Spring,  2015  Master’s  thesis,  30  credits    The  program  for  Master  of  Science  in  Psychology  oriented  toward  Sports,  300  credits  Supervisor:  Marius  Sommer,  PhD    Assisting  supervisor:  Peter  Hassmén,  Professor    

 Motivation  behind  young  women’s  excessive  exercise  A  qualitative  study  from  a  Self-­‐determination  perspective  

Karin  Johansson  and  Valeria  Sjöbom      

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MOTIVATION  BEHIND  YOUNG  WOMEN’S  EXCESSIVE  EXERCISE    A  QUALITATIVE  STUDY  FROM  A  SELF-­‐DETERMINATION  PERSPECTIVE      

 Karin  Johansson  and  Valeria  Sjöbom  

   

Exercise  is  an  important  part  of  well-­‐being.  However,  when  performed  excessively,  it  can  lead  to  negative  consequences   such   as   anxiety,   depression   and   feelings   of   guilt.   This   study   aimed   to   qualitatively  investigate  what  motivational  regulations,  defined  by  the  Self-­‐determination  theory,  that  may  provide  an  insight  into  why  young  women  engage  in  excessive  exercise.  Data  from  seven  participants  was  analyzed  through  a  thematic  analysis  and  resulted  in  four  themes:  Exercise  affected  by  social  influence,  Ambivalence  toward   the   amount   of   exercise,   Benefits   of   exercise   and   Exercise   affecting   the   sense   of   self.   All   of   the  motivational  regulations  belonged  to  the  extrinsic  type  of  motivation,  ranging  from  external  to  integrated  regulation,   with   social   influence   and   health   benefits   being   the  most   frequently  mentioned   reasons   for  exercise.  Also,  the  informants  were  able  to  explain  why  they  exercise,  but  less  so  in  regard  to  the  amount  of  exercise.      Träning  är  en  förutsättning  för  välbefinnande.  När  träning  utförs  i  en  överdriven  mängd  kan  det  dock  leda  till   negativa   konsekvenser   som   ångest,   depression   och   skuldkänslor.   Syftet   med   denna   studie   var   att  kvalitativt  undersöka  vilka  motivationsregleringar  definierade  av  Självbestämmande  teori  som  kan  ge  en  inblick  i  varför  unga  kvinnor  tränar  i  en  överdriven  omfattning.  Materialet  från  sju  deltagare  analyserades  genom   en   tematisk   analys   och   resulterade   i   fyra   teman:   Social   påverkan   på   träning,   Ambivalens   till  träningsmängden,   Fördelar   med   träning   och   Träning   påverkar   uppfattningen   om   sig   själv.   Alla  motivationsregleringar  tillhörde  den  yttre  typen  av  motivation  och  sträckte  sig  från  extern  till  integrerad  reglering,  där  social  påverkan  och  hälsofördelar  var  de  mest  frekvent  nämnda  anledningarna  till  träning.  Informanterna  kunde  ge  en  förklaring  till  varför  de  tränar,  men  inte  avseende  deras  träningsmängd.      To  achieve  and  maintain  good  health,  physical  activity  and  exercise  is  a  necessary  part  of   an   individual’s   life   (WHO,  2010).  To  achieve  physiological   and  psychological  health  benefits,   the   recommended   weekly   amount   of   physical   activity   is   150   minutes   of  moderate   aerobic   activity,   or   75   minutes   of   vigorous-­‐intensity   activity.   Regarding  muscle-­‐strengthening  activities,   the  recommendation   is   two  or  more  days  a  week  that  includes  major  muscle  groups  (WHO,  2010).  Despite  the  numerous  benefits  of  physical  exercise,  these  benefits  will  not  increase  to  an  unlimited  extent.  This  means  that  if  the  amount   of   exercise   increases   too   much,   the   benefits   will   not   increase   accordingly.  Rather,   it   can   create   reverse   effects   and   even   health   risks   (Peterson,   Rhea   &   Alvar,  2005).   While   most   research   is   focused   on   the   benefits   of   physical   activity,   the  potentially   harmful   elements   of   too   much   exercise   are   seldom   brought   to   attention,  even  though  recognized  by  experts.  Excessive  exercise  can  have  both  physiological  and  psychological   negative   effects   related   to   injuries,   changes   in   mood,   depression   and  anxiety  when  unable  to  exercise  (Landolfini,  2013;  Edmunds,  Ntoumanis  &  Duda,  2006).  Excessive  exercise  can  also  have  a  negative  impact  on  social  life  and  affect  relationships  negatively  (Fortiell  &  Farrell,  2009).    When  exercise  becomes  inflexible  and  rigid,  it  is  a  potential   threat   to   the   physiological   and   psychological   health   (Hall,   Kerr,   Kozub   &  Finnie,  2007).    There  are  a  growing  number  of  people  who  engage  in  excessive  exercise,  referred  to  as  “elite-­‐exercisers”   (Nimbratt,   2013).   Excessive   exercise   can   be   perceived   as   when   an  individual   is   engaging   in   high   levels   of   physical   activity   and   develops   an   unhealthy  attitude   toward   it,   which   impairs   the   individual's   general   functioning.   The   excessive  exercisers  can  have  a  different  mindset  compared  to  the  “healthy”  exercisers  and  show  an   over-­‐commitment   to   exercise   (Fortiell   &   Farrell,   2009).   This   unhealthy   over-­‐commitment   has   been   defined   as   a   compulsion,   an   addiction,   or   dependence.  Despite  

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several   attempts   to  operationalize   excessive   exercise,   no   consensus  has  been   reached  (Johnston,   Reilly   &   Kremer,   2011).   It   has   been   argued   that   excessive   exercise   cannot  simply   be   defined   by   behaviors,   such   as   the   duration   or   frequency   of   exercise   being  performed   (Hall   et   al.,   2007).   In   addition   to   the   duration   and   frequency,   it   is   also  important  to  take  into  consideration  the  motivation,  the  rigidity  and  the  compulsion  of  these   behaviors.   A   broad   definition   has   been   suggested   to   outline   the   concept   of  excessive  exercise:  “engagement  in  exercise  which  is  carried  out  to  an  excessive  degree  and   which   is   associated   with   psychological   and   physiological   risks”   (Johnston   et   al.,  2011,  p.  238).  In  this  study,  excessive  exercise  is  based  on  this  definition  and  thought  of  as   greatly   exceeding   the   recommended   amount   of   exercise,  meaning   exercising   for   at  least  an  hour  seven  times  or  more  in  a  week.    Self-­‐determination  theory    The  key  to  explain  any  behavior,   in  this  case  exercise,   is  to  understand  the  motivation  behind   it.  Self-­‐determination  theory  (SDT)   is  one  of   the  most   frequently  used  theories  about  motivation  and  has  been  used  to  understand  what  motivates  people  to  engage  in  exercise   (Morenro-­‐Murcia,   Gimeno,   Hernández,   Pedreno   &   Marín,   2013).   Within   the  SDT   framework   it   is   assumed   that   individuals   are   active   and   motivated   to   master  challenges  and  to  integrate  new  experiences  into  their  sense  of  self.  The  theory  is  based  on   several   motivational   variables   including   social   factors,   basic   needs   and   different  types  of  motivational  regulations  (Deci  &  Ryan,  2000).  As  previous  studies  have  shown,  motivation   to   exercise   behaviors   can   better   be   explained   by   the   different   types   of  motivational   regulations   within   SDT   (Fortiell   &   Farrell,   2009;   Gillison,   Osborn,  Standage,   &   Skevington,   2009;   Rodgers,   Hall,   Duncan,   Pearson   &  Milne,   2010;   Sibley,  Hancock   &   Bergman,   2013;   Sicilia,   Sáenz-­‐Alvarez,   González-­‐Cutre   &   Ferriz,   2014).  Therefore  this  study  specifically  focus  on  these  different  types  of  regulations.      The  different  types  of  motivation,  also  called  motivational  regulations  in  SDT,  are  placed  along  a  continuum  starting  from  amotivation,  followed  by  external  motivation  which  is  the   extrinsic   and   controlled   type   of  motivation   and   ending  with   intrinsic  motivation,  which   is   the   most   autonomous   type.   The   extrinsic   motivation   includes   external  regulation,   introjected   regulation,   identified   regulation   and   integrated   regulation,  ranging  from  being  completely  external  to  internal  (Gonzáles-­‐Cutre  &  Sicilia,  2012).  The  intrinsic  motivation   consists  of   intrinsic   regulation  and   is   completely   internal   (Deci  &  Ryan,   2000).   Below   is   a   brief   description   of   these   different   types   of   motivational  regulations,  followed  by  a  table  illustrating  it  (Table  1).           Amotivation  When  being  amotivated,  there  are  neither  external-­‐  nor  internal  motivational  forces.  An  individual  will  be  amotivated  when  not  having  a  sense  of  efficacy  or  a  sense  of  control  in  relationship  to  the  outcome  that  is  desired.  Both  the  external  and  internal  motivational  types  include  some  kind  of  intention  and  motivation,  whereas  amotivation  lacks  both  of  these   and   thereby   also   lacks   self-­‐determination   for   the   behavior   carried   out   (Deci   &  Ryan,  2000).         External  regulation  When  motivated  by  external  regulation,  an  individual  strives  for  obvious  rewards  or  to  avoid  punishment.   If   the  reward   is  withdrawn,  or   if   the  punishment   is  eliminated,   the  motivation  will  decrease  (Deci  &  Ryan,  2000).   In  the  context  of  exercise,  an   individual  

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motivated   by   external   regulation   will   be   exercising   to   achieve   some   kind   of   reward,  such  as  appraisal  from  others  (Gonzáles-­‐Cutre  &  Sicilia,  2012).    

 Introjected  regulation  

Next  on  the  continuum  is  the  introjected  regulation,  where  motivation  is  based  on  the  urge   to   avoid   feelings   of   guilt,   shame   and   anxiety,   and   a   need   to   receive  acknowledgement  and  self-­‐confidence  (Gonzáles-­‐Cutre  &  Sicilia,  2012).  With  introjected  regulation,  the  rewards  and  punishments  are  created  by  the  individual  herself,  but  are  not  part  of  the  individual’s  self.  When  compared  to  external  regulation,  it  is  more  likely  that  the  introjected  regulation  is  being  maintained  over  time,  although  it  is  still  unstable  because  it  is  not  completely  internalized  (Deci  &  Ryan,  2000).      

Identified  regulation  Identified  regulation  is  when  the  individual  appreciates  the  benefits  of  the  behavior,  for  example  being  aware  of  the  health  benefits  of  exercise  (Gonzáles-­‐Cutre  &  Sicilia,  2012).  With  identified  regulation,  the  behavior  is  more  internalized,  i.e.  more  seen  as  a  part  of  the   individual’s   self.   An   identified   regulated   behavior   is   more   autonomous   than   the  introjected  regulation.  However,  identified  regulation  is  still  extrinsic,  since  the  reason  behind   the  behavior   is   instrumental  and  not  considered   joyful,   for  example  exercising  because  it  is  good  for  your  health  (Deci  &  Ryan,  2010).       Integrated  regulation  Next  to  identified  regulation  is   integrated  regulation,  where  the  behavior   is   integrated  into  the  individual’s  lifestyle  and  identity.  The  behavior  is  then  carried  out  in  a  manner  that  goes  along  with  other  values  and  needs  that  make  up  the   individual’s  personality  (Gonzáles-­‐Cutre  &  Sicilia,  2012).  For  example,  perceiving  being  healthy  as  a  part  of  one’s  identity.             Intrinsic  regulation  With  intrinsic  regulation,  motivation  comes  from  the  joy  of  the  activity  itself  (Gonzáles-­‐  Cutre  &  Sicilia,  2012).  In  an  exercise  setting,  it  means  working  out  for  the  joy  of  exercise.  For  an   intrinsically  regulated  behavior   to  be  maintained,   it   is   important   that   the  basic  needs  for  autonomy  and  competence  are  met  (Deci  &  Ryan,  2000).                        

           Table  1.  The  Self-­‐determination  theory  (Deci  &  Ryan,  2000).  

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Numerous  studies  have  been  made   from  the  SDT  perspective  on   the   topic  of  exercise.  Several   studies   report   that   people   who   have   a   more   self-­‐determined  motivation,   are  those  who   tend   to   exercise   regularly   and   experience  more   positive   physiological   and  psychological   outcomes   associated   with   exercise   (Rodgers   et   al.,   2010).   It   has   been  suggested  that   for  the  majority  of  people,   identified  motivation   is   the  type  that  can  be  expected,  since  in  reality  not  many  enjoy  exercise  for  its  own  sake,  which  is  necessary  for  intrinsic  motivation  (Rodgers  et  al.,  2010).  It  was  found  that  for  women  specifically,  it  was  important  that  the  exercise  would  be  intense,  although  they  did  not  actually  enjoy  the  intense  exercise  (Duncan,  Hall,  Wilson  &  Jenny,  2010).  Rather,  many  seem  to  value  exercise   behavior   for   its   positive   outcomes   and   identified   regulation   seem   to   be  sufficient   to   produce   regular   and   satisfying   exercise   behaviors   (Rodgers   et   al.,   2010).  This   means   that   extrinsic   motivation   that   is   well-­‐internalized   can   be   as   useful   for  performing   a   certain   behavior,   as   intrinsic   motivation   and   explains   the   process   of  staying   motivated,   even   when   the   behavior   inherently   may   not   be   self-­‐rewarding  (Wilson,  Mack  &  Grattan,  2008).    In   addition   to   identified   regulation,   introjected   regulation   has   also   shown   to   be   a  predictor   for   regular   exercise   (Gillison   et   al.,   2009).   Gillison   et   al.   found   that   the  introjected   regulation   consisted   of   social   physique   anxiety   and   fear   of   weight   gain  among  girls  in  their  study,  whereas  boys’  regular  exercise  could  better  be  explained  by  social  pressure  from  peers.  Social  physique  anxiety   is  defined  as  a  concern  about  how  others  will   judge  one’s   body   (Sicilia   et   al.,   2014).  A   link  between  appearance  motives  and   exercise   has   also   been   found.   It   was   found   that   in   university   students,   the  appearance  motives,  which  are  seen  as  introjected  regulations,  predicted  lower  fitness  level   and   higher   body   fat,   while   intrinsic   related  motivation,   predicted   better   fitness  level   (Sibley,   Hancock   &   Bergman,   2013).   Another   study   found   that   individuals   with  externally   controlled  motivation   and  with   high   scores   on   the   Social   Physique  Anxiety  Scale  (SPA),  showed  the   lowest  physical  activity  and  enjoyment   in  performing   it   (Cox,  Ullrich-­‐French   &   Sabiston,   2013).   This   is   also   consistent   with   earlier   findings   that  individuals   who   are   more   driven   by   controlling   forms   of   motivation   display   more  negative  feelings  and  less  satisfaction  (Cox  et  al.,  2013).  The  study  also  found  that  high  scores   on   SPA   had   different   impact   on   individuals   depending   on   their   type   of  motivation.  The  combination  of  high  SPA  and  an  externally  controlled  motivation  seem  to   hinder   exercise,   while   the   combination   of   high   SPA   with   more   autonomous  motivation  seems  to  promote  exercise.  Introjected  regulation  was  more  associated  with  autonomous   motivation   and   thus   seen   as   something   that   in   combination   with   SPA  would   promote   exercise.   This   may   illustrate   that   feelings   of   guilt,   that   are   tied   to  introjected  regulations,  can  also  play  an  adaptive  role   in  encouraging  physical  activity  behavior  (Cox  et  al.,  2013).  A  different  study  also  found  that  women  who  reported  body  image  concerns  as  a  motive  for  exercise  showed  higher  levels  of  social  physique  anxiety  than  those  exercising  for  social  reasons,  health  reasons,  or  because  of  exercise  being  fun  in   itself   (Sicilia   et   al.,   2014).   Body   image   concerns   and   wanting   to   improve   one’s  physical   appearance   may   be   important   because   of   the   need   for   appraisal   and   social  recognition  from  others,  thereby  being  more  externally  regulated.  However,  after  some  time,  it  will  be  internalized  and  turn  into  introjected  regulation  (Sicilia  et  al.,  2014).  In  line  with   this,   recognition  and  appreciation   from  others,  a   type  of  external   regulation,  may   be   internalized   and   thus   become   an   introjected   regulation   (González-­‐Cutre   &  Sicilia,  2012).      

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Having   an   ideal   feminine   body   can   be   defined   as   being   physically   lean   and   thin.   The  ideal   feminine   body   has   become   a   part   of   the   western   culture   and   can   influence  women's  perceptions  of  their  bodies  (Porter,  Morrow  &  Reel,  2013).  The  ideal  body  can  even  be  said   to  be  something   that  women  are  held  responsible   to   live  up   to;   this  was  introduced  as  the  term  “healthism”,  defined  as  the  individual  being  held  responsible  for  the  shape  of  one’s  body,  weight  and  size  (McGannon  &  Spence,  2012).  When  exercising  to   live   up   these   standards,   the   type   of   regulation   can   be   said   to   be   either   external  regulation  or  introjected  regulation,  since  the  standards  come  from  the  society  and  not  from   the   individual  herself.   Introjected   regulation  has  been  related   to  positive  mental  health  outcomes  and  behaviors,   such  as  positive  affect,  physical  activity  and  a  healthy  diet   (Ng,   Ntoumanis,   Thøgersen-­‐Ntoumani,   Deci,   Ryan,   Duda   &   Williams,   2015).  However,   introjected  regulation  has  also  been  related  to  negative  psychological  states,  such  as  depression  and  anxiety.  The  explanation  to  this  is  thought  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  introjection  may  lead  to  positive  health  behaviors  in  short  term,  but  in  the  long  run  it   may   be   accompanied   by   negative   psychological   states   such   as   anxiety   and  dissatisfaction  (Ng  el  al.,  2015).      Fewer   studies   have   specifically   examined   excessive   exercise   from   a   SDT   perspective.  Introjected  regulation  has  been  of  special  interest  in  studies  made  on  excessive  exercise  and   exercise   dependence.   This   is   because   introjected   regulation   is   partially-­‐   but   not  completely   internalized,   and   is   more   about   being   self-­‐controlling,   rather   than   having  internalized  the  value  and  enjoying  the  activity  itself.  This  type  of  motivation  has  most  often  been  observed  in  excessive  exercisers  who  have  internalized  the  ideal  body  image  and   feel   the   need   to   exercise   to   avoid   negative   feelings   of   shame,   guilt   and   anxiety  (Fortier   &   Farell,   2009).   Fortier   and   Farell   examined   the   differences   in   motivation  between   “excessive”   exercisers   and   “healthy”   exercisers.   The   results   revealed   that  excessive   exercisers   had   higher   levels   of   introjected   regulations   than   the   “healthy”  exercisers,   which   is   consistent   with   earlier   research   showing   that   introjected  regulations  seem  to  be  the  strongest  predictor   for  excessive  exercise  and  dependence.  However,   their   study   also   found   that   excessive   exercisers   showed   a   higher   level   of  intrinsic   and   self-­‐determined  motivation,   than   the   “healthy”   exercisers.  Women  were  also   the   ones   who   displayed   more   self-­‐determined   motives   to   exercise   compared   to  men.   The   study’s   qualitative   data   revealed   that   body   image,   health,   appearance   and  guilt,  were  associated  with  exercise  being  excessive  (Fortier  &  Farell,  2009).        Several  other  studies  have  shown  that  individuals  who  engage  in  excessive  exercise  and  individuals   with   exercise   dependence   have   a   higher   level   of   introjected   regulation,  when   compared   to   individuals   exercising   on   a  more   healthy   level   (Gonzáles-­‐   Cutre  &  Sicilia,  2012,  Edmunds  et  al.,  2006).  One  of  the  studies  (Gonzáles-­‐Cutre  &  Sicilia,  2012)  found  that  factors  most  strongly  associated  with  exercise  dependence,  were  introjected  regulations,   perceived   competence   and   a   climate   that   promotes   comparison   between  exercisers,   rather   than  personal  effort  and   improvement.  This  can  be  understood  as  a  climate   that   is   based   on   comparison   and   in   which   an   individual   feels   competent,  gradually   triggers   the   need   to   exercise   more   and   more   in   order   to   continue   to   feel  competent   and   good   about   oneself   and   to   avoid   feelings   of   guilt   (Gonzáles-­‐Cutre   &  Sicilia,  2012).  When  a  sample  of  individuals  who  were  identified  as  “at  risk”  and  showed  some  symptoms  of  exercise  dependence  was  compared  to  a  non-­‐symptomatic  group  of  exercisers,   symptomatic   exercisers   displayed   higher   levels   on   all   motivational  regulations,   both   autonomous   and   controlling   (Edmunds   et   al.,   2006).   As   predicted,  

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non-­‐symptomatic   individuals  were  motivated   by   identified   regulations,   thereby   being  more  autonomous.  This   suggests   that  when  a  significant  value   is  attached   to  exercise,  hence   identified   regulation,   it   is   not   associated   with   excessive   and   problematic  behavior.  Despite  the  finding  that  symptomatic  exercisers  showed  a  higher  level  on  all  types   of   motivational   regulation,   there   was   a   marginal   significant   difference,   where  introjected  regulation  seemed  to  be  a  predictor  for  strenuous  exercise.  It  seems  as  if  a  perceived  obligation  to  exercise  may  reduce  self-­‐determination  (Edmunds  et  al.,  2006).    Since   most   previous   studies   have   a   quantitative   approach,   the   authors   find   that   a  qualitative  method  would  contribute  to  existing  findings,  by  giving  a  deeper  insight  into  personal  experiences  and  thoughts.  Therefore,  a  qualitative  method  is  used  in  this  study  to  explore   the  motivational   regulations  behind  excessive  exercise.  The  choice   to   focus  on   women   was   that   they,   to   a   bigger   extent   than   men,   seem   to   exercise   excessively  because  of   the  appearance   ideals   in   the  society.  This   is  considered  to  be  an  externally  regulated   factor   associated   with   negative   health   consequences.   Thus,   the   aim   of   this  study   is   to   examine   the   underlying   motivational   regulations,   defined   by   the   Self-­‐determination  theory,  of  young  women’s  engagement  in  excessive  exercise  at  a  fitness  center.  More  specifically,  this  was  done  through  a  qualitative  approach  that  investigated  women’s  own  perception  of  their  motives  to  exercise.                       Method  In   order   to   access   young   women’s   perception   of   the   reasons   behind   their   exercise,  seven   individual   semi   structured   interviews   were   carried   out.   The   format   of   semi  structured   interviews   was   used   because   it   enables   to   ask   follow   up   questions   on  interesting   and   relevant   topics   and   allows   to   modify   questions   depending   on   the  participants’   answers   (Wengraf,   2001).   The   collected   data   was   processed   through   a  thematic   analysis,   in   order   to   identify   common   themes   and   motives   for   exercise.   A  thematic  analysis   is  a  practical  method,  with   its   theoretically   flexible  way  of  analyzing  data  (Braun  &  Clarke,  2006).      Participants  To   find   suitable   participants   for   this   study,   the   authors   established   several   selection  criteria.  First,  the  authors  carried  out  a  short  investigation  at  the  gym  where  the  study  took  place,   asking  women  about   their   amount  of   exercise.  The  majority  of   the  women  answered  that  they  exercise  five  to  six  times  per  week.  Based  on  this,  as  well  as  previous  studies  (Lichtenstein,  Christiansen,  Bilenberg  &  Støving,  2014;  Terry,  Szabo  &  Griffiths,  2004),  the  criteria  for  regularly  exercising  for  at  least  an  hour  seven  times  a  week  was  established,  to  reach  the  women  exercising  above  the  average  amount.  The  participating  women   also   had   to   be   between   the   age   of   18   and   30.   This   age   span  was   based   on   a  previous   qualitative   study   examining   women’s   attitude   toward   exercise   (Bamber,  Cockerill,   Rodgers   &   Carroll,   2000). The   age   of   the   participants   in   the   present   study  ranged  from  19  –    30  years  (M  =  25  years).  Women  attending  only  classes  and  not  the  gym,  as  well  as  women  competing  at  higher   than  recreational   level   in  any  sport,  were  excluded.   It   was   assumed   that   they   are   motivated   by   other   factors,   such   as   winning  prizes  and  appraisal  from  others.    

   

8  

 Interview  guide  Since  the  aim  of  qualitative  research  is  to  explore  the  individual’s  own  perception  and  experience,  this  was  kept  in  mind  when  the  interview  guide  was  developed.  Initially,  the  participants  were  asked  basic  questions  about  their  exercise  background  and  then  more  specific  questions  related  to  their  motivation  and  exercise  routines.  This  was  followed  by  three  different  scenarios,  to  which  the  participants  were  able  to  relate  in  their  daily  lives   (see   appendix   A).   The   individuals   were   requested   to   share   their   thoughts   and  actions  in  every  given  scenario  and  relevant  follow  up  questions  were  asked.  Following  that,  a  few  questions  about  appearance  ideals  and  health  awareness  were  asked,  if  they  had  not  already  been  brought  up.  The  interview  questions  and  the  scenarios  were  based  on   different   motivational   regulations   within   the   SDT.   A   Swedish   translation   of  Behavioral  Regulation  Sport  Questionnaire,  BRSQ  (Lindberg,  Jonsson  &  Sommer,  2014;  see  Appendix  B)  was  used  as  a  guide  to  develop  relevant  questions  that  cover  all  of  the  motivational  regulations.  BRSQ  is  a  self-­‐assessment  questionnaire  consisting  of  27  items  that  measure  the  six  different  types  of  motivational  regulations  within  the  SDT  theory  (Lonsdale,  Hodge  &  Rose,  2008;  Hodge  &  Rose,  2010).  Once   the  guide  was  developed,  two  pilot  studies  were  carried  out,  in  order  to  modify  and  improve  the  guide  further,  as  well  as  to  give  the  authors  an  opportunity  to  practice  their  interview  technique.      Data  collection    The  participants  were  recruited  by  posters  at  a  local  university  and  a  fitness  center  area  (see   appendix  C).  The  posters   informed  about   the  purpose  of   the   study,   the   inclusion  criteria  and  that  a  free  movie  ticket  will  be  given  for  participation.  In  total,  eight  women  responded  within  one  week.  One  was  excluded  because  she  attended  only  instructor  led  classes  at  the  fitness  center,  hence  not  meeting  our  criteria.  After  this,  seven  individual  interviews  were  completed,  one  of   the  authors  completing   four   interviews  and  one  of  the  authors  completing  three  interviews.  The  interviews  took  between  45  minutes  to  an  hour.   All   of   the   interviews   took   place   in   a   quiet   and   private   place   at   the   university.  Before   starting   the   interview,   the   participants  were   informed   that   the   interview  was  going   to   be   recorded,   confidential   and   erased   after   being   transcribed.   All   of   the  interviews  were  based  on  the  semi-­‐structured  interview  guide  outlined  by  the  authors.    Data  analysis    The   collected  data  was  analyzed   in   accordance  with  Braun  and  Clarke´s   six  phases  of  thematic   analysis   (Braun   &   Clarke,   2006).   Following   their   recommendations   for  thematic  analysis,  the  authors  transcribed  the  interviews  word  by  word.  Utterances  that  did  not  constitute  words  were  left  out.  The  author  who  completed  the  interview  was  the  one   transcribing   it.   After   the   transcription,   the   authors   individually   read   all   the  interviews  once.    After  that,  the  authors  read  all  the  interviews  individually  again,  this  time   making   comments   on   what   they   saw   as   relevant   aspects   of   the   data.   Then   the  authors  compared  their  comments  on  the  data.  The  next  step  was  to  create  codes,  which  was  done   together.  Having  done   that,   the   authors   read   all   the   interviews   individually  again,  with  an  initial  coding  of  the  interviews.  Then  the  authors  compared  their  coded  interviews,   and   made   revisions   when   there   were   different   ideas   about   whether   one  code   or   the   other   fitted   the   best.   Two   new   codes   were   created,   due   to   the   authors’  opinions   that   new   codes   were   needed   to   give   light   to   important   information   in   the  interview.   Also,   five   codes  were   taken   away,   since   the   quotations   creating   them   now  were   seen   to   better   fit   within   the   new   codes.   After   the   second   round   of   coding,   the  

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authors   split   up   again,   searching   for   themes.   In   the   last   phase,   the   authors   came  together   again,   comparing   their   themes,   finally   agreeing   on   four   themes,   with   eight  subthemes.      Ethics  Following   the  principles  of   the  national   ethic   committee   (Vetenskapsrådet,  2002),   the  participants  were  given  the   following   information:   the  purpose  of   the  study,   informed  consent,   that   the   interview  was  going   to  be  recorded,  about   the  secrecy  and   that   they  could  choose  to  discontinue  their  participation  at  any  time,  without  having  to  provide  any   explanation.   Also,   they   were   informed   that   they   could   contact   the   authors  afterwards,  to  remove,  add  or  correct  something  from  the  interviews.        Reflexivity  In  qualitative  research  it  is  important  to  consider  researchers’  own  experiences  for  the  credibility   of   the   data,   since   in   qualitative   research   the   researcher   becomes   the  instrument   (Patton,   2002).  Both  of   the   researchers   and   authors  of   this   study  have   an  extensive   background   in   sport   and   exercise   combined   with   an   education   in   sport  psychology,  which  provides  a  good  contextual  knowledge  and  understanding  of  people’s  behavior.   However,   it   must   also   be   recognized   that   this   can   give   the   researchers   a  subjectivity   that   will   affect   the   research   process.   For   example,   having   knowledge   in  psychodynamic   theory   and   therapy   can   contribute   to   the   interpretation   that   the  answers  have  an  additional  meaning   to  what   is  being  said  explicitly.   It   should  also  be  mentioned   that   the   authors   do   not   have   English   as   their   mother   tongue.   Since   the  interviews   were   carried   out   in   Swedish   and   translated   to   English,   this   might   have  affected  the  data.                     Results  The  total  number  of  words  in  the  transcribed  interviews  was    39  646.  This  resulted  in  119  codes,  which  were  divided  into  four  main  themes.  Three  of  the  main  themes  are  followed  by  sub-­‐themes.  There  are  eight  sub-­‐themes  in  total.    

 Table  2.  Structure  of  the  themes  and  subthemes.  

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Theme  1:  Exercise  affected  by  social  influence  All   of   the   women   talked   about   their   exercise   behavior   being   influenced   by   external  factors,   such   as  media   and   people   in   their   surroundings.   The   authors   defined   this   as  social   influence,   which   became   a   main   theme   followed   by   three   sub   themes:   “To  exercise  for  appearance”,  “Ambivalence  toward  being  influenced  by  appearance  ideals”  and  ”Influenced  by  others”.      

To  exercise  for  appearance  Appearance  was  something  that  was  brought  up  by  all  of   the  women  interviewed  and  most   of   them   talked   about   it   as   something   that   motivated   them   to   exercise.   Almost  every   informant   talked   about   the   importance   of   eating   healthy   and  many  mentioned  having  a  low  level  of  body  fat  and  sustaining  weight  as  something  desirable.  Many  of  the  informants   saw   themselves   being   responsible   for   the   way   their   body   looked   and  therefore  also  being   in  charge  and  able   to   influence   their  own  appearance.  One  of   the  informants  said:    

   You  see  the  results  really  fast,  both  in  terms  of  what  you  put  on  the  bar  but  also  how  your  body  is  really  sculpturing,  yeah  you  are  pretty  much  in  charge  of  the  way  you  want  to  look...and  when  you  work  out,  you  kind  of  also  have  the  power  in  your  own  hands,  well  like  I  want  to  get  a  bigger  booty,  yes  then  I’ll  work  out  my  booty  (laugh)  at  the  gym.      

Exercise   was   seen   by   many   as   a   mean   to   achieve   an   appearance   consistent   with  appearance  ideals  and  to  avoid  an  undesirable  look.  Many  of  the  women  mentioned  the  importance   of   looking   healthy   and   fit   and   having   visible   muscles   as   something  indicating  the  level  of  health  and  fitness.  Having  visible  muscles  and  looking  fit  was  by  some  seen  as  more   important   than   just  being  strong  and  able  to   lift  heavy.  One  of   the  informants  expressed  her  desire  to  get  more  visible  muscles:      

I  started  following  people  on  Instagram  and  I  know  that   I  have   lots  of  muscles,   I  am  really  strong,  but  all  of  these  muscles  are  not  visible,  I  have  to  shred  some  (fat)  to  get  this  muscle  definition.    

 Ambivalence  toward  being  influenced  by  appearance  ideals  

When   asked   about   the   present   appearance   ideals   in   society,   the   informants   showed  conflicting   opinions   about   trying   to   reach   these   ideals.   We   saw   this   as   ambivalence  toward  being  influenced  by  appearance  ideals.  A  number  of  informants  mentioned  that  ideals  are  something  that  they  are  striving  for,  despite  being  aware  of  not  always  having  the  right  prerequisites  for  it.  There  was  also  an  awareness  that  this  goal  to  achieve  the  ideal   female   body   could   become   exaggerated   and   have   a   negative   impact,   such   as  feelings  of   failure  when  unable  to  achieve  this   ideal.  One  of  the  women  expressed  this  as:    

 Well   there   is   a   lot   of,   you   know,   you   see   Instagram  pictures   of   someone  who   is  really  fit  and  you  really  wish  to  look  like  that  too.  You  don’t  consider  that  maybe  not  everyone  has  what  it  takes  to  look  like  that,  you  just  want  to  get  there  so  bad…  It’s  good  to  exercise,  but  it’s  easy  that  it  becomes  exaggerated  when  we  have  ideals  

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like   that.   It   really   affects   young  women   and   they  may   feel   that   this   is   how   I   am  supposed  to  look  to  be  successful.    

 One  of  the  informants  described  the  ideal  as  something  that  determines  if  you  fit  in  or  become  an  outsider  in  the  society,  by  saying:      

The  society  is  based  on  the  way  you  look,  you  should  be  skinny,  have  long  hair,  it’s  like  you  need  to  look  a  certain  way  in  the  society.  If  you’re  big,  you  kind  of  just  feel  like  there  is  no  place  for  you.  

 A   few   of   the   women   expressed   their   awareness   of   appearance   ideals,   but   that   they  resisted  to  follow  these  ideals  because  they  were  not  seen  as  something  desirable  from  a  health  perspective.  One  of  them  expressed  this  as:      

 ...the  ideals  in  society  are  either  you  should  be  really  really  skinny  or  now  the  new  thing  is  to  be  really  really  fit,  like  1%  body  fat.  Just  because  you're  skinny  doesn’t  mean  that  you  are  healthy  and  in  shape…  Instead  of  becoming  the  best  version  of  yourself,  the  society  wants  you  to  become  the  best  version  of  someone  else.  It  just  gets  wrong  and  I’m  really  against  it,  I’ll  never  be  size  0,  I  don’t  want  to  be  size  0,  I  don’t   want   to   be   skin   and   bones,   I   don’t   want   to  weigh   50   kilo   and   look   like   a  walking  stick,  then  I  rather  weigh  90  kilos  and  have  lots  of  muscles.  I’m  rather  a  bit  overweight  than  too  skinny...I  don’t  exercise  to  become  like  that,  to  wake  up  with  Kim  Kardashian  butt  and  a  six  pack  on  my  stomach.  I  exercise  to  feel  good...I  don’t  exercise  for  any  ideals,  not  because  the  society  tells  me  what  I  should  look  like.  

 All  of  the  informants  were  aware  of  the  ideals  being  present  in  our  society.  Despite  that,  some   of   the   informants   mentioned   that   these   ideals   about   appearance,   health   and  fitness  can  sometimes  be  conflicting  and  that  it  is  not  easy  to  know  what  ideal  to  follow.  It  was  described  as  various  messages  in  the  society  about  being  very  skinny,  but  at  the  same   time   not   too   skinny,   having   muscles   that   are   visible   but   not   too   visible,   being  healthy  but  not  too  healthy.  One  of  the  informants  experienced  that  her  healthy  lifestyle  could  be  classified  as  too  healthy  or  extreme  by  people  around  her.  She  described  that  she   was   expected   to   be   someone   who   would   shut   herself   in,   sit   and   read   fitness  magazines   and   drink   protein   shakes,   being   unable   to   live   a   normal   life.   Another  informant  described  the  ideals  of  appearance  and  femininity  conflicting  with  the  health  and  fitness  ideals,  resulting  in  a  gym  being  more  like  a  catwalk,  where  you  need  to  show  yourself  off.  Some  of  the  informants  expressed  that  appearance  ideals  are  meant  to  be  unreachable,   that   they   are   there   to   motivate   people   and   make   them   strive   for  something.  One  of  the  informants  put  it  like  this:    

 That’s  why  I  think  the  ideals  are  so  hard  to  reach,  because,  they  are,  you  need  to  strive  for  them  all  the  time,  and  when  you  are  far  away  you  need  to  invest  so  much...  There  is  no  perfect  ideal  if  you  ask  me,  but  it’s  there,  to  like,  to  make  people  fight  for  something.    Influenced  by  others  

Not  only  did  the  informants  talk  about  the  influence  from  media  and  social  media.  They  also   talked   about   how   people   in   their   surroundings   had   an   impact   on   their   exercise  behavior,   both   regarding   the   amount   of   exercise   and   what   exercise   to   perform   to  

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achieve  desired  results.  This  influence  comes  from  other  people  at  the  gym,  significant  others  and  classmates.  For  example  comparing  how  much  weight  one  could  put  on  the  bar,  but  also  how  fit  you  look.  When  describing  the  influence  from  classmates,  one  of  the  informants  stated:      

Lately,  I’ve  been  working  out  with  others,  more  than  I  usually  do.  I  think  it’s  more  fun   to   work   out   with   others,   you   kind   of   get   psyched   from   working   out   with  others...And   then   I   have   some   classmates,   there   are   many   students   on   the   X-­‐program  that  are   former  elite-­‐athletes  or  still  are,   so   they  exercise  a   lot  and   I’ve  been  exercising  with  them  as  well.  And  that  also  has  an  impact,  that  they  work  out  that  much...you  know  it’s  easy  to  start  comparing  yourself  with  someone  who  has  been  working  out  a  lot  longer  than  yourself  and  then  you  think  that  “oh!  why  am  I  not   at   the   same   level?”,   it’s  not   that   strange   that  you’re  not  but  you   can   still   get  those  thoughts.    

 Another  informant  talked  about  how  significant  others  can  have  an  impact  on  what  type  of   body   shape  you   try   to   achieve.   She   expressed   it   as  having  doubts   about  whether   a  muscular  body  shape  was  desirable  to  achieve,  since  a  muscular  body  shape  was  not  a  desirable  body  shape  according  to  a  significant  other.  She  said:      

...maybe  you  don’t  want  to  acknowledge  that  but  maybe  I  like  a  guy  a  lot  and  then  I  find  out  that  he  doesn’t  like  girls  who  don’t  have  curves,  and  are  like  muscular,  and  then  you  maybe  deep  down  maybe  you,  well  but  maybe  then  I  shouldn’t  be  like  that.    

Theme  2:  Ambivalence  toward  the  amount  of  exercise  When  talking  about  the  amount  of  exercise,  the  informants  mentioned  many  aspects  of  what   determined   their   amount.   Some   of   them   described   their   amount   of   exercise   as  something  compulsive.  Others  said  that  they  knew  that  a  moderate  amount  of  exercise  would   be   the   best,   but   that   they   often   did   not   behave   accordingly.   There   were   also  statements  where  they  talked  about  the  lack  of  motivation  and  how  to  overcome  it.  We  saw   this   as   ambivalence   toward   exercise,   which   was   divided   into   subthemes:  ”Compulsiveness”,  ”Finding  a  balance”,  and  ”Overcoming  the  lack  of  motivation”.             Compulsiveness    Some   of   the   informants   expressed   a   need   to   compensate   for   absent   exercise,   for  example   exercising   two   times   a  day   if  missing   the  workout   the  day  before.  Also,   they  mentioned  exercise  as  a  mean  to  justify  eating  or  resting.  Prioritizing  and  planning  the  exercise  was  something  that  most  of  the  informants  mentioned.  Even  when  something  unexpected  occurred  that  could  ruin  their  plans,  many  of  the  informants  explained  how  they  would   still   find   a  way   to   exercise.   For   example,   if   being   invited   to   dinner  when  planning  to  go  to  the  gym,  the  informants  explained  how  they  would  still  try  to  fit  in  the  workout,  either  by  postponing  the  dinner,  by  working  out  after  the  dinner,  or  by  finding  a  way  to  work  out  at  home.  One  of   the   informants  explained  how  she  felt  guilty  when  not  exercising  and  that  she  wished  she  would  not  feel  this  way.  She  said  that  she  knew  that  one  day  without  exercise  is  not  going  to  change  anything,  but  that  she  still  felt  as  if  this  was  the  case.      

...I  can  get  some  anxiety   if  my  plan  was  to  work  out  but   then  something  came  in  

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the  way.   Then   I   feel   a   little   bit   of   anxiety   and   feel   that   oh   no,   what   is   going   to  happen   now?   And   of   course   nothing   is   happening   but   still   you   have   those  thoughts...it’s  a  little  bit  exaggerated  already,  when  I  feel  guilty  for  not  exercising,  but  at  the  same  time  it  feels  like  it’s  not  that  easy  to  get  rid  of  it.      

 Another  informant  talked  about  a  fear  of  what  would  happen  if  missing  out  on  several  workouts.  She  explained  that  she  knew  that  there  was  not  going  to  be  a  big  difference  if  not  exercising  for  a  week.  However,  she  said  that  she  still  felt  as  if  there  was  going  to  be  a  big  difference.  Additionally,  one  informant  talked  about  how  she  knew  nothing  would  happen,  but  still  felt  as  if  she  was  going  to  end  up  a  lot  bigger  and  out  of  shape  and  how  stupid  she  felt  because  she  knew  that  this  was  not  the  actual  case.        

Finding  a  balance  Despite   the   compulsiveness   that   some   of   the   informants   expressed,   many   also  expressed   having   a   balance   in   their   exercise   routines.   This   balance  was   expressed   in  statements  such  as  “to  balance  this,   for  me  it’s  very   important  to  have  motivation  and  feel   that   I  want   to.  That’s   the  most   important   thing.  Because   if   I  don’t  want   to,   then   I  know  that  this  will  not  last  in  the  long  run”.  Some  of  the  informants  stated  that  they  will  skip  their  workout  if  feeling  sick  or  severe  fatigue,  as  they  believed  that  pushing  oneself  over  the  limit  will  unlikely  bring  the  desired  results.  A  few  of  the  women  also  mentioned  that   they   sometimes   can   skip   their   workout   and   prioritize   social   events,   such   as  spending  time  with  friends.  Some  women  also  mentioned  that  they  used  to  suffer  from  orthorexia  or  exercise  addiction  and  would  at  that  time  have  exercised  no  matter  what.  However,   this   behavior   put   their   body   under   great   strain   and   eventually  made   them  reconsider   their   exercise   patterns.   This   helped   them   find   a   more   balanced   way   of  exercising.  One  of  the  informants  also  mentioned  that  balance  is  not  about  the  amount  of   exercise,   but   rather   about   how   you   exercise.   She   mentioned   the   importance   of  recovery   between   workouts,   such   as   good   eating   habits   and   rest.   In   her   opinion,  recovery  is  the  most  important  part  and  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  too  much  exercise  as  long  as  you  do  it  the  right  way.  Other  informants  made  statements  that  the  authors  see  as  contradictory  to  their  large  amount  of  exercise.  For  example  that  more  exercise  is  not   necessarily   better   and   will   not   always   imply   better   results.   Some   women   even  mentioned  that  they  could  work  out  less  than  half  of  their  current  amount  and  still  get  the  same  benefits  from  exercise.  One  woman  stated:    

 I   believe   that   all   exercise   is   good   and   that   there   is   no   such   thing   as   too   little  exercise…  As  long  as  you  are  happy  with  the  exercise  you  perform,  then  it’s  good…  I   would   say   that   you   can   just   have   one   all-­‐round  workout   twice   a  week,   45-­‐60  minutes  twice  a  week,  that’s  actually  enough.  That’s  how  much  I  used  to  work  out.      Overcoming  lack  of  motivation    

During   the   interviews   it   also   appeared   that   lack   of  motivation  was   something   rather  common  and  experienced  by  all  of  the  women  from  time  to  time.  Lack  of  motivation  was  however   talked   about   as   something   that   they   needed   to   fight   against   and   overcome.  Some   women   described   that   in   order   to   stay   motivated,   they   needed   immediate  rewards,  such  as  doing  a  fun  activity  or  treating  themselves  with  something  nice  to  eat.  Another  way  of  staying  motivated  was  to  set  up  goals  to  work  toward  and  to  remember  these  goals  in  order  to  stay  on  track.  Also,  all  of  the  informants  mentioned  that  thinking  

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about   all   the   positive   things   they   gained   from  working   out   also   helped   them   staying  motivated.  One  of  the  women  said:    

 I  try  to  think  of  my  goals,  but  they  are  so  far  away  sometimes,  so  it’s  a  little  difficult  to  keep  yourself  motivated  with  that.  So  I  try  to  think  that  I’ll  reward  myself  with  something  afterwards,  like  some  good  food  or  something  like  that.  And  then  I  try  to  think  that  I  get  a  lot  more  energy  and  become  happy  after  I  have  worked  out,  so  yea,  like  that.  

 All  of  the  women  described  that  having  a  break  from  exercise  makes  them  lose  routine  and   that   it   takes  a   lot  of   effort   for   them   to  get  back   into   the   same  shape  and   routine.  Therefore,   a   break   from  exercise  was  described  by   some  of   the  women  as   something  they  were  afraid  of,  because  it  could  make  them  lose  their  motivation.          Theme  3:  Benefits  of  exercise  One   of   the   first   reasons   to   exercise   that   all   of   the   informants  mentioned,  was   all   the  benefits  they  gained  from  it.  These  benefits  were  divided  into  two  sub  themes,  the  first  one,   “Exercising  to  avoid  negative  effects”  where  exercising  helps   the  women  to  avoid  something   negative,   while   the   second   one,   “Exercising   to   achieve   positive   effects”   is  about  how  exercise  adds  something  positive  to  their  lives.      

 Exercising  to  avoid  negative  effects    

All   of   the   women   mentioned   that   without   exercise,   they   would   experience   several  negative  feelings,  such  as  restlessness,  anxiety,  stress,  nervousness  and  feeling  down  or  depressed.  Exercise  was  something  that  helped  them  cope  with,  or  avoid  these  feelings.  One  of  the  women  expressed  that  she  would  feel  depressed  if  she  stopped  exercising:  “I  actually  think  that  I  would  get  depressed.  I  really  have  a  need  to  be  active,  to  feel  good.  So   it   would   definitely   bring   me   down.”   The   extensive   amount   of   exercise   was   also  described  as  necessary  in  order  to  deal  with  anxiety.    

 I  kind  of  have  a  hard  time  sitting  still,  so  the  reason  for  why  I  have  to  exercise  so  much   is   probably   because   I’m   just   crawling   out   of   my   skin   if   I   have   to   be  still…Mentally   I   feel   like   I   become   a   little   anxious   if   I   don’t   move   around,   stay  active.    

 Many  of  the  women  mentioned  that  just  a  two  day  break  from  exercise  could  result  in  experiencing  these  negative  effects.  Most  of   the  women  also  described  a   fear  of   losing  muscles   and   their   fitness   shape,   as   well   as   losing   daily   routines   if   not   exercising  regularly.  They  also  mentioned  exercise  as  a  way  of  taking  a  break  from  everyday  life.  It  was   also   described   as   something   they  would   use   to   get   away   from  more   boring   and  demanding   tasks,   such   as   studying   for   exams,   cleaning   and   doing   other   errands.   For  them,  exercise  created  a  meaning  and  a  hobby  in  their  daily  life  and  became  something  that  made  them  avoid  idleness,  “what  would  I  have  done  instead?  I  would  just  be  sitting  there  on  the  couch  and  not  do  a  thing”.      

Exercising  to  achieve  positive  effects    Most  of  the  informants  talked  about  seeing  results  and  reaching  goals  as  something  that  motivated  them.  The  kick  of  endorphins  was  also  mentioned  as  motivating.  Additionally,  exercising   on   a   regular   basis   was   mentioned   as   something   that   gave   them   a   lot   of  

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benefits   in   their   everyday   life,   such   as   being   more   disciplined,   having   routines   and  eating  healthier.  One  of  the  informants  described  this  as  a  domino-­‐effect:      

I  get  more  energy,  but  it’s  even  like  I  get  more  like  ambitions,  it’s  like  it  affects  all  areas  of  life,  I  feel,   it’s   like,  since  you  take  it  so  seriously  then  it’s  maybe  like  you  take  other  things  more  seriously.  It’s  kind  of   like  a  domino-­‐effect…and  when  you  set   goals   and  when   you   reach   them   it   results   in  more  motivation   and   you   only  want   to   get   better   and  better...I   also   feel   that   there   is   less   of   this   laziness  when  exercising  a  lot,  that  it  kind  of,  you  don’t  get  as  lazy,  or,  to  me  it’s  like  that,  and  then  I  also   feel,  yeah,   I   feel  good,  kind  of,   that   is  also,  oddly  enough  when   I  exercise   I  want  to  eat  good  food,  it  kind  of  happens  that  I  lose  the  appetite  for  bad  food,  for  some  reason.    

Also,  health  effects  were   talked  about   in  general,  both  psychological  and  physiological  health  effects,  in  short  term  and  in  long  term:      

You  know  when  you  exercise  you  get  a  lot  of  positive  energy  in  your  body...so  I  just  know  that  when  I  exercise  I  feel  a  lot  better  psychologically,  my  body  feels  better.  I  have  more  energy,  I’m  happier,  I  don’t  stress  as  much,  I’m  more  positive.      

 Theme  4:  Exercise  affecting  the  sense  of  self    Many  of   the  women   talked  about   exercise  being   a  part   of  who   they   are   and  a  part   of  their  personality,   such  as  being  an   “active  person”,   an   “achiever”   and  a  person  with  a  healthy   lifestyle.   They   described   that   without   exercise   they   would   lose   a   part   of  themselves  and  how  they  perceive  themselves.  One  of  the  informants  stated:      

 Yeah,  well,  I  kind  of  feel  like,  if  I  say  that  I  work  out  a  lot,  and  then  maybe  there  is  a  time  when  I  don’t  do  that,  then  it  feels  like  the  picture  of  me  it’s  not  right,  kind  of,  it’s   not   like   I   feel  worse,   but   I   just  want   to  be   that  person  who  performs   all   the  time.      

Exercise   was   also   described   as   something   connected   to   the   individual’s   self-­‐esteem,  both  when  it  comes  to  achieving  results  that  make  the  person  feel  better  about  herself,  but  also  the  feeling  they  get  after  a  workout.  “Then  I  think,  wow  what  a  great  workout,  that’s  nice,  I  feel  proud  of  myself...obviously  the  self-­‐esteem  gets  better  when  I  perform  well  at  the  gym…”.  In  addition,  self-­‐esteem  was  described  as  directly  “built”  at  the  gym.  One  woman  described  how  insecure  she  was  when  she  first  started  attending  the  gym.  With   time   she   gained   more   competence   in   her   workout   routine,   which   made   her  confidence  and  self-­‐esteem  grow.  She  explained  that  many  of  her  peers  avoid  going  to  the  gym  because  of  lack  of  self-­‐esteem,  but  she  believed  that  the  gym  is  the  perfect  place  to  build  it.                                                                                                                                                     Discussion  This   study   examined   the   motivational   regulations,   defined   by   the   Self-­‐determination  theory,   behind   young   women's   excessive   exercise   at   a   fitness   center.   The   study   was  carried  out  through  a  qualitative  method,  by  individual  semi-­‐structured  interviews.  The  results  indicated  that  there  are  several  factors,  both  within  the  individual  and  within  the  society,   that   influence   exercise   behavior   and   can   provide   an   insight   into   excessive  

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exercise  behavior.  All  of  the  women  mentioned  appearance  as  something  important  in  our   society   and   for   some  of   them   this   became   a   reason   that  motivated   their   exercise  behavior.   However,   other   women   talked   about   an   unwillingness   to   be   influenced   by  appearance   ideals,   which   we   interpreted   as   a   resistance   to   follow   these.   Some   also  mentioned   being   influenced   by   other   people   in   their   surroundings,   such   as   friends,  classmates   and   significant   others.   Compulsion   to   exercise   was   mentioned   by   some  women,   but   having   a   balance   in   exercise,   as   well   as   a   lack   of   motivation,   was   also  brought  up.  This  shows  that  excessive  exercise  is  not  easily  explained,  as  the  latter  two  reasons  are  contradictory   to   the  high  amount  of  exercise  performed  by   the  women   in  this  study.  For  some  women,  exercise  was  also  something  that  they  identified  with  and  that  directly  affected  their  sense  of  self.  Two  motives  for  exercise  that  all  of  the  women  mentioned  were  the  psychological  and  physiological  benefits  of  exercise,  such  as  being  stronger  and  in  better  shape.      Motivational  regulations  behind  exercise  behavior    When  the  informants  talked  about  exercise  as  a  way  to  shape  their  body,  we  interpret  this  as   if   the   informants  held   themselves  responsible   for   their  bodily  appearance.  The  belief   of   being   responsible   for   one’s   appearance   is   called   healthism   (McGannon   &  Spence,  2012).  When  exercising  because  of  healthism,  this  can  be  external  regulation  or  introjected  regulation  (Sicilia  et  al.,  2014).  Some  of  the  informants  reported  striving  for  their  own  body  ideal  instead  of  the  ideal  presented  in  the  media.  We  interpret  this  as  if  their  regulation  was  more   internal   than  external,  since  the   ideal   that   they  strive   for   is  created   by   themselves.   Cox   et   al.   (2013)   found   that   in   individuals   who   are   highly  concerned  with  how  others  will   judge   their  body,  physical   activity  will   be  hindered   if  their  motivation   is  external.  However,   if   the  motivation   is  more  autonomous  and   thus  more   internal,   exercise  will   be  promoted.  This  difference  was  not   found   in  our   study.  Instead,   it   seemed   as   if   there  was   no   difference   in   exercise   amount,   between  women  who   were   more   autonomous   and   internal   in   their   exercise   behavior   and   women  strongly  influenced  by  appearance  ideals  or  people  in  their  surroundings.        Even  though  all  of  the  informants  exercise  at  least  seven  times  a  week,  there  were  some  differences  in  the  mindset  about  their  exercise  behavior.  Some  informants  talked  about  compulsiveness  while  others  did  not.  The  informants  who  talked  about  compulsiveness,  expressed   a   wish   to   avoid   negative   feelings,   such   as   anxiety   and   guilt,   and   that   they  feared  losing  fitness  shape.  We  interpret  this  as  an  introjected  type  of  regulation,  which  is  defined  as  something  that  an   individual  does  to  avoid  a  punishment,  created  by  the  individual   herself   (Deci   &   Ryan,   2010).   Many   of   the   informants   also   mentioned   the  importance  of  finding  a  balance  in  their  amount  of  exercise.  It  is  tempting  to  think,  that  someone   balancing   the   amount   of   exercise,   would   be  more   internally   regulated   than  someone   exercising   excessively.   However,   excessive   exercisers   have   shown   a   higher  level  of   internally  regulated  motivation  than  the  “healthy”  exercisers  (Fortier  &  Farell,  2009).  Therefore,  it  can  be  seen  as  a  possibility  that  it  is  not  first  and  foremost  the  type  of  regulation  that  determines  the  level  of  motivation  and  exercise,  but  how  many  types  of   regulations   that   are   present   within   an   individual’s   motivational   pattern.   This   is  similar  to  what  was  suggested  by  Edmunds  et  al.  (2006),  who  found  that  symptomatic  exercisers   displayed   somewhat   higher   levels   on   all   motivational   regulations,   both  autonomous   and   controlling   types   of   motivation.  We   suggest   that   the   women   in   our  study  might  be  high   in  both   the  external   and   internal   types  of  motivation.  Hence,  not  

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only   internal   motivation   can   be   the   major   type   of   motivation   behind   an   excessive  behavior,  external  type  of  motivation  can  also  lead  to  a  persistent  behavior.    Despite   the   possibility   that   the   informants   are   driven   by   all  motivational   regulations,  they  did  also  mention  occasionally  having  a  lack  of  motivation,  which  according  to  the  SDT  would  be  called  amotivation  (Deci  &  Ryan,  2000).  However,   in  this  case  we  claim  that  the  informants’  description  of  lack  of  motivation  was  not  amotivation,  but  rather  a  type  of  motivation  in  itself.   If   the  informants  had  no  motivation  at  all,   they  could  have  decided  not  to  go  to  the  gym.  Instead,  they  stated  that  they  would  make  themselves  go  to  the  gym  by  creating  rewards  and  reminding  themselves  of  the  benefits  of  going  to  the  gym.   We   interpret   this   as   an   identified   regulation,   because   they   made   themselves  motivated   by   thinking   about   the   rewards   and   benefits   of   the   exercise.   Hence,   the  exercise  itself  was  not  something  that  they  wanted  to  do,  but  they  wanted  to  do  it  partly  because  of  its  positive  effects.      Physiological   and   psychological   benefits   of   exercise   were   brought   up   by   all   of   the  women   as   reasons   that   motivated   them   to   exercise.   These   benefits   implied   positive  feelings   and   visible   results,   as   well   as   something   that   helped   them   avoid   negative  feelings   and   cope   with   everyday   life.   When   exercise   is   performed   because   of   its  recognized  benefits,   such  as   improved  health  and  well-­‐being,  we  see   this  as   identified  regulation.  Although  identified  regulation  is  a  more  autonomous  form  of  motivation,  it  is  still  extrinsic,  because  the  activity  is  performed  due  to  its  instrumental  value  and  not  because  it  is  joyful  in  itself  (Deci  &  Ryan,  2010).  Despite  some  of  the  women  stating  that  they  exercise  because  they  find  it  joyful,  it  was  more  the  instrumental  value  of  exercise  that  made  it  joyful,  such  as  exercising  to  get  in  better  shape  and  feeling  more  energetic  afterwards.  Health  benefits  of  exercise  can  be  seen  as  identified  regulation,  but  also  as  an  introjected  regulation.  Many  of  the  women  mentioned  feeling  guilty  if  not  exercising,  feeling   restless,   anxious   or   even   depressed.   This   can   be   interpreted   as   a   more  introjected  regulation,  where  exercise  is  motivated  by  an  urge  to  avoid  negative  feelings  and   self-­‐punishment   (Gonzáles-­‐Cutre   &   Sicilia,   2012).   These   findings,   in   which  identified   and   introjected   regulation   seem   to   explain   some   of   the   motivation   behind  exercise,   go   along   with   previous   research.   As   Rodgers   (2010)   suggested,   identified  motivation  is  what  can  be  expected  for  the  majority  of  people  who  exercise  and  that  it  is  sufficient   to   produce   regular   and   satisfying   exercise   behaviors.   Wilson   et   al.   (2008)  explained  that  a  well-­‐internalized  extrinsic  motivation  could  be  as  useful  in  performing  certain   behaviors,   as   intrinsic   motivation.   This   explains   how   individuals   can   stay  motivated,   even   when   a   behavior   is   not   rewarding   in   itself.   In   this   study,   all   of   the  women   have   internalized   the   benefits   of   exercise   as   a   part   of   their   daily   routine   and  recognize  these  benefits  as  an  important  part  of  their  lives.  This  can  provide  one  of  the  explanations  to  the  women’s  strong  motivation  to  exercise,  despite  the  motivation  being  extrinsic.      Additional   reasons   that   seemed   to   affect   the   motivation   of   some   women,   was   that  exercise  was  expressed  as  being  a  big  part  of  who  they  are,  thus  directly  affecting  how  they   see   themselves.  When   a   behavior   is   integrated   into   an   individual’s   lifestyle   and  identity,  a  behavior  is  driven  by  integrated  regulation  (Gonzáles-­‐  Cutre  &  Sicilia,  2012).  This  seems  to  be  the  case  for  the  women  who  described  themselves  as  individuals  with  a  healthy  and  active   lifestyle.  They  explained  that  without  exercise,   they  would  not  be  themselves.  However,  for  some  of  the  women,  exercise  was  more  linked  to  whether  they  

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felt   good   about   themselves   and   proud   of   their   accomplishments.   For   these   women,  exercise   seems   to   be   a   way   of   gaining   self-­‐confidence,   which   we   see   as   a   more  introjected   type   of   regulation,   in   which   motivation   is   based   on   a   need   to   receive  acknowledgement  and  self-­‐confidence  (Gonzáles-­‐Cutre  &  Sicilia,  2012).      Exercise  as  a  way  to  satisfy  basic  needs    The   informants   talked   about   gaining   self-­‐confidence   from   exercise   and   feeling   good  about  themselves  when  they  exercised.  We  see  this  as  if  exercise  made  the  informants  feel  competent.  Many  of  the  women  also  stated  that  they  need  to  set  up  goals  in  order  to  stay  motivated  and  that  reaching  these  goals  made  them  feel  good.  Thus  it  seems  as  if  goals  are  also  related  to  the  feeling  of  competence.  According  to  Deci  and  Ryan  (2000),  competence  is  one  of  the  three  basic  human  needs  motivating  behavior.  Competence  is  seen   as   an   ability   to   influence   one's   environment   and   accomplish   valued   outcomes  within   it.   If   the  need  for  competence   is  met,   it  enhances   intrinsic  motivation,  but  does  not  necessarily  make  the  behavior  intrinsic,  as  competence  is  necessary  for  any  type  of  motivation,   both   extrinsic   and   intrinsic   (Deci   &   Ryan,   2000).   This   can   explain   how  exercise   helps  many   of   the  women   feel   good   about   themselves   and  makes   them   feel  competent  when  performing  it.  This  enhances  their  motivation,  even  if  the  motivation  is  extrinsic.  However,  this  makes  us  wonder  if  competence  and  feeling  good  about  oneself  is  what  actually  creates  motivation  for  exercise.  It  is  possible,  that  because  of  the  health  and  fitness  trend  in  the  society,  exercise  is  what  by  chance  became  an  activity  and  a  way  to  enhance  and  satisfy  the  basic  need  for  competence.  What  if  the  trend  did  not  involve  the   gym,   but   instead   reading,   could   that   cause   excessive   reading   instead   of   excessive  exercise?   In   a   similar   way,   some   of   the   informants   explained   how   their   exercise  behavior  was   influenced  by  others,   such   as   friends,   classmates   and   significant   others.  Similarly,   we   believe   that   it   should   be   considered   if   the   motivation   is   really   about  exercise   itself,   or   more   about   the   satisfaction   of   the   basic   psychological   need   of  relatedness,  which  is  the  desire  to  feel  loved,  cared  for  and  connected  to  others  (Deci  &  Ryan,   2000).   Many   of   the   women   described   exercise   as   a   social   activity   they   did  together  with  others.  Therefore,  we  wonder  if  the  fitness  center  by  chance  became  what  they   frequently  attend.  Thus,   it  may  have  become  a   frequently  performed  activity,  not  necessarily   because   of   the   activity   itself   or   its   results,   but   as   a   mean   to   achieve  something   else.   This   conclusion   is   based   on   the  women’s   statements   that   exercise   is  something  they  do  to  escape  boring  everyday  tasks,   idleness  and  as  a  way  to  socialize  with  friends.      Another   interesting   discovery   is   the   difference   in   how   the   women   talked   about   the  effects  of  the  appearance  ideals.  They  were  all  aware  of  the  appearance  ideals,  but  only  some   talked   about   ideals   having   an   influence   on   their   exercise   behavior.   Others  disagreed  with  the  fact  that  appearance  ideals  have  anything  to  do  with  their  exercise  behavior.   We   cannot   know   whether   the   women   who   denied   being   influenced   by  appearance  ideals  actually  were  not  influenced  or  if  they  simply  were  in  denial.  To  feel  free  to  perform  independent  actions,  not  being  affected  by  outside  control,  is  defined  as  autonomy   and   is   a   basic   need   according   to   Deci   and   Ryan   (2000).   Autonomy   also  implies   feeling   that   one’s   actions   are   in   line   with   one’s   integrated   sense   of   self.   If  extrinsic  rewards  are  present  when  doing  an  intrinsically  regulated  activity,  people  tend  to   feel   controlled   by   these   rewards.   This   leads   to   a   shift   of   locus   of   causality,   which  diminishes  intrinsic  motivation  (Deci  &  Ryan,  2000).  Previous  research  has  also  shown  that   there   is   a   higher   amount   of   exercise   engagement,   if   the   individual’s   need   for  

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autonomy  is  supported  by  giving  them  some  choices  when  exercising  (Wulf,  Freitas  &  Tandy,   2014).   It  might   be,   that   some   of   the   informants  want   to   see   their   exercise   as  something  they  actively  choose  to  do  and  therefore  refuse  to  see  it  as  something  they  do  because   of   social   influence,   such   as   appearance   ideals.   Admitting   being   socially  influenced,   can   make   them   feel   controlled   and   extrinsically   rewarded,   which   could  decrease  their  motivation.      Justifying  the  amount  of  exercise  The   overall   findings   in   this   study   provide   several   possible   explanations   to   why   the  informants  exercise.  Still,   it   is  difficult  to  explain  their  extensive  amount  of  exercise.   It  could  be  the  case,  that  the  women  see  it  as  “the  more  exercise  the  better”.  However,  we  have   noticed   that   many   of   the   informants   are   aware   of   that   the   mentioned   exercise  benefits  could  have  been  achieved  with  less  amount  of  exercise.  This  makes  us  believe  that  the  reasons  for  why  the  extensive  amount  of  exercise  is  carried  out,  might  not  be  a  question   the   informants   ask   themselves.   Thus,   many   of   the   women   may   not   know  themselves   why   they   exercise   so   much.   This   can   be   understood   as   the   defense  mechanism  of  rationalization  (McWilliams,  2010),  as  the  women  provide  an  explanation  for  their  behavior  in  order  to  justify  it,  but  seem  to  be  avoiding  or  unaware  of  the  true  explanation.   Also,   suggested   by   Arkes   and   Blumer   (1985),   the  more   time   spent   on   a  behavior,   the  more  you  are  prone  to  convince  yourself   that  what  you  do   is   important.  This  is  known  as  the  sunk-­‐cost  effect  (Arkes  &  Blumer,  1985).  Since  the  informants  can  be  considered  spending  an  extensive  amount  of  time  on  exercise,  it  is  possible,  that  the  sunk-­‐cost  effect  has  had  an   impact  on   the   informants’   answers.  The   informants  might  have  given  reasons   for  exercise,  even   if   they  themselves  not  necessarily  know  if   these  reasons  are  what  actually  motivate  them.        Methodological  discussion  and  limitations  There   are   some   possible   limitations   with   this   study   that   should   be   considered.   The  women   in   this   study   were   selected   through   a   convenience   selection   (Mujis,   2011),  which   means   that   the   first   seven   women   that   fit   into   the   selection   criteria   became  participants   in   this   study.   This   study   gives   a   deeper   insight   into   unique,   individual  experiences   of   seven   young   women.   However,   as   with   all   qualitative   research,   our  findings  cannot  be  said  to  be  representative  for  the  whole  population  of  young  women  between   the   age   of   18   to   30.   Despite   this,   we   believe   that   our   results   can   provide   a  partial  insight  into  young  women's  exercise  behavior.  The  approach  of  this  study  was  a  deductive   thematic   analysis,   meaning   it   was   driven   by   the   researcher’s   theoretical  framework  (Braun  &  Clarke,  2006).  This  affects  both  the  interview  questions  asked,  as  well  as  how  the  data  is  collected  and  interpreted.  The  deductive  form  of  analysis  gives  a  more  detailed  analysis  of  some  aspects  of  the  data,  while  it  provides  a  less  descriptive  picture  of   the  data  overall   (Braun  &  Clarke,  2006).  The  risk  with  this  approach   is   that  when  carrying  out  the  research,  the  researcher  is  trying  to  fit  the  data  into  pre-­‐existing  frames  and  theories,  which  has  affected  how  our  data  was  collected  and  interpreted.  It  is  reasonable  to  assume,  that  the  results  may  have  been  different  with  a  less  data  driven  approach.  As  an  example,  the  informants  were  specifically  asked  about  the  appearance  ideals   and   the   health   trend   in   the   society.   It   is   possible,   that   the   informants   had   not  mentioned  the  appearance  ideals  at  all,  if  we  had  not  asked  about  it.  Although  research  has   shown,   that   the   appearance   ideals   have   an   impact   on   young   women's   exercise  behavior  (Gillison  et  al.,  2009),  asking  specific  questions  about  this  might  have  made  the  informants  talk  about  it.    

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 Also,  one  might  question  the  inclusion  criteria  about  exercising  seven  times  or  more  in  a  week.   As   previously  mentioned,   the   city   where   this   study   took   place   is   a   city   where  many  people   exercise   and   engage   in   sport   activities.   The   short   investigation   that  was  carried  out  before  this  study,  showed  that  most  of  the  people  exercise  five  to  six  times  per  week.  It  can  be  assumed  that  in  another  city,  the  average  amount  could  have  been  lower.  Hence,   the   amount   of   seven   times   a  week   is   an   arbitrary   amount   to   use  when  defining  excessive  exercise.  It  should  also  be  considered,  that  research  has  shown  that  it  is  not  necessarily   the  amount  of  exercise  per  week   that  makes  exercise  excessive,  but  rather   the  attitude   toward   the  exercise   (Hall  et  al.,  2007).  Thus,   the   inclusion  criteria,  except   for   gender   and   age,   could   instead   have   focused   on   the   attitudes   toward   one’s  exercise.   For   example,   the   inclusion   criteria   could   have   been:   “does   your   exercise  routine   take  up   too  much  of   your  everyday   life?”  We  did   consider  having   this   type  of  inclusion  criteria.  However,  we  were  uncertain  if  people  would  want  to  participate  in  a  study  that  obviously  searched  for  people  having  problems  with  their  exercise  behavior.  In   fear  of  not  getting  any   informants,  we   instead  chose   the  specified  amount  of   seven  times   or   more   per   week.   Even   then,   this   might   have   raised   suspicions   among   the  informants   and   made   them   think   that   we   were   looking   for   a   less   healthy   exercise  behavior.   This   could   have   made   them  more   defensive   about   justifying   their   exercise  behavior  and  pointing  out  that  they  do  not  have  a  problem  with  it,   instead  of  in  depth  reflecting  about  the  reasons  behind  their  exercise  behavior.      Conclusion  and  future  research    With  the  present  health  trend,  there  are  a  growing  number  of  people  engaging  in  high  amount   of   exercise   (Nimbratt,   2013).   Recent   research   has   shown   that   women,   to   a  higher  extent  than  men,  seem  to  exercise  for  appearance  and  thus  seem  to  be  motivated  to   exercise   partly   because   of   other   reasons   (Gillison   et   al.,   2009).   The   results   of   this  study   showed   that  women   are  motivated  by   social   factors,   such   as   appearance   ideals  and  people  in  their  surroundings,  as  well  as  individual  factors,  such  as  physiological  and  psychological  states.  The  women  expressed  exercise  as  enjoyable,  which  may  seem  as  intrinsic  motivation.  However,  when  following  up  with  further  questions  about  why  it  is  enjoyable,   the  majority   of   the   reasons   given  were   interpreted   as   extrinsically   related  motivation,  such  as  appearance   ideals  and   influence  from  other  people.  Despite  giving  answers  to  why  they  exercise,  these  women  did  not  seem  to  be  completely  aware  of  the  reasons  behind  their  amount  of  exercise,  because  they  could  mention  the  awareness  of  that  less  amount  of  exercise  would  be  enough  to  reach  the  benefits  that  motivated  them.  This   knowledge   might   be   useful   in   future   studies   looking   at   people’s   motives   for  exercising.   The   awareness   that   people   do   not   always   know   their   reasons   for   their  behavior,  might  contribute  to  another  make  up  of  this  study.      The   informants   differed   in  what  motivated   them   to   attend   the   fitness   center,   ranging  from   more   external   to   more   internal   factors,   thus   being   motivated   by   different  regulations.  Yet,  they  all  carried  out  the  same  behavior.  Therefore  it  can  be  questioned,  whether   the  motivational   regulations  within   the   SDT   provide   the   best   explanation   to  why   a   certain   behavior   is   performed.   It   is   possible,   that   satisfaction   of   the   basic  psychological   needs   within   SDT   is   also   important   to   consider   and   not   only   the  regulations.   Also,   other   theories   could   possibly   contribute   to   a   better   explanation.  Therefore,   in   future   studies,   it   would   be   interesting   to   investigate   the   same  phenomenon,  but  with  a  different  theoretical  framework.  Also,  it  would  be  interesting  to  

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investigate  motivation   for  exercise  among  women  exercising  on  a  more  mediate   level.  This  would  be  to  see  if  the  reasons  they  give  differ  from  the  answers  given  in  this  study.  It  is  possible  that  people  exercising  on  a  mediate  level,  have  fewer  reasons  for  exercise,  such   as   only   health   benefits.   If   having   fewer   reasons,   it   might   result   in   fewer  motivational   regulations  and   thus   it  may  be  easier   to  provide  an  explanation   to  one’s  exercise  behavior.  Having  many  reasons  could  result  in  ambivalence  to  one's  behavior,  because  these  different  reasons  can  be  conflicting.  As  the  informants  stated;  exercising  for   appearance   and  exercising   for  physiological   benefits   do  not   always   go   together.   If  you  want  to  have  a  body  of  a  model,  then  gaining  a  lot  of  muscles  is  probably  not  going  to  be  beneficial.  However,  gaining  muscles  will  make  you  stronger,  which  could  be  seen  as   a   physiological   benefit   gained   from   exercise.   Thus   it   can   be   stated,   that   it   is   not  always  a  lack  of  reasons  that  makes  the  informants  unaware  of  their  behavior.  Rather,  having   many   conflicting   reasons   might   result   in   a   vague   answer.   In   a   broader  perspective,   we   suggest   that   it   is   important   not   to   underestimate   the   influence   that  trends  might  have  on  people's  behavior.  It  is  of  interest  to  question  what  would  happen  if  there  would  be  a  different  trend  in  the  society.        

References    Arkes,  H.  R.,  &  Blumer,  C.  (1985).  The  psychology  of  sunk  cost.  Organizational  Behavior  and  Human  Decision  Processes,  35(1),  124-­‐140.    Bamber,  D.,  Cockerill,  I.  M.,  Rodgers,  S.,  &  Carroll,  D.  (2000).  “It's  exercise  or  nothing”:  a  qualitative  analysis  of  exercise  dependence.  British  Journal  of  Sports  Medicine,  34(6),  423-­‐430.  

Braun,  V.,  &  Clarke,  V.  (2006).  Using  thematic  analysis  in  psychology.  Qualitative  Research  in  Psychology,  3(2),  77-­‐101.    Cox,  A.  E.,  Ullrich-­‐French,  S.,  &  Sabiston,  C.  M.  (2013).  Using  motivation  regulations  in  a  person-­‐centered  approach  to  examine  the  link  between  social  physique  anxiety  in  physical  education  and  physical  activity-­‐related  outcomes  in  adolescents.  Psychology  of  Sport  and  Exercise,  14(4),  461-­‐467.    Deci,  E.  L.,  &  Ryan,  R.  M.  (2000).  The"  what"  and"  why"  of  goal  pursuits:  Human  needs  and  the  self-­‐determination  of  behavior.  Psychological  Inquiry,  11(4),  227-­‐268.    Duncan,  L.  R.,  Hall,  C.  R.,  Wilson,  P.  M.,  &  Jenny,  O.  (2010).  Exercise  motivation:  a  cross-­‐sectional  analysis  examining  its  relationships  with  frequency,  intensity,  and  duration  of  exercise.  International  Journal  of  Behavioral  Nutrition  and  Physical  Activity,  7(7),  1-­‐9.    Edmunds,  E.,  Ntoumanis,  N.,  &  Duda,  J.  L.  (2006).  Examining  Exercise  Dependence  Symptomatology  from  a  Self-­‐determination  Perspective.  Journal  of  Health  Psychology,  11(6)  887–903.      Fortier  &  Farrell  (2009).  Comparing  self-­‐determination  and  body  image  between  excessive  and  healthy  exercisers.  Hellenic  Journal  of  Psychology,  (6),  223-­‐243.      Gillison,  F.,  Osborn,  M.,  Standage,  M.,  &  Skevington,  S.  (2009).  Exploring  the  experience  of  introjected  regulation  for  exercise  across  gender  in  adolescence.  Psychology  of  Sport  and  Exercise,  10(3),  309-­‐319.    González-­‐Cutre,  D.,  &  Sicilia,  Á.  (2012).  Motivation  and  exercise  dependence:  A  study  based  on  self-­‐determination  theory.  Research  Quarterly  for  Exercise  and  Sport,  83(2),  318-­‐329.    Hall,  H.  K.,  Kerr,  A.  W.,  Kozub,  S.  A.,  &  Finnie,  S.  B.  (2007).  Motivational  antecedents  of  obligatory  exercise:  The  influence  of  achievement  goals  and  multidimensional  perfectionism.  Psychology  of  Sport  and  Exercise,  8(3),  297-­‐316.      

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Hausenblas,  H.  A.,  &  Downs,  D.  S.  (2002).  Exercise  dependence:  A  systematic  review.  Psychology  of  Sport  and  Exercise,  3(2),  89-­‐123.    Hodge,  K.,  &  Rose,  E.  A.  (2010).  The  Behavioral  Regulation  in  Sport  Questionnaire  (BRSQ):  Instrument  Development  and  Initial  Validity  Evidence.  JSEP,  30(3).    Johnston,  O.,Reilly,  J.,  &  Kremer,  J.  (2011).  Excessive  exercise:  From  quantitative  categorisation  to  a  qualitative  continuum  approach.  European  Eating  Disorders  Review,  19(3),  237-­‐248.    Landolfini,  E.  (2013).  Exercise  addiction.  Sports  Medicine,  43(2),  111-­‐119.    Lichtenstein,  M.  B.,  Christiansen,  E.,  Bilenberg,  N.,  &  Støving,  R.  K.  (2014).  Validation  of  the  exercise  addiction  inventory  in  a  Danish  sport  context.  Scandinavian  Journal  of  Medicine  &  Science  in  Sports,  24(2),  447-­‐453.    Lindberg,  E.,  &  Jonsson,  L.,  &  Sommer,  M.  (2014).  Idrottsprestation  hos  unga  snowboard-­‐  och  freeskiåkare:  Samband  med  autonom  motivation,  målsättning  och  självreglerat  lärande.  In Stenling,  A.,  Wallin-­‐Tornberg,  R.,  Ivarsson,  A.,  &  Sommer,  M.  (Eds.).  Årsbok:  Svensk  idrottspsykologisk  förening.  [Yearbook:  Swedish  Federation  of  Sport  Psychology].    Stockholm:  Normy  Stockholm  AB.        Lonsdale,  C.,  Hodge,  K.,  &  Rose,  E.  A.  (2008).  The  behavioral  regulation  in  sport  questionnaire  (BRSQ):  instrument  development  and  initial  validity  evidence.  Journal  of  Sport  &  Exercise  Psychology,  30(3),  323–55.    Moreno-­‐Murcia,  J.  A.,  Gimeno,  E.  C.,  Hernández,  E.  H.,  Belando  Pedreño,  N.,  &  Marín,  J.  J.  R.  (2013).  Motivational  profiles  in  physical  education  and  their  relation  to  the  Theory  of  Planned  Behavior.  Journal  of  Sports  Science  &  Medicine,  12(3),  551-­‐558.    McGannon,  K.  R.,  &  Spence,  J.  C.  (2012).  Exploring  news  media  representations  of  women’s  exercise  and  subjectivity  through  critical  discourse  analysis.  Qualitative  Research  in  Sport,  Exercise  and  Health,  4(1),  32-­‐50.    McWilliams,  N.  (2010).  Psychoanalytic  Diagnosis:  Understanding  personality  structure  in  the  clinical  process.  New  York:  Guilford  Press.    Muijs,  D.  (2011).  Doing  Quantitative  Research  in  Education  with  SPSS.  London:  Sage  Publications.  Ng,  J.  Y.,  Ntoumanis,  N.,  Thøgersen-­‐Ntoumani,  C.,  Deci,  E.  L.,  Ryan,  R.  M.,  Duda,  J.  L.,  &  Williams,  G.  C.  (2012).  Self-­‐determination  theory  applied  to  health  contexts  a  meta-­‐analysis.  Perspectives  on  Psychological  Science,  7(4),  325-­‐340.    Nimbratt,  H.  (2013,  6  september).  De  nya  elitisterna.  Modern  Psykologi,  s.  32.      Patton,  M.  Q.  (2002).  Qualitative  research  and  evaluation  methods  (3rd  ed.).  Thousand  Oaks,  CA:  Sage  Publications.    Peterson,  M.  D.,  Rhea,  M.  R.,  &  Alvar,  B.  A.  (2005).  Applications  of  the  dose-­‐response  for  muscular  strength  development:  a  review  of  meta-­‐analytic  efficacy  and  reliability  for  designing  training  prescription.  The  Journal  of  Strength  &  Conditioning  Research,  19(4),  950-­‐958.    Porter,  R.  R.,  Morrow,  S.  L.,  &  Reel,  J.  J.  (2013).  Winning  looks:  body  image  among  adolescent  female  competitive  swimmers.  Qualitative  Research  in  Sport,  Exercise  and  Health,  5(2),  179-­‐195.  

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Rodgers,  W.  M.,  Hall,  C.  R.,  Duncan,  L.  R.,  Pearson,  E.,  &  Milne,  M.  I.  (2010).  Becoming  a  regular  exerciser:  Examining  change  in  behavioural  regulations  among  exercise  initiates.  Psychology  of  Sport  and  Exercise,  11(5),  378-­‐386.    Sibley,  B.  A.,  Hancock,  L.,  &  Bergman,  S.  M.  (2013).  University  students’  behavioral  regulation,  motives,  and  physical  fitness.  Perceptual  &  Motor  Skills,  116(1),  322-­‐339.    Sicilia,  A.,  Sáenz-­‐Alvarez,  P.,  González-­‐Cutre,  D.,  &  Ferriz,  R.  (2014).  Exercise  Motivation  and  Social  Physique  Anxiety  In  Adolescents.  Psychologica  Belgica,  54(1),  111-­‐129.  

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Appendix  A  

Intervjuguiden: Hej och välkommen! Kul att du hade möjlighet att ställa upp, det uppskattar vi verkligen. Jag heter XX och läser termin 10 på Psykologprogrammet med inriktning mot idrott på Umeå universitet. Just nu håller jag och en till student på att skriva vårt examensarbete som handlar om vad som motiverar unga kvinnor till att träna. Anledningen till att vi valde att ha med kvinnor som tränar på gym sju pass i veckan eller mer är för att vi tänker att motivationen skiljer sig från dom som tränar mindre frekvent. Vi kommer att intervjua totalt 6 personer. När vi är klara med alla intervjuer kommer vi att skriva en uppsats och om du är intresserad av att läsa den så kan vi att skicka den till dig. Självklart är intervjun helt anonym. Det kommer inte gå att känna igen vem som har sagt vad av intervjupersonerna. Det är frivilligt att vara med, så du kan avbryta intervjun när du vill. Du kan även efter intervjun höra av dig till oss om du vill lägga till, ändra eller ta bort något du har sagt. Intervjun idag kommer att ta cirka 45 minuter och handla om Din upplevelse av träning. Vi kommer ha några frågor som utgångspunkt men det kommer även finnas utrymme för diskussion. För vår skull kommer vi att spela in intervjun, så vi minns vad som har sagts. Ljudinspelningen och anteckningar kommer att raderas efter kursen. Vi kommer börja med några bakgrundsfrågor, följt av frågor kring din upplevelse av träning och vad som motiverar dig till att träna. Vi kommer sedan presentera tre olika scenarion där du får resonera kring hur du skulle tänka i de olika situationerna. Avslutningsvis kommer några frågor om kroppsideal och hälsomedvetenhet i samhället och hur du ser på det. Om du kommer på några frågor i efterhand får du gärna höra av dig till oss! Bakgrundsfrågor: Ålder? Sysselsättning? Hur ofta tränar du? Vilken typ av träning utför du? Hur länge har du tränat? Hur ser din träningsbakgrund ut? Motivation till träning: Vad fick dig att börja gymträna i första hand? När du började gymträna, hur mycket tränade du då? Vad fick dig att eventuellt öka din träningsdos? Vad ser du för fördelar/belöning med den träning du utövar? (Nackdelar?)/Tror du att mängden du utövar är en förutsättning för att uppnå dom fördelarna? (Om nej: Hur kommer det sig att du tränar den mängden du tränar?) Hur mycket är för lite träning/lagom träning/för mycket träning? (Hur kommer det sig?) Vad motiverar dig till att träna? Vad har du för mål med din träning? Om den orsaken försvann, skulle du då fortsätta träna i den utsträckning du gör idag? Hur märker du dina resultat/träningseffekt? (Hur viktigt är det för dig att träningen ger resultat? Och tror du att du skulle träna i samma utsträckning om träningen inte gav resultat, eller de resultat du ville?)

25  

Har du vänner/bekanta som tränar i samma utsträckning som du? Kan du beskriva dina känslor (och tankar) efter ett träningspass? Finns det några andra aktiviteter i din vardag som ger dig samma känsla? Om du skulle motivera en vän som inte gymmar till att börja, vad skulle du säga då? Hur skulle du avsluta meningen… ” jag tränar för att….” (Finns det tillfällen när du inte känner någon motivation för att träna alls? Vad gör du då? Kommer du någon gång i framtiden välja en annan träningsform tror du?) -ställs i mån av tid efter frågor om social påverkan (om man ändå inte kommit in på det.) Scenarion: * frågorna under respektive scenario ställs om de inte annars berörs i diskussionen. 1. Det är onsdag kväll och du har planerat att gå till gymmet. Plötsligt får du ett samtal av din kompis du inte har träffat på länge som frågar om du har lust att komma på middag om en timme. Om du väljer att gå på middag kommer du inte hinna till gymmet då de stänger rätt tidigt idag. Och går du inte ikväll så har du en tuff vecka framför dig med mycket tentaplugg så det är inte säkert du hinner gå till gymmet så mycket som du vill i veckan. Fast middag med en god vän känns ju också väldigt trevligt… Vad skulle du tänka då och hur skulle du göra? Vad händer med dig när du inte får/ kan träna? Vilken känsla upplever du om du väljer att hoppa över ett pass? Om du måste hoppa över ett pass? Upplever du att träningen påverkar din livsstil? Din vardag? Upplever du att din identitet påverkas av att/hur mycket du tränar? Och i så fall hur? Hur skulle upplevelsen av dig själv förändras om du slutade att träna/minskade din träningsmängd? I så fall hur? 2. Du kommer hem sent från skolan/jobbet och har fortfarande saker kvar att göra. Du känner dig allmänt trött och hängig eftersom du sov så lite förra natten också, så egentligen vet du att du borde lägga dig och sova, men samtidigt har du rört på dig lite under dagen och ni var ett gäng som gick ut och åt pizza på lunchen. Vad skulle du tänka i den situationen och vad väljer du att göra? Brukar du tänka på vad du äter? Vad innebär det att vara hälsomedveten för dig? Upplever du att du är hälsomedveten? 3. Du är förkyld och ska åka på en veckas semester. Du är osäker på om du kommer kunna träna då , så du tänker att det kanske är bra att få ett till pass innan uppehållet. Vad gör du? Och hur skulle du tänka? Hur skulle det bli för dig om du nu blev tvungen att ta ett uppehåll från din träning under en längre period? Vid vilka tillfällen brukar du ta en paus från träningen? Hur tänker du att din kropp påverkas när du inte tränar på en vecka? Tänker du ofta på din träning, även när du inte är på plats i gymmet?

Social påverkan/hälsomedvetenhet: Vad skulle du beskriva är det nuvarande samhälleliga idealet på hur en kvinnas kropp ska se ut? Hur ser du på det? Upplever du att du påverkas av det? Hur ser du på den nya trenden som handlar om hälsomedvetenhet och träning? (Om tid finns: Hur ser andra på din träning? Brukar du jämföra dig med andra? (utseende och prestation på gymmet) Hur skulle du beskriva stämningen/atmosfären på gymmet?)

26  

Appendix  B   BRSQ24 Nedan är ett antal orsaker till varför personer deltar i idrott. Ta ställning till varje påstående genom att ringa in den siffra som bäst stämmer in på dig. Det finns inga korrekta eller felaktiga svar, så fundera inte för mycket på varje påstående. Svara på alla påståenden och svara ärligt.

Jag deltar i min idrott…. Stämmer inte alls

Stämmer Delvis

Stämmer mycket bra

1. för att jag tycker om det 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2. för att det är en del av vem jag är 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

3. för att det är en möjlighet att vara den jag är 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

4. för att jag skulle skämmas om jag slutade 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

5. men jag vet inte riktigt varför längre 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

6. för att jag skulle känna mig misslyckad om jag slutade 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

7. men jag undrar vad det är för mening med det 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

8. för att det jag gör i idrotten är ett uttryck för den jag är 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

9. för att fördelarna mitt idrottande ger mig är viktiga 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

10. för om jag inte gjorde det så skulle andra personer bli missnöjda med mig

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

11. för att jag gillar det 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

12. för att jag känner mig skyldig att fortsätta 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

13. men jag ifrågasätter varför jag fortsätter 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

14. för att jag känner mig pressad av andra personer att idrotta 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

15. för att det är kul 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

16. för att den lär mig att vara självdisciplinerad 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

17. för att jag skulle få skuldkänslor om jag slutade 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

18. för att jag trivs med det 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

19. för att andra pressar mig att idrotta 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

20. för att jag uppskattar fördelarna med mitt idrottande 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

27  

Dessa items kanske tillkommer: 25. för  att  jag  gillar  den  positiva  känslan  jag  får  när  jag  utövar  min  idrott  –  IMS  26. för  att  jag  gillar  att  lära  mig  nya  saker  –  IMK  27. för  att  jag  gillar  att  göra  saker  så  bra  jag  kan  –  IMA  

Scoring key: Amotivation 5, 7, 13, 21 External 10, 14, 19, 23 Introjected 4, 6, 12, 17 Identified 9, 16, 20, 22 Integrated 2, 3, 8, 24 Intrinsic 1 1, 11, 15, 18 Intrinsic 2 25, 26, 27

21. men jag ifrågasätter varför jag utsätter mig för detta 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

22. för det är ett bra sätt att lära mig saker jag kan ha nytta av i mitt liv

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

23. för att tillfredsställa andra personer som vill att jag ska idrotta 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

24. för att det tillåter mig att leva på ett sätt som stämmer överens med mina värderingar

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

28  

Appendix  C  

UMEÅ  UNIVERSITET         februari    

Institutionen  för  psykologi  

 

Vad motiverar Dig till att träna? • Är  du  kvinna  och  mellan  18-­‐30?  • Tränar  du  på  gym  sju  gånger  i  veckan  eller  mer?    • Anpassar  du  din  vardag    efter  träningen?    

 Uppfyller  du  ovanstående  kriterier  söker  vi  dig  till  vår  intervjustudie!  Vi  går  termin  10på  psykologprogrammet  med  inriktning  mot  idrott.  Under  våren  skriver  vi  en  D-­‐uppsa  ts  om  unga  kvinnors  motivation  till  träning,  där  ditt  deltagande  skulle  vara    betydelsefullt  för  oss.  Intervjun  tar  ca  45  minuter.    Som  tack  för  ditt  deltagande  erhåller  du  en  biobiljett.  Låter  detta  intressant?  För  att  anmäla  dig  till  studien  eller  vid  frågor,  kontakta:      -­‐  Karin  Johansson,  Projektledare        xxxxxxx@xxx.com  -­‐  Valeria  Sjöbom,  Projektledare          xxxxxxx@xxx.com  

Projektansvarig:  Lektor  Marius  Sommer  xxxxxxxx@xxx.se  

Varmt  välkommen,  vi  ser  fram  emot  Din  medverkan!