A Study of Code-Switching and Code-Mixing of English in Punjabi lyrics and their Socio-

cultural implication.

Poonam Sethi

Abstract:

This research probes code change to English language in Punjabi lyrics at various linguistic

levels. It is a unique study in its own way as no significant research has been done on the

background of Punjabi and English especially in the areas of structural linguistics and socio-

linguistics. For the purpose of analysis, this research applies Braj Kachru’s model to describe the

data in question. The data for the analysis comprise songs of four renowned Punjabi singers

spanning three years-2016, 2017 and 2018. This research study is a qualitative enquiry into the

lyrics and recognizes various patterns of code mixing in Punjabi lyrics, which eventually result

in language hybridization. This research makes a quantitative study also to measure the

frequency of different English units mixed in these lyrics. B. Kachru’s model is a very

comprehensive model yet it fails to describe the mixing of adverbs, predicate adjectives,

exclamations and derivational morphemes. Consequently, this research addresses the mixing of

aforementioned linguistic units too. This study reports some English words also which show

deviation from standard pronunciation. Such deviations are due to the influence of Punjabi

language. Additionally, the functional value of code switching in the context of Punjabi music is

taken into account too. Besides, this research explores the socio-cultural implications of this kind

of code-switching in Indian Scenario. The results are indeed interesting. They bring into the light

the phenomenon of bilingualism in varying degrees among Punjabis. Apart from structural

linguistics and socio-linguistics, this research encourages future studies in psycho-linguistics and

speech sounds.

Key words: English, Punjabi, Code-mixing, Code-switching, Structural linguistics, Socio-

linguistics.

Introduction

This research aims to investigate the processes of code-switching (hereafter CS) and code-

mixing (hereafter CM) of English in Punjabi songs particularly pop songs and movie songs at

various linguistic levels. Punjabi is the matrix language that provides grammatical structure

while English is the embedded language from where linguistic units enter into the matrix

language (This distinction between matrix and embedded language is well drawn by Carol

Myers-Scotton in Contact Linguistics). Additionally, an analysis is done to see the relationship

between the society in which the composers of these songs live and the kind of code-mixed

language they use.

Language contact between South Asian languages and English is a very common occurrence

and has been a centre of interest for many years, but no significant research has been done in the

areas of Punjabi and English mixing. Regular language contact precipitates language

hybridization and the development of new varieties of language like ‘Punglish’ (a blend of

Punjabi and English linguistic elements) which forms the backdrop of this research. This field

has not been explored much. Closely related to ‘Punglish’ are phenomenal fields like ‘Hinglish’,

‘Taglish’, ‘Spanglish’, and ‘Singlish’ which have been under the scrutiny for some time now and

emerging as independent fields of study.

Punjabi or Panjabi is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in the Indian state of Punjab. It is the

language of around 30 million people (Christopher Shackle). It is the official language of Punjab.

On the other hand, English is an associate official language of India that holds a prestigious

position in the collective consciousness of Indians for various reasons. One of them is that it was

the language of the colonial ruler, Great Britain which not only ruled the land of India but also

controlled the linguistic behavior of Indians. Additionally, literacy rate in India has increased

over the years and English is a part of the three language formula of Indian education

curriculum. In such scenarios, language mixing is unavoidable and is an unprecedented

phenomenon that deserves to be probed for research purposes.

The effects of these two languages are observed in different domains where they are used side

by side. One such domain which draws our attention is Punjabi songs. These songs are featured

in singers’ private albums, Punjabi movies, and in Bollywood movies. There is a craze for

Punjabi songs depicting the nuances of Punjabi culture in Hindi movies. Lately, the popularity of

Punjabi songs has increased tremendously. Besides, Punjabi film Industry (Pollywood) also

makes big-budget good movies that include musical songs. Their target audience is not only the

people of Punjab but also NRIs (non-resident Indians) living abroad. These songs are favorites

among the youth. Apart from that, Punjabi pop songs are well-liked by the people of other age

groups also. Western influence is perceptible, as many Punjabi songs are generally shot in

foreign locations with foreign female models dancing around on the beats and tunes of Punjabi

music. A close analysis of videos and audios of these songs reveals that these songs exhibit the

ethnicity of modern Punjab or Punjabi people, more precisely the Punjabi youth.

Aims of the study

The present research aims to study the processes of code-mixing and code-switching using

Braj Kachru’s “Towards structuring code-mixing” framework. It also determines the extent to

which CM and CS take place. In addition to that, this study examines the functional value of CS

in Punjabi music and explores the socio-cultural implications of Code-switched patterns.

Review of Literature

Of late, newer investigations have come up in the field of code-switching where it is studied

in the context of social situations and explored with reference to social factors like the

educational and professional background of subjects, their age and gender, and their ethnic

background. Carlos Morrison defines Code-switching as a “process of shifting from one

linguistic code (a language or dialect) to another, depending on the social context or

conversational setting”. He maintains that sociolinguists and social psychologists are intrigued

by different ways of code-switching done by people of minority groups to show affinity and

kinship with people of larger groups. In the case of the US, for instance, he maintains that second

language acquisition results in code-switching by the native speakers of Spanish who frequently

change code from Spanish to English and vice-versa. Code-switching was observed among

African Americans also who shifted codes from Standard English to African American English

and the other way round.

According to Richard Nordquist (“Learn the Function of Code Switching”), “Code

switching (also code-switching, CS) is the practice of moving back and forth between

two languages or between two dialects or registers of the same language at one time. Code

switching occurs far more often in conversation than in writing. It is also called code-

mixing and style shifting”. He reports that Code-switching is studied by sociolinguists to explore

the reasons for its occurrence.

Walt Wolfram characterizes language as a social activity and states that “Language is one of

the most powerful emblems of social behavior. In the normal transfer of information through

language, we use language to send vital social messages about who we are, where we come

from, and who we associate with”. Furthermore, he expresses his opinion on the relationship

between language and society, which he feels affects “a wide range of encounters--from broadly

based international relations to narrowly defined interpersonal relationships.”

Regarding the relationship between language and society, Nordquist (“The Definition of

Sociolinguistics”) claims that:

Sociolinguistics takes language samples from sets of random population subjects and

looks at variables that include such things as pronunciation, word choice, and

colloquialisms. The data is then measured against socio-economic indices such as

education, income/wealth, occupation, ethnic heritage, age, and family dynamics to better

understand the relationship between language and society.

Aung Si reportedly made a diachronic investigation in the domain of Hindi-English Code-

switching using Bollywood scripts. Lexical transcripts were collected from seven movies from

the 1980s, the 1990s, and the 2000s. Code-switched patterns were probed from the dialogue

exchange between characters of the same age group and socioeconomic status. Consequently, the

results revealed that Code-switching could be achieved through different syntactic and

morphological changes. Besides, quantitative analysis showed that there was overall increase in

the usage of English particularly among the youth. The frequency of ‘alternations’ at the clause

boundaries was more compared to one word ‘insertions’.

Anita Klinger analyzed change in the Code-switched patterns amongst Hindi-English

bilinguals of northern India. Her research was in line with Si’s research (2010), echoed the same

results that youngsters spoke more English overall than elders and alternated between English

and Hindi clauses, whereas people of the older generation made more use of English words in

Hindi clauses. The data for this study included six conversations carried out in natural settings

particularly informal settings of home. Finally, she explained how these generational differences

in the code-switched patterns help in the construction of linguistic identity.

Sujata Kathpalia and Kenneth Ong examined the use of code-mixing on the billboards of

Amul with reference to the figures of speech employed to advertise Amul butter across India.

They believed the use of figurative speech acted as a persuasive element for consumers. The data

for the study were taken from 1,191 billboards which covered the years 2000 to 2013. The data

that exhibited intra-sentential code switching were preferred. The analysis revealed the use of the

following figurative devices: alliteration, allusions, assonance, blending, compounding, irony,

metaphor, onomatopoeia, oxymoron, parody, puns, and rhyme. To understand these billboards,

awareness regarding the socio-cultural-religious issues and other topical events about politics,

sports, and Bollywood events was a must as these billboards made a lot of socio-cultural

references.

As it has already been stated, Punglish is a comparatively unfamiliar area. Consequently, little

literature is available online. Urmi Chana in “Evaluative Reactions to Panjabi/English Code-

Switching” carried out the evaluation of the speech samples of Punjabi/English code-switching

by following the technique of ‘matched guise’ given by Lambert et al. in 1960. The results were

in agreement with those of the earlier experiments done in a similar way on the evaluative

reactions to speech samples.

Shivani Wadhwa and Dr. Aditya Prakash also analysed the code-mixing of English in Punjabi

language. They drew the data from the dialogues of Punjabi movies of five successive years from

2013 to 2017. They concluded that code-mixing between Punjabi and English was happening to

a great extent. Their research revealed various formations and structures due to language

hybridization. Those structures included unique words, compound words, rhyming words, and

code-mixed forms.

Methodology

Although a number of new models have been given by linguists to describe code-switched

constituents for analysis, B. Kachru’s grammatical model characterizing code-mixing is followed

for the present study. Major grammatical theories describing CS patterns that succeeded B.

Kachru’s framework are mainly of Poplack’s (1981), Myers Scotton’s (2002), and Muysken’s

typology of code-mixing (2000). Poplack’s grammatical theory of CS was basically constraint-

based. She proposed two constraints, viz., Equivalence constraint and Free-morpheme

constraint. However, the universal applicability of these constraints was questionable in the case

of inflected languages like Hindi that has different word order (5-7). Myers Scotton’s Matrix

language frame (MLF) model is also rejected for this research for the same reason that it is a

constraint-based model and it considers Complementizer Phrase (CP) and not a sentence as a unit

of analysis. Besides, it is fit in the case of intra-sentential switching but not in the case of this

work which aims to examine all types of CS and CM patterns. Muysken proposed his typology

of code-mixing based on his inferences, observations, and conclusions drawn from the already

existing theories describing CS and CM. His classification of three types of CS (insertion,

alternation, and congruent lexicalization) was not very clear-cut and involved some serious

overlapping. When this typology was applied to the present data in question, confusion persisted

in the categorization of data. This is owing to the nature of the data itself as these songs are

poetic. Poetry takes creative liberty and does not always follow the word order of the language to

maintain rhyme and rhythm. At that point, it is confusing if the constituent is showing insertion

or alternation between the languages. Moreover, these lyrics also employ the phenomenon of

reduplication which is a typical characteristic of South Asian languages (For more information,

See B. Kachru, 12) and none of the above models define and describe this process. Therefore, to

suit the needs of this research, B. Kachru’s framework is followed. B. Kachru’s study is a data-

oriented study. It characterizes clarity, conciseness, and preciseness and holds value in

contemporary times. In my view, new theories confirm what B. Kachru asserted years ago.

B. Kachru’s model provides a full understanding of all types of Code-switched and Code-

mixed constructions. B. Kachru has devised the model in the context of English and South Asian

languages notably Hindi. Both Hindi and Punjabi are mutually intelligible sister languages for

having being originated from the same mother language, i.e. Sanskrit. For that matter, they also

share a vocabulary. These languages have the same sentence structure, i.e. SOV (Sentence

Object Verb). Considering the above similarities, B. Kachru’s model is quite handy and yields

correct results. If at all there is any research gap, it is separately addressed.

This research study is a qualitative enquiry into the lyrics and recognizes various patterns of

code-mixing in Punjabi lyrics, which eventually result in language hybridization. This research

makes a quantitative study also to measure the frequency of different English units mixed in

these lyrics. The methodology for this research is designed on the premise that code-mixing and

code-switching are the same. For that reason, both the terms are used interchangeably. There are

some words which show deviation from standard pronunciation. These are reported too.

Additionally, this research also brings up the subject of the effects and functions of hybridized

lyrics in the Indian scenario. Lastly, an attempt is made to study the data from the point of view

of Sociolinguistics also.

B. Kachru (9-12) has devised the following categories to introduce the process of code-

mixing of English in Hindi:

A). Unit Insertion: This includes the insertion of a linguistic unit above a word (a noun phrase or

a verb phrase) from another language in a sentence.

1. Noun Phrase Insertion

2. Verb Phrase Insertion

B). Unit Hybridization: This entails code change within a unit (e.g., a noun phrase, a

verb phrase, or a compound verb).

C). Sentence Insertion: This means the process of introducing a sentence in a language different

from that of discourse. This can be either an embedded, conjoined, or appositional sentence.

D). Idiom and Collocation Insertion

E). Inflection attachment and reduplication

Data Collection

Data for this research are lyrics of Panjabi songs (Punjabi movie songs, Punjabi pop songs,

and Punjabi songs in Hindi movies) by contemporary singers like Guru Randhawa, Neha

Kakkar, Gippy Grewal, and Diljit Dosanjh. These singers are multilingual individuals. They have

good exposure to at least three languages, i.e. Punjabi, Hindi, and English. These are a young

brigade of singers aged between 27 and 36. They have a fan following not only in India but also

abroad.

This research entails diachronic analysis and 47 songs of the aforementioned singers spanning

the years 2016 to 2018 have been taken into the account. The songs have been selected for their

bilingual content. The data has been collected in written form in word format for the purpose of

analysis. All of these songs center on the stereotypical theme of love and attraction between a

man and a woman. These songs are quite popular and have received acclaim worldwide not only

among Punjabis but also among other communities. As background music is good, people can’t

resist shaking their legs in parties and discos. These songs form a vital part of big-fat Indian

weddings. People connect to these songs. The youth associate with these songs as the songs

center on youth life, cars, boozing, love affairs, and brands. The idea of their popularity can be

estimated from the number of views they get on You-Tube. Most of these tracks have amassed

millions of views on this video-sharing website and have become an instant hit.

Data Analysis

The analysis of the data reveals some interesting results. Some of the English lexical items

and constructions appear more than once in each song but for analysis only unique items and

constructions have been counted, excluding their repetitions in each song, as the repetition of

words, phrases, lines, and stanzas is a characteristic feature of these songs. For the sake of

convenience, nouns or noun phrases and verbs or verb phrases are separately categorized.

Phonemic changes brought about in English words due to the influence of Punjabi language are

also discussed. Generally, the tone and intonation of a dominating language invoke the changes

in the pronunciation of a lesser-used language. This is also observed in the domain of these

Punjabi songs. Featuring part is partly ignored for this research and only that part of each song is

considered where singing is done in Punjabi and thus, code-mixing in English in those Punjabi

lines is taken into account for this research. Code-mixing above sentence level comes under the

domain of discourse analysis which is beyond the scope of this research.

Findings

Code-mixed utterances are classified into the different categories given by B. Kachru to

determine the extent to which English is mixed in Punjabi lyrics. These linguistic items are put

into the data table and are manually counted. Consequently, code-mixing is observed at all the

linguistic levels, i.e. at the level of words, phrases, sentences, and idioms.

Table 1.Classification of English Linguistic Elements

Different English elements Number

Nouns 187 English nouns +1 French noun

Compound nouns 15

Noun phrases 15

Verbs 29

Verb phrases 3

Attributive adjectives in Unit Hybridization 13

Predicative adjectives 13 Out of which 1 is acting as noun

Sentences 12

Idiom (Phrases) 3

Inflection attachment 24

Derivational patterns 4

Reduplication 11

Adverbs 6

Deviant Pronunciations 31

Exclamations and Interjections 6

These findings conform to the already laid out results, i.e. noun is the most code mixed lexical

item. B. Kachru’s model does not explain the mixing of adverbs and exclamations as there is a

research gap. But, this research reports the mixing of adverbs and exclamatory words

(Interjections) also. Interjections are used as tag elements also. Thus, these elements are used to

attract attention or to express varied meanings and emotions. Example: Yeah, ye ye, Look!, uh,

Tata etc. In “beedio call”, the song starts with the lexical item ‘snappy!’ , which means ‘irritable’

and ‘short-tempered’. It is an adjective but it comes as an exclamatory here because of the sign

‘!’. In “vella vella” also, ‘snappy’ is both adjective and exclamatory owing to the inclusion of the

exclamatory sign ‘!’. In addition to that, English words influenced by the phonology of Punjabi

words are noticed too. There are 31 words which show significant deviation from standard

pronunciation. Another limitation of B. Kachru’s framework is that it does not take into account

the formation of derivational patterns. This research reports the formation of new types of words

from derivational morphemes.

Most of the code-mixed English lexical items are borrowings in Punjabi lyrics for the reason

that either they don’t have equivalent in Punjabi or even if they have, their use has become

outdated. A few examples from each category are discussed below. This gives a better

understanding of CS and CM patterns.

Some of the examples of single-word nouns are:

(1) Mere utte bas kardi tu DOUBT si ( La La La, 2018)

Har vele naal kardi tu SHOUT si

‘You would doubt about me

All the time you would shout on me’

(1) Ban meri, ban meri QUEEN sohniye ( High rated, 2017)

Dekh kalla jatt tera KING warga

‘Become my queen O Beautiful

See single jatt is your King’

(2) Jidan tu maari BOLLYWOOD vich ENTRY ( Fashion, 2016)

Saare ne RECORD jaane tutt ni

‘The day you make entry into Bollywood

All records will break’

In (3), ‘Saare’ (all) necessitates the presence of the plural form of ‘record’ but the composer

makes use of the singular form of this noun. This has been seen often in Hindi-English CS and

currently in Punjabi-English CS. Si has reported a similar situation and holds the very nature of

these single-word linguistic units in Hindi frame responsible for it (395).

The instances of the insertion of compound nouns are below:

(3) Mere bol jivein CAMERA TRICKS (Car nachdi-hornn blow, 2018)

‘My words are like camera tricks’

(4) Sadda puchhdi aen tu haal chaal ( Beedio call, 2018)

Hunn BEEDlO CALL te balliye ni

‘You ask about my well being

Now on video call O baby’

Some examples of noun phrases are:

(6) BACKLESS SUIT wich lagdi kamal (Morni banke- Badhai ho, 2018)

‘Looks terrific in backless suit’

(7) Mera PERSONAL NUMBER ni millna (Vehla Vehla, 2018)

‘Won’t get my personal number’

(8) Paiya tu FLORESCENT SUIT sohniye (Pag wala munda, 2016)

‘You wear florescent suit O Beautiful’

There is insertion of linguistic constituents like ‘gold di chain’ (Thug life), and ‘top di

currency’ (Gal baat). These are also noun phrases but with Punjabi connector ‘di’ joining two

English nouns with each other.

(9) Munda Karje de thalle la dena, ni teri mangi ik GOLD di CHAIN ne (Thug life, 2018)

‘Boy will be under debt, owing to your demand for a gold chain’

English verbs and verb phrases are also found to be inserted in Punjabi lyrics. The

illustrations exhibiting the insertion of single-word verbs are below:

(10) Suit FIT mundeyan (Patt lainge, 2016)

‘Suit fits, O Boy’

(11) CHOOSE tu velaitiya aa (5 Taara, 2018)

‘You chose a foreigner’

(12) Saade dil vich tu a INVITED ni (Weekend, 2018)

‘Hey! You are invited to my heart’

The illustrations showing the insertion of verb phrases are below:

(13) MADE IN INDIA Lagdi Ae (Made in India, 2018)

‘You look like an Indian’

Here, the verb phrase ‘made in India’ is acting as a noun.

(14) Kudiye tu LOOKING NICE NICE NICE (Lahore, 2017)

‘Girl, you are looking nice nice nice’

(15) Ticket di lod ni DRIVE IN MY CAR (Lahore, 2017)

‘There is no need for ticket, drive in my car’

Here, the verb phrase ‘drive in my car’ is acting as a short sentence also.

The phenomenon of Unit Hybridization has also been found in the production of compound

verbs. Hybridized verbs from Punjabi-English result in the formation of bilingual compound

verbs. English Verbs are inserted, but in the most cases they are in tandem with Punjabi light

verbs (‘do’ verbs) like ‘karda’, ‘karta’, ‘kardi’, ‘marya’, ‘keeta’, ‘maar’, ‘kar’, and ‘hoea’. In

these bilingual compound verbs, semantic form is conveyed through English Content verbs

placed in conjunction with light verbs from Punjabi (For more information, see Edwards and

Gardner-Chloros, 76-77).

The illustrations showing the formation of bilingual verbs are as follows:

(16) Sanu REFUSE keeta (5taara, 2018)

‘You refused me’

(17) Lakk nu SWING maar (Glorious gallan, 2017)

‘Swing your waist’

Generally, main verbs are followed by light verbs (do verbs), but there are constructions

where light verbs come before main verbs. Such constructions are possible at least in poetry or

informal settings. The songs are poetic and do not adhere strictly to word order. A few

illustrative examples are as follows:

(18) WEEKEND ni saade naal krlai tu kudiye SPEND ni’ (Weekend, 2018)

‘Hey girl, spend weekend with us’

(19) ‘ADDRESS kar SEND ni’ (Weekend, 2018)

‘Hey, send me the address’

(20) ‘FACEBOOK wangu onnu karda main LIKE nee’ (Patola, 2018)

‘I like you the way I like Facebook’

The process of Unit Hybridization has been found to be very productive in noun phrases

where English adjectives are observed in attributive sense, i.e. adjectives are found before nouns.

The illustrations showing the process of Unit Hybridization are as follows:

(21) ROYAL BLACK rang (Car nachdi-horn blow, 2018)

‘Royal black color’

(22) HIGH RATED gabru (High rated, 2017)

‘High rated young man’

In the song “High rated”, constituent ‘high rated gabru’ is an instance of Unit Hybridization.

In English language, the correct expression is ‘highly rated’ which means ‘top rated’. This is a

case of Indian English. Besides, it can be presumed that if the singer says ‘highly rated’ then it

may affect the rhythm, tone and music. It can also be assumed that this might be a case of

language ignorance on the part of the singer and the composer.

(23) BRANDED nishaniya (Mitra da junction, 2016)

‘Branded keepsakes’

Code-mixing is marked at the sentential level. The following examples are illustrative:

(24) Kudiye mainu saari khabar, Mere peeche ki ki kardi ae tu (La la la, 2018)

Haan tu...

YES I’M TALKIN’ TO YOU

‘Girl I am aware of everything, what you do behind my back

Yes you…

Yes I’m talkin’ to you’

(25) Tere bin nahi main jeena, Marr hi jaana aa… (High rated, 2017)

BABY YOU’RE THE ONE

Kinni sohni lagdi sonh haye Rabb di

YOU’RE HOTTER THAN THE SUN

‘Without you, I don’t want to live, I will die

Baby you’re the one

You look so beautiful, I swear to God

You’re hotter than the sun’

(26) Jiven HYDRAULICS nal FIX meri car (Car nachdi, 2017)

Tere ghar de baahr Tappan lageya teri diwar

HIGH SPEED CHASE RED LIGHT te laawan na BREAK

‘Like my car is fixed with hydraulics

Outside your home, I am about to jump across your wall

High speed chase red light and I won’t put the brakes’

In (26), there is the sentential insertion of ‘High speed chase red light’. ‘High speed’ is

personified. ‘Personification’ is a figurative language wherein human-like traits and features are

attributed to non-living things.

(27) Tu Do Not Worry Kar Sohneya (Hawa vich, 2017)

‘You do not worry Handsome’

The instance (27) shows a shared grammatical structure. This is similar to what Muysken

(128) has said in the category ‘Congruent lexicalization’.

Under the category of English idioms and collocations, phrases are noticed more. It should be

noted that these terms ‘idioms’ and ‘phrases’ can be used interchangeably as idioms are also

phrases. The basic difference between them is that ‘phrases’ are the groups of words that work

together as one meaningful unit. Idioms, on the other hand, are also groups of words but their

meaning can’t be deduced from individual words.

(28) Ho teri sonh tainu vekh vekh ke (Car nachdi, 2017)

Ho billo meri car nachdi

LET’S GO

‘I swear to you looking at you

O baby my car dances

Let’s go’

(29) Apni banuna tainu HOOK ja CROOK te (Razamand, 2016)

‘I will make you mine by hook or by crook’

There is an insertion of ‘HOOK ja CROOK’. It’s a phrase. Within the phrase, there is code-

switching by the insertion of Punjabi co-ordinate conjunction ‘ja’.

Inflection attachment and reduplication of certain words and phrases are also reported in the

data. Usually, English words of noun category are inflected with Punjabi plural suffix and

marker ‘an’, ‘aa’, ‘van’, ‘a’, and ‘aan’. For instance:

(30) Tu PRODUCER’AAN de lutt laye ne chain (Fashion, 2016)

‘You looted producers of their peace’

There is an attachment of Punjabi suffix ‘wala’ and ‘wali’ to some of English nouns. These

are the cases of derivational morphology as a change is precipitated in the part of speech of the

root words to which suffix ‘wala’ is attached. For instance: Catwalkwali (Morni banke), and DJ

wala (DJ wala). These are adjectival compounds. In India, wala/wali usually refers to someone.

(31) CATWALK wali BABY Hai Teri Chaal (Morni banke- Badhai ho, 2018)

‘Baby! Your gait is like a catwalk’

(32) Ho DJ wala thalle diggeya (DJ wala, 2018)

‘DJ man fell down’

In ‘Fakepune’ (Gal baat), Punjabi suffix ‘pune’ is attached to ‘fake’ which means ‘fakeness’

in English. In ‘Smartgiriya’ (EL sueno) and ‘Hottiya’ (EL sueno), Punjabi suffixes ‘giriya’ and

‘iya’ are attached respectively. Except ‘Hottiya’, ‘Fakepune’ and ‘Smartgiriya’ are the instances

of derivational morphology.

A few examples of the process of reduplication of words are as follows:

(33) Tere pyar ch gaddi vi meri Chhallan maare vekh vekh (Car nachdi-horn blow, 2018)

BOUNCE BOUNCE

‘In your love, my car also jumps look look

Bounce Bounce’

(34) Te TRAFFIC hunde BLOCK BLOCK BLOCK (Lahore, 2017)

Kudiye tu LOOKING NICE NICE

‘And traffic gets blocked blocked blocked

Girl you looking nice nice nice’

In (34), ‘TRAFFIC hunde’ requires the presence of –ed (past participle) form of the verb

‘block’ but the composer uses the first form of ‘block’. The explanation is the same as given in

(5) that it is the nature of these linguistic units which is responsible for their present state in

Punjabi or Hindi frame.

(35) Kudi ta ji kudi ta ji ghat boldi (Ghat boldi, 2016)

Zyada bolda ae kudi da swag ji

SWAG ji SWAG ji

‘Girl doesn’t talk much

But her swag talks a lot

Swag ji swag ji’

Punjabi suffix ‘ji’ is an honorific expression.

Although B. Kachru’s framework is a comprehensive model, yet it has limitations also. There

is a research gap as it does not explain the mixing of predicate adjectives and adverbs in English

into Hindi sentences and clauses. Consequently, this research is an extension as it strives to

present these linguistic constituents in the area of Punjabi-English code-switching. Si has

reported the insertion of predicative adjectives of English into the Hindi frame also (396).

The following are the examples of the mixing of predicate adjectives of English into Punjabi

lyrics:

(36) Teri WALK teri TALK badi GRAND (Fashion, 2016)

‘Your walk and talk are grand’

(37) Nakhre ae FULL (Ghat Boldi, 2016)

‘Tantrums are full’

(38) Mere lagge hoyeaa NEAT 3-4 goriye (Bhangra Pa laiye, 2018)

‘Fair girl, I am drunk with 3-4 shots of neat’

In the illustration (42), adjective ‘neat’ is acting as a noun.

Some of the illustrations of the mixing of English adverbs and adverb phrases are as follows:

(39) WORLDWIDE hun tenu karde ne follow (Made in India, 2018)

‘You are followed worldwide’

(40) Sheeshe DOWN karke (Downtown, 2018)

‘Rolling down the window panes’

(41) DAILY de kinne marde ne (High rated, 2017)

‘So many get killed every day’

Another point which is noteworthy and deserves mention here is that owing to the influence

of Punjabi language, phonemic changes are perceptible in some English words. Some words

show slight changes in diction and accent while others show significant deviation from

standard pronunciation. A list of those words is given in table 2:

Table2. Words showing deviation from standard pronunciation

Sr.

no.

Songs Words showing deviation

1. Car nachdi- horn blow ho-rnn (horn), blo (blow)

2. Patt lainge re-card (record)

3. Fashion t-veet (tweet), par-du-sra

(producers), re-cord

(record)

4. Redua Rei-dua (radio)

5. Lahore Var-sachi (Versace)

6. Jatt attitude bult (bullet)

7. 26-26 ger-nade (grenade)

8. Laembadgini ph-reindan

(friends)

9. 5 taara sat-rong (strong)

10. High End Blud (blood)

11. Vehla Vehla suck-cess (success)

12. Future sen (Sign)

13. Jatti speaker paar-li-ment

(parliament),

seek-ret (secret)

14. Beedio call bee-dio (video), tem

(time)

15. Weekend weee-kend (weekend)

16. Mel Gel

Cha-neida (Canada),

Phire (Fire)

stai-tus (status),

bij-ness-man

(businessman),

r-tire(retire)

17. Gal baat gor-ment (government)

18. Raat di gedi bult (bullet)

19. Hawa vich chock-late (chocolate)

20. Glorious gallan galo-rious (glorious)

21. Do you know chock-late (chocolate)

22. Pag wala munda

mab-lane (maybelline)

Functional value of CM and CS

Blending in languages like Punjabi and English is a symbol of Englishization. Using Punjabi-

English mix in the transmission of socio-cultural meanings, beliefs and concepts is a

manifestation of Indianization, nativization, and acculturation of English language. It is also a

reflection of modernization, westernization, and high socio-economic status (for detailed

information, see Kachru 1983, Kamwangamalu, 1986). As a matter of fact, Punjabi music is a

perfect blend of cultural, traditional and modern values. Y. Kachru reports that “Nativization of

English in the Outer and Expanding Circles manifests itself in the incorporation of the language

in multiple styles and genres” (223). She adds that the primary motivation for mixing English in

Hindi songs is to amuse the audience through humor, satire, irony and playfulness. She suggests

the ‘ludic’ functions of mixed languages (224). This is certainly true in the case of these peppy

songs which are mood lifters. In fact, in an interview, Guru Randhawa himself stated that

“Punjabi songs have a different vibe and energy, which helps in lifting one's mood completely”

(IANS). These are party songs and people love to dance on the tunes of Punjabi music. On the

allegations of producing misogynistic songs and glorifying premium-end cars and alcohol, Guru

replies that Punjabi songs are created for fun. They help in brightening the mood and

environment and there is nothing specific that composers speak about in these songs (IANS).

In the context of rap music, Gardner-Chloros opines that mixed style could be used as an

artistic device (30). Davies and Benthilla claim that switching is used in music to trigger

aesthetic effects (4). Besides, they have shown how CS is exploited as a stylistic device which

can contribute to the poetic effect of song lyrics (18). Thus, CS is used as a unique poetic device

in creating rhythm and melody also.

Punjabi songs come under the genre of popular culture and popular culture is part of global

culture. To identify with the common populace globally and to cater to the musical taste of

Punjabi Diaspora, hybridized language is used as a stylistic device. CS is also used to assert

social and linguistic identity internationally as Punjabi singers seek name and fame globally.

They are constructing dual linguistic identity through the interplay of linguistic elements of both

the languages. Reportedly, Guru accepted this in the aforementioned interview. He said, “I

always had a dream of spreading Punjabi music all over the world and, of course, of getting an

international identity” (IANS). Apparently, Punjabi music and its singers are so popular

worldwide that they get calls for shows around the world and earn a huge amount of money.

These artists are playing with the language consciously and wittingly because composers

spend so much time on the writing of lyrics that involve a lot of reflection. As a matter of fact,

these two languages represent two different societies and cultures. Punjabi songs reflect an

amalgamation of Indian society and Western society. Man-woman affair or lovey-dovey

relationship between a girl and a boy before marriage is still a hush-hush issue in certain social

quarters of Punjabi (Indian) society, but it is a normal matter in the western world. Addiction to

alcohol is also a serious issue. Over-indulgence in luxurious lifestyle and obsession with brands

and cars is not seen in the right light among middle or urban-middle class people. So, basically,

these lyrics are giving a voice to the issues related to the youth. It could also be that consciously

or unconsciously, these singers are asserting their own tastes or they are being vocal about

likings of the youth in general. It is also likely that they are resenting classical or traditional

music which strives for purism in language. Very rightly, Y. Kachru opines that “Popular music

in India provides people the means to assert their taste, sometimes in opposition to and

sometimes as a complement to the traditional genres of music” (227).

Indian society attaches supreme value to English language. It is generally regarded that those

who are well versed in English language are superior, intelligent and make cream of the society.

Switching to English language is employed as a communicative strategy for the amusement of

music lovers. Lyricists are consciously making choices from their verbal repertoire of words and

accents to attract not only Indian audiences but also western patrons. On a personal level, this is

an attempt to establish a social position and to climb the social ladder and to construct a bi-

cultural identity. On a general level, this is an effort to spread Punjabi music in all parts of the

world through its unique linguistic style.

Socio-linguistics Analysis

Dubey suggests that language is a carrier of socio-cultural messages and endures socio-

cultural and linguistic constraints (20). This can be observed very well in the lyrics of these

songs. On a close analysis, the English units used in the lyrics reveal the mindset of young

people and their way of living in modern times and their liking and obsession for money, status,

party, drinking, girls, love affairs, expensive cars, and other branded articles like bags, goggles,

shoes, and sandals.

The use of these lexical items suggests materialistic values of today’s youth who define

success in terms of one’s social and economic status, luxurious lifestyle, and good looking

girl/boy friend. The reference to ladylove through Code-mixing is quite noticeable as it is

common to almost all the songs under study. The composers address their sweetheart as ‘baby’

many times in these lyrics. They speak about either betrayal and unrequited love or a desire to

possess their beloved. Another very amusing yet a very serious concern which is reflected

through these code-mixed lyrics is that youngsters have a love for alcohol and addiction for

drugs. It is revealed through words such as ‘beer’, ‘drink’, ‘Peg’, ‘Brandy’, ‘Shot’, ‘Malibu’, and

‘dope’. They like to get intoxicated and very often compare the charm of their ladylove with the

invigorating and rousing traits of liquor. Their fondness for luxury cars is exhibited through

terms such as ‘Car’, ‘Jaguar’, ‘Ferrari’, ‘Ferrari’an’, ‘Bimmera’, ‘Range Rover’, ‘Bentley’, and

‘Panamera Porsche’. Words such as ‘Google’, ‘poke’, and ‘Facebook’ exhibit that the youth are

quite active online. Terms such as ‘Dolce’, ‘Gabbana’, ‘Varsachi’ (Versace in English), ‘Gucci’,

‘Prada’, and ‘Rayban’ reveal the latest trends among the youth and have socio-cultural

implications as these terms suggest that the youth are status-conscious and the possession of

these things upholds their self-worth. Their love for dance and party is well known from the

terms such as ‘Dance’, ‘Floor’, ‘club’, ‘beat’, ‘DJ’, ‘DJwala’, and ‘party’. However, it won’t be

wrong to say that the youth have an ideology of ‘eat, drink, and be merry’ and don’t really

believe in working hard to make ends meet.

Usually, countries like the UK, the USA, and Australia are well-liked for immigration

purposes. The fad for foreign articles and foreign countries for shopping, recreational holidays,

and better life is known from the mixing of terms such as ‘London’, ‘LA’, ‘Chanada’ (Canada),

‘PR’, ‘Sydney’, ‘Currency’, and ‘Euro’.

Some of the illustrations are:

(42) Kuj ne CHANADA pind SET baliyea’ (Mel gel, 2018)

‘Some are settled in Canada village’

(43) MOM DAD SYDNEY ton aye chaan ve’ (Mel gel, 2018)

‘Mom and Dad have come from Sydney dear’

(44) TOP DI CURRENCY Jive EURO Hundi Ae (Gal baat, 2018)

‘As Topmost currency is Euro’.

English lexical items used in these Punjabi lyrics explicitly convey the behavior and mindset

of young men and women in Punjabi social circles. These terms also expose social issues like

alcoholism and substance (drug) abuse among adolescents and young adults who are the future

of Indian society. Materialistic ethos and a desire for immigration into foreign lands are revealed

too through the use of these terms. Thus, the use of code-mixing in Punjabi songs does not only

explain the language behavior of Punjabis but also shed light on social issues and problems of

Punjabi youth.

CONCLUSION

In this research study, it is found that language hybridization and code-switching are the

prominent features of the songs under study. These songs are composed to draw the attention of

both Indians and Non-Resident Indians (NRIs). The language used in these lyrics is a

representative sample of the actual usage of language patterns among Punjabis. Academically,

the three language formula gives some exposure to English language. Additionally, movies,

songs, and other forms of art and media are making people attuned to hybridized Punjabi and

English. Besides, the craze for settling abroad among Punjabis for a better living encourages

them to learn English language or at least hybridized language. All these factors play a key role

in the language contact between Punjabi and English, which leads to the use of different forms of

code-mixing in these lyrics.

Language plays a crucial role in the existence of humans. It enables the relationship between

people of the same speech community and people of different speech communities. Language is

a conveyer of socio-cultural messages and the use of these English lexical items and

constructions in Punjabi songs signals towards the materialistic ethos of one section of the youth.

Some lyrics convey that feelings are based on materialism, which breeds distrust and contempt

for the opposite sex (particularly for the fair sex). While the others express the feelings of respect

and admiration for the looks of lady love. These lyrics reflect the consumer behavior of the youth

and a desire to possess branded articles and luxury cars. Accordingly, this research conveys the

social ideology of the youth who are overly ambitious. On this account, it would be justifiable to

claim that this research divulges the mental make-up and social behavior of the Punjabi youth.

Due to prolonged exposure, people think and express themselves in two languages. They

represent two cultures. Panjabi is dominant but the influence of English is inescapable. From the

point of view of linguistics, this research encourages other researchers to pursue their

investigation in the same field but into some other unique code-mixed patterns. Besides

structural-linguistics and socio-linguistics, this study fosters research in psycho-linguistics and

speech sounds. Thus, this research makes a substantial contribution to bilingual studies in the

areas of Punjabi and English.

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