Preparing for production 226 What type of video are you going to produce? 226 The recce 226 The practice shoot 226 Production roles 226
Post-production 227 Equipment 227 Editing 227
Practising editing 227 Viewing raw material 227 Assembling the material 227
v i i i C O N T E N T S
ACTIVITIES 228 BIBLIOGRAPHY 228
Section 4: Toolkit
CHAPTER 19 - MEDIA STUDIES TOOLKIT 229
Introduction 229 Study skills and effective planning 229 Background preparation 229 Responding to a task 229 Planning a revision timetable 229 Oral debate 229 Commitment 230
Research 230 Research for practical production 230 Research for essays 230 Planning your research 230 Organising and using your research 230 Resources for research 230 Referencing sources 231
Essays - a key to success 231 Responding to an essay question 231 Planning the outline of an essay 231 Writing an introduction 231 Writing a conclusion 231 Illustrating your argument 231 Dos and don'ts for essays 232
Exams 232 Preparing for an exam 232 Writing the exam 232
Image analysis 232 The process of analysing an image 232 An example of an image analysis 233
Denotation 233 Denotation and connotation 233 Anchorage 234 Treatment 234 Who constructed the image and who is it for? 234 Possible narratives around the images 234
Key skills 234 Opportunities for covering key skills 234
Communication 234 Numeracy 234 Information Technology 234
Knowing your syllabus 235
GLOSSARY 236
INDEX 238
