A New Approach- The Feminist Musicology Studies of Susan McClary

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A New Approach: !e Feminist Musicolog Studies of Susan McClar and Marcia J. Citron

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A New Approach: The Feminist Musicology

Studies of Susan McClary and Marcia J. Citron

by

imberly !eitsmaa "A #ro$ect

Submitted to the

Faculty of the Music and %orship &epartmentin #artial Fulfillment of

the !e'uirements for the &egree

of "achelor of Arts in Music

Committee:

(((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((Chair of Faculty Committee

(((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((Faculty member

(((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((Faculty member

(((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((Chair of &epartment

&ate((((((((((((((((((((((((((((

Spring )*+,Cedar-ille ni-ersity

Cedar-ille/ 0hio



Abstract

A New Approach: The Feminist Musicology Studies of Susan McClary and Marcia J.Citron

imberly !eitsma/ "achelor of Arts in Music

Cedar-ille ni-ersity 1April )*+,2

Chair: &r. 3yle Anderson

0ne of the currently pre-alent analytic approaches in academia is feminist

theory and criticism. 4ts combination with musicology has influenced the field for the

past four decades. The goal of the new approach/ loosely termed 5feminist

musicology/6 has been to disco-er/ analy7e/ discuss/ and promote the representation

of women and the 5feminine6 essence in -arious disciplines of music. Today/ feminist

musicology is highly researched/ published in boo8s and $ournals/ and presented as

scholarly papers at -arious musicological conferences around the world. This new

approach introduces the ideologies of feminism to the study of music.

Susan McClary and Marcia J. Citron are two musicologists who were

influenced by these ideologies and ha-e guided the musicological world in this

direction of feminist musicology. "oth ha-e made serious contributions to the

emerging field of feminist musicology. "oth researched the ideas of gender musical

construction within musical narrati-es/ music as a gendered discourse/ and historical

and social factors that affected women in music. Although they ha-e met with

considerable resistance/ Susan McClary and Marcia J. Citron ha-e significantly

e9panded the scope of musicology through their application of feminist theory.



3ist of Figures

9ample +: Syntactical !eduction of 0rfeo;s statement in <!osa del ciel.<

9ample ): !eduction of uridice;s opening statement in <4o non dir=.<

9ample >: 0pening statement of the <?aba@era< from Carmen.

9ample ,: <Masculine< theme in Chaminade;s Sonata/ 0p. )+ 1Measures +B2.

9ample : "eginning of <feminine< theme in Chaminade;s Sonata/ 0p. )+ 1Measures

>D,B2.



1

Introduction

One of the currently prevalent analytic approaches in academia is feminist

theory and criticism. Its combination with musicology has influenced the field for the

past four decades. The goal of the new approach, loosely termed “feminist

musicology,” has been to discover, analyze, discuss, and promote the representation

of women and the “feminine” essence in various disciplines of music. Today, feminist

musicology is highly researched, published in boos and !ournals, and presented as

scholarly papers at various musicological conferences around the world. This new

approach introduces the ideologies of feminism to the study of music. "usan #c$lary

and #arcia %. $itron are two musicologists influenced by these ideologies and have

guided the musicological world in this direction of feminist musicology.

History of Feminism and Feminist Musicology

The feminist movement emerged in the 1&'(s in the )nited "tates at the first

feminist conference at "eneca *alls, +ew or with the famous women-s paraphrase

of the eclaration of Independence.1 “/e hold these truths to be self0evident that all

men and women are created e2ual3 that they are endowed by their $reator with

certain inalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of

happiness.”4 *eminism sought to increase interest in women-s lives, activities, and

e5periences.6 *eminists, at the core, wanted to achieve a world without oppression

and negative attitudes toward women in every aspect of society and culture.'

1 7obert 8dgar 7iegel and $arl 9ertzog, A High Point of American Feminism :8l ;aso, Te5as Te5as /estern$ollege, 1<=>?, '.

4 %ulia T. /ood, Gendered Lives: Communication, Gender, and Culture :@elmont, $alifornia /adsworth

;ublishing, 4(11?, A1.

6 "usan $. $oo, and %udy ". Tsou, Cecilia Reclaimed: Feminist Perspectives on Gender and Music :)rbana)niversity of Illinois ;ress, 1<<'?, 6.

' /ood, Gendered Lives, A>.



4

*eminism reached the discipline of musicology in the 1<A(s, when some

musicologists turned their focus to the history of women-s participation in music.

9istorians and musicologists compiled resources that highlighted noteworthy and

influential women composers and musicians.> %ames 7. @riscoe published two

anthologies featuring women composers, entitled Historical Anthology of Music y

!omen and Contemporary Anthology of Music y !omen" Barin ;endle produced

and edited a collection of essays about women in music, entitled !omen # Music: A

History. iane %ezic discussed unnown female composers in her boo, entitled

!omen Composers: $he Lost $radition Found" #usicologists uncovered music by

9ildegard von @ingen, @arbara "trozzi, $lara "chumann, 8thel "myth, 7uth

$rawford "eeger, and many other women in the field of music from past centuries. =

Clthough many women had performed and composed music, many were hidden from

history and in need of discovery.

ifferent ideologies and attitudes from the e5treme side of patriarchy directed

towards women concealed most women-s music for centuries.A #usicologist %ane #.

@owers stated, “/e have observed that no matter what ind of musical activities

women have engaged in, and no matter how vital or distinguished those activities

might be, a historical process of maing those activities invisible has nevertheless

been at wor.”& The contributions of musical women of the past have been

rediscovered through the efforts of many musicologists. These women are now

> %ane C. @ernstein, !omen%s &oices across Musical !orlds ' @oston +ortheastern )niversity ;ress, 4(('?, >.= "usan #c$lary, Feminine (ndings: Music, Gender, and )e*uality :#inneapolis )niversity of #innesota

;ress, 1<<1?, >.A #arcia %. $itron, DEender, ;rofessionalism and the #usical $anon,D $he +ournal f Musicology &, no. 1

:1<<(? 11', httpFFwww.!stor.orgFstableFA=6>4>.& %ane #. @ower, D*eminist "cholarship and the *ield of #usicology I,D College Music )ymposium 4< :1<&<?

&A, httpFFwww.!stor.orgFstableF'(6A6<>(.



6

included in newer editions of music history boos and more college classes now

specifically highlight women in music. #usic companies are selling more scores and

recordings of wors by women composers.< The development of a feminist approach

to musicology eventually grew from these scholarly pursuits.

Through their research, feminist musicologists have attributed a lac of

recognition of women in music to issues of societal status and of women not having

the power to promote their own music in a male0dominated field. 1( @efore the

twentieth century, certain ideologies and attitudes marginalized women-s

contributions in music. One attitude of this nature was the idea that women-s minds

and bodies were weaer than men, and therefore having lesser abilities and limited

options for vocations.11 C similar attitude presented the idea that women were too

emotional and too unstable to be able to concentrate fully on musical studies. In the

nineteenth century, the only truly accepted way for a woman to be involved in music

was to submit to and support her husband-s musical activities.14 *or e5ample, Clma

#ahler was forced by her husband-s insecurity not to compose music and thus she

supported only her husband-s musical activities until his death.16 These ideologies

promoted “prescriptive literature that told women which inds of musical behavior

were right or wrong for them to engage in3 slurs cast on women who crossed over

gender0ascribed boundaries of one type or another3 allegations of easy virtue made

about women who chose a musical career3 and descriptions of the female musician as

< $arol +euls0@ates, !omen in Music: An Anthology of )ource Readings from the Middle Ages to the Present

:+ew or 9arper G 7ow, 1<&4?, 5vii.1( @ernstein, !omen%s &oices across Musical !orlds, >.

11 7iegel, $he High Point of American Feminism, '.14 $itron, “Eender, ;rofessionalism, and the #usical $anon,” 111.

16 #arcia %. $itron, Gender and the Musical Canon :)rbana )niversity of Illinois ;ress, 4(((?, =1.



'

the personification of sensual into5ication.”1' Twentieth0century thining has refuted

most of these ideologies, but women before the twentieth century could never hope to

escape these negative attitudes. /ith this realization, feminist scholars set a goal to

ensure all women and related “feminine” issues achieved a commendable place in

music studies.1>

@y the 1<&(s, feminist scholars realized the data they were collecting was

challenging the traditional discourses in musicological studies. This challenge

prompted some musicologists to see answers to 2uestions about music and gender.

"ome scholars 2uestioned the values that allowed the musical canon, or the common

repertoire of classical music, to be dominated by male composers.1= "cholars also

raised 2uestions concerning the ability of women to produce uni2uely “feminine”

music in a male0dominated field with male aesthetic values. 1A /ith concern over this

issue, ;endle offered some 2uestions “9ow might we distinguish the e5pression of

women-s e5perience from the e5pression of male or patriarchal constructions of the

feminineH” and “o women have any authentically female e5perience unconditioned

by patriarchal oppression and constraintsH”1& These overarching 2uestions deal with

all areas of musicology3 thus, musicologists recognize gender bias in all aspects of

research. Cn e5ample of this is with ethnographers, or those who study culture and

traditions, recognizing the presence of male bias because the ma!ority of their data

came only from male informants in their fieldwor.1<

The idea of “feminine” and “masculine” in music is also disputed among

1' @owers, “*eminist "cholarship and the *ield of #usicology I,” &=0&A.

1> Ibid., &1.1= Ibid., &'.

1A @ernstein, !omen%s &oices Across Musical !orlds, >.1& Barin ;endle, !omen and Music: A History :@loomington Indiana )niversity ;ress, 4((1?, 1>.

1< @ernstein, !omen%s &oices across Musical !orlds, >0=.



>

music scholars, especially in non0te5ted music, but the basic concept deals with the

practice of reflecting the aesthetic properties of socially constructed gender

characteristics within music.4( Cccepted by most scholars, “masculine” music

displays more active, dominant, andFor prominent characteristics, while “feminine”

music displays more lyrical, passive, andFor supportive themes.41 arge instrumental

music genres, such as symphonies, concerti, and operas, were considered

“masculine,” while smaller musical genres with “sentimental” or “melodious”

sounds, such as vocal, piano, and chamber music, were considered “feminine.” This

controversial idea is rooted in seventeenth0 to nineteenth0century gender ideals of

strong intellectual men and wea emotional women. The constructions of

“masculinity” and “femininity” may differ from composer to composer, but the

stereotypes remain.44

In the nineteenth century, when women composed “masculine” music they

were considered bold and daring, and often criticized for “betraying their feminine

nature.”46 @ut when women composed music in line with their own “feminine” nature,

they were composing what society e5pected from women and perpetuated the idea of

their inability to write larger wors.4' $lara "chumann was a fortunate woman

because she was considered “almost above gender” and praised for her “masculine”

accomplishments.4> Cvailable education and family encouragement probably enabled

$lara "chumann to attain this reputation. 9owever, most women could not escape the

4( ;endle, !omen and Music, 6.

41 "usan #c$lary, DOf ;atriarchs J and #atriarchs, Too "usan #c$lary Cssesses the $hallenges and$ontributions of *eminist #usicology,D $he Musical $imes 16>, no. 1&1= :1<<'? 6=A,

httpFFwww.!stor.orgFstableF1((644'.44 iane %ezic, !omen Composers: $he Lost $radition Found :+ew or *eminist ;ress, 1<&&?, '.

46 %ezic, !omen Composers, '0>.4' Ibid.

4> @owers, “*eminist "cholarship and the *ield of #usicology I,” &A.



=

criticism from their male counterparts.4= *or e5ample, *anny #endelssohn 9ensel

could not escape criticism from her father and her brother, *eli5. 9er father strongly

believed she should be only a wife and motherKnot a musician, while her brother

believed she could be a musician, !ust not publish her wors.4A

@y the end of the 1<&(s, conferences organized by the Cmerican

#usicological "ociety began to accept papers and presentations in feminist theory

and criticism. In 1<&&, conferences were held at $arleton )niversity in Ottawa and at

artmouth where papers and panels on feminist criticism were presented.4& In 1<&<,

the meeting of the "ociety offered the first discipline0sponsored worshop in feminist

theory and music.4< In the summer of 1<<1, three international conferences focused on

feminism and music in )trecht, 9olland, #inneapolis, #innesota, and ondon,

8ngland.6( *rom that point, feminist theory and criticism became a popular sub!ect at

these conferences.61

The overwhelming interest and popularity of feminist criticism

within music influenced the growth of feminist musicology for many years after these

specific conferences.

@ased upon musicology !ournals and other resources that continue to be

published today, it appears feminist musicology has become established in academia.

#usicologists of future generations may continue to develop various feminist

ideologies within their musical studies. 9owever, there are two musicologists who

particularly changed the field of musicology with their uni2ue ideas and approaches.

4= %ezic, !omen Composers, '0>.

4A #arcia $itron, “The ieder of *anny #endelssohn 9ensel,” The #usical Luarterly =<, no. ' :1<&6? >A(0>A4,httpFFwww.!stor.orgFstableFA'1<&1.

4& "usan #c$lary, D7eshaping a iscipline #usicology and *eminism in the 1<<(s,D Feminist )tudies 1<, no. 4:1<<6? '1(, httpFFwww.!stor.orgFstableF61A&6A= and #c$lary, Feminine (ndings, =.

4< #c$lary, Feminine (ndings, =.6( #c$lary, D7eshaping a iscipline,D '11.

61 #c$lary, Feminine (ndings, =.



A

Susan McClary

"usan #c$lary was born in 1<'=, received her doctorate from 9arvard in

1<A=, and currently teaches at $ase /estern 7eserve )niversity in $leveland, Ohio.64

Clthough her wor has received much criticism over the years, her research has

helped modernize the study of music.66 #c$lary became interested in this new field,

first, when she noted an absence of research, and second, when she observed new

aspects of music through a gendered perspective.6' #c$lary spoe of her interest to

get into the field of feminist musicology as follows “It seemed to me obvious not

only that musicology too might benefit from engagement with 2uestions related to

gender and se5uality but also that interdisciplinary conversations would gain from the

presence of music in their discussions.”6> #c$lary-s main wor is concerned with

determining how historically constructed ideas of gender and se5uality have

influenced musical procedures from the si5teenth century to the present.6=

#c$lary has produced numerous research publications in these areas

including her first ma!or boo on the topic, Feminine (ndings, published in 1<<1.

This boo presents a feminist criti2ue of music within the traditional academic

disciplines, such as musicology and music theory. /ithin her boo, #c$lary

describes her own methodology of feminist discourse by asing “/hat would a

feminist criticism of music loo lieH /hat issues would it raise, and how would it

ground its arguments theoreticallyH”6A

64 $ase /estern 7eserve )niversity, D"usan #c$lary, ;rofessor,D epartment of #usic,httpFFmusic.case.eduFfacultyFsusan0mcclary.

66 #c$lary, Feminine (ndings, 5iii and i5.6' #c$lary, Feminine (ndings, 5.

6> "usan #c$lary, Reading Music: )elected (ssays :8ngland Cshgate ;ub. $o., 4((A?, 5iii.6= #c$lary, “7eshaping a iscipline,” '1A.

6A #c$lary, Feminine (ndings, A.



&

#c$lary has developed a methodology over the years that has clustered into

five main categories. *irst, she has looed into the musical constructions of gender

and se5uality3 namely, the idea of “masculine” and “feminine” characteristics within

music.6& "he has observed that music of a given time period tends to reflect the

gender organization of that particular society and that the idea of “masculinity” and

“femininity” changes over time with these societies. *or e5ample, “femininity” was

different in the eighteenth century compared to current society and an obvious

implication of that is the sense of “feminine” fashion and appropriate vocations for

women. 9owever, some gendered codes within music have remained the same over

the centuries. 85amples of this are the similarities between the “musical

representations of masculine bravura or feminine seductiveness in Indiana %ones

movies” and similar representations in $avalli-s seventeenth century operas.6<

#c$lary believes this phenomenon is due to the unchanging perspective of gender

over the centuries. 9owever, she states that more research in the area of historical

bacground is needed to understand fully the interactions between the two genders in

music.'(

"econd, #c$lary has studied certain gendered aspects of traditional music

theory. Cs discussed earlier, composers chose to use “feminine” or “masculine”

musical characteristics in their music, whether intentionally or not, to create their

particular composition.'1 This was a rather difficult tas because the composer had to

choose a musical function the listener would identify as either “feminine” or

6& #c$lary, Feminine (ndings, A.

6< Ibid., &.'( Ibid., 6A06&.

'1 Ibid., <.



<

“masculine.”'4 /hen portraying a female character or DfeminineD characteristics,

music portraying a softness or passivity is often used.'6 /hen portraying a male

character or “masculine” characteristics, music portraying a roughness or

aggressiveness was chosen. #c$lary believes these gendered codes were securely

established during the seventeenth century and they continue to influence current

opinions in some way.'' #en were supposed to hide their emotions, be strong, and be

secure. /omen were e5pected to be emotional and therefore, thought of as inferior.'>

Cccording to #c$lary, these gender e5pectations were e5pressed within the

compositional procedures of various pieces, especially within musical dramas. *or

e5ample, in #onteverdi-s L%rfeo, #c$lary notes the differences between the

melodic lines representing Orfeo and the melodic lines representing 8uridice. *or

Orfeo, #onteverdi uses the “most familiar and most predictable progressions for that

time” and it is “harmonized in the strongest fashion available.”'=

Orfeo-s opening

statement in the opera descends in a E0orian scale from the scale degree > to the

mediant and it is harmonized with a E4, *4, and @b4 in the bass line :85ample 1?. 'A

'4 #c$lary, Feminine (ndings, 6=.

'6 Ibid., <.'' Ibid., A.

'> Ibid., >(.'= Ibid., '(.

'A Ibid.



1(

85ample 1 "yntactical 7eduction of Orfeo-s statement in D7osa del ciel.D

9owever, Orfeo-s melodic line changes when 8uridice comes into the picture. This

probably represents 8uridice-s seductive influence upon Orfeo.'& ;reviously, Orfeo

was in the mode of E0orian, but when 8uridice enters, Orfeo-s pitch center changes

to d minor. 9e is in an entirely different reality representing his different emotional

state with 8uridice around.'< /ith the melodic lines of 8uridice, #c$lary observes

that the music is more unstable, representing 8uridice-s hesitancy to spea forwardly

with Orfeo. 8uridice maes a musical statement that is stable and compelling, but

immediately moves to an une5pected goal. *or e5ample, in one moment she sings a

> down to an C', then immediately to EM' :85ample 4?.>(

85ample 4 7education of 8uridice-s opening statement in DIo non dirN.D

'& #c$lary, Feminine (ndings, '10'4.'< Ibid., '4.

>( Ibid., ''0'>.



11

The instability of 8uridice-s melodic line is apparent in the musical construction.

Third, #c$lary researched the idea of gender and se5uality in absolute

music.>1 +ot surprisingly, the ma!ority of feminist musical criticism up to #c$lary-s

time dealt with te5ted music. 9owever, #c$lary decided to tae on the challenge of

feminist musical criticism as applied to purely instrumental music. >4 In this part of her

research, she focused on the idea of tension and release in music using se5ual

metaphors with “masculine” and “feminine” themes. Cccording to #c$lary, this

process remained the same from @ach-s organ fugues to @rahms-s symphonies.>6 8ven

though this description can be uncomfortable for some people to imagine, #c$lary is

actually using types of metaphors music theorists used in the seventeenth century to

describe the listener-s musical e5perience.>' Cccording to music theorist C. @. #ar5,

an opening “masculine” theme enters and is soon followed by a secondary “feminine”

theme in the sonata0allegro procedure.>>

There are also other forms of music where

the “masculine” and the “feminine” can wor together to create a beautiful

soundscape of music. 8ven though this idea of interaction is interesting and can be

used to analyze music, #c$lary eventually ass whether we should continue labeling

music as “masculine” or “feminine” because these labels can be offensive in today-s

culture.>=

#c$lary found that it was no surprise that this techni2ue of tension and

release is used within the music of @izet-s Carmen, an opera characterized in

e5tremes in DmasculineD and DfeminineD tensions. In the most recognizable vocal

>1 #c$lary, Feminine (ndings, 14.

>4 @owers, “*eminist "cholarship and the *ield of #usicology I,” <1.>6 #c$lary, Feminine (ndings, 14.

>' Ibid., 14>.>> Ibid., 16.

>= Ibid., 1'.



14

piece in this opera, the “9abaera,” the chord progression teases the listener into

unpredictable musical directions. *or e5ample, the music descends chromatically

down a tetrachord and subse2uently, the rest of the scale in the following e5ample

:85ample 6?.>A /hen discussing $armen-s characteristics within this piece, #c$lary

states D"he nows how to hoo and manipulate desire. In her musical discourse, she

is slippery, unpredictable, maddening, irresistible. Or at least this is the nature of her

song.D>&

85ample 6 Opening statement of the D9abaeraD from Carmen"

9owever, for Tchaiovsy-s "ymphony +o. ', this techni2ue is based more on the

technical aspects of the music, than on the seductive aspects. In the final movement,

>A #c$lary, Feminine (ndings, >&.>& "usan #c$lary, Georges -i.et, Carmen: Camridge pera Handoo/s :$ambridge $ambridge )niversity

;ress, 1<<4?, A=0AA.



16

the “masculine” theme e5presses the idea of a hero, while the “feminine” theme

e5presses female seduction.>< Cccording to #c$lary, these two themes interact within

a sonata form and act out a story portraying se5ual desire and feminine dominance. =(

#c$lary does suggests Tchaiovsy, after hearing a performance of Carmen, was

influenced by @izet-s compositional techni2ues when he wrote this symphony, so the

connection between the symphony and Carmen becomes more understandable.=1

*ourth, #c$lary discusses the idea of music as a gendered discourse. C

gendered discourse is a critical discussion of the gendered aspects or implications of

music. "pecifically, #c$lary researches the idea of gender identity with music. In her

historical research, #c$lary has found that music has been considered a “feminine”

activity for so long that male composers over the centuries have been trying to prove

themselves to be “masculine.” "he describes this specific approach in the following

2uotation “If the whole enterprise of musical activity is always already fraught with

gender0related an5ieties, then feminist criti2ue provides a most fruitful way of

approaching some of the anomalies that characterize musical institutions.”=4

7esearch within this category has turned up some historical phenomena. *or

e5ample, #c$lary notes that some scholars believe the 8nglish have less documented

music compared to the Eermans or *rench because of their association of music with

effeminacy.=6 Cnother e5ample includes the move from romanticism to modernism.

This was an attempt to remasculinize the art form of music by straying away from

various emotions.=' The attitude that was formed in the seventeenth century and

>< #c$lary, Feminine (ndings, A1.

=( Ibid., A10A=.=1 Ibid., A(.

=4 Ibid., 1A.=6 Ibid.

=' Ibid., 1&.



1'

apparently changed at the beginning of nineteenth century was that men were

supposed to “stifle their feelings,” while it was considered “feminine” to “indulge in

emotional e5pression.”=> 7omanticism indulges emotional e5pression with music,

while much modern music does not care about this e5pression.

#c$lary-s final category in her methodology is the identification of female

musicians- discursive strategies. /omen have coe5isted in the same societies as men,

but their approach to developing their careers is different from that of their male

counterparts.== "he states that over the centuries there have been many obstacles in

women-s way which men did not have to face. /omen were often considered unfit for

a musical career and some were barred from receiving any type of musical education.

If women did compose or perform music, it was often sub!ect to ridicule by the

“masculine” musical culture for either being “feminine” :a trait for which women

could not escape criticism? or pretending to be “masculine” :a trait that was not

acceptable for women to emulate?.=A This prevailing attitude may e5plain the absence

in symphonic and opera repertories of wors by women composers. To some, women

supposedly were not able to achieve “greatness.”=& The main source of music by

women comes from solo voice, piano, or small chamber ensemble repertoire.

)nfortunately, these genres may not receive the same attention as larger wor genres.

=< In the past, women musicians who struggled for recognition include $ountess of

ia, @arbara "trozzi, *anny #endelssohn 9ensel, $lara /iec "chumann, $Pcile

$haminade, Cmy $heney @each, ili @oulanger, and 7uth $rawford "eeger .A( /ithin

=> #c$lary, Feminine (ndings, >(.

== #c$lary, “Of ;atriarchs J and #atriarchs, Too,” '(<.=A #c$lary, Feminine (ndings, 1&01<.

=& #c$lary, D7eshaping a iscipline,D '((.=< Ibid., '((0'(1.

A( #c$lary, “Of ;atriarchs J and #atriarchs, Too,” 6=>.



1>

more recent years, women have been able to mae a name for themselves with the aid

of changing attitudes toward female musicians. $omposers such as %oan Tower, 8llen

Taaffe Qwilich, Thea #usgrave, ;auline Oliveros, and ibby arsen have received

substantial recognition as professional women in music.A1

/ith her uni2ue methodologies, "usan #c$lary made significant

contributions to the field of feminist musicology. The 2uestions she ased and the

research she presented can be considered very radical and controversial, but her

insights are said by many of her colleagues to have made a valuable contribution to

musicology.

Marcia J. Citron

#arcia %. $itron was born in 1<'>, received her doctorate from the )niversity

of +orth $arolina in 1<A1, and currently teaches at 7ice )niversity in 9ouston,

Te5as.A4

ie most feminist musicologists, she started in the historical area of research

of women in music, then slowly moved toward the emerging areas of feminist

musicology.A6 $itron has contributed numerous publications and personal insight into

this field. "he has been conducting historical research about women in music since

the mid01<A(-s and, in the late 1<&(-s, she played an important role in moving the

in2uiry of music history to a more gender0based analysis of history. This approach

views gender as an influencing factor on all aspects of musical culture.A'

In her best nown boo, Gender and the Musical Canon, published in 1<<6,

$itron researched various factors that have influenced the formation of the male0

A1 #c$lary, “Of ;atriarchs J and #atriarchs, Too.DA4 7ice )niversity, D#arcia %. $itron,D 7ice )niversity "hepherd "chool of #usic,

httpFFmusic.rice.eduFfacultybiosFcitron.shtml.A6 +euls0@ates, !omen in Music, 6=1.

A' Ibid., ><.



1=

dominated musical canon. In her view, these factors silenced the creativity of women,

prevented professionalism in women-s careers, developed strict gender roles within

music, created a bias in musical reception towards male musicians, and denied

women-s place in the canon. $itron also has done research on the psychological effect

which stereotypical views about gender have had upon women composers and

musicians. *or e5ample, she believes during certain historical eras women possibly

could have been dissuaded from composing music in certain genres that were thought

of as “masculine” forms, such as the symphony.A>

$itron has has developed a methodology that can be described in five main

categories. *irst, $itron studied the musical constructions of gender and se5uality. In

her research, she looed at western art-s musical ability to reflect and construct social

stereotypes of gender, mainly within musical narratives. /hile she does not provide

specific e5amples of this methodology, she discusses this ability in detail in her

research on sonata form and aesthetic.A=

"econd, $itron researched the idea of gender and se5uality in a musical

narrative, including the application of women0centered theories and ideologies to

absolute, as opposed to programmatic, music. $itron tacled the analysis of an

absolute musical piece with gender0based techni2ues. 9er approach loos at both

historical and gender issues and always brings into 2uestion the validity of this type

of approach.AA The problem, however, is this how does one use woman0centered

theories and methodologies when there is no obvious gender content within the

musicH $itron states this approach has to include a belief that content meaning e5ists

A> ;endle, !omen and Music, 1<1.A= $oo and Tsou, Cecilia Reclaimed, 1=.

AA +euls0@ates, !omen in Music, 6='.



1A

within the musical narratives.A&

Cn e5ample of this type of methodology is $itron-s research and analysis on

sonata form and aesthetic. $itron found that musicology-s traditional view of sonata

form, similar to other form types, is based upon a neutral, abstract plan. @ecause of

this, scholars assume that this type of form is free from gendered attributes or

symbols. 9owever, $itron-s research has led her to conclude the e5act opposite. "he

states sonata form can be considered a metaphor for the gendered struggle.A< Rincent

-Indy, a notable nineteenth0century composer, discusses this implied struggle as

follows

*orce and energy, concision and clarity such are almost variably the

essential masculine characteristics belonging to the first idea it

imposes itself in brus2ue rhythms, affirming very nobly its tonal

ownership, one and definitive. The second idea, in contrast, entirelygentle and of melodic grace, is affective almost always by means of its

verbosity and modulatory vagueness of the eminently alluring

feminine supple and elegant, it spreads out progressively the curve ofits ornamented melody3 circumscribed more or less clearly in a

neighboring tonality in the course of the e5position, it will always

depart from it in the recapitulation, in order to adopt the first tonalityoccupied from the beginning by the dominant masculine element,

along. It is as if, after the active battle of the development, the being of

gentleness and weaness has to submit, whether by violence or by

persuasion, to the con2uest of the being of force and power.&(

Cccording to -Indy and $itron, absolute, as opposed to programmatic music, has

elevated the “masculine” while suppressing the “feminine.”&1

Instead of having a

neutral blan slate in music, this idea of “masculine” and “feminine” in music was

seen as viable. /hile these views can be considered se5ist and discriminatory in

nature, what some observed in the music is consistent with certain gender ideologies

A& $oo and Tsou, Cecilia Reclaimed, 1=.

A< $itron, Gender and the Musical Canon, 16'.&( Ibid., 16=.

&1 Ibid., 1'4.





1<

85ample > @eginning of fugal DfeminineD theme in $haminade-s )onata, Op. 41

:#easures 6=0'&?.

Cccording to $itron, this is uni2ue for the nineteenth century. $haminade composes

the secondary theme in a way that it will not be defined by the masculine theme. In a

typical sonata, the secondary theme transfers itself to another ey, or another identity,

before !oining again with the “masculine” theme. 9owever, in this piece, the

secondary theme only hints at the eys of 8b and Cb instead of completely

transferring to them. It seems lie the secondary theme does not want to be defined by

the “masculine” theme. Cccording to $itron, this may have been a statement

$haminade wanted to mae.&A

Third, $itron e5ercised a methodology of seeing music as a gendered

discourse. "he focuses mainly on the historical gendered aspects of music within her

&A $itron, Gender and the Musical Canon, 1>'.





41

have been sympathetic to male characters. @ut in terms of instrumental

music, I thin it may be futile to determine the composer-s gender.<4

"he has also stated if someone was familiar with women-s music, then he or she could

find clues, but not all women composers compose with the same techni2ues. <6 *or

$itron, however, the gender of the composer does not dictate what gendered codes of

representation are used within the wor. $omposers can manipulate the idea of

gendered codes any way they desire, so identifying the gender of the composer will

be impossible unless we identify the composer-s opinion of representation.<'

"cholars

can possibly identify tendencies of a female aesthetic, but the evidence for identifying

the gender of the composer is never conclusive. <>

*ourth, she has completed historical analyses of various women in music,

specifically on *anny #endelssohn and ili @oulanger, and has formed general

conclusions on how women composers and musicians functioned within their specific

generations. $itron notes that society has had a great influence on women-s creative

output. There were many ideologies and historical traditions which determined a

woman-s musical future.<= $itron cites various challenges that women faced while

pursuing music including education, discouragement from entering the music field,

negative attitudes towards women, specific gender roles such as wifehood and

motherhood limiting their creative output, health issues, and ideologies that specified

what was acceptable for women.<A

/hen researching men and women in music, musicologists discuss various

<4 $itron in +euls0@ates, !omen in Music, 6=<.

<6 Ibid.<' $itron, Gender and the Musical Canon, 1>&01><.

<> $oo and Tsou, Cecilia Reclaimed , 1A.<= ;endle, !omen and Music, 1601'.

<A Ibid., 1<1.



44

aspects of their lives their bacground, their musical education and how they

received it, the challenges that they faced in any capacity, their musical wors, uni2ue

personal history or personality aspects important to mention such as marriages or

lifestyle choices, honors they received, and musical positions they held. These aspects

are discussed regardless of a composer-s gender. 9owever, when analyzing with a

feminist approach, $itron believes that other aspects of women-s lives are crucial to

discuss, such as their personal ideologies when it comes to women in music and

gender roles, similarities and differences in music written by their male counterparts,

changes in the musical spheres during their lifetimes, how they personally challenged

gender stereotypes, and how their legacy impacted music for future women

musicians.<&

Cn e5ample of this methodology in $itron-s wor is the article she wrote for a

collection of essays of women in music, in which she discusses 8uropean composers

and musicians from 1&&( to 1<1&.<< The women she discusses are Cugusta 9olmSs,

$Pcile $haminade, Cgathe @acer0Erndahl, 8lfrida CndrPe, ili @oulanger, Clma

#ahler0/erfel, and 8thel "myth. Through her research, she noted the improvement

of the status of 8uropean women from 1&&( to 1<1&. /omen-s voices became more

audible in the political, social, and economic circles. /hat affected this change was

nationalism, internationalism, industrialization, and women entering the labor force

because of war vacancies. /ith all these aspects, there was a need for social reform,

especially for women.1(( @irth control and planned parenthood were issues discussed

<& ;endle, !omen and Music, 1<1.<< Ibid., 1A>01<4

1(( Ibid., 1A>.



46

during this time. This enabled women to be creative on their own terms. 1(1 "ome

reforms, however, did not last long. Cfter /orld /ar I, men came bac to wor and

many women lost their wartime !obs.1(4

/ithin this article, $itron discusses the typical profile of the 8uropean woman

composer. "he states that they were most liely from the middle or high social class

with an artistic home environment. This environment provided the nowledge and

encouragement re2uired for women to succeed in music. #ale success was taen for

granted, but women-s e5ceptional talent was considered “rare.” /omen composers

had few role models in the field of music. /omen were forging paths not previously

taen by their se5. 9owever, these female composers had better educational

opportunities than those in the past because of changing attitudes toward women.

8thel "myth and ili @oulanger too advantage of these educational opportunities.1(6

The final methodology is $itron-s analysis of the musical canon. "he noticed

women composers were missing within the traditional musical canon. The following

factors affected women before the start of the twentieth century and continue to affect

women today.1(' The first of these factors within this final methodology is the denial

of access to compositional training. /omen faced this disadvantage because

education was usually only provided for men in 8uropean patriarchal society.1(>

"econd, women composers rarely got their music published. $itron states this was a

reality because publishing houses did not want to ris losing money since music

written by women was not very popular.1(= Third, women in most cases were denied

1(1 ;endle, !omen and Music, 1A=.

1(4 Ibid., 1A>.1(6 Ibid., 1A=.

1(' Ibid., 1('.1(> $itron, “Eender, ;rofessionalism, and the #usical $anon,” 1(>.

1(= Ibid., 1(=.



4'

musical employment. In the 8uropean patriarchal society, women were e5pected to

become submissive wives and devoted mothers. @efore the mid0twentieth century,

this mindset tended to deny women musical employment in occupations such as

collegiate teaching, composing, and conducting.1(A Those women who were employed

musically were usually part of the social elite.1(&

The fourth reason $itron states is many women “have felt compelled to

conceal their femaleness and assume authorship under a neutral or masculine

identity.”1(< /omen could either use a pseudonym, use their own name, use their

maiden name, or remain anonymous.11( $itron states this revealed gender pre!udice in

past centuries as a very real issue. 85amples of such male pseudonyms include

Eeorge "and :aa Cmantine0ucile0Curore upin? and Eeorge 8liot :aa #ary Cnn

8vans?3 even $lara "chumann and Cmy @each wrote under their husband-s name on

occasion.111

*ifth, women in music were evaluated unfairly against men. /omen,

according to $itron, were placed into a second0rate, “separate but not e2ual” status.

/omen were criticized if their music showed their “feminine” nature, but also

criticized if their music showed “masculine” traits.114 7eviews written on women-s

wors would read “surprisingly good for a woman” and showed “fine sill if not

much inspiration.”116 Cccording to $itron, in order for women-s music to be

recognized in the canon, their music needs to have a positive reception by an

1(A $itron, “Eender, ;rofessionalism and the #usical $anon,” 1(=01(& and ;auline Oliveros and *red #aus, DC$onversation about *eminism and #usic,D Perspectives of 0e1 Music 64, no. 4 :1<<'? 1AA,

httpFFwww.!stor.orgFstableF&66=(=. 1(& $itron, “Eender, ;rofessionalism and the #usical $anon,” 1(=01(&.

1(< Ibid., 1(&.11( Ibid., <A0<&.

111 Ibid., 1(&.114 Ibid., 1(&01(<.

116 Ibid., 1(<.



4>

influential group of people. In reviews, critics need to deem women-s music as worthy

and to praise the female composer personally.11'

The final point $itron maes is that women, such as #ozart-s sister, #aria

Cnn #ozart, were only allowed into the small private music spheres and not larger

public spheres.11> ;rofessionalism in the public spheres was ey to personal

recognition in the musical canon. #any ideological fears prevented women from

entering into the professional world. *or e5ample, professionalism can threaten

women-s image, or it may mean neglect in family nurture. ;rofessional women could

become more successful than men, mi5 male and female social circles, and even put

women in the spotlight.11= #any of these aspects may seem silly and unnecessary in

contemporary western culture, but before the twentieth century, overly protecting

women-s virtue and purity was a priority. 9owever, some women did not appreciate

this overbearing protection. Cccording to $itron, “;ublic UcareersV represent an

epistemological space without limits, and therefore privileged. ;rivate UcareersV

suggest boundaries of nowledge and access to nowledge3 it implies a lesser

!ustification for nowledge and authority.”11A Cccording to $itron, all of these five

factors have prevented any attempt to integrate women-s musical wor into the male0

homogenous canon.11&

/ith her methodological approach, #arcia %. $itron also made great advances

in the field of feminist musicology during the feminist academia boom. "he too a

more careful route in her feminist research than did #c$lary.

11' $itron, Gender and the Musical Canon, 1=&.11> $itron, “Eender, ;rofessional, and the #usical $anon,” 11(.

11= $itron, Gender and the Musical Canon, &=.11A Ibid.

11& $itron, 2Eender, ;rofessionalism and the #usical $anon,” 1(&.



4=

Conclusion

"usan #c$lary and #arcia %. $itron are two musicologists who were

influenced by feminism and, through it, have guided the musicological world in the

direction of feminist musicology. This sub!ect is important if today-s musicians wish

to evaluate the effects of social movements upon the music and music scholarship of

a particular time and culture. #c$lary and $itron have shown that the history of

women in music has not been the same as the history of men. "cholars continue to

investigate feminist musicology in order that the history of women and the

“feminine” in music will not be forgotten. /omen and the “feminine” need to be

recognized and celebrated.11< *eminist musicology has e5panded the field of music.

/omen now have a better representation in the various aspects of the field of music

as well as more identifiable role models than in past centuries. /omen composers and

musicians no longer have the restrictions which held them bac in the past. /omen

have the freedom to e5press themselves musically in any way they choose. The path

of developing the field of feminist musicology has been challenging and both

#c$lary and $itron have been persistent pioneers. They, along with other scholars,

have met with “considerable resistance, both outside the feminist movement and

within it.”14( In conclusion, as Barin ;endle states, “courage, tolerance of difference,

openness, and support is essential for productive wor in this area to continue.”141

11< @owers, “*eminist "cholarship and the *ield of #usicology I”, &>.14( ;endle, !omen and Music, 1=.

141 Ibid.



4A

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httpFFwww.!stor.orgFstableF6666=11.

Documents

A New Approach- The Feminist Musicology Studies of Susan McClary