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ADAPTIVE SLIDING MODE OBSERVER AND LOSS
MINIMIZATION FOR SENSORLESS FIELD ORIENTATION
CONTROL OF INDUCTION MACHINE
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor
of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University
By
Jingchuan Li, M.S.E.E
* * * * *
The Ohio State University
2005
Dissertation Committee:
Professor Longya Xu, Advisor
Professor Donald G. Kasten
Professor Vadim I. Utkin
Approved by
______________________________
Adviser
Graduate Program in Electrical and Computer
Engineering
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UMI Number: 3197781
3197781
2006
UMI Microform
Copyright
All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected againstunauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code.
ProQuest Information and Learning Company300 North Zeeb Road
P.O. Box 1346Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346
by ProQuest Information and Learning Company.
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ABSTRACT
Induction machines are widely used in industry application. Consequently more
and more attention has been given to design and development of induction machine
control. High performance of induction machine control is achieved by so called field
orientation control (FOC). Speed sensorless technology has also been proposed for
decades to overcome the disadvantages of cost and fragility of a mechanical speed sensor.
However, due to the high order, multiple variables and nonlinearity of induction machine
dynamics, the development of advanced induction machine control is still a challenging
task.
In this research, a sliding mode based flux and speed estimation technique for speed
sensorless control of field oriented induction machine is first investigated. The parameter
sensitivity of the control method is also analyzed. A robust sliding mode speed controller
is also presented, which has the advantage of disturbance rejection and avoiding re-tuning
gains comparing to traditional PI controller
Then an adaptive sliding mode observer is proposed and the stability is verified by
Lyapunov theory. Two sliding mode current observers are utilized to compensate the
effects of parameter variation on the rotor flux estimation, which make flux estimation
more accurate and insensitive to parameter variation. The convergence of the estimated
flux to actual rotor flux is proved by the Lyapunov stability theory.
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Finally, an efficiency optimization method which does not require extra hardware and
is insensitive to motor parameters is presented. The relationship between stator current
minimization and motor loss minimization in the induction motor vector control system is
investigated. A fuzzy logic based search method is simulated and implemented. It is
determined that the motor loss minimization can be achieved by minimizing stator
current in practice.
An experimental setup is presented in the appendix to verify the proposed approaches.
The simulation and experimental results are presented to demonstrate the potential and
practicality of the presented approaches.
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Dedicated to my wife and my parents
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my first acknowledgement to my advisor, Professor Longya
Xu, for his academic guidance, his constant help and support of my research. His
supervision has broadened my knowledge in power electronics and drive system. I had
learned a lot from his rich experience.
I would like to thank Professor Donald Kasten and Professor Vadim Utkin for being
my dissertation committee. They give me many insightful comments and constructive
suggestions in review of my research proposal and dissertation.
I would like to express my appreciation to Professor Stephen Sebo, Professor Giorgio
Rizzoni and Dr. Zheng Zhang for their kindly help during my research work.
I thank all my colleagues of the Power Electronics and Electric Machines (PEEM)
group at The Ohio State University and especially to Dr. Mongkol Konghirun, Dr. Jingbo
liu, Mr. Song Chi, Mr. Jiangang Hu, Dr. Mihai Comanescu, Mr. Reza Esmaili and Ms.
Debosmita Das. We had a very good corporation and had many fruitful discussions
during the past several years.
Finally, I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my wife, Yan, who has
been sharing hardships and happiness over years, and my parents and my brothers. Their
caring, understanding, and encouragement have motivated my research and study.
Without their constant support none of this would have been possible.
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VITA
June1993………………………………...………..…………...B.S. Electrical Engineering
Xi’an Jiaotong University , Xi’an, China
January 1995………………………….…….….…..…………M.S. Electrical Engineering
Xi’an Jiaotong University , Xi’an, China
May 1999………………………………………………….Puchuan Power Electronics Ltd.
Shenzhen, China
September 2000……………………………………………..Graduate Research Associate
The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH
PUBLICATIONS
Research Publication
Jingchuan Li, Longya Xu, Zheng Zhang, “An Adaptive Sliding Mode Observer for Induction Motor Sensorless Speed Control,” IEEE Trans. Industry Applications, Vol. 41,
No. 4, pp.1039 - 1046, 2005.
Jingchuan Li, Longya Xu, Zheng Zhang , “A New Efficiency Optimization Method onVector Control of Induction Motors,” Electric Machines and drives Conference, IEMDC
2005.
Jingchuan Li, Longya Xu, Zheng Zhang, “An Adaptive Sliding Mode Observer for Induction Motor Sensorless Speed Control,” IEEE Industry Applications Conference,
IAS 2004. Volume 2, pp1329 – 1334, 2004.
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Jingchuan Li, Longya Xu, “Investigation of cross-saturation and deep bar effects of
induction motors by augmented d-q modeling method”, IEEE Industry ApplicationsConference, IAS 2001, Volume 2, pp 745 – 750, 2001.
Codrin-Gruie Cantemir, Gabriel Ursescu , Jingchuan Li , Chris Hubert, Giorgio Rizzoni,
“An 1800 HP, Street Legal Corvette: An Introduction to the AWD Electrically-Variable
Transmission,” SAE 2005 World Congress.
Codrin G. Cantemir, David Mikesell, Nicholas Dembski, Jingchuan Li, Giorgio Rizzoni,
“Hybrid Electric Refuse Vehicle,” IEEE Vehicular Power and Propulsion – IEEE VPP2004, Paris.
FIELDS OF STUFY
Major Field: Electrical and Computer Engineering
Studies in:
Power Electronics and Electrical Machine Control Prof. Longya Xu
Control Prof. Vadim Utkin
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Abstract……………………………………………….…………….…..…...ii
Dedication………………………………………………………….……….iv
Acknowledgments……………………………………….……….………….v
Vita……………………………………….……….……………………..….vi
List of Tables………………………………………….…………...………..xi
List of Figures……………………………………………………..……….xii
Chapters
1. Introduction................................................................................................1
2. Backgroud and literature review................................................................4
2.1. Field Orientation Control of Induction Motors ..................................................... 4
2.1.1. Co-ordinate transformation............................................................................. 5
2.1.2. Induction motor dynamic model..................................................................... 82.1.3. Basic scheme of Field Orientation control.................................................... 12
2.1.4. Direct Field Orientation control (DFO) ........................................................ 142.1.5. Indirect Field Orientation Control (IFO) ...................................................... 16
2.1.6. Variable speed control of induction machines.............................................. 172.2. Speed Sensorless Control Technology of Induction Machines ........................... 19
2.3. Efficiency optimization of induction machine control ........................................ 23
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3. Sliding Mode Flux Observer for DFO sensorless Control ......................26
3.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 26
3.2. Induction motor model ........................................................................................ 26
3.3. Sliding mode current observer............................................................................. 293.4. Rotor flux and speed estimation .......................................................................... 31
3.5. Simulation by Matlab .......................................................................................... 32
3.6. Simulation by HIL(hardware-in-the-loop) .......................................................... 363.7. Experimental results ............................................................................................ 39
3.8. Parameter sensitivity analysis.............................................................................. 443.9. Conclusion........................................................................................................... 51
4. Robust sliding mode speed controller......................................................52
4.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 52
4.2. Sliding mode controller design............................................................................ 534.3. Continuous sliding mode controller .................................................................... 534.4. Implementation in the induction motor drive system.......................................... 56
4.5. Simulation results ................................................................................................ 57
4.6. Experimental results ............................................................................................ 594.7. Conclusion........................................................................................................... 64
5. Adaptive Sliding Mode Rotor Flux and Speed Observers ......................65
5.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 65
5.2. Sliding mode Current and flux observer design .................................................. 655.2.1. Current observer I ......................................................................................... 67
5.2.2. Current observer II........................................................................................ 68
5.2.3. Rotor flux observer design............................................................................ 695.3. Adaptive speed estimation................................................................................... 70
5.4. Stability analysis.................................................................................................. 71
5.5. Simulation results ................................................................................................ 72
5.5.1. Simulation results by MATLAB................................................................... 725.5.2. HIL Evaluation results by TI 2812 DSP....................................................... 78
5.6. Experimental results ............................................................................................ 80
5.7. Conclusion........................................................................................................... 84
6. Efficiency Optimization on Vector Control of Induction Motors ...........86
6.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................... 86
6.2. Principle of Fuzzy logic controller ...................................................................... 886.2.1. Fuzzifier ........................................................................................................ 89
6.2.2. Rule base....................................................................................................... 91
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6.2.3. Inference engine............................................................................................ 92
6.2.4. Defuzzifier .................................................................................................... 926.2.5. Implementation procedure for fuzzy logic controller ................................... 93
6.3. Motor losses determination ................................................................................. 94
6.4. Comparison of minimum losses point and minimum stator current point .......... 97
6.5. Fuzzy controller for efficiency optimization..................................................... 1026.6. Simulation results .............................................................................................. 107
6.7. Experimental results .......................................................................................... 108
6.8. Conclusion......................................................................................................... 116
7. Summary and future work .....................................................................117
7.1. Summary............................................................................................................ 117
7.2. Future work........................................................................................................ 119
Bibliography ................................................................................................120
Appendix A Experimental Setup................................................................127
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
6.1 Rule base…………………………………………………………..……………….106
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figures Pages
2.1 Stator current space vector............................................................................................ 6
2.2 Park transformation....................................................................................................... 8
2.3 Phasor diagram of a field oriented induction motor ................................................... 12
2.4 General block diagram for a field orientation control system .................................... 13
2.5 The scheme of direct field orientation ...................................................................... 15
2.6 The scheme of indirect field orientation................................................................... 16
3.1 Conrol system block ................................................................................................... 33
3.2 Step speed command at start up.................................................................................. 34
3.3 Real and estimated stator currents .............................................................................. 34
3.4 Real and estimated rotor fluxes................................................................................... 35
3.5 Motor response for trapezoid speed command ........................................................... 35
3.6 Real and estimated rotor flux...................................................................................... 36
3.7 HIL simulation results for 1 hp motor ........................................................................ 37
3.8 HIL simulation results for 1.1kw motor ..................................................................... 37
3.9 HIL simulation results for 5hp motor ......................................................................... 38
3.10 HIL simulation results for 50hp motor ..................................................................... 38
3.11 Experimental setup.................................................................................................... 40
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3.12 Estimated and measured current (current siα ; curve 2: phase current si α ) ............. 41
3.13 Estimated rotor flux and flux angle .......................................................................... 41
3.14 Estimated rotor flux trajectory.................................................................................. 42
3.15 Four quadrate operation (±1200 rpm) (curve1: speed command*
r ω ; curve 2:
estimated speed r ω ˆ ; curve 3: torque current qi ; curve 4: phase current ai ) ............. 42
3.16 Motor response for step speed change from standstill to 950 rpm........................... 43
3.17 Phase current response for step speed change .......................................................... 43
3.18 Coefficient1k in the observer is increased by 20% ................................................... 46
3.19 Coefficient β in the observer is increased by 20%................................................... 47
3.20 Speed response with Rr unchage under 0.5 pu torque disturbance............................ 48
3.21 Speed response with Rr decreasing 20% and 0.5 pu torque disturbance ................... 48
3.22 Speed response with Rr increasing 20% and 0.5 pu torque disturbance.................... 49
3.23 Experimental result with T r unchage under 2.0 N.m torque disturbance.................. 49
3.24 Experimental result with T r
increase 22% under 2.0 N.m torque disturbance.......... 50
3.25 Experimental result with T r decrease 22% under 2.0 N.m torque disturbance......... 50
4.1 Comparison of PI controller and the sliding mode controller ...................................... 58
4.2 External torque rejection performance ....................................................................... 58
4.3 Speed tracking simulation with a triangle speed command...................................... 59
4.4 Speed response atl T =1.0 Nm (curve1: real speed r ω ; curve 2: estimated speed r ω ˆ ;
curve 3: flux current d i ; curve 4: torque current qi ; curve 5: phase current ai ) ........ 60
4.5 Speed response atl T =2.0 Nm (curve1: real speed r ω ; curve 2: estimated speed r ω ˆ ;
curve 3: flux current d i ; curve 4: torque current qi ; curve 5: phase current ai ) ........ 61
4.6 Speed response with external torque step changel T =0.5 Nm ..................................... 61
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4.7 Speed response with external torque step changel T =1.0 Nm ..................................... 62
4.8 Speed response with external torque step changel T =2.0 Nm .................................... 62
4.9 Four quadrant operation with trapezoidal speed command (between 300rpm and1400rpm) ................................................................................................................... 63
4.10 Four quadrant operation with trapezoidal speed command (between ±1200rpm).................................................................................................................................... 63
5.1 Configuration of the proposed flux and speed observer. ............................................ 67
5.2 Real and estimated speed at a step speed command................................................... 73
5.3 Real and estimated current.......................................................................................... 73
5.4 Real and estimated rotor flux...................................................................................... 74
5.5 Coefficient 1k in the observer is increased by 20% .................................................... 76
5.6 Coefficient β in the observer is increased by 20%. .................................................. 77
5.7 Speed step response from –0.5pu to 0.5pu (curve 1: speed command *
r ω ; curve 2: real
speed r ω ; curve 3: estimated speed r ω ~ ) .................................................................... 78
5.8 Rotor flux estimation. (curve 1: real flux r α λ ; curve 2: estimated flux r α λ ~ ; curve 3:
estimated flux angle r θ ~
) .............................................................................................. 79
5.9 Trapezoidal speed at ±0.5pu. (curve 1: phase current ai ; curve 2: torque current qi ;
curve 3: estimated speed r ω ~ ) ..................................................................................... 79
5.10 Transient response to speed step command ±900rpm at no load (curve1: speed
command *
r ω ; curve 2: estimated speed r ω ~ ; curve 3: torque current qi ; curve 4:
phase current ai ) ........................................................................................................ 81
5.11 Real and estimated currents. (curve 1: measured current siα ; curve 2: observed
current siα ˆ ; curve 3: observed current siα
~) ................................................................. 82
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5.12 Transient response due to trapezoidal speed command (±900rpm) at no load (curve
1: speed command *
r ω ; curve 2: estimated speed r ω ~ ; curve 3: torque current qi ,;
curve 4: phase current ai ) .......................................................................................... 82
5.13 Transient response due to trapezoidal speed command (±900rpm) at puT l 5.0=
(curve
1: speed command *
r ω ; curve 2: estimated speed r ω ~ ; curve 3: torque current qi ;
curve 4: phase current ai ) .......................................................................................... 83
5.14 Speed response due to step change command from 360rpm to 1260rpm at
puT l
5.0= . (curve1: real speed; curve 2: estimated speed r ω ~ ; curve 3: torque current
qi ; curve 4: phase current ai ) ..................................................................................... 83
5.15 Transient response for step disturbance torque (curve1: real speedr ω ; curve 2:
estimated speed r ω ~ ; curve 3: torque current qi ) ........................................................ 84
6.1 Explaination of efficiency improvement .................................................................... 87
6.2 Block diagram of a fuzzy control system ................................................................... 89
6.3 Explaination of membership function ...................................................................... 90
6.4 Different shapes of membership functions .......................................................... 91
6.5 Motor losses with respect to dsi at different load torque ............................................ 96
6.6 Input power with respect to dsi ................................................................................... 98
6.7 Stator current variation with respect to dsi .................................................................. 98
6.8 Minimum input power point and input power point corresponding to minimum stator
current......................................................................................................................... 99
6.9 Measured input power vs flux level at different torques ............................................ 99
6.10 Measured stator current vs flux level at different torques ...................................... 100
6.11 The ratio ipk with frequency for different motors ................................................... 101
6.12 Principle of efficiency optimization control by stator current .................................. 103
6.13 Fuzzy controller ...................................................................................................... 103
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6.14 Membership for fuzzy logic controller ................................................................... 105
6.15 d-axis reference current and q-axis current............................................................. 107
6.16 Stator peak current .................................................................................................. 108
6.17 Motor losses............................................................................................................ 108
6.18 Fuzzy search at rpmn NmT l 900,2.0 == ........................................................................ 110
6.19 Fuzzy search at rpmn NmT l 900,5.0 == ........................................................................ 110
6.20 Fuzzy search at rpmn NmT l 600,2.0 == ..................................................................... 111
6.21 Fuzzy search at rpmn NmT l 1200,2.0 == ................................................................... 111
6.22 Current, power and efficiency variation at rpmn NmT l 900,2.0 == ............................. 112
6.23 Current, power and efficiency variation at rpmn NmT l 900,5.0 == ............................ 113
6.24 Current, power and efficiency variation at rpmn NmT l 1200,2.0 == ......................... 114
6.25 Current, power and efficiency variation at rpmn NmT l 600,2.0 == .......................... 115
6.26 Comparison of efficiency curves at different operation points with and without fuzzy
optimization control. (solid line is with fuzzy optimization, dash line is without fuzzyoptimization) ............................................................................................................ 116
A.1 Experimental setup………………………………….……………………………………127
A.2 Hysteresis dynamometer ……………………………………..…………………………128
A.3 Dynamometer controller and power analyzer ………….………..……………………128
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NOMENCLATURE
• r s R R , stator and rotor resistance
• lr ls L L , stator and rotor leakage inductances
• m L magnetizing inductance
• mls s L L L += total stator inductance
• mlr r L L L += total rotor inductance
• σ leakage coefficient,r s
m
L L
L2
1−=σ
• r T rotor time constant,r
r
r R
LT =
• r ω , eω , sω motor speed, synchronous speed and slip speed
• l e T T , electromagnetic and load torques
• P number of pole pairs
• J motor inertia constant
• B f coefficient of friction
• p differential operator
• qsds vv , d and q components of the stator voltages
• qsds ii , d and q components of the stator currents
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• qr dr ii , d and q components of the rotor currents
• qsds λ λ , d and q components of the stator flux linkages
•qr dr
λ λ , d and q components of the rotor flux linkages
• s s vv β α , α and β components of the stator voltages
• s s ii β α , α and β components of the stator currents
• r r ii β α , α and β components of the rotor currents
• s s β α λ λ , α and β components of the stator flux linkages
• r r β α λ λ , α and β components of the rotor flux linkages
• s s ii β α ˆ,ˆ estimated stator currents
• r r β α λ λ ˆ,ˆ estimated rotor flux linkages
• r ω ˆ estimated rotor speed
• s s ii β α
~,
~ estimated stator currents by second current observer
• r r β α λ λ ~
,~
estimated rotor flux linkages by adaptive sliding mode
observer
• r ω ˆ estimated rotor speed by adaptive sliding mode observer
• ai phase a current
• si phase peak current
List of Abbreviations
• FOC field orientation control
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• DFO direct field orientation
• IFO indirect field orientation
• PID proportional integral differential
• FLC fuzzy logic control
• SLM sliding mode control
• FSMC fuzzy sliding mode control
• MRAS model reference adaptive scheme
• LMC loss model controller
• SC search controller
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1
CHAPTER 1
1. INTRODUCTION
Induction motors are relatively inexpensive and rugged machines because they can be
built without slip rings or commutators. They are widely used in industry application.
Consequently much attention has been given to induction motor control for starting,
braking, four-quadrant operation, etc. Open loop control of the machine with variable
frequency may provide a satisfactory variable speed drive when the motor has to
operate at steady torque without stringent requirements on speed regulation. When the
drive requirements include fast dynamic response and accurate speed or torque
control, an open loop control is unsatisfactory. Hence it is necessary to operate the motor
in a closed loop mode. The dynamic operation of the induction machine drive system has
an important effect on the overall performance of the system. The control of induction
motors is a challenging problem since it has a nonlinear model, rotor variables are rarely
measurable and its parameters vary with operating conditions.
Several techniques are used to control the induction motor. These schemes can be
classified into two main categories: 1) Scalar control, One of the first ways of controlling
induction machines was the volts/hertz speed control also known as scalar method in
which the machine was excited with constant voltage to frequency ratio in order to
maintain a constant air gap flux and hence provide maximum torque sensitivity. This
method is relatively simple but does not yield satisfactory results for high
INTRODUCTION
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performance applications. This is due to the fact that in the scalar method, an
inherent coupling exists between the torque and air gap flux, which leads to a
sluggish response of the induction machine. 2) Field oriented control (vector control). To
overcome the limitation of the scalar control method, field oriented methods were
developed. In field oriented control methods the variables are transformed into a
reference frame in which the dynamics behave like dc quantities. The decoupling
control between the flux and torque allows the induction machine to achieve fast
transient response. The field oriented induction machine drive therefore, can be used for
high performance applications where traditionally dc machines have been used.
The above traditional control schemes require a speed sensor for closed loop
operation. The speed sensor has several disadvantages from the standpoint view of drive
cost, reliability, and noise immunity. Various speed sensorless approaches have been
proposed in the literature recently. However, due to the high order, multiple variables and
nonlinearity of induction motor dynamics, estimation of the rotor speed and flux
without the measurement of mechanical variables is still very challenging. Another
problem for classic vector control is the efficiency improvement. It has been reported that
65% of the electric energy in US is consumed by electric motors [1]. In industrial sector
alone, 76% is consumed by motors and over 90% of these are induction motors.
Induction motors have a high efficiency at rated speed and load. However, at light loads,
iron losses increase, reducing the efficiency considerably. For a 500 hp motor with proper
control, it is reported that the reduction in losses translates into annual savings of $7000
at the energy cost of $0.05/kW.Hr [2] . Obviously, there is a clear motivation for
efficiency improvement.
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This dissertation is organized as follows. The background and principle of field
orientation control of induction motor are summarized in Chapter 2. In addition, the
existing work up to now about induction motor sensorless control and efficiency
improvement are reviewed. An effective sliding mode flux and speed observer for direct
field orientation control is presented and the parameter sensitivity is analyzed in Chapter
3. The simulation and experimental results are also presented. In Chapter 4, a robust
chattering free sliding mode speed controller is presented and analyzed. The results are
compared with conventional PI controller. An adaptive sliding mode observer is proposed
in Chapter5. The stability is derived using Lyapunov theory and the speed estimation is
based on adaptive mechanism. A loss minimization algorithm by fuzzy logic for
induction motor control is presented in Chapter 6. This new method has the advantage
that it is insensitive to motor parameters and does not require extra hardware, at the same
time it can improve motor efficiency dramatically especially in light load. The simulation
and experimental results show the effectiveness and validation of the method. The
conclusion and suggested future work are discussed in Chapter 7.
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4
CHAPTER 2
2. BACKGROUD AND LITERATURE REVIEW
As stated above, induction motor drive system is becoming more and more a
competitive system in many high performance motion drive application. There are three
main major components in an induction motor drive system: an induction motor, a power
electronic device and a controller. The field orientation control (FOC), integrating modern
control theory, power electronic and DSP/micro-processor technology, has made possible
the development of high performance induction motor drive systems. In this chapter, the
basis of field orientation control of induction motors is summarized. The state of art of
speed sensorless control and motor loss minimization is reviewed. The existing problems in
the implementation of induction motor drive system are outlined.
2.1. Field Orientation Control of Induction Motors
An electric motor can be thought of as a controlled source of torque. The torque
developed in the electric motor is a result of the interaction between current in the
armature and the magnetic filed produce by motor. Independent control of the field and
armature current is feasible in separately-excited DC motors where the current in the
stator winding determines the magnetic field of the motor, while the current in the rotor
armature winding can be used as a direct means of torque control. In a similar manner to
that in DC motors, the induction motor control can be accomplished by a decoupled
BACKGROUD AND LITERATURE REVIEW
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control of flux and torque. The action of holding a fixed, orthogonal spatial angle
between the field flux and the armature MMF is emulated in induction machines by
orienting the stator current with respect to the rotor flux so as to attain decoupled
controlled flux and torque. Such controllers are called field orientation controllers (also
referred to as vector controllers).
A basic understanding of the decoupled flux and torque control resulting from field
orientation can be obtained from the d-q axis model of an induction machine with the
reference axes rotating at synchronous speed. This control is based on projections that
transform a three-phase time and speed dependent system into a two co-ordinate (d- and
q- axis) time invariant system. These projections lead to a structure similar to that of a
DC machine control.
2.1.1. Co-ordinate transformation
The three-phase voltages, currents and fluxes of induction motors can be analyzed in
terms of complex space vectors [3-6]. With regard to the currents, the space vector can be
defined as follows. Assuming that cba iii ,, are the instantaneous currents in the stator
phases, 0=++ cba iii , the complex stator current vector siv
is defined by:
)( 2
cba s iiik i α α ++=v
( 2.1)
whereπ
α 3
2 j
e= ,π
α 3
4
2 j
e= represent the spatial operators,3
2=k . The following
diagram shows the stator current complex space vector.
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a
i s
b
c
α
β
siα
si β
Figure 2.1 Stator current space vector
where (a, b, c) are the three-phase system axes. This current space vector depicts the three
phase sinusoidal system. The space vector can also be plotted in another reference frame
with only two orthogonal β α − axis. The real part of the space vector is equal to the
instantaneous value of the direct-axis stator current component siα . The imaginary part is
equal to the quadrature axis stator current component si β . Thus, the stator current space
vector in the stationary reference frame attached to the stator can be expressed as:
s s s jiii β α +=v
( 2.2)
The space vectors of other motor quantities (voltages, rotor currents, magnetic fluxes,
etc.) can be defined in the same way as the stator current space vector.
1) Clarke transformation
In symmetrical three-phase machines, the direct and quadrature axis stator currents
(as shown in Figure 2.1) are fictitious two-phase current components. Assuming α -axis
is in the same direction with a-axis, we have following relations with respect to the actual
3-phase stator currents
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)ii( k i
iiik i
csbs s
csbsas s
−=
−−=
2
3
2
1
2
1
β
α
( 2.3)
The constant k (3
2= ) for the non-power-invariant transformation. In this case, the
quantities asi and siα are equal. If it’s assumed that 0=++ cba iii , the quadrature-phase
components can be expressed utilizing only two phases of the three-phase system:
csbs s
as s
iii
ii
3
2
3
1+=
=
β
α
(2.4)
2) Park and inverse park transformation
The components siα and si β , calculated with a Clarke transformation, are attached to
the stator reference frame β α − system. In vector control, all quantities must be
expressed in the same reference frame. The stator reference frame is not suitable for the
control process. The space vector s
i is rotating at a rate equal to the angular frequency of
the phase currents. The components siα and si β change with time and speed. These
components can be transformed from the stator reference frame to the d-q reference
frame rotating at the same speed as the angular frequency of the phase currents. The dsi
and qsi components do not then depend on time and speed. If the d-axis is aligned with
the rotor flux, the transformation is illustrated in Figure 2.2
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d
α
β
q
is
r
θ
α si
β si
sd i
sqi
Figure 2.2 Park transformation
The components dsi and qsi of the current space vector in the d-q reference frame are
determined by the following equations:
−
=
s
s
qs
ds
i
i
cos sin
sincos
i
i
β
α
θ θ
θ θ (2.5)
The inverse Park transformation from the d-q to the β α − coordinate system is found
by the following equations:
−=
qs
ds
s
s
i
i
cos sin
sincos
i
i
θ θ
θ θ
β
α (2.6)
2.1.2. Induction motor dynamic model
The system model defined in the stationary β α − coordinate system attached to the
stator is expressed by the following equations.
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s s s sdt
d i Rv α α α λ += (2.7)
s s s sdt
d i Rv β β β λ += ( 2.8)
r r r r r dt
d i Rv β α α α ωλ λ ++= ( 2.9
r r r r r dt
d i Rv α β β β ωλ λ −+= ( 2.10)
where
r m s s s i Li L α α α λ += ( 2.11)
r m s s s i Li L β β β λ += ( 2.12)
smr r r i Li L α α α λ += ( 2.13)
smr r r i Li L β β β λ += ( 2.14)
Besides the stationary reference frame, induction motor model can be formulated in a
general d-q reference frame, which rotates at a general speed eω . The motor model
voltage equations in the general reference frame can be expressed by using the
transformations of the motor quantities from one reference frame to the general reference
frame. The two phase d-q model of an induction machine rotating at the synchronous
speed will help to carry over this decoupled control concept. This model can be described
by the following set of differentia equations
qsedsds sdsdt d i Rv λ ω λ −+= ( 2.15)
dseqsqs sqsdt
d i Rv λ ω λ ++= ( 2.16)
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qr r edr dr r dr )( dt
d i Rv λ ω ω λ −++= ( 2.17)
dr r eqr qr r qr )( dt
d i Rv λ ω ω λ −−+= ( 2.18)
dr mds sds i Li L +=λ ( 2.19)
qs sqr mqs i Li L +=λ ( 2.20)
dr r dsmdr i Li L +=λ ( 2.21)
qsmqr r qr i Li L +=λ ( 2.22)
)(2
3dsqr qsds
r
me ii L
PLT λ λ −= ( 2.23)
r r l e P
B p
P
J T T ω ω +=− ( 2.24)
This induction motor model is often used in field orientation control (vector control)
algorithms. To achieve this, the reference frames may be aligned with the stator flux-
linkage space vector, the rotor flux-linkage space vector or the magnetizing space vector.
The most popular reference frame is the reference frame attached to the rotor flux
linkage. This can be accomplished be choosing eω to be the instantaneous speed of rotor
flux and locking the phase of reference system such that the rotor flux is entirely in the d-
axis, resulting in
0=qr λ ( 2.25)
This expresses the field orientation concept in d-q variables. Assuming the machine is
supplied from a current regulated source so the stator equation can be omitted, the d-q
equations in a rotor flux oriented frame becomes [7]:
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dr dr r pi R λ +=0 ( 2.26)
dr r eqr r i R λ ω ω )(0 −−= ( 2.27)
0=+=qr mqs sqr
i Li Lλ ( 2.28)
qsdr
r
me i
L
PLT λ
2
3= ( 2.29)
Equation (2.29) demonstrates the desired torque control properties in terms of the
current components and the rotor . If the rotor can be kept constant just as it is in the
D.C. machine, then the instantaneous torque control can be achieved by controlling
the current component. From these equations, the following relations can be
obtained:
qs
r
mqr i
L
Li −= ( 2.30)
ds
r
mdr i
pT
L
+=
1λ ( 2.31)
dr r
qsm
sT
i L
λ ω = ( 2.32)
Where slip speed is denoted by r e s ω ω ω −= and r r r R LT = is the rotor time constant. In
the steady state, dsmdr i L=λ and 0=dr i . The phasor diagram of the field oriented
induction machine is illustrated in Figure 2.3.
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dqsi
e
qsiqs
r
me
qr i L
Li −=
e
dsi
dqr dr λ λ rr
=
q- axis
d- axis
Figure 2.3 Phasor diagram of a field oriented induction motor
Equation (2.31) shows that the machine flux can be determined by controlling the current
component dsi . Therefore, in the steady state, the constant flux can be obtained by
constant dsi . As a result, the torque control can be easily obtained by controlling dsi as
seen in (2.29). Equation (2.32) is the most important expression for the practical
implementation of the induction machine in indirect field control which will be discussed
later.
2.1.3. Basic scheme of Field Orientation control
Field orientated controlled machines need two constants as input references: the
torque component (aligned with the q-axis) and the flux component (aligned with d-axis).
Since the field orientation control is simply depended on projections, the control structure
can handle instantaneous electrical quantities. This makes the control accurate in every
working operation and independent of the limited bandwidth mathematical model. The
field orientation control thus has advantages in the following ways:
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1) The ease of reaching constant reference (torque component and flux component of
the stator current)
2) The ease of applying direct torque control because in the d-q reference frame the
expression of the torque is iT ⋅∝ λ
By maintaining the amplitude of the rotor flux at a fixed value we have a linear
relationship between torque and torque component current. We can then control the
torque by controlling the torque component of stator current vector. The general block
diagram of a field orientation control system for an induction motor is shown in Figure
2.4.
Inverter
Induction
Motor
θ
*
qi
*
d iPI
PI
)(1 θ −T PWM
a,b,c
to
β α ,
)(θ T
qi
d i
*
α U
*
β U
ai
bi
d i
qiα i
β i
Figure 2.4 General block diagram for a field orientation control system
There are many variations of field orientation control of induction machine.
Depending on the reference frame transformation used, two types of field orientation
control are mostly used: the rotor flux orientation (RFO) [8-10] and the stator flux
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orientation (SFO) [11-13]. In the rotor flux orientation vector control, the reference frame
rotates synchronously with the rotor flux, while in the stator flux orientation the reference
frame rotates with the stator flux. In both these reference frames, the dynamics of an
induction machine appear similar to a dc machine allowing it to be controlled like a dc
machine. The rotor field orientation control of induction machine can also be classified as
a direct field orientation control [14-17] or an indirect field orientation control [18-20]
depending on how the flux information necessary to perform the reference frame
transformation is obtained.
2.1.4. Direct Field Orientation control (DFO)
Knowledge of the instantaneous position of the flux vector, with which the revolving
reference frame is aligned, constitutes the necessary requirement for proper field
orientation. Usually, the identification of flux position can be based on direct
measurement or estimation from other measurable quantities. Such an approach is what
so called direct field orientation (DFO). Only the air gap flux can be measured directly. A
simple scheme for estimation of rotor flux vector is based on measurement of air-gap flux
and stator current. The disadvantage of direct measurement method is that a flux sensor is
expensive and needs special installation and maintenance, thus, spoil the ruggedness of
the induction motor. In practice, the rotor flux is usually computed from the stator voltage
and current. This technique requires the knowledge of the stator resistance along with
the leakage and magnetizing inductance. This method is commonly known as the voltage
model observer [21]. The scheme of a direct field orientation is shown in Figure 2.5.
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Flux
observer
dqr λ siαβ
svαβ
eθ
)/(1r r tg α β λ λ −
Figure 2.5 The scheme of direct field orientation
The stator flux along the α and β axes, in the stationary frame of reference, can
be estimated by the equations:
s s s s i Rvˆ p α α α λ −= (2.33)
s s s s i Rvˆ p β β β λ −= (2.34)
The rotor flux can be calculated from above
)i Lˆ ( L
Lˆ s s
m
r r α σ α α λ λ −= (2.35)
)i Lˆ ( L
Lˆ s s
m
r r β σ β β λ λ −= (2.36)
where )(2
r
m s
L
L L L −=σ is leakage induction. This method depends on parameters
such as the stator resistance and the leakage inductance. The study of parameter
sensitivity [22,23] shows that the leakage inductance can significantly effect system
performance such as stability, dynamic response, and utilization of the machine and the
inverter. The major difficulty in this case is the need for three motor parameters . The
stator resistance is a significant problem because of temperature dependable, the two
inductance parameters are only moderately affected by saturation. There are also problems
with integrating low frequency signals and with the fact that the stator resistance
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voltage drop becomes dominant at low speed. These limitations preclude use of this
scheme at low speed. However, it is practical over a reasonable speed range and is used in
many implementations.
2.1.5. Indirect Field Orientation Control (IFO)
Indirect field orientation is based on the slip relation as shown in Equation (2.32). The
control algorithm for calculation of the rotor flux angle using IFO control is shown in
the Figure 2.6. This algorithm is based on the assumption that the flux along the q-
axis is zero which imposes a condition on the command slip that isdr r
qsm
sT
i L
λ ω = , a
necessary and sufficient condition to guarantee that all the flux are aligned along d -
axis and the flux along q-axis is zero. The angle can be then calculated by adding the
slip angle and the rotor angle. The slip angle includes the necessary and sufficient
condition for decoupled control of the flux and torque.
ds
qs
r i
i
T *
*1
sω
r ω eω
dsi*
qsi*
∫
IM
eθ
1−T
Figure 2.6 The scheme of indirect field orientation
The IFOC is an open loop feed forward control in which the slip frequency is fed
forward, guaranteeing the field orientation. This feed forward control is very sensitive to
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the rotor open circuit time constant T r . Therefore, T r must be known in order to achieve
a decoupled control of torque and flux by controlling iqs and ids respectively. When T r is
not set correctly the motor will be detuned, and the controller performance will become
sluggish due to loss of decoupled control of the torque and flux .
2.1.6. Variable speed control of induction machines
A typical variable speed induction machine drive system consists of an induction
machine, a power inverter and a DSP/microprocessor based controller. Generally, there
are two feedback loops typically used to implement field orientation control and speed
control. The field orientation control is implemented in the inner current loop, the
decoupled control of flux and torque can be obtained by d - and q-axis current
regulator. In the area of controlled electric drives, the drive inertia and load
characteristics change widely. Although current control is important to torque
performance, the speed controller has directly impacts the system performance. It is
desirable to have a drive system that can provide fast dynamic response, a parameter-
insensitive control feature, and rapid recovery from speed drop caused by impact loads. A
satisfactory speed controller is extremely important for achieving desired response.
Traditionally, a proportional-integral (PI) controller is often used in the outer
speed regulation loop [24-26]. The PI controller offers fair performance in a stable
and robust manner if it is well tuned. The PI controller is usually designed in a linear
region ignoring the saturation-type non-linearity. At some working area, the behavior of
such controller could be satisfied. When the controller is applied to variable speed motor
drives, the performance deterioration is referred to a windup phenomenon, which causes
large overshoot, slow setting time, and, sometimes, even instability. So the parameters of
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the PI controller should be modified according to the various operating condition of
induction motor. This would add difficulty to the on-line debugging and cause several
drawbacks in using PI as the speed controller. 1) PI controller has a set of fixed PI
gains cannot satisfy the requirements for different speed commands. 2) PI speed
controller lacks the ability to handle detuning problems when parameters of the
machine vary. 3) Tuning PI gains is very time consuming. The limitations of the PI
controller have motivated research into alternative control techniques such as fuzzy logic,
sliding mode control, etc.
Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC) provides a systematic method to incorporate human
experience in the controller [27-37]. FLC can perform better with high nonlinearities
and overcome parameters variation emphasizes the importance of exploring control
techniques other than a conventional PI controller. Recent literature has explored the
potential of fuzzy control for machine drive applications It has been shown that a
properly designed direct fuzzy controller can outperform conventional PID controllers.
However, the performance will still degrade when the machine is severely detuned.
Another approach proposed and widely studied is the discontinuous sliding mode
control [38-43]. SLM control offers attractive features such as insensitivity to parameter
variations (as long as the bounds of the parameter variations are known) and
computationally simple to implement. However, it is reported by many authors that
sliding mode in motion control exhibits chattering imposed by the discontinuity of the
control action. The essential of sliding mode control is that the discontinuous feedback
control switches on one or more manifolds in the state space. Ideally, the switching of
control occurs at an infinitely high frequency to eliminate deviations from sliding
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manifolds. In practice, the frequency is not infinitely high due to the finite switching time
and with effects of un-modeled dynamics. This chattering is quite undesirable for most
applications. Different schemes have been suggested to eliminate the chattering such as
sliding-mode controller with boundary layer [44], fuzzy sliding-mode controller (FSMC)
[45]. Bartolini [46,47] proposes to introduce an integrator into the controller and design a
discontinuous control as the derivative of the actual control signal. The chattering
problem is addressed in [48] by analyzing the saturation function as an approximation to
the discontinuous switching element in the presence of singularly perturbed actuator
dynamics. Among the alternatives to eliminate chattering, the most promising is a
chattering free sliding mode technique which produces a continuous signal to the system
[49-52].
2.2. Speed Sensorless Control Technology of Induction Machines
The approach of speed senseless control of induction motor has been receiving more
and more attention in industry application since it can reduce cost and avoid fragility of a
mechanical speed sensor, and eliminate the difficulty of installing the sensor in some
applications. Different techniques for obtaining the rotor speed, estimating the rotor flux
of an induction machine for sensorless control have been extensively studied in the past
two decades and can be broadly classified as:
1) Magnetic-saliency-based methods [53-55];
2) Voltage model and current model flux and speed estimations [56-58];
3) Model reference adaptive schemes [59-61];
4) Adaptive observer based approaches [62-64];
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5) Extended Kalman filters [65,66];
6) Sliding mode observers [67-70];
7) Artificial neural network and artificial intelligence based sensorless control [71,72].
Magnetic-saliency-based methods are proposed in [53,54], which allow standstill and
low speed operation. These approaches rely on the motor response to the injection of
relatively high-frequency test signals, which investigate the motor saliency due to
saturation or geometric construction. They need high precision in the measurement and
increase the hardware and software complexity with respect to a standard vector control
scheme. When applied with the high frequency signal injection [55], the method may cause
torque ripples, vibration, and audible noise. Moreover, motors having a low saliency
content do not give an appreciable response, whereas enhancing the saliency requires a
proper machine design, therefore the saliency based technique is machine specific and
can not be applied to a standard machine.
The problems when using non-magnetic-saliency-based methods are flux integration,
unavailability of the signal at low speed and parameter sensitivity. Different schemes to
overcome these problems and to improve the sensorless control have been proposed in the
literature.
The voltage model flux estimations [56,57] have problems at low frequency regions,
because the signal to noise ratio of the stator voltage measurement is very poor, and
voltage drop on the stator resistance is dominant. The voltage model is also sensitive to
the leakage inductance. The current model flux observer is considered to have better
performance at low speeds. Also, its accuracy is relatively unaffected by the leakage
inductance for any operating condition. However, it does not work well at high speed due
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to rotor resistance variation. To get better performance, it has been suggested to use the
current model observer at low speed and voltage model observer at high speed [56, 57].
To further improve the observer performance, close loop rotor flux observers are proposed
[58].
Model reference adaptive schemes (MRAS) are proposed in [59-61], where one of the
flux estimators acts as a reference model, and the other acts as the adaptive estimator. The
estimation is based on the comparison between the outputs of two estimates, and the
output errors are then used to drive a suitable adaptation mechanism that generates the
estimated speed. These schemes require integration and. To overcome the integration
problem, Peng [60] suggested the use of back-EMF and instantaneous reactive power as
alternative ways to estimate the velocity in the adaptive controller. However, the
performances are still limited by parameter variations and the accurate flux estimation
problem still remains.
Adaptive observer based approaches [62,63] can have preferred performance using
the derived adaptive laws with relatively simple computation. However, their robustness
to parametric uncertainties is never guaranteed. Reduced order observers are designed in
[64], in which only the rotor flux, not the stator current is estimated. The correction is
then applied by using the error between the actual stator voltage vector and an estimate
ones. However, this requires adding voltage sensors to the system, which is not desirable.
Extended Kalman filters have been proposed in [65, 66] as a potential solution for
better flux estimation. Unfortunately, this approach contains some inherent disadvantages
such as computational expense and having no specific design and tuning criteria.
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Sliding mode has been documented to have the advantages of robustness and
parameters insensitivity [67] and been recognized as the prospective control methodology
for electric motors. Flux observers have been designed [67-69] using the sliding mode
technique for sensorless speed control of induction machines. These algorithms use a
current model flux observer and apply a correction term based on the current estimation
error. The observers require the rotor speed and rotor time constant for the current and
flux estimations. Therefore, an error in the estimated speed or rotor time constant will
affect the current and flux estimations, and thus degrade the observer accuracy.
Other algorithms for speed sensorless vector control, such as artificial neural network
[71] and artificial intelligence (AI) [72], can achieve high performance, but are relatively
complicated and require large calculation time.
An effective sliding mode based flux and speed estimation technique for sensorless
control of field-oriented induction machine is presented. The flux observer model is
decoupled by the proposed sliding function, which makes the observed rotor flux
independent of rotor speed. But the observed flux calculation is still sensitive to
parameter variation. To overcome this sensitivity and make flux and speed estimation
robust to parameter variations, an adaptive sliding mode flux and speed observer is
proposed. Two sliding mode current observers are used in the method. The effects of
parameter deviation in the rotor flux observer can be alleviated by these two current
sliding mode observers. The stability of the method is proven by Lyapunov theory. An
adaptive speed estimation is also derived from the stability theory.
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2.3. Efficiency optimization of induction machine control
Induction machines consume most of the world’s electrical energy every year.
Improving efficiency of electrical drives is important not only for energy saving, but also
for environmental protection. Induction motors normally operate at rated flux in a
variable frequency drive to get a best transient response. However, most of the time, the
drive system operates with light loads. In this case the core losses become excessive
causing poor efficiency. To improve the motor efficiency, the flux must be reduced,
obtaining a banlance between the copper and iron losses.
A number of methods for efficiency improvement through flux control have been
proposed in the literature. They can be classified into three basic types. The simple pre-
computed flux program as a function of torque is widely used for light load efficiency
improvement. This method, however, yields only a partial improvement in the system
efficiency. The second approach is based on the modeling of the motor and the losses to
derive an objective function. The objective function is optimized (either minimized or
maximized) to yield the maximum efficiency. Thus, this method treats the situation
analytically by properly modeling the losses and is called Loss Model Controller
(LMC)[73-75]. The third method is on-line efficiency optimization control on the basis of
search, and has a feedback nature that finds the maximum efficiency and is called Search
Controller (SC) [76-80].
The LMC method has the advantage that it is fast, however, the accuracy depends on
correct modeling of the motor drive and the losses. Garcia [73] proposed a simple loss
model consisting of computation of iron loss, rotor and stator losses in function of stator
current and in the frame. For a given speed and torque, the solution of the loss model
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yields the flux current for which the total loss is minimal. Lorenz and Yang [74] pointed
that major loss saving is possible by considering the system as a whole and employing
dynamic programming to select the operating flux. Kioskeridis and Margaris [75]
calculated the total of iron loss, copper losses, and stray loss and found an optimal flux
level that minimizes the total loss. Thus, LMC method is to develop controllers for
different drive systems by building the loss models and including different applications.
The LMC method consists in the real time computation of losses and corresponding
selection of flux level that results in minimum losses. As the loss computation is based
on a machine model, parameter variations caused by temperature and saturation effects
tend to yield suboptimal efficiency operation.
SC method on the other hand offers optimum efficiency based on the exact
measurement of input power (or DC bus power). Sul and Park [76] proposed a method that
maximizes the efficiency by means of finding optimal slip. The technique can be
considered as an in direct way to minimize the input power. For the vector drive, Kirschen
et al. [77] reduced the flux in small steps to reach to the optimum condition. Kim et al.
[78] adjusted the squared rotor flux according to a minimum power algorithm using
search method. Sousa et al. [79] reduced the reference flux current by minimizing input
DC bus power using fuzzy logic, where the torque pulsation is overcome by using feed
forward pulsating torque compensation. Ta and Hori [80] improved the convergence rate
by a golden-section-based search algorithm. However, problems still exist in selecting
the upper and lower limit of the flux-producing current before the algorithm starts. Thus,
the object in the SC is to reduce the search time and torque pulsations. Moreover, The SC
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method does not require the knowledge of machine parameters and completely
insensitive to parameter changes.
To make a comparison, we can conclude that the SC is always slow comparing to
LMC and the LMC works on the model and not on the actual drives. In LMC, the loss
minimization optimum flux is calculated analytically. The main advantage is the
simplicity of the method and not requiring extra hardware. However, it is sensitive to
motor parameters which change considerably with temperature and load condition.
Performance of the LMC method deteriorates when parameters change, the online
estimation of the parameters makes the method far more complicated. On the other
hand, SC method measures input power to searches the flux where the motor runs at
maximum efficiency. This approach is insensitive to motor parameters and operating
condition. However, it does require extra hardware to measure DC bus current and does
not be used in the classical vector control system where additional sensor is not available.
To take the advantages of both LMC and SC, an efficiency optimization method by
minimizing the stator current is presented. This approach does not require extra hardware
and is insensitive to motor parameters. The relationship between stator current
minimization and motor losses minimization in the induction motor vector control system
has been investigated. It is pointed that minimum stator current point is very close to
minimum losses point in most cases and the losses minimization can be achieved by
minimizing stator current in practice. A fuzzy logic based search method is simulated and
implemented. Simulation and experimental results are given in the paper to verify the
proposed method.
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CHAPTER 3
3. SLIDING MODE FLUX OBSERVER FOR DFO SENSORLESS
CONTROL
3.1. Introduction
In the past decade, a wide range of nonlinear methods for feedback control, state
estimation, and parameter identification has merged. Among them, sliding mode control
gained wide acceptance because sliding mode method can offer many good properties, such as
insensitivity to parameter variations, external disturbance rejection, and fast dynamic response.
In this chapter, based on the concept of equivalent control of sliding mode, a speed
observation system, which comprises a current observer, a rotor flux observer and a rotor
speed observer, is presented for a direct rotor flux oriented induction motor drive.
3.2. Induction motor model
Induction motors can be modeled in various reference frames. Commonly used
reference frames include stationary reference frame, which is fixed to the stator, and
synchronous frame, which is rotating at the synchronous speed. In this Chapter, by
defining stator currents and rotor fluxes as the state variables, we can rewrite the
induction motor model in the stationary frame as
s s s sdt
d i Rv α α α λ += ( 3.1)
SLIDING MODE FLUX OBSERVER FOR DFO SENSORLESS
CONTROL
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s s s sdt
d i Rv β β β λ += (3.2)
r r r r r dt
d i Rv β α α α ωλ λ ++= (3.3)
r r r r r dt
d i Rv α β β β ωλ λ −+= (3.4)
r m s s s i Li L α α α λ += (3.5)
r m s s s i Li L β β β λ += (3.6)
smr r r i Li L α α α λ += (3.7)
smr r r i Li L β β β λ += (3.8)
For squirrel rotor, 0,0 == r r vv β α . Eliminating the rotor currents and stator fluxes from
Equations (3.5)-(3.8), we have
s sr
r
m s i L
L
Lα α α σ λ λ += (3.9)
s sr
r
m s i L
L
L β β β σ λ λ += (3.10)
)(1
smr
r
r i L L
i α α α λ −= (3.11)
)(1
smr
r
r i L L
i β β β λ −= (3.12)
Substituting Equations (3.9)-(3.12) into Equations (3.1)-(3.4), yield the induction motor
model in β α − coordinate system
s
s
s
r r
m s
s
r r
r
m
s
r
r r
m
s
s v L
iT L
L R L L
L LT L
L L
idt d
α α β α α σ σ
λ ω σ
λ σ
1)(11112
++−+= (3.13)
s
s
s
r r
m s
s
r r
r
m
s
r
r r
m
s
s v L
iT L
L R
L L
L
LT L
L
Li
dt
d β β α α β
σ σ λ ω
σ λ
σ
1)(
11112
++−−= (3.14)
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s
r
mr r r
r
r iT
L
T dt
d α β α α λ ω λ λ +−−=
1(3.15)
s
r
mr r r
r
r iT
L
T dt
d β α β β λ ω λ λ ++−=
1(3.16)
Letdt
d p = ,
r
r r
R
LT = ,
s Lk
σ
12 = ,
r s
m
L L
L2
1−=σ ,
r
m
L
Lk 2= β , )(2
21
r r
m s
T L
L Rk k += ,
r
m
T
Lk =3 ,
the above equations become:
s sr r r
r
s vk ik T
pi α α β α α λ βω λ β
21 +−+= (3.17)
s sr r r
r
s vk ik T
pi β β α β β λ βω λ β
21 +−−= (3.18)
sr r r
r
r ik T
p α β α α λ ω λ λ 3
1+−−= (3.19)
sr r r
r
r ik T
p β α β β λ ω λ λ 3
1++−= (3.20)
Equation (3.17) - (3.20) can be written in matrix form as
VIAΛI 21 k k p +−= β (3.21)
IAΛΛ 3k p +−= (3.22)
where ],[ T
s s ii β α =I ,T
r r ],[ β α λ λ =Λ ,
−=
r
r
r
r
T
T
1
1
ω
ω
A
It can be seen that the term AΛ appears in both current and flux equations of the
machine. So this model has the advantage that the coupling terms between α and β axes
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are exactly same and the coupling terms can be replaced by the same sliding function
both in current and flux equations.
3.3. Sliding mode current observer
As noted above, the current and flux observer can be designed by replacing the term
AΛ with sliding function U . The sliding mode current observer is defined as:
+
−
=
s
s
s
s
r
r
s
s
v
vk
i
ik
U
U
i
i p
β
α
β
α
β
α
β
α β 21 ˆ
ˆ
ˆ
ˆ( 3.23)
and the rotor flux observer can be written as
+
−=
s
s
r
r
r
r
i
ik
U
U p
β
α
β
α
β
α
λ
λ
ˆˆ
3 (3.24)
or in matrix form, we have
VIUI 21 k ˆ k ˆ p +−= β (3.25)
IUΛ ˆ k ˆ p 3+−= (3.26)
where
][ T
s s i ,i ˆ β α =I ,
T
r r ˆ ,ˆ ˆ ][ β α λ λ =Λ , T][ r r U ,U β α =U
) s( signuU sr α α 0−= , ) s( signuU sr β β 0−=
and
s s s s iii s α α α α −== ˆ , s s s s ii i s β β β β −==
<−>=
01
01
s
s
s sif
sif ) s( sign
α
α
α ,
<−>= 01
01
s
s
s sif
sif ) s( sign
β
β
β
Two independent sliding functions r U α and r U β are designed for the α and β
axes of the current observer, respectively. It is noted that the sliding functions r U α
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and r U β are only dependent on the error between the measured and estimated phase
currents. The α and β axes rotor fluxes are only intergration of these sliding
functions and their own currents. So, the designed current and flux observers for
the α and β axes have no coupling between them, making the current and the flux
observer models completely decoupled.
The stability of the observre can be proved by Lyapunov stability theory. Let us select
the Lyapunov function as
n
T
n s sV
2
1= (3.27)
where s sn s s s β α = . The Lyapunov function V is positive definite, which satisfies the
Lyapunov stability first condition. The derivative of V is
n
T
n s sV && = (3.28)
To satisfy the Lyapunov stability, second condition must satisfy 0<V & . From Equation
(3.13) and (3.17), we have
IAΛUI 1k )( sn −−== β &&
01 <−−= IIAΛUIT T k )( V β &
Thus
010 <−−− IIAΛIIT T
k ) )( signu( β
s s
T T
ii
k
u β α
β +
−>
IIAΛI 1
0 (3.29)
If 0u is large enough, found by existence condition, the sliding mode ( 0=n s ) will
occur. The system trajectories reach the sliding manifold.
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Let )( qr r
r
dr ds
T i λ ω
λ +=Γ , )( dr r
r
qr
qsT
i λ ω λ
+=Φ , )(221
qsds iik
+−=Ω β
qsds
slid
ii
Bu
+
Ω+Φ+Γ=>
||||||0
where slid B is the boundary of sliding function. When the system reach the sliding
surface 0=n s , that means the observed currents converge to the actual ones, then the
flux estimation just an integration of sliding mode function without need of other
information related motor parameter or speed. The resulting equivalent control depends
on machine parameters and is difficult to implement. It is reasonable to assume that the
equivalent control is the slow component of real control that can be obtained by using a
low-pass filter.
β r
eq
β r r α
eq
αr U 1 µs
1U ,U
1 µs
1U
+=
+= ( 3.30)
From Equations (3.2) and (3.3), (3.4), we have
−=
r
r
r
r
r
r eq
r
eq
r
λ
λ
T ˆ
1ω
ω T ˆ 1
U
U
β
α
β
α ( 3.31)
3.4. Rotor flux and speed estimation
Based on the equivalent control concept, if the observered currents converge to
measured ones, the rotor flux can be calculated from Equation (3.26)
dt )i k U ( ˆ s
eq
r r α α α λ 3+−= ∫ (3.32)
dt )i k U ( ˆ s
eq
r r β β β λ 3+−= ∫ (3.33)
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Moreover, the angle of the rotor flux can be calculated by the following equation:
)ˆ
ˆ ( tanˆ
r
r
α
β
λ
λ θ 1−= (3.34)
This rotor flux angle is used in the field orientation control. Noted that the rotor fluxes
are estimated only by sliding function and the their own currents. It requires no speed
information, making control system very easy to implement.
From Equation (3.31), we have the form
−=
eq
r
eq
r
r r
r r
r
r
r U
U
λ λ
λ λ
λ
1
ω T ˆ
1
β
α
α β
β α ( 3.35)
where22
r r r ˆ ˆ ˆ β α λ λ λ +=
The rotor speed and rotor time constant can be calculated as:
( )eq
r r
eq
r r
r
r U λ U λ
λ
1ω
β α α β −= (3.36)
It is important to notice that the observer structure is decoupled in the sense that the
estimation process for α and β axis fluxes are independent because of the choice of
sliding mode function.
3.5. Simulation by Matlab
Figure 3.1 shows the diagram of system block using sliding mode observer for direct
filed orientation control of induction motors. Two motor phase currents are measured.
These measured currents are used for the Clarke transformation module. The outputs of
this projection are designated by siα and si β . These two components of the current are the
inputs of the Park transformation that gives the current in the d, q rotating reference
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frame. The dsi and qsi components are compared to the references*
dsi (which is the
output of speed regulation) and*
qsi (the torque reference).
3-phase
Inverter
Recitifier
Induction
Motor
θ
*r ω
r ω ∆*
qsi
*
dsir ω
d,q
to
β α ,
)(1 θ −T
Space
Vector
PWM
a,b,c
to
β α ,
SlidingMode
FluxObserver
to
d,q
β α ,
)(θ T
PWM1~6
qsi
dsi
*
qU
*
d U
*
α U
*
β U
ai
bi
siα
si β
Speed
observer
Flux
weakening
Speed
regulator
PI
regulator
PI
regulator
Figure 3.1 Conrol system block
The presented flux and speed observers have been simulated by Matlab for direct
field orientation control. The simulation is based on per unit system. The motor
parameters are as following:
1 HP 4 poles
R s = 6.3 ohms Rr = 8.2 ohms
Lls = Llr = 19.8 mh Lm = 335 mh
Figure 3.2 through 3.6 show the simulation results. The real motor speed and
estimated speed are shown in Figure 3.2 for a step speed command at start up. Figure 3.3
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shows the real and estimated stator currents. Once the estimated currents converge to real
currents, the rotor fluxes can be calculated from the equivalent control as shown in Figure
3.4, where the estimated rotor fluxes converge to real rotor fluxes. The transient speed
response for trapezoid command is shown in Figure 3.5. Figure 3.5(b) shows the speed
track error and Figure 3.6 shows the real and estimated rotor flux under this condition.
Figure 3.2 Step speed command at start up
Figure 3.3 Real and estimated stator currents
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Figure 3.4 Real and estimated rotor fluxes
Figure 3.5 Motor response for trapezoid speed command
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Figure 3.6 Real and estimated rotor flux
3.6. Simulation by HIL(hardware-in-the-loop)
The algorithm is also evaluated by Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) using TMS320F2812
digital signal processor. HIL evaluation is to use a computer model of the process as the
real target hardware, and on the other hand, the control and estimation algorithm are
implemented in real time. The purpose of HIL is to make evaluation of the proposed
algorithm as closely as possible to those that would be encountered in the real time
implementation. The dynamics of electric machine is modeled by five differential
equations. The control and estimated algorithms are implemented in 32-bit Q-math
approach, interacting with the motor model rather than the real targeted physical system.
The main advantages of this evaluation are: 1) the control software are implemented
and evaluated in real time and can be debugged very easily in the absence of motor; 2)
The control software can be easily transferred to the real drive system with only minor
changes. Figures 3.7 through 3.10 show the HIL simulation for induction motors at
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different power rates. (from 1 hp motor to 50hp motor). The results show that the sliding
mode algorithm can be implemented in TMS320F2812 fixed-point DSP and can be
simulated for different motors. The results are very similar to the results of Matlab
simulation. The results also prove that the sliding mode algorithm is stable and can be
successfully implemented by DSP hardware.
Figure 3.7 HIL simulation results for 1 hp motor
Figure 3.8 HIL simulation results for 1.1kw motor
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Figure 3.9 HIL simulation results for 5hp motor
Figure 3.10 HIL simulation results for 50hp motor
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3.7. Experimental results
A conventional voltage-source power inverter is used to drive the motor. The
TMS320x24xx DSP generates six pulse width modulated (PWM) signals, which control
the six power devices in the inverter. Two of the motor phase currents (ia and ib) are
sensed using the inverter leg resistors and measured by the two analog-to-digital
converters (ADCs) in TMS320x24xx. The advantages of this method are the low cost and
ability to eliminate the common-mode voltage as long as the measurement circuit is
referenced to the DC bus common. The measured current of this method is no longer
motor phase current, but half-bridge current. If the low side switch is conducting (through
either the transistor or freewheeling diode) then the current is equal to that motor phase
current. This certainly occurs periodically throughout the PWM cycle, so a reconstruction
circuit including a sample and hold amplifier is required. In addition, the DC bus voltage
is also measured by an ADC channel. This information is used to calculate the three
phase voltages of the motor.
The experimental system consists of the following hardware components:
• Power drive board (include rectifier circuit and IGBT module);
• TMS320F2407 EVM platform;
• Three-phase induction motor with a (optional) sprocket;
• IBM compatible PC with Code Composer (CC) installed and emulator;
• Additional instruments such as oscilloscope, digital multi-meter, current sensing
probe and function generator.
The experimental setup and connection is illustrated in Figure 3.11. The experimental
results are shown in Figures 3.12 through 3.17. The estimated stator current and
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measured current are compared in Figure 3.12. It shows these currents are very close to
each other and eventually the estimated one will converge to the measured one. Figure
3.13 shows the estimated rotor flux and flux angle, which is used for the Park and
inverse-Park transformation. The rotor flux trajectory estimated by the sliding mode
observer is shown in Figure 3.14. Figure 3.15 shows the transient response of drive
system to a trapezoidal speed command. The performance of motor speed step change
from zero speed to 950rpm is shown in Figures 3.16 and 3.17.
AC~
Power drive board
DSP board
Figure 3.11 Experimental setup
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20ms/div
Figure 3.12 Estimated and measured current (current siα ; curve 2: phase current si α )
20ms/div
Figure 3.13 Estimated rotor flux and flux angle
ia
r ˆ θ
r ˆ α λ
siα
si α
1A/div
1A/div
5A/div
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Speed step response
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (s)
S p e e d ( r p m )
Speed Command
Actual speed
Estimated speed
Figure 3.16 Motor response for step speed change from standstill to 950 rpm
-3.00
-2.00
-1.00
0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
0 1 2 3 4 5
Time (s)
P h a s e c u r r e n t ( A )
Figure 3.17 Phase current response for step speed change
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3.8. Parameter sensitivity analysis
The flux observer model presented above has accurate flux estimation when motor
parameters are exactly known. However, when the motor parameters are changed due to
temperature or different from preset values, the estimated flux and speed will deviate from the
real values. To investigate the influence of parameter variation, we change the coefficients
1k , 2k , and β in observers. There will be errors1k ∆ ,
2k ∆ , β ∆ exist if these parameter are
changed. The current observer will be in the form of
VIUI )(ˆ)()(ˆ2211 k k k k p ∆++∆+−∆+= β β ( 3.37)
The observed current error is
[ ] VIIAΛUI 211ˆ)( k k k p ∆+∆−−−∆+= β β β ( 3.38)
By selecting0u large enough, we have 0=I . Then the equivalent control becomes
VIAΛU β β β β β β
β
∆+
∆−
∆+
∆+
∆+= 21 ˆ k k
eq( 3.39)
The error is
VIAΛAΛUU β β β β β β
β
∆+∆
−∆+
∆+
∆+∆
−=−=∆ 21 ˆ k k eq
( 3.40)
This error will cause incorrect flux and speed estimation. Figures 3.18 and 3.19 show
the simulation results when 1k and β are change by 20%. It can be seen from the
simulation that the estimated flux is deviated from actual value and the observed speed
fluctuate around real speed. The influence of rotor resistance change is shown in Figures
3.20 - 3.22. In Figure 3.20 the parameters in observers have the same value as the
induction motor model does. In Figures 3.21 and 3.22, the rotor resistance in flux
observers is increased and decreased by 20% separately. As can be easily observed, the
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changes of rotor resistance will produce substantial speed error in steady state. This
phenomenon is also observed in experimental results as shown in Figures 3.23 - 3.25. In
Figure 3.23, the rotor time constant in flux observers is exactly the same as motor actual
value in the experiments. In Figures 3.24 and 3.25, the rotor time constant value in
observers is changed on purpose by ±22%. When T r varies, speed varies ±5.5%
(Approximately ∆n=±30rpm @550rpm). The simulation and experiments indicate that
the system is insensitive to rotor parameter under no load condition. When load increases,
the motor currents increase, the error of equivalent control will increase, thus the speed
error is more dependent on rotor parameter. In low speed, system performance is also
sensitive to parameter variation.
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(a) r α λ real rotor flux, obsλ estimated rotor flux
(b) r ω real rotor speed, robsω estimated rotor speed
Figure 3.18 Coefficient1k in the observer is increased by 20%
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(a) r α λ real rotor flux, obsλ estimated rotor flux
(b) r ω real rotor speed, robsω estimated rotor speed
Figure 3.19 Coefficient β in the observer is increased by 20%
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Figure 3.20 Speed response with Rr unchage under 0.5 pu torque disturbance
Figure 3.21 Speed response with Rr decreasing 20% and 0.5 pu torque disturbance
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Figure 3.22 Speed response with Rr increasing 20% and 0.5 pu torque disturbance
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)
S
p e e d ( r p m )
Real Speed
Estimated Speed
Figure 3.23 Experimental result with T r unchage under 2.0 N.m torque disturbance
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0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)
S p e e d ( r p m )
Real Speed
Estimated Speed
Figure 3.24 Experimental result with T r increase 22% under 2.0 N.m torque disturbance
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)
S p e e d ( r p m )
Real Speed
Estimated speed
Figure 3.25 Experimental result with T r decrease 22% under 2.0 N.m torque disturbance
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3.9. Conclusion
A sliding mode flux and speed observer is presented and implemented. The terms
containing fluxes, which are common in both current and flux equation, are estimated by
a sliding function, which makes d- and q- axis flux equations decoupled in the stationary
frame. The flux estimation is easy to calculate and merely an integration of known terms,
which make the algorithm simple to implement. However, the parameter sensitivity
analysis shows that the equivalent control will detune if the parameters in observer is
incorrect, causing flux and speed estimation incorrect, which is confirmed by simulation
and experiments.
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CHAPTER 4
4. ROBUST SLIDING MODE SPEED CONTROLLER
4.1. Introduction
A high performance speed motor drive should possess good command tracking and
load regulation dynamic responses, and these responses should be insensitive to the
operating condition. The uncertainties usually are composed of plant variations, external
load disturbance, and nonlinear dynamics of the plant. Many researches have been
reported for the robust speed control of an induction motor. The proportional (P),
proportional plus integral (PI), proportional plus integral plus derivative (PID)
conventional controllers are very easy to design and implement. The proposed continuous
sliding mode controller is robust to load changes and system disturbances. Also this
method overcomes the chattering problem which is the main concern when using
discontinuous sliding mode controller. It can prevent the performance degradation and
avoid tedious tuning process comparing the conventional PI controller. The
simulations and experimental results prove that the proposed controller is robust to
external disturbance and can also follow speed command trajectories very well without
re-tuning the controller
ROBUST SLIDING MODE SPEED CONTROLLER
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)t ( u ) x , x( B ) x ,(x f x 212122 +=& (4.6)
mmmn u , x , x ℜ∈ℜ∈ℜ∈ −21
B is a nonsingular matrix, m(B)rank = . The aim is to drive the state of the system to
manifold defined by
)t , x( ) x( )t ( : x S 0==−= σ ξ ϕ (4.7)
where x is the state vector obtained by augmenting 1 x and 2 x . )t ( ϕ is the time dependent
part of the sliding function and contains reference inputs to be applied to the controlled
plant. ) x( ξ denotes the state dependent part of )t , x( σ .
The stability conditions for selected control must be examined first. This selection
should ensure the stability of the system’s motion in the origin of the subspace, whose
coordinates are distances from the sliding mode manifold. For the selected manifold (4.6)
the first choice is the Lyapunov function in a quadratic form of control error as in Equation
(4.3). The solution 0= )t , x( σ will he stable if the time derivate of the Lyapunov
function can be expressed as a negative definite function:
σ σ DV T −=& (4.8)
where D is a positive definite matrix. Thus, the derivative of the Lyapunov function will
be negative definite, and this will ensure stability. From (4.4) and (4.8), we have
0=+ ) D( T σ σ σ & (4.9)
A solution for the equation above is
0=+ ) D( σ σ & (4.10)
The expression for the derivative for the sliding function is
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) BuG f G f G( 22211 ++−=
−=
ϕ
ξ ϕ σ
&
&&&(4.11)
where
2211 xG xG +=ξ and 2211 xG xG &&& +=ξ
The equivalent control can be found by 0=σ & , so
0=−= ξ ϕ σ &&& (4.12)
Then
) f G f G( ) BG( ueq 22111
2 −−= − ϕ & (4.13)
From (4.10) and (4.11), we have
σ
ϕ σ
D
) BuG f G f G(
−=
++−= 22211&&
(4.14)
then
σ
σ ϕ
D ) BG( u
D ) BG( ) f G f G( ) BG( u
eq
1
2
1
22211
1
2
−
−−
+=
+−−= &(4.15)
Multiplying 1
2
− ) BG( to both sides in Equation (4.11)
u f G f G BG BG −−−= −− )()()( 2211
1
2
1
2 ϕ σ && (4.16)
Replacing the first term on the right by equ , the above equation becomes
uu BG eq −=− σ &12 )( (4.17)
That is
σ &1
2
−+= ) BG( uueq (4.18)
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Which indicates that the equivalent control is the sum of current control value and
σ &1
2
− ) BG( . The current value of control input is not available to use. An approximation
of previous value is used instead.
σ &12
−− += ) BG( )t ( u )t ( ueq (4.19)
where 0 , +→∆∆−=− t t
Substituting (4.18) into (4.14), we obtain
−=−− ++=
t t | ) D( ) BG( )t ( u )t ( u σ σ &1
2 (4.20)
The term −=− +
t t | ) D( ) BG( σ σ &1
2 is used in updating a recursive formula for the control
input. On the sliding manifold, )t ( u− becomes the same as the equivalent control.
Although Equation (4.19) is an approximation of (4.14) in discrete time, it can be used to
push σ toward zero, so that (4.10) holds and stability is reached [49].
4.4. Implementation in the induction motor drive system
The induction machine torque and mechanical equation can be expressed by
r dt
d ω
θ = (4.21)
) BT T ( J dt
d r f l e
r ω ω
−−=1
(4.22)
where J is motor inertia, l T is load torque, f B is friction coefficient.
If the induction motor is in field oriented control, for a fixed rotor flux, the motor torque
can be written as
qst qsdr
r
me ik i
L
PLT == λ
3
2(4.23)
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where
dr
r
mt
L
PLk λ
3
2=
Equation (4.22) becomes
qst
r f l r i
J
k ) BT (
J dt
d −−−= ω
ω 1(4.24)
Let 21 x , x r == ω θ , the regular form for motor control can be rearranged as
21 x
dt
dx= (4.25)
KuT J
x B J dt
dxl f +−−= 11 2
2 (4.26)
where J
k K t =
4.5. Simulation results
A 1 HP cage-rotor induction machine using continuous sliding mode control is
simulated. Figures 4.1 through 4.3 show the simulation results. The simulation
results of PI controller and the proposed sliding mode controller at induction motor
start-up are compared in Figure 4.1. In the figure, the curves PI-1, PI-2, PI-3
correspond to different PI gains. It shows that continuous sliding mode has
much better transient performance, and even more important, it overcomes the
performance degradation with speed and avoids tedious tuning process. The
torque rejection performance of the proposed controller is shown in Figure 4.2,
where a 0.5 pu step load is applied to the machine between 0.6 and 1 second and
then released. The sliding mode controller rejects this disturbance very well.
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Figure 4.3 shows the speed tracking simulation results for four-quadrant
operation with a triangle speed command.
PI-1
PI-2
PI-3
Slide mode
Figure 4.1 Comparison of PI controller and the sliding mode controller
Figure 4.2 External torque rejection performance
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Figure 4.3 Speed tracking simulation with a triangle speed command
4.6. Experimental results
The proposed chattering free sliding mode controller has been implemented on
the prototype 1 HP induction machine. Figure 4.4 and 4.5 show the motor transient
response to step load changes at 1.0 Nm and 2.0 Nm respectively, where r ω is
measured motor speed,r ω ˆ is estimated motor speed, id is d-axis current, iq is q-axis
current, ia is phase current. The results show that the controller has good dynamic
performance and speed rejection to load change. To further demonstrate the speed
robustness, the test data have been collected through the data acquisition system as
shown in Appendix A.1. Figures 4.6 - 4.8 show the motor speed response and
external step torque applied to the motor atl T =0.5 Nm, 1.0 Nm and 2.0 Nm
respectively. It can be seen from the results that even at high load torque (l T =2.0
Nm) step change, the motor speed change is within 10 rpm, about 2%, which shows
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500ms/div
Figure 4.5 Speed response atl T =2.0 Nm (curve1: real speed r ω ; curve 2: estimated speed
r ω ˆ ; curve 3: flux current d i ; curve 4: torque current qi ; curve 5: phase current ai )
Speed response under torque step disturbance (0.5 Nm)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (s)
S p e e d ( r p
m )
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
T o r q u e ( N
m )
Speed
Torque
Figure 4.6 Speed response with external torque step changel
T =0.5 Nm
id
iq
ia
r ω ˆr ω
5A/div
909rpm/div
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0
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (s)
S p e e d ( r p m )
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
T o r q u e ( N m )
Figure 4.9 Four quadrant operation with trapezoidal speed command (between
300rpm and 1400rpm)
-1500
-1000
-500
0
500
1000
1500
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)
S p e e d ( r p m )
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
T o r q u e ( N m )
Figure 4.10 Four quadrant operation with trapezoidal speed command (between
±1200rpm)
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4.7. Conclusion
A robust and chattering free continues sliding mode controller is presented and
implemented in this Chapter. The controller has been tested for various command
speeds through the simulation and experimental results. These results prove that the
proposed continues sliding mode controller is robust and have good rejection to external
disturbance. The simulation and experimental results show that its dynamic performance
as well as steady state performance is much better than conventional PI controller and
free of re-tuning.
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CHAPTER 5
5. ADAPTIVE SLIDING MODE ROTOR FLUX AND SPEED
OBSERVERS
5.1. Introduction
In the sensorless speed control of induction motors with direct field orientation, the rotor
flux and speed information are dependent on the observers. However, the exact values of the
parameters that construct the observers are difficult to measure and changeable with respect to
the operating conditions. When the motor parameters are changed and thus different from the
preset values, the estimated flux and speed will deviate from the real values. To make flux and
speed estimation robust to parameter variations, an adaptive sliding mode flux and speed
observer is proposed in the Chapter. Two sliding mode current observers are used in the
proposed method. The effects of parameter deviations on the rotor flux observer can be
alleviated by the interaction of these two current sliding mode observers. The stability of
the method is proven by Lyapunov theory. An adaptive speed estimation is also derived
from the stability theory.
5.2. Sliding mode Current and flux observer design
As defined in Chapter 3, the induction motor model can be expressed in the stationary
frame as:
ADAPTIVE SLIDING MODE ROTOR FLUX AND SPEED
OBSERVERS
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VIAΛI 21 k k p +−= β ( 5.1)
IAΛΛ 3k p +−= ( 5.2)
where
],[ T
s s ii β α =I stator currents
T
r r ],[ β α λ λ =Λ rotor fluxes
],[ s s vv β α =V stator voltages
The configuration of the proposed flux and speed estimators is shown in Figure 5.1.
The adaptive sliding mode observer consists of two sliding mode current observers and one
rotor flux observer. The rotor flux observer is based on the current estimation from the
two current observers. The rotor speed observer takes the outputs from the second current
observer and the rotor flux observer as its inputs and generates the estimated rotor speed
as the output. The estimated speed is then fed back to the second current observer for its
adaptation. The estimation of the motor speed is derived from a Lyapunov function,
which guarantees the system convergence and stability. Once the sliding functions of the
current observers reach the sliding surfaces, the rotor flux will converge to the real value
asymptotically. Each sub-observer of the overall adaptive sliding mode observer is
discussed in the following sections.
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Current sliding mode observer I
Current sliding mode observer II
Rotor Flux observer
Speed estimation
VIUI 211ˆˆ k k p +−= β
221
~~~UVIΛAI ++−= k k p β
IULUΛ~
)(~
321 k p eqeq +−−= β
( ) ( )∫ −+−= r r I r r P r U U K U U K β α α β β α α β λ λ λ λ ω ~~~~~
2222
r ω ~r ω ~
r r β α λ λ ~
,~
eq1U
eq2U
r r β α λ λ
~
,
~
Figure 5.1 Configuration of the proposed flux and speed observer.
5.2.1. Current observer I
The first sliding mode current observer is defined as [69]:
VIUI 211 k ˆ k ˆ p +−= β ( 5.3)
whereT
s sii ]ˆ,ˆ[ˆ β α =I the first observer currents.
T U U ],[ 111 β α =U the first sliding functions.
)(
)(
1011
1011
β β
α α
s signuU
s signuU
−=
−=
, s s
s s
ii s
ii s
β β β
α α α
−=
−=
ˆ
ˆ
1
1
The sliding mode surface is defined as:
111 , β α s s sn = (5.4)
According to the above formulae, the current error equation is
1111 )( I I k p eAΛUe −−= β ( 5.5)
where IIe −= ˆ1 I
By selecting 01u large enough, the sliding mode will occur ( 01 =n s ), and then it
follows that
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011 == I I p ee (5.6)
From the equivalent control concept [67], if the current trajectories reach the sliding
manifold, we have
AΛU =1eq(5.7)
Equation (5.7) indicates that the equivalent control equals to the rotor flux multiplied
by the A matrix, which is the common part in (5.2). The rotor flux can be obtained by
integrating this equivalent control without speed information as discussed in Chapter 3.
The flux estimation is accurate when the motor parameters 1k , 2k , and β are known.
However, if the parameters in observers are different from the real values, there will be
some errors 1k ∆ , 2k ∆ , β ∆ in the coefficients of the observers. Then the estimated flux
and speed will be incorrect. In order to compensate this divergence, a second sliding
mode current observer is used for the flux estimation.
5.2.2. Current observer II
The second sliding mode current observer is designed differently from (5.3) as
221
~~~UVIΛAI ++−= k k p β (5.8)
where T
s s ii ]~
,~
[~
β α =I , the second observer currents
T
s s]
~,
~[
~ β α λ λ =Λ , the observed rotor fluxes
T U U ],[ 222 β α =U , the second sliding function
)(
)(
2022
2022
β β
α α
s signuU
s signuU
−=
−=,
s s
s s
ii s
ii s
β β β
α α α
−=
−=~
~
2
2
The sliding mode surface is:
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222 , β α s s sn = (5.9)
By subtracting (5.1) from (5.8), the error equation becomes:
2212 )~
( UeΛΛAe +−−= I I k p β (5.10)
where IIe −=~
2 I
From equivalent control point of view, we have
Λ−=−−= AeΛΛAU β β )~
(2eq(5.11)
where ΛΛe −=Λ
~ . The second equivalent control equals to the negative multiplication of
the estimated rotor flux error and the A matrix. It is noticed that the second current
observer needs the rotor speed as the input.
5.2.3. Rotor flux observer design
Combining the results from (5.7) and (5.11), the rotor flux observer can be
constructed as
IULUΛ~
)(~
321 k p eqeq +−−= β (5.12)
where L is the observer gain matrix to be decided such that the observer is asymptotically
stable.
From (5.3) and (5.8), the equivalent controls obtained individually by the two current
observers will deviate from their real values if the motor parameters are incorrect.
Consequently the rotor flux estimation based on each individual control will also be
inaccurate. To reduce this deviation on rotor flux estimation, the rotor flux observer is
designed from the combination of two equivalent controls, where the effects of parameter
variations are largely cancelled. From (5.7) and (5.11), the error equation for the rotor
flux is
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ΛΛ
Λ
−=+−=
++−−=
LAeeLAe
eAΛULUe
23
2321
I
I eqeq
k
k )( p β (5.13)
5.3. Adaptive speed estimation
In order to derive the adaptive scheme, Lyapunov’s stability theorem is utilized. If we
consider the rotor speed as a variable parameter, the error equation of flux observer is
described by the following equation:
ΛALLAee~
∆−−= ΛΛ p (5.14)
where
∆−
∆=∆
0
0
ω
ω A , r r
~ω −=∆
r ω ~is the estimated rotor speed.
The candidate Lyapunov function is defined as
λ ω /2∆+= ΛΛ eeT
V (5.15)
where λ is a positive constant. We know that V is positive definite. The time derivative of
V becomes
λ ω ω β
β
λ ω ω
/~2)(~
~)()(
/~2~
~)(
r r
T
T T
T
r r
T
T T
dt
d
dt
d
pV
∆+−
−+−=
∆+−
−+−=
−
−
ΛΛ
Λ
ΛΛΛ
eq2
1
T
1
eq2TT
T
TT
UA∆ALΛ
ΛAL∆AU
eLALAe
e∆ALΛ
ΛAL∆eeLALAe
(5.16)
LetT
AL γ = , γ is an arbitrary positive constant. With this assumption, the equation
above becomes:
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λ ω ω β
γ γ /~2
~~)(
r r
T T
T
dt
d
pV
∆+−
−
+−= ΛΛ
eq2eq2
TT
∆AUΛΛ∆AU
eLALAe
(5.17)
Let the second term equal to the third term in (5.17), we can find the following adaptive
scheme for rotor speed identification:
)~~
(~22 r r r U U
dt
d β α α β λ λ
β
γλ ω −= (5.18)
where T U U ],[ 22 β α =eq2U
In practice, the speed can be found by the following proportional and integral adaptive
scheme:
( ) ( )∫ −+−= r r I r r P r U U K U U K β α α β β α α β λ λ λ λ ω ~~~~~
2222 (5.19)
where K P and K I are the positive gains.
5.4. Stability analysis
Since the second term equal to the third term in (5.17), the time derivative of V
becomes
01
20
01
2
2
2
2
2
2
<
+
+
−=
+−=
ΛΛ
ΛΛ
ee
)eLALAe TT
r
r
r
r T
T
T
T
( pV
ω γ
ω γ ( 5.20)
It is apparent that (5.20) is negative definite. From Lyapunov stability theory, the flux
observer is asymptotically stable, guaranteeing the observed flux to converge to the real
rotor flux.
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5.5. Simulation results
To evaluate the proposed algorithm for the rotor flux and speed estimation, computer
simulations have been conducted by MATLAB. To further investigate the implemental
feasibility, the estimation and control algorithm are evaluated by HIL (hardware-in-the-
loop) testing. A 1 HP induction motor was used in the simulation and also in the
experiments.
5.5.1. Simulation results by MATLAB
Figures 5.2 and 5.3 show the induction motor response to a step speed command of
± 0.5pu ( ± 900rpm) where the motor parameters are exactly known. The actual machine
model is used to calculate the current, flux and speed of the motor. The observer model as
described above is used to estimate the rotor flux and speed. Figure 5.2 shows the speed
command, real speed, estimated speed and the speed estimation error. Figure 5.3 shows
the real and estimated rotor flux and the flux estimation error. It can be seen that the
estimated speed and flux converge to the real values very quickly.
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Figure 5.2 Real and estimated speed at a step speed command.
Figure 5.3 Real and estimated current
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Figure 5.4 Real and estimated rotor flux.
To study the effects of parameter variation on the speed and flux observers, the
parameters in the observers are changed on purpose in the simulation. Figure 5.5 shows
the simulation results when the coefficient 1k in the observers is changed by 20% from
its actual value, where the flux obsr _ α λ and speed robsω are estimated by the proposed
method, and 1 _ obsr α λ and1robs
ω are estimated by the previous method using only one
current sliding mode observer as in Chapter 3. It is noticed that even 1k is incorrect, the
estimated rotor flux and speed by the new observer still converge to the real values, but in
previous model, there is an offset in the rotor flux estimation and fluctuation in the rotor
speed estimation. The dc offset of flux estimation by previous method is caused by the
incorrect equivalent control 1eqU . If 1k changes, the equivalent control 1eqU will
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detune. The integration of incorrect 1eqU causes dc offset on the flux estimation.
Whereas in the new flux observer, this dc offset is cancelled by using two current
observers. The effects of coefficient β variation on the flux and speed estimation are
shown in Figure 5.6. We can also observe obvious fluctuations in speed estimation. There
is still an error on the rotor flux estimation by the proposed method as shown in Figure
5.6(a), but the new method eliminates the dc offset caused by the parameter variation,
which can be observed in results simulated by the previous model.
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(a) r α λ : real rotor flux, obsr _ α λ : estimated by the proposed method,1 _ obsr α λ : estimated by
previous method.
(b) r ω : real rotor speed, robs : estimated by the proposed method, 1robsω : estimated by
previous method.
Figure 5.5 Coefficient 1k in the observer is increased by 20% .
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(a) r α λ : real rotor flux, obsr _ α λ : estimated by the proposed method, 1 _ obsr α λ : estimated by
previous method.
(b) r ω : real rotor flux, robsω : estimated by the proposed method, 1robsω : estimated by
previous method.Figure 5.6 Coefficient β in the observer is increased by 20%.
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5.5.2. HIL Evaluation results by TI 2812 DSP
The results evaluated by HIL are shown in Figures 5.7 through 5.9. Figure 5.7 shows
the motor step response to a speed command at ±0.5pu ( ±900rpm). Figure 5.8 shows the
real and estimated rotor flux and the estimated flux angle. Figure 5.9 shows the motor
response to a trapezoidal speed command. The results show that the method can be
successfully implemented by the fixed-point DSP.
Figure 5.7 Speed step response from –0.5pu to 0.5pu (curve 1: speed command *
r ω ; curve
2: real speed r ω ; curve 3: estimated speed r ω ~ )
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r α λ
r α λ ~
r θ ~
100ms/div
Figure 5.8 Rotor flux estimation. (curve 1: real flux r α λ ; curve 2: estimated flux r α λ ~
;
curve 3: estimated flux angle r θ ~
)
Figure 5.9 Trapezoidal speed at ±0.5pu. (curve 1: phase current ai ; curve 2: torque
current qi ; curve 3: estimated speed r ω ~ )
0.6pu/div
1.2126pu/div
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5.6. Experimental results
In order to evaluate the performance of the proposed algorithm experimentally, an
induction motor drive system was set up. The setup consists of a 1 HP induction motor, a
power drive board and a DSP controller board. The external load is imposed by a
hysteresis dynamometer. The experimental setup is shown in Appendix A.1. The control
algorithm is implemented by Texas Instruments TMS320F2812 32-bit fixed-point DSP.
It has following characteristics:
• High-Performance Static CMOS Technology, 150 MHz (6.67-ns Cycle Time)
• High-Performance 32-Bit CPU
• Flash Devices: Up to 128K x 16 Flash
• 12-Bit ADC, 16 Channels
The test was first performed on the motor in four-quadrant operations. Figure 5.10
shows the motor response to a commanded step change speed at ±900rpm. Figure 5.11
shows the measured current and two sliding mode observer currents. It is seen that the
sliding mode functions enforce the two observed currents to the measured ones very
closely. Once these two observer currents converge to the measured ones, the estimated
rotor flux converges to the real rotor flux. The motor responses to a trapezoidal speed
command when the motor runs at no load are shown in Figure 5.12. To further
investigate the motor transient performance at load conditions, an external torque
puT l
5.0= is applied when the motor runs at the same trapezoidal speed command as in
Figure 5.12. The waveform of speed command *
r ω , estimated speed r ω ~ , torque current
qi , and phase current ai are shown in Figure 5.13. The estimated rotor speed response to a
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step change of command from 360rpm to 1260rpm with a load torque of puT l
5.0= is
shown in Figure 5.14. To investigate the speed robustness, a step disturbance torque
( puT l
5.0= ) is applied and then removed at motor speed n=900rpm. Figure 5.15 shows the
estimated rotor speed response and the torque current response. As evidenced by the
testing results, the induction motor drive functions very well by the proposed algorithm.
Figure 5.10 Transient response to speed step command ±900rpm at no load (curve1:
speed command *
r ω ; curve 2: estimated speed r ω ~ ; curve 3: torque current qi ; curve 4:
phase current ai )
1091rpm/div
5A/div
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siα
siα ˆ
siα ~
50ms/div
Figure 5.11 Real and estimated currents. (curve 1: measured current siα ; curve 2:
observed current siα ˆ ; curve 3: observed current siα
~)
Figure 5.12 Transient response due to trapezoidal speed command (±900rpm) at no
load (curve 1: speed command *
r ω ; curve 2: estimated speed r ω ~ ; curve 3: torque current
qi ,; curve 4: phase current ai )
2182rpm/div
5A/div
2182rpm/div
3A/div
3A/div
3A/div
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Figure 5.13 Transient response due to trapezoidal speed command (±900rpm) at
puT l
5.0= (curve 1: speed command *
r ω ; curve 2: estimated speed r ω ~ ; curve 3: torque
current qi ; curve 4: phase current ai )
Figure 5.14 Speed response due to step change command from 360rpm to 1260rpm at
puT l
5.0= . (curve1: real speed; curve 2: estimated speed r ω ~ ; curve 3: torque current qi ;
curve 4: phase current ai )
5A/div
1091rpm/div
1091rpm/div
5A/div
1091rpm/div
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Figure 5.15 Transient response for step disturbance torque (curve1: real speedr ω ;
curve 2: estimated speed r ω ~ ; curve 3: torque current qi )
5.7. Conclusion
An adaptive sliding mode observer for sensorless speed control of induction motor is
presented in this Chapter. The proposed algorithm consists of two current observers and
one rotor flux observer. The two sliding mode current observers are utilized to
compensate the effects of parameter variations on the rotor flux estimation. When the
motor parameters are deviated from initial value by temperature or operation conditions,
the errors of two equivalent controls from current observers will be largely cancelled,
which make the flux estimation more accurate and insensitive to parameter variations.
Although additional sliding mode current observer is used, the complexity of the method
is not increased too much. The stability and convergence of the estimated flux to real
rotor flux are proved by the Lyapunov stability theory. Digital simulation and
1091rpm/div
1091rpm/div
1.5A/div
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experiments have been performed in the paper. The effectiveness of the approach is
demonstrated by the results.
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CHAPTER 6
6. EFFICIENCY OPTIMIZATION ON VECTOR CONTROL OF
INDUCTION MOTORS
6.1. Introduction
Electrical machines consume most of the world’s electrical energy every year.
Improving efficiency of electrical drives is important not only for energy saving, but also
for environmental protection. In an induction motor drive system, to get a best transient
response the induction motor normally operates at rated flux. However, when the drive
system operates with light loads, the core losses become excessive, causing drive system
poor efficiency. To improve the motor efficiency, the flux must be decreased, obtaining a
banlance between the copper and iron losses. This phenomenon can be illustrated in
Figure 6.1. T 1 and T 2 are motor torque-speed curves at different frequencies f 1 , f 2, where
T 1 is at rated frequency and voltage, T 2 is at reduced flux level because the applied
frequency is increased ( f 2>f 1) and voltage is reduced. 1η and 2η are efficiency curves
corresponding to T 1 and T 2 respectively. The operating point ‘a’ in the Figure 6.1 can be
achieved either by curve T 1 or T 2, but the efficiencies are quit different. It is seen that the
efficiency (point ‘c’) corresponding to curve T 2, which nearly reaches maximum point, is
much higher than the efficiency (point ‘b’) at which the motor operates at rated flux level.
EFFICIENCY OPTIMIZATION ON VECTOR CONTROL OF
INDUCTION MOTORS
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In the vector control drive system, the flux optimum strategy is to find the maximum
efficiency at each operating point.
A number of methods for efficiency improvement through flux control have been
proposed in the literature. They can be classified into two main categories. The first
category is called Loss Model Controller (LMC) [73-75]. This method is based on the
loss model of the induction motor. The flux level is selected according to the computation
of minimum motor losses. The second method is Search Controller (SC) [29-33]. This
method searches the maximum motor efficiency by measuring the input power or DC bus
power.
Figure 6.1 Explaination of efficiency improvement
The LMC method has the advantage that it is simple and fast. However, the accuracy
depends on correct modeling of the motor drive and the losses. On the other hand, SC
method measures input power or DC bus power to searches the flux where the motor runs
at maximum efficiency. This approach is insensitive to motor parameters, but it does
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require extra hardware to measure DC bus current and can not be used in the classical
vector control system where additional sensor is not available.
An efficiency optimization method by minimizing the stator current which does not
require extra hardware and insensitive to motor parameters is presented. Minimizing
stator current method has been used in induction motor scalar control by I. Kioskeridis
[75]. In this Chapter, the relationship between the stator current minimization and the
motor loss minimization in an induction motor vector control system is investigated. It is
pointed that minimum stator current point is very close to minimum loss point in most
cases and the loss minimization can be achieved by minimizing stator current in practice.
A fuzzy logic based search method is simulated and implemented. Simulation and
experimental results are given in the paper to verify the proposed method.
6.2. Principle of Fuzzy logic controller
The fuzzy logic control is based on fuzzy logic or fuzzy inference system that is able
to simultaneously handle numerical data and linguistic knowledge. It is a nonlinear
mapping of a given input data set into an output data set. A block diagram of a fuzzy
control system is shown in Figure 6.2. The fuzzy controller is composed of the
following four elements: fuzzifier, rule base, inference engine, and defuzzifier.
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Inference
engine
F u z z i f i e r
D
e f u z z i f i e r
Rule Base
Process
Crisp input r(t)
Fuzzy controller
Crisp output
u(t) Output
y(t)
Figure 6.2 Block diagram of a fuzzy control system
6.2.1. Fuzzifier
A fuzzifier maps crisp numbers into fuzzy sets and converts controller inputs into
information that the inference engine can easily use to activate and apply rules. It is
needed in order to activate rules which are in terms of linguistic variables. The
fuzzifier includes two parts: choice of membership function and choice of scaling
factor.
A fuzzy variable has values that are expressed by the natural language. This
meaning of the linguistic values can be quantified by membership function. For
example, the stator current of a motor can be defined by the qualifying linguistic
variables: Small, Medium, or Large, where each is represented by a triangular or
straight line segment membership function. A membership function is a curve that
defines how the values of a fuzzy variable in a certain region are mapped to a membership
value between 0 and 1. The fuzzy sets can have more subdivisions such as Zero, Very small,
Medium small, Medium large, Very large for a more precise description of the fuzzy
variable.
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For example, in Figure 6.3, if the current is below 20A, it belongs completely to the set
Small, that is, the MF value is 1; whereas for 35A, it is in the set Small by 25% (MF = 0.25)
and to the set Medium by 50% (MF = 0.5). At current 40A , it belongs completely to the set
Medium (MF = 1) and not in the set Small and Big (MF = 0). If the current is above 70A,
it belongs completely to the set Big (MF = 1), where MF = 0 for Small and Medium.
A membership function can have different shapes such as triangular,
trapezoidal, or Gaussian membership function which are shown in Figure 6.4 (a),
(b), and (c). The simplest and most commonly used membership function is the
triangular type, which can be symmetrical or asymmetrical in shape.
Small Medium Big
Current (A)
µ ( c u r r e n t )
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Figure 6.3 Explaination of membership function
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(a) Triangular (b) Trapezoidal
(c) Gaussian
Figure 6.4 Different shapes of membership functions
6.2.2. Rule base
A rule base (a set of If-Then rules), which contains a fuzzy logic quantification
of the expert’s linguistic description of how to achieve good control. Once the rules
have been established, a fuzzy logic system can be viewed as a mapping from inputs
to outputs.
Rules may be provided by experts or can be extracted from numerical data. The
general form of the linguistic rules is
If premise Then consequent
As it can be seen, the premises (which are sometimes called “antecedents”) are
associated with the fuzzy controller inputs and are on the left-hand-side of the rules.
The consequents (sometimes called “actions”) are associated with the fuzzy
controller outputs and are on the right-hand-side of the rules. Notice that each
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premise (or consequent) can be composed of the conjunction of several terms, e.g., ‘IF t l is
very cold AND v1 is quite low, THEN voltage u must be very big.’ This one rule
reveals that we will need an understanding of:
1) Linguistic variables versus numerical values of a variable (e.g., very cold versus
-5°C);
2) Quantifying linguistic variables (e.g., t l may have a finite number of linguistic
terms associated with it, ranging from extremely hot to extremely cold), which
is done using fuzzy membership functions;
3) Logical connections for linguistic variables (e.g., "AND," "OR ," etc.);
4) Implications, i.e., "IF A THEN B."
Using the above approach, we could write down rules for all possible cases. In practical,
since only a finite number of linguistic variables and linguistic values are specified, the
number of possible rules is also finite.
6.2.3. Inference engine
Inference engine, also called fuzzy inference, which emulates the expert’s
decision making in interpreting and applying knowledge about how best to control
the plant. It handles the way in which rules are combined. Just as humans use many
different types of inferential procedures to help us understand things or to make decisions,
there are many different fuzzy logic inferential procedures. Only a very small number of
them are actually being used in engineering applications of fuzzy logic system.
6.2.4. Defuzzifier
The defuzzifier maps output sets into crisp numbers. It converts the conclusions
of the inference mechanism into actual inputs for the process. The most common
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used defuzzification method is Center of Gravity (COG). COG defuzzification
method is often used in spite of some amount of complexity in the calculation. In
the COG method, the crisp output of is obtained by using the center of gravity, in
which the crisp or variable is taken to be the geometric center of the output fuzzy
variable value area. The general expression for COG is
∑∫ ∑ ∫ =
i
i icrisp
)i(
)i( b
µ
µ δ (6.1)
where ib is the center of membership function, ∫ iµ denote the area under membership
function.
6.2.5. Implementation procedure for fuzzy logic controller
In order to design a fuzzy logic based algorithm, the following steps need to be
performed.
1) Analyze whether the problem has sufficient elements to warrant a fuzzy
logic application. Get all the information from the operator of the plant to be
control led.
2) Selection of input/output variables and fuzzy sets. Define the universe of
discourse of the variables and convert to corresponding per unit variables as
necessary.
3) Definition of membership functions. Formulate the fuzzy sets and select the
corresponding MF shape of each. For a sensitive variable, more fuzzy sets
are needed. If a variable requires more precision near steady state, use more
crowding of membership functions near the origin.
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2
r mm k P ω = (6.5)
where mk is mechanical loss coefficient.
When the motor is running under the rotor flux field orientation, we have relationship
0=dr i (6.6)
and
qs
r
m
qr i L
Li −= ( 6.7)
in steady state. From (6.1) to (6.4), we can get the expression for total motor losses:
( ) ( )
22
2
22222
2222
])[(
2
3
r mqs
r
mr
dsmeeeh
qr dr r qsds sloss
k i L
L Li Lk k
ii Rii R P
ω ω ω σ +++
++++=
(6.8)
The motor torque can be expressed by
qsdsqsds
r
m
e i Kiii L
L pT ==
2
22
3 (6.9)
wherer
m
L
L p K
2
22
3= .
Substituting (6.9) into (6.8), we have
2
22
2
2)
1(
2
3r m
ds
e
dsloss k i K
BT Ai P ω ++= (6.10)
where
22)( meeeh s Lk k R A ω ω ++= ,
2
222
2
2
)(r
mr eeeh
r
mr s
L
L Lk k
L
L R R B σ ω ω +++= .
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Equation (6.10) gives an expression of induction motor losses in a vector control
system. It shows the relationship of motor losses with rotor flux ( dsi ), motor torque and
speed. It is obvious that if speed and torque are constant, the loss just is a function of dsi .
Figure 6.5 shows the curves of total losses with respect to dsi at different load torque
(speed is 900rpm). It is seen from Figure 6.5 that if speed is fixed, then the d-axis current
dsi corresponding to minimum loss point is different at different load torque. So we can
find the dsi value that corresponds to minimum loss at each operating point.
Figure 6.5 Motor losses with respect to dsi at different load torque
Minimum loss point
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6.4. Comparison of minimum losses point and minimum stator current
point
As state above, assuming the motor parameters are constant and independent on rotor
flux, it can be seen from the loss expression (6.10) that at each operating point ( r ω and
eT fixed), the motor loss is just a function of d-axis current component dsi . In general,
minimum loss corresponds to minimum input power if output power is constant. Figure
6.6 shows the curves of input power with respect to dsi (output power is fixed). This plot
gives us the appropriate *dsi corresponding to the point of the optimum efficiency. To
investigate the relationship between stator current minimization and motor loss
minimization, the stator current variation with respect to dsi is plotted in Figure 6.7. It is
interesting to note that the minimum stator current points are very close to minimum loss
(or input power) points at each load condition. To illustrate this more explicitly, the
minimum input power points and the input power points corresponding to minimum
stator currents are plotted in same figure as shown in Figure 6.8. This phenomenon is also
demonstrated by experimental results. Figures 6.9 and 6.10 show the experimental input
power and stator current with motor flux level (v/f value).
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Figure 6.6 Input power with respect to dsi
Figure 6.7 Stator current variation with respect to dsi
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Figure 6.8 Minimum input power point and input power point corresponding to minimum
stator current
Figure 6.9 Measured input power vs flux level at different torques
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Figure 6.10 Measured stator current vs flux level at different torques
To further investigate the relationship between minimum losses and minimum stator
current, a mathematical expression is derived. By taking the derivative of motor losses
expression (6.10) with respect to dsi , the magnetizing current pdsi _ * corresponding to the
point of the minimum loss can be obtained as
K T
A Bi e
pds 4 _ * = (6.11)
The stator current can be written as
22
2222 1
ds
edsqsds s
i K
T iiii +=+= (6.12)
By setting the derivative of (6.12) with respect to dsi to zero, it yields that
K
T i e
ids = _ *
(6.13)
Let ipk denote the ratio of idsi _ * with respect to pdsi _
* , we have
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4
_ *
_ *
B
A
i
ik
pds
ids
ip == (6.14)
The plot of the ratio ipk with respect to frequency for different motors is shown in
Figure 6.11. It can be seen that the ratio ipk is dependent on motor parameters and
operating frequency. The value of ipk increases as the frequency increases. But the value
is still in the range from 0.8 to 1.4. As illustrated in Figures 6.6 and 6.9, the motor input
power (or loss) curves are quit flat around the minimum loss points. This means that even
the minimum stator current points are somewhat away from the minimum loss points, the
motor losses by finding minimum stator current are still very close to minimum losses.
Therefore, the minimum stator current can be used to minimize the motor losses in
practice.
Figure 6.11 The ratio ipk with frequency for different motors
50hp
10hp
1hp
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6.5. Fuzzy controller for efficiency optimization
Several fuzzy logic based loss minimum algorithms have been reported previously
[78,79]. The advantage of minimizing stator current to minimize motor losses is that no
extra hardware is needed and can be implemented in a classical structure of induction
motor speed sensorless vector control.
The principle of efficiency optimization control by controlling stator current can be
explained in Figure 6.12. The program searches the minimum stator current by adjusting
the magnetizing current. If the magnetizing current is decreased, then the rotor flux is
reduced, causing a corresponding increase in the torque current to keep the developed
torque constant. As the rotor flux is decreased, the iron loss and copper loss decreases at the
same time, resulting in a decrease of stator current. After the flux level reaches to some
level, the iron loss will continue reduce while the copper loss will increase. However, the
total system loss and stator current will still decrease. Since the minimum stator current
point is very close to minimum losses point, the search continues until the system settles
down at the minimum stator current point. Any excursion beyond the minimum point will
force the controller to return.
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dsi∗
qsi
loss P
nT
si
Minimum point
t
Figure 6.12 Principle of efficiency optimization control by stator current
Based on the principle above, the fuzzy controller is designed as in Figure 6.13. The
fuzzy controller uses stator peak current change si∆ and d-axis current change dsi∆ as its
inputs. )1()()( −−=∆ k ik ik i s s s
, )1()()( −−=∆ k ik ik i dsdsds. The output is d-axis reference
increment ref dsi _ ∆ . )1()()( _ _ _ −−=∆ k ik ik i ref dsref dsref ds .
Z-1
Z-1
Fuzzy
Inference and
Defuzzification
)(k i s∆)(k i s
)(k ids
+
-
+
- )(k ids∆
)( _ k i ref ds∆
)1( _ −k i ref ds
)( _ k i ref ds+
+
Figure 6.13 Fuzzy controller
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The membership functions for fuzzy controller are shown in Figure 6.14. All
membership functions are triangular for simplicity. The fuzzy output is calculated using
COG (center of gravity) defuzzification approach.
The rule base for fuzzy control is given in Table 6.1. The basic idea is that if the last
control action indicated a decrease of stator current, the search proceeds in the same
direction. In case the last control action resulted in an increase of stator current, the
search direction is reversed. For example, IF NS i s =∆ AND N ids =∆ , THEN NS i ref ds =∆ _ .
This rule means that IF the stator current increment si∆ is negative small (NS) and the
last d-axis current dsi∆ is negative (N), THEN the new excitation current increment
ref dsi _ ∆ is negative small (NS).
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-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 si∆
NS ZE PS PBNB
(a) Input membership function si∆
-1 0 1dsi∆
PN
(b) Input membership function dsi∆
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1ref d i _ ∆
NB NS ZE PS PB
(c) Output membership function ref dsi _ ∆
Figure 6.14 Membership for fuzzy logic controller
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Table 1 Rule base
dsi∆ N P
si∆ ref dsi _ ∆
PB PB NB
PS PS NS
ZE ZE ZE
NS NS PS
NB NB PB
P = Positive
N = Negative
PB = Positive Big
PS = Positive Small
ZE = Zero
NS = Negative Small
NB = Negative Big
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The disadvantage of this efficiency control is that the transient response is relatively
slow. To overcome this, for any change in load or speed command, the fuzzy efficiency
controller is turned off and the controller’s attention is directed to the system
performance, in this case the rated flux current is used instead.
6.6. Simulation results
The system is first simulated by MATLAB. The simulation results are shown in
Figures 6.15 through 6.17. Figure 6.15 shows the search process of d-axis current
command change and q-axis current variation at a load toque of 1.0=l T pu. Figures 6.16
and 6.17 show that the stator current and motor losses decrease until the controller
reaches steady state (almost minimum point). The core losses and copper losses are also
shown in the process. The results show that the motor loss is greatly reduced by the
proposed method.
Figure 6.15 d-axis reference current and q-axis current
ref dsi _
qsi
Fuzzy begins
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Figure 6.16 Stator peak current
Figure 6.17 Motor losses
6.7. Experimental results
In order to evaluate the performance of the proposed algorithm experimentally, an
induction motor drive system was set up. The external load is imposed by a hysteresis
dynamometer. The fuzzy search algorithm is implemented using TI TMS320F2812 32-bit
fixed-point DSP.
lossestotal P
fe P
cu P
Fuzzy begins
siFuzzy begins
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The test was implemented at different motor speeds and load torques. Figures 6.18
through 6.26 show the experimental results. The fuzzy logic search processes at 900rpm
with load torque NmT l 2.0= and NmT l 5.0= are shown in Figures 6.18 and 6.19
respectively, where si is stator current magnitude, ref dsi _ d-is axis current command,
qsi q-axis torque current, and ai phase current. Figure 6.20 and 6.21 show the test
results at 600rpm and 1200rpm respectively. It can be seen from the results that at light
load, the stator current is greatly reduced, which will cause motor efficiency increase.
Figures 22 - 25 show the input power and motor efficiency variation with stator current
reduction during fuzzy search. The results are shown at rpmn NmT l 900,2.0 == ,
rpmn NmT l 900,5.0 == , rpmn NmT l 1200,2.0 == , and rpmn NmT l 600,2.0 == respectively.
After fuzzy logic is switched on, the stator current is deceased from 1.25A to 0.65A in
Figure 6.22, while the input power is deceased from 62W to 39W and efficiency is
increased from 30% to 52%. In Figure 6.23, when the load is increased, the input power
is reduced from 89W to 78W. At the same time the efficiency is increased from 49% to
61%. The same results are expected in Figures 6.24 and 6.25 for motor speed at 1200rpm
and 600rpm. The experimental results show the motor efficiency is greatly improved at
light load. The comparison of efficiency curves at different operation points with and
without fuzzy optimization control is shown in Figure 6.26.
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500ms/div
Figure 6.18 Fuzzy search at rpmn NmT l
900,2.0 ==
500ms/div
Figure 6.19 Fuzzy search at rpmn NmT l 900,5.0 ==
Fuzzy begins
Fuzzy begins
si
qsi
ai
si
ref dsi _
qsi
ai
ref dsi _
2A/div
2A/div
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500ms/div
Figure 6.20 Fuzzy search at rpmn NmT l 600,2.0 ==
500ms/div
Figure 6.21 Fuzzy search at rpmn NmT l 1200,2.0 ==
Fuzzy begins
si
ref dsi _
qsi
ai
Fuzzy begins
si
ref dsi _
qsi
ai
2A/div
2A/div
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0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (s)
I n p
u t c u r r e n t ( A )
(a) Input current (A)
0
40
80
120
160
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (s)
P o w
e r ( W )
(b) Input power (W)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Time (s)
E f f i c i e n c y
(c) Efficiency
Figure 6.22 Current, power and efficiency variation at rpmn NmT l 900,2.0 ==
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0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (s)
I n o
u t c u r r e n t ( A )
(a) Input current (A)
0
40
80
120
160
200
4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (s)
I n p u t
p o w e r ( W )
(b) Input power (W)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (s)
E f f i c i e n c y
(c) Efficiency
Figure 6.23 Current, power and efficiency variation at rpmn NmT l 900,5.0 ==
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0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (s)
I n p u t c u
r r e n t ( A )
(a) Input current (A)
0
40
80
120
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (s)
I n p u t p o w e r ( W )
(b) Input power (W)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (s)
E f f i c i e n c y
(c) Efficiency
Figure 6.24 Current, power and efficiency variation at rpmn NmT l 1200,2.0 ==
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0
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
0 5 10 15 20
Time (s)
I n o u t c u r r e n t ( A )
(a) Input current (A)
0
20
40
60
0 5 10 15 20
Time (s)
I n p u t p o w e r ( W )
(b) Input power (W)
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0 5 10 15 20
Time (s)
E f f i c i e n c y
(c) Efficiency
Figure 6.25 Current, power and efficiency variation at rpmn NmT l 600,2.0 ==
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0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5Torque (Nm)
E f f i c i e n c y
Figure 6.26 Comparison of efficiency curves at different operation points with andwithout fuzzy optimization control. (solid line is with fuzzy optimization, dash line iswithout fuzzy optimization)
6.8. Conclusion
An efficiency optimization method which does not require extra hardware and
insensitive to motor parameters is presented. The relationship between stator current
minimization and motor losses minimization in the induction motor vector control system
is investigated. A fuzzy logic based search method is simulated and implemented. It is
pointed that the motor loss minimization can be achieved by minimizing stator current in
practice. The simulation and experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness of the
approach.
600rpm
1200rpm900rpm
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CHAPTER 7
7. SUMMARY AND FUTURE WORK
7.1. Summary
A large variety of induction machine control schemes are used in industrial
applications. Open loop control systems maintain the stator v/f ratio at a predetermined
level to establish the desired machine flux. The ratio is satisfied only at low or moderate
dynamic requirements. Field orientation technology can provide high performance control
of induction machine by aligning a revolving reference frame with a space vector of
selected flux and allowing the induction motor to emulate a separately excited dc machine.
The speed sensorless control and loss minimization of induction drive have gained more
and more attention because the fragile speed sensor and energy crisis, which are also the
main focus of this research.
There are two key issues related to a direct field oriented drive system: flux estimation
and speed estimation. In this research, a flux and speed observer using the sliding
mode technique is presented and investigated in Chapter 3. To overcome the
parameter sensitive problem, a robust adaptive sliding mode observer is proposed in
Chapter 5 and the stability is verified by Lyapunov theory. A continuous sliding mode
speed controller is presented in Chapter 4 to avoid re-tuning PI gains. A Fuzzy logic
based loss minimization method is proposed in Chapter 6. The simulation and
SUMMARY AND FUTURE WORK
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experimental results are given to demonstrate the effectiveness and practicality of the
approach.
The major accomplishment of the research can be summarized as following:
• An effective sliding mode flux and speed observer is presented and
investigated. The parameter sensitivity is analyzed using the equivalent control
of sliding mode method. It shows that the deviation of motor parameters will
cause error in the equivalent control of sliding mode, and the system
performance will detune by this parameter deviation. This phenomenon is
conformed with simulation and experimental results.
• To overcome this parameter sensitivity problem, an adaptive sliding mode
observer is proposed and the stability is verified by Lyapunov theory. Two
sliding mode current observers are utilized to compensate the effects of
parameter variation on the rotor flux estimation, which make flux estimation
more accurate and insensitive to parameter variation. The speed information is
estimated by adaptive mechanism. The convergence of the estimated flux to
actual rotor flux is proved by the Lyapunov stability theory.
• In conventional speed PI controller, the PI gains are very sensitive to
operating condition and tuning the gains is a very time consuming job. To
achieve better performance and avoid tuning, a continuous sliding mode speed
controller is presented. The comparison of this presented controller with PI
controller is also presented.
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• An efficiency optimization method is presented which has the advantage of no
requiring extra hardware and insensitive to motor parameters. The relationship
between stator current minimization and motor losses minimization in the
induction motor vector control system is compared and investigated. A fuzzy
logic based search method is simulated and implemented using TI 2812 DSP.
The simulation and experimental results show that this approach has greatly
improved the motor efficiency especially at light load.
7.2. Future work
Simulations and experimental results for the flux estimation, speed estimation
and loss minimization show the great promise of the methods proposed in this
dissertation. However, the robustness of the proposed adaptive sliding mode observer
will be further investigated in the future work. To reduce the search time and torque
pulsations, the fuzzy logic search method will be improved in practical implementation.
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9. APPENDIX A EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
In order to evaluate the performance of the proposed algorithm experimentally, an
induction motor drive system was set up. The setup consists of a induction motor, a
power drive board and a DSP controller board. The experimental setup is shown in
Figure A.1
Drive board
DSP board
Dynamometer
controller
`
AC
Power
Motor
under
test
Power analyzer
Figure A.1 Experimental setup
The external load is modeled by a MAGTROL hysteresis dynamometer as shown in
Figure A.2. The dynamometer controller DSP 6500 (Figure A.3 (lower one)) can provide
superior motor testing capabilities by using state-of-the-art digital signal processing
technology. Precise torque loading can be provided independent of shaft speed. The
motor input power and efficiency are measured through MAGTROL 6530 power
analyzer as shown in Figure A.3 (upper one).
APPENDIX A EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
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Figure A.2 Hysteresis dynamometer