MusicologyMusicology

What is Musicology?What is Musicology?

History of MusicologyHistory of Musicology

First used in Germany to describe the First used in Germany to describe the academic study of European Art Music.academic study of European Art Music.

Mainly concerned with the analysis of Mainly concerned with the analysis of autonomous, ‘great’ master works from a autonomous, ‘great’ master works from a theoretical or historical perspective.theoretical or historical perspective.

Until the later years of the 20Until the later years of the 20thth Century, Century, musicologists did not really engage with musicologists did not really engage with popular music. This was for two reasons:popular music. This was for two reasons:

1.1. It was considered ‘inferior’, not It was considered ‘inferior’, not having the ‘authenticity’ of ‘Art’ having the ‘authenticity’ of ‘Art’ music or even ‘Folk’ music.music or even ‘Folk’ music.

2.2. The vernacular/social foundations The vernacular/social foundations challenged the notion of an challenged the notion of an autonomous art form.autonomous art form.

Over the last 20+ years, popular Over the last 20+ years, popular music based musicology has music based musicology has emerged, and is still developing.emerged, and is still developing.

Why MusicologyWhy Musicology

Enables us to decipher Enables us to decipher meaningmeaning from from music, using theoretical knowledge, music, using theoretical knowledge, aural skills, and analytical principles.aural skills, and analytical principles.

Enables us to better understand the Enables us to better understand the appealappeal of certain music forms. of certain music forms.

Enables us to better understand how Enables us to better understand how certain music certain music functionsfunctions..

Enables us to potentially Enables us to potentially applyapply research findings to our own musicresearch findings to our own music

Module AimsModule Aims

1.1. Introduce students to the study of various Introduce students to the study of various forms of popular music, including varying forms of popular music, including varying modes of communication such as modes of communication such as recordings, performances, music videos, recordings, performances, music videos, as texts.as texts.

2.2. Develop critical and analytical skills in Develop critical and analytical skills in reference to various theoretical and reference to various theoretical and analytical approaches to the textsanalytical approaches to the texts

3.3. Further develop students’ critical Further develop students’ critical thinking, writing and presentational skills.thinking, writing and presentational skills.

AssessmentAssessment

Written essay (70%) Due May 1Written essay (70%) Due May 1stst 20092009

A Technologically Based Aural A Technologically Based Aural Presentation (30%) Due May 1Presentation (30%) Due May 1stst 20092009

Written Essay (70%)Written Essay (70%)

Document a 2000 word essay that Document a 2000 word essay that focuses on one of the following focuses on one of the following aspects of musicology:aspects of musicology:

1.1. A detailed theoretical analysis of a single piece of music of A detailed theoretical analysis of a single piece of music of your choice. your choice.

Discussion must center around the concepts discussed in Discussion must center around the concepts discussed in class, and include class, and include compositioncomposition, , arrangementarrangement, , productionproduction and and performanceperformance paradigms. paradigms.

Particular attention should be placed on the harmonic, Particular attention should be placed on the harmonic, rhythmic, and melodic factors of the music, and consideration rhythmic, and melodic factors of the music, and consideration must be displayed in terms of how they interrelate with the must be displayed in terms of how they interrelate with the form, texture, tempo, metre, timbre, and dynamics. of the form, texture, tempo, metre, timbre, and dynamics. of the music. music.

It is essential that Roman numeral analysis is incorporated in It is essential that Roman numeral analysis is incorporated in the harmonic discussion of the music, and the essay should the harmonic discussion of the music, and the essay should display a clear understanding of horizontal and vertical display a clear understanding of horizontal and vertical chordal paradigms. chordal paradigms.

In order to clarify the discussion, a detailed In order to clarify the discussion, a detailed form chartform chart and and CD copy of any relent recordings must be included. CD copy of any relent recordings must be included.

Incorporation of notated examples are not a requirement to Incorporation of notated examples are not a requirement to pass this unit, but a distinct advantage for the higher pass this unit, but a distinct advantage for the higher classifications.classifications.

2.2. A theoretical analysis that compares and contrasts two songs A theoretical analysis that compares and contrasts two songs of your choice. This can involve either congruent or of your choice. This can involve either congruent or incongruent artists. incongruent artists.

As with question 1, discussion must center around the As with question 1, discussion must center around the concepts discussed in class, and include concepts discussed in class, and include compositioncomposition, , arrangementarrangement, , productionproduction and and performanceperformance paradigms. paradigms.

Particular attention should be placed on the Particular attention should be placed on the harmonicharmonic, , rhythmicrhythmic, and , and melodicmelodic factors of the music, and consideration factors of the music, and consideration must be displayed in terms of how both pieces interrelate must be displayed in terms of how both pieces interrelate regarding form, texture, tempo, metre, timbre, and dynamics. regarding form, texture, tempo, metre, timbre, and dynamics.

It is essential that Roman numeral analysis is incorporated in It is essential that Roman numeral analysis is incorporated in the harmonic discussion of the musics, and the essay should the harmonic discussion of the musics, and the essay should display a clear understanding of horizontal and vertical display a clear understanding of horizontal and vertical chordal paradigms. Outline form charts for both pieces must chordal paradigms. Outline form charts for both pieces must be included, alongside any relevant recordings copied onto be included, alongside any relevant recordings copied onto CD. CD.

Incorporation of notated examples are not a requirement to Incorporation of notated examples are not a requirement to pass this unit, but a distinct advantage for the higher pass this unit, but a distinct advantage for the higher classifications.classifications.

3.3. Analyse a piece of music using Philip Tagg’s musicological Analyse a piece of music using Philip Tagg’s musicological methodology. methodology.

Although the essay should draw upon concepts discussed in class Although the essay should draw upon concepts discussed in class such as harmonic, rhythmic and melodic analysis, musical form, such as harmonic, rhythmic and melodic analysis, musical form, instrumentation, meter, and Roman numeral analysis. Specific instrumentation, meter, and Roman numeral analysis. Specific attention should be given to the use of how a single ‘Analysis attention should be given to the use of how a single ‘Analysis Object’ can be analysed using the following vocabulary:Object’ can be analysed using the following vocabulary:

Analysis Object (AO)Analysis Object (AO) Inter Objective Comparison Material (IOCM)Inter Objective Comparison Material (IOCM) Parameters of Musical Expression (PME)Parameters of Musical Expression (PME) Items of Musical Code (IMC)Items of Musical Code (IMC) Extra Musical Fields of Association (EMFA)Extra Musical Fields of Association (EMFA) Hypothetical Substitution (HS)Hypothetical Substitution (HS) MusemesMusemes

Outline Outline form chartsform charts for the Analysis Object, alongside any for the Analysis Object, alongside any relevant recordings copied onto CD must be included. relevant recordings copied onto CD must be included.

Use of notated examples are not a requirement to pass this unit, Use of notated examples are not a requirement to pass this unit, but a distinct advantage for the higher classifications.but a distinct advantage for the higher classifications.

4.4. Present a contextual analysis of an artist of your choice. Present a contextual analysis of an artist of your choice. The essay must include a The essay must include a rationalerationale why you have chosen the why you have chosen the

artist (including the artist (including the contextcontext of your research), a of your research), a listlist of research of research questions, and a questions, and a synopsissynopsis of how you intend to investigate these of how you intend to investigate these questions.questions.

The main body of the essay should focus not just on musical The main body of the essay should focus not just on musical factors, but factors, but contextualcontextual ones. ones.

For example how do paradigms such as authenticity, gesture For example how do paradigms such as authenticity, gesture and tradition determine how the artist is conceptualised and and tradition determine how the artist is conceptualised and received?received?

What philosophical approaches has the artist adopted, and how What philosophical approaches has the artist adopted, and how do they relate to other musicians, styles, genres, traditions, etc? do they relate to other musicians, styles, genres, traditions, etc?

It would be particularly interesting to investigate how It would be particularly interesting to investigate how techniques have been employed techniques have been employed outsideoutside of music (for example in of music (for example in art or literature). art or literature).

The essay must include numerous transcription and/or The essay must include numerous transcription and/or recordings that substantiate your argument, and these must be recordings that substantiate your argument, and these must be clearly linked to your text and included in recorded form as an clearly linked to your text and included in recorded form as an appendix (via a CD).appendix (via a CD).

Technological Technological Presentation (30%)Presentation (30%)

Organise and ‘virtually’ present a 5-minute presentation on one of the Organise and ‘virtually’ present a 5-minute presentation on one of the following subject areas:following subject areas:

1.1. A short contextual study of a musician or musical style of your choice.A short contextual study of a musician or musical style of your choice.2.2. A short account of one of the musicological approaches discussed.A short account of one of the musicological approaches discussed.3.3. A comparison of two of the approaches discussed.A comparison of two of the approaches discussed.4.4. An introductory musicological analysis of a song/composition of your An introductory musicological analysis of a song/composition of your

choice.choice. This presentation will not be delivered by ‘traditional means, but by This presentation will not be delivered by ‘traditional means, but by

technological methods. One of the following two approaches must be technological methods. One of the following two approaches must be adopted:adopted:

1.1. An An aural podcastaural podcast..2.2. An An aural/visual podcastaural/visual podcast using screen capture software using screen capture software Details of the software requirements for this task will be posted on Details of the software requirements for this task will be posted on

blackboardblackboard Note: Care must be taken not to use the content from this task in the Note: Care must be taken not to use the content from this task in the

written essay. If in doubt, please check with your tutor.written essay. If in doubt, please check with your tutor. NB: Although submitted at the same time as the main essay, it is NB: Although submitted at the same time as the main essay, it is

suggested that you work on this assignment first – as a means of suggested that you work on this assignment first – as a means of exploring fully what interests you. exploring fully what interests you.

Important LinksImportant Links

Paul Carr Blog: Paul Carr Blog: http://paulcarrmusings.wordpress.cohttp://paulcarrmusings.wordpress.com/m/

Music Academy You TubeMusic Academy You Tube http://www.youtube.com/TheMusicAhttp://www.youtube.com/TheMusicA

cademycademy

What aspects of What aspects of musicmusic can we analyse?can we analyse?

CompositionComposition ArrangementArrangement ProductionProduction PerformancePerformance

CompositionCompositionDictionary definition of musical ingredients for a Dictionary definition of musical ingredients for a composition usually includes the following broad composition usually includes the following broad categories:categories:

Melody Harmony Rhythm

Question:Question:

Are these factors relevant when Are these factors relevant when analysing Popular Music analysing Popular Music Composition today (why/why not)?Composition today (why/why not)?

Additional Compositional Additional Compositional FactorsFactors

In addition to the above, consider how the In addition to the above, consider how the following could be used as a starting point following could be used as a starting point when analysing a piece of music:when analysing a piece of music:

FormForm TextureTexture TempoTempo MetreMetre TimbreTimbre DynamicsDynamics

Questions:Questions:

How important to the ‘Song’ are these factors?How important to the ‘Song’ are these factors? How could you use these as a starting point for How could you use these as a starting point for

analysisanalysis??

Musical FormMusical Form The vast majority of popular music has a specific The vast majority of popular music has a specific

structure.structure. Common terminologies we use in popular music Common terminologies we use in popular music

include Introduction, Verse, Chorus, and Middle include Introduction, Verse, Chorus, and Middle Section/Bridge.Section/Bridge.

Most popular music consists of 2 or 4 bar phrases, so Most popular music consists of 2 or 4 bar phrases, so the the sectionssections are often divided into 8 or 16 bars. For are often divided into 8 or 16 bars. For Example:Example:

““Ain’t That A Shame”: Fats Domino: Verse 4: Chorus 8 Ain’t That A Shame”: Fats Domino: Verse 4: Chorus 8 ““Ticket To Ride”: The Beatles: Verse and Chorus 8 bars Ticket To Ride”: The Beatles: Verse and Chorus 8 bars

longlong ““Clocks”: Coldplay: 4 bar sectionsClocks”: Coldplay: 4 bar sections ““Valerie”: Amy Winehouse: All sections 8 bars longValerie”: Amy Winehouse: All sections 8 bars long

Listen out for music that does not fit with this Listen out for music that does not fit with this structure.structure.

For Example:For Example:

““Yesterday” (7 bar Verse)Yesterday” (7 bar Verse) ““Yellow”: Coldplay 6-7-7 bar Verses – 8 bar Yellow”: Coldplay 6-7-7 bar Verses – 8 bar

ChorusChorus ““Worried About Ray”: The Hoosiers: 8 bar Verse, Worried About Ray”: The Hoosiers: 8 bar Verse,

6 Bar Chorus6 Bar Chorus

Sections contrast with one another usually melodically, Sections contrast with one another usually melodically, but also harmonically, texturally, lyrically, dynamically but also harmonically, texturally, lyrically, dynamically and rhythmicallyand rhythmically

Listen to examples below, how do the above factors Listen to examples below, how do the above factors change?change?

ValerieMelodically

Harmonically Texturally Lyrically

Dynamically Rhythmically

Worried About RayMelodically

Harmonically Texturally Lyrically

Dynamically Rhythmically

Clues To Listen Out ForClues To Listen Out For

1.1. Arrival of the title line (What the song is Arrival of the title line (What the song is named after)named after)

2.2. Addition of guitar/vocals, keys etcAddition of guitar/vocals, keys etc

3.3. A lyric that is one line only and repeated A lyric that is one line only and repeated after another section is after another section is usuallyusually a chorus a chorus

4.4. Initial arrival of a vocal line – Initial arrival of a vocal line – usuallyusually a a verse.verse.

5.5. Arrival of backing vocals – Arrival of backing vocals – usuallyusually chorus, but at least a new section.chorus, but at least a new section.For Example

“Valerie”: Amy Winehouse“Bleeding Love”: Leona Lewis

How Rhythm Can Delineate How Rhythm Can Delineate FormForm

““Ain’t That A Shame” (Stop Time)Ain’t That A Shame” (Stop Time) ““Long Tall Sally”: The Beatles (Stop Time)Long Tall Sally”: The Beatles (Stop Time) ““Goodbye Mr A”: The HoosiersGoodbye Mr A”: The Hoosiers

How Harmony Can How Harmony Can Determine FormDetermine Form

Look for changes of harmony between sections. Some songs use the Look for changes of harmony between sections. Some songs use the same harmony between verse and chorus:same harmony between verse and chorus:

For Example:For Example: Valerie (has bridge between verse/chorus)Valerie (has bridge between verse/chorus) Bleeding LoveBleeding Love

And some use different harmonies:And some use different harmonies: ““Hey Good Looking” (Modulation to sub-dominant)Hey Good Looking” (Modulation to sub-dominant) ““Smoke On The Water”: Deep PurpleSmoke On The Water”: Deep Purple ““Yellow”: ColdplayYellow”: Coldplay ““Worried About Ray”: The HoosiersWorried About Ray”: The Hoosiers

General Factors: Verses start on Chord 1, Verses on 4 or 5General Factors: Verses start on Chord 1, Verses on 4 or 5

How Melody Can How Melody Can Determine FormDetermine Form

Fact:Fact: Choruses Choruses usuallyusually have slower have slower melodies than verses. Listen to previous melodies than verses. Listen to previous examples:examples:

How How Instrumentation/Texture Instrumentation/Texture

Can Determine FormCan Determine Form ValerieValerie Bleeding LoveBleeding Love Sloop John B:The Beach Boys Sloop John B:The Beach Boys Note how the last example consists Note how the last example consists

of only one section, so variety of of only one section, so variety of texture is vital)texture is vital)

Discussing Discussing Texture/TimbreTexture/Timbre Listen closely for the Listen closely for the relationships between instrumentsrelationships between instruments in in

terms of:terms of: Frequency (High – Low)Frequency (High – Low) Depth/Distance (amount of ambience)Depth/Distance (amount of ambience) Stereo Spectrum (Left – Right). Does it change. Do these Stereo Spectrum (Left – Right). Does it change. Do these

changes help evoke the mood of the music?changes help evoke the mood of the music? General VolumeGeneral Volume Is there any double tracking?Is there any double tracking? Use of effects) (compression, delay, chorus, etc)Use of effects) (compression, delay, chorus, etc) Use of EQ?Use of EQ? Is the texture homophonic, Polyphonic, instrumental, etc.Is the texture homophonic, Polyphonic, instrumental, etc. How does the texture relate to the lyrics and the emotion of How does the texture relate to the lyrics and the emotion of

the piece How do the the piece How do the individual partsindividual parts relate to the relate to the wholewhole mix?mix?

For example:For example:

Clear Mix

Angels:

Robbie Williams

Textural Wash

God Only Knows

The Beach Boys

Discussing TimbreDiscussing Timbre

Specific sounds can immediately Specific sounds can immediately inform the listener of who an artist inform the listener of who an artist is, and or what a style or tradition is.is, and or what a style or tradition is.

For example:For example: Wheels of Steele: SaxonWheels of Steele: Saxon GabriellaGabriella

Try and examine the nature of the Try and examine the nature of the individual sound.individual sound.

For example with distortion:For example with distortion: What type of distortion is it?What type of distortion is it? How does this relate to the style and How does this relate to the style and

authenticity of the artist. authenticity of the artist. For example:For example:

Rainbow: “Since You Been Gone”Rainbow: “Since You Been Gone” Saxon: “Wheels of Steele”Saxon: “Wheels of Steele” Mega death: “Holy Wars”Mega death: “Holy Wars” ZZ Top: “Tush”ZZ Top: “Tush” The same type of factors can be discussed The same type of factors can be discussed

for other instrumentsfor other instruments Note how sounds can allude toward:Note how sounds can allude toward: A change of style: A change of style: A Time or PlaceA Time or Place Consider other factorsConsider other factors

They can can also allude to other They can can also allude to other styles (what Tagg calls a ‘Genre styles (what Tagg calls a ‘Genre Synecdoche’)Synecdoche’)

For example: Distortion in JazzFor example: Distortion in Jazz Violin in RockViolin in Rock Harpsichord in Rock (The Beatles)Harpsichord in Rock (The Beatles) Electric instruments in Jazz or FolkElectric instruments in Jazz or Folk

How Metre Can How Metre Can Determine FormDetermine Form

““Lucy In The Sky With Diamonds”: Lucy In The Sky With Diamonds”: The BeatlesThe Beatles

PolyrhythmPolyrhythm

As well a metre being used As well a metre being used diachronically, it can also be used diachronically, it can also be used synchronically. Examples:synchronically. Examples:

““Kashmir” (Led Zeppelin) Drums in Kashmir” (Led Zeppelin) Drums in 4/44/4

““All I Need” (Radiohead) Drums in All I Need” (Radiohead) Drums in 4/44/4

General Points About General Points About SectionsSections

IntroductionIntroduction: content : content usuallyusually used somewhere else in the song. Not used somewhere else in the song. Not always incorporated, but always introduces the song. always incorporated, but always introduces the song.

VerseVerse: Recurrent harmonic pattern, but different text and texture : Recurrent harmonic pattern, but different text and texture etc. Usually occurs after the introduction, but sometimes chorus can etc. Usually occurs after the introduction, but sometimes chorus can occur before it (Example “I Shot the Sheriff”, “Rock and Roll Music”)occur before it (Example “I Shot the Sheriff”, “Rock and Roll Music”)

ChorusChorus: Usually a recurrent harmonic and lyrical pattern.: Usually a recurrent harmonic and lyrical pattern. RefrainRefrain: Not a distinct section, but part of a verse or chorus.: Not a distinct section, but part of a verse or chorus. Can end or start a section. Consists of a repeated subsection, often Can end or start a section. Consists of a repeated subsection, often

with same lyrics. For Example:with same lyrics. For Example:““I Saw Her Standing There”: The Beatles (After Verse)I Saw Her Standing There”: The Beatles (After Verse)God Only Knows: The Beach Boys: (note how refrain repeats at end)God Only Knows: The Beach Boys: (note how refrain repeats at end)

II “Want To Hold Your Hand”: The Beatles (After Verse)“Want To Hold Your Hand”: The Beatles (After Verse) BridgeBridge: Connects two other sections.: Connects two other sections. Normally occurs once, if twice, usually has same text.Normally occurs once, if twice, usually has same text. Sometimes called the ‘Middle 8’.Sometimes called the ‘Middle 8’. Bridges can be instrumental: “Nights in White Satin”Bridges can be instrumental: “Nights in White Satin” OutroOutro: Content usually derives from elsewhere in the song. Always : Content usually derives from elsewhere in the song. Always

ends song.ends song.

Examples Of Common Examples Of Common Forms – Forms – Simple Verse Simple Verse

FormForm (AAA) (AAA) Essentially consists of one section that is repeated. In its simplest form Essentially consists of one section that is repeated. In its simplest form the same harmonic material is repeated several times (usually in 8,12, or the same harmonic material is repeated several times (usually in 8,12, or 16 bar divisions.16 bar divisions.

Blues and blues based music is probably its most pervasive exemplar, and Blues and blues based music is probably its most pervasive exemplar, and was very popular in the 50’s. For examplewas very popular in the 50’s. For example

““Hound Dog”: Big Mamma ThorntonHound Dog”: Big Mamma Thornton““Mystery Train”: Elvis PresleyMystery Train”: Elvis Presley

Also around in the 60,s: (although it did give way to more binary forms) Also around in the 60,s: (although it did give way to more binary forms) For Example:For Example:

““The Thrill Is Gone”: BB KingThe Thrill Is Gone”: BB King““Black Magic Woman”: Fleetwood MacBlack Magic Woman”: Fleetwood Mac““Long Tall Sally”: The Beatles (Note how it slips into ‘simple verse-chorus Long Tall Sally”: The Beatles (Note how it slips into ‘simple verse-chorus

form’ at the end.)form’ at the end.)

Sometimes this form can be interspersed with a different Sometimes this form can be interspersed with a different introduction and ending. For example:introduction and ending. For example:

““Rock Around the Clock”: Bill Haley and the CometsRock Around the Clock”: Bill Haley and the Comets ““Eight Miles High”: The ByrdsEight Miles High”: The Byrds Shake Rattle and Roll: Bill HaleyShake Rattle and Roll: Bill Haley ““Stand By Me”: (No Recording)Stand By Me”: (No Recording) ““La Bamba”: Ritchie Valens (No Recording)La Bamba”: Ritchie Valens (No Recording) ““Louie Louie”: The KingsmenLouie Louie”: The Kingsmen ““We Will Rock You”: QueenWe Will Rock You”: Queen ““Bleeding Love” (similar):Bleeding Love” (similar): ““No One”: Alesha KeysNo One”: Alesha Keys ““Welcome To The Good Life”: Kenya WestWelcome To The Good Life”: Kenya West

Contrasting Verse Contrasting Verse Chorus FormChorus Form (AB)(AB)

Similar to Simple Verse-Chorus, but Similar to Simple Verse-Chorus, but the latter has a different harmonic the latter has a different harmonic progression. For Example:progression. For Example:

““Penny Lane”: The BeatlesPenny Lane”: The Beatles ““Get Back”: The BeatlesGet Back”: The Beatles ““Hotel California”: The EaglesHotel California”: The Eagles ““Smoke on the Water”: Deep PurpleSmoke on the Water”: Deep Purple

Popular Song Form Popular Song Form (AABA)(AABA)

Form emerged during 20’s and 30’s Form emerged during 20’s and 30’s during the ‘Popular Song’ period. In its during the ‘Popular Song’ period. In its pure form, sections are 8 bars long. pure form, sections are 8 bars long. Examples from this period inc:Examples from this period inc:

““I Got Rhythm” (George Gerswin) Intro I Got Rhythm” (George Gerswin) Intro AABA – AABA - EndAABA – AABA - End

““I Love You” (Cole Porter) Intro – AABA – I Love You” (Cole Porter) Intro – AABA – AABA – EndAABA – End

““I Get A Kick Out Of You” (Cole Porter) I Get A Kick Out Of You” (Cole Porter) Intro – AABA – BA - EndIntro – AABA – BA - End

Form was still used post 1955. For example:Form was still used post 1955. For example: ““Hey Good Looking”: Hank WilliamsHey Good Looking”: Hank Williams ““Great Balls of Fire”: Jerry Lee Lewis??Great Balls of Fire”: Jerry Lee Lewis?? ““All I Have To Do Is Dream”: The Everly Bros.??All I Have To Do Is Dream”: The Everly Bros.?? ““Will You Still Love Me”: The Shirelles??Will You Still Love Me”: The Shirelles?? ““Hey Jude”: The Beatles (AABA – BA – End)Hey Jude”: The Beatles (AABA – BA – End) ““From Me To You”: The Beatles (Intro – AABA - From Me To You”: The Beatles (Intro – AABA -

ABA – End)ABA – End) ““I Want to Hold Your Hand”: The Beatles (Intro I Want to Hold Your Hand”: The Beatles (Intro

– AABA – B – A – End) Note the use of refrain– AABA – B – A – End) Note the use of refrain ““Worry About Ray” Intro AABA AABA B ETCWorry About Ray” Intro AABA AABA B ETC

General Points About General Points About FormForm

The Majority of these forms have The Majority of these forms have been incorporated in popular music been incorporated in popular music for many years. For Example:for many years. For Example:

AB: Camptown Races/Oh Suzanna AB: Camptown Races/Oh Suzanna (1850’s)(1850’s)

AABA: Body and Soul (1930) Misty AABA: Body and Soul (1930) Misty (Mid 50’s)(Mid 50’s)

Roman Roman Numeral/Harmonic Numeral/Harmonic

AnalysisAnalysis

Spot The MistakesSpot The Mistakes

Major 7th Major 7th Chord I and VChord I and V Minor 7thMinor 7th Chords ii, iii, and Chords ii, iii, and

vi.vi. Dominant 7thDominant 7th Chord VChord V Minor 7th b5Minor 7th b5 Chord viChord vi

I iii IV V7 I iii IV V7 Key CKey C C Em F G7C Em F G7 Key GKey G G Bm C D7G Bm C D7 Key BbKey Bb Bb Dm Eb F7Bb Dm Eb F7

Non Diatonic ChordsNon Diatonic Chords

|I IV bVII I I bIII IV I ||

Spot The MistakesSpot The Mistakes

| I iv V9 I im7 ivm7 V(#9) I ||

Example Diatonic Example Diatonic Harmonic PatternsHarmonic Patterns

I vi IV V:I vi IV V: “Stand By Me”, “Stand By Me”, ““Why Do Fools Fall In Love” Why Do Fools Fall In Love” ““All I Have To do Is Dream”All I Have To do Is Dream” ““What A Wonderful World” What A Wonderful World”

Phil Tagg: Milksap VideoPhil Tagg: Milksap Video

Other Harmonic Other Harmonic ExamplesExamples

I IV V IV: “Wild Thing” (Hendrix), “Got To I IV V IV: “Wild Thing” (Hendrix), “Got To Have Faith” (Michael), “My Girl” Have Faith” (Michael), “My Girl” (Reading)(Reading)

I V vi IV I V IV I: Let It Be (The Beatles)I V vi IV I V IV I: Let It Be (The Beatles) I V IV I: Yellow: ColdplayI V IV I: Yellow: Coldplay

Non Diatonic ExamplesNon Diatonic Examples

I bVII IV: C Bb F: “Sweet Home I bVII IV: C Bb F: “Sweet Home Alabama”: (Chorus)Alabama”: (Chorus)

bVII IV I: Bb F C: “With A Little bVII IV I: Bb F C: “With A Little Help From My Friends”: Chorus Help From My Friends”: Chorus

bVI bIII bVII IV I: C G D A E: “Hey bVI bIII bVII IV I: C G D A E: “Hey Joe”Joe”

Cycle Of 5thsCycle Of 5ths Many chord progressions tend to resolve in Many chord progressions tend to resolve in

5ths: 5ths: Case Study 1: Verse of “Yesterday”:Case Study 1: Verse of “Yesterday”:F |Em A7 |Dm |Gm C7 |F |Dm G |Bb F ||F |Em A7 |Dm |Gm C7 |F |Dm G |Bb F ||I vii III7 vi ii V7 I vi II IV I I vii III7 vi ii V7 I vi II IV I Case Study 2: A section of Autumn Leaves”Case Study 2: A section of Autumn Leaves”Am7 |D7 |Gma7 |Cma7 |F#m7(b5) B7 |Am7 |D7 |Gma7 |Cma7 |F#m7(b5) B7 |

Em7| Em7| iv7 VII7 IIIma7 VIma7 iim7(b5) V7 Iiv7 VII7 IIIma7 VIma7 iim7(b5) V7 I Case Study 3: I Will SurviveCase Study 3: I Will SurviveAm7 Dm7 CM7 GM7 FM7 Bm7(b5) Esus EAm7 Dm7 CM7 GM7 FM7 Bm7(b5) Esus E

Melodic Analysis – Melodic Analysis – Horizontal ConceptsHorizontal Concepts

MotifMotif (M)- The smallest self contained unit that (M)- The smallest self contained unit that has recognisable shape, or contour. Not always has recognisable shape, or contour. Not always relevant in some pieces.relevant in some pieces.

Question PhraseQuestion Phrase (QP)- A musical statement that (QP)- A musical statement that requires completion – Often 2 or 4 bars long. requires completion – Often 2 or 4 bars long. Sometimes called the ‘question’.Sometimes called the ‘question’.

Answering Phrase Answering Phrase (AP) (AP) - - The 2nd phrase of the The 2nd phrase of the ‘Sentence’. Although not a ‘rule’, often sounds ‘Sentence’. Although not a ‘rule’, often sounds like it is resolving. Sometimes called the like it is resolving. Sometimes called the ‘answer’.‘answer’.

Sentence Sentence (s)- When the ‘Question Phrase’ and (s)- When the ‘Question Phrase’ and ‘Answering Phrase’ are connected they become ‘Answering Phrase’ are connected they become a ‘Sentence’. Often 4 or 8 bars long. a ‘Sentence’. Often 4 or 8 bars long.

SectionSection (S)- Sentences are grouped (S)- Sentences are grouped together to form ‘Sections’. The most together to form ‘Sections’. The most obvious examples being the A or B obvious examples being the A or B (Verse or Chorus) of a standard song. (Verse or Chorus) of a standard song. Often 8 or 16 bars long. Repetition in Often 8 or 16 bars long. Repetition in Macro form.Macro form.

Structural Form Structural Form (SF)-(SF)- IE ABA, AB, IE ABA, AB, AABA.AABA. ‘Popular Song Form’ is often 32 ‘Popular Song Form’ is often 32 bars long.bars long.

Compositional Form Compositional Form (CF)(CF)

When examining a piece When examining a piece diachronically, there is a need to diachronically, there is a need to compare these factors, to ascertain compare these factors, to ascertain how they develop.how they develop.

For example – how does the ‘Answer For example – how does the ‘Answer Phrase’ compare to the ‘Question Phrase’ compare to the ‘Question Phrase’?Phrase’?

Or how does ‘Sentence 1’ compare to Or how does ‘Sentence 1’ compare to ‘Sentence 2’?‘Sentence 2’?

Techniques could include:Techniques could include:

Rhythmic Sequence (RS)Rhythmic Sequence (RS)

Mozart: Theme from 40Mozart: Theme from 40thth Symphony Symphony Marley: Chorus from “No Woman No Marley: Chorus from “No Woman No

Cry”Cry” ABBA: Chorus from ‘Waterloo”ABBA: Chorus from ‘Waterloo”

Sometimes these rhythmic Sometimes these rhythmic sequences are are not exact, and can sequences are are not exact, and can be labelled a “Near Rhythmic be labelled a “Near Rhythmic Sequence” (NRS).Sequence” (NRS).

Wonder: Verse of “You Are The Wonder: Verse of “You Are The Sunshine Of My Life”Sunshine Of My Life”

Tonal Sequence (TS)Tonal Sequence (TS)

The rhythm and melody of a phrase The rhythm and melody of a phrase is identical to earlier material, but is identical to earlier material, but up or down a predetermined pitchup or down a predetermined pitch..

Examples:Examples: ““How High The Moon”How High The Moon” The ‘old’ “Star Trek Theme” (system The ‘old’ “Star Trek Theme” (system

3)3)

Direct RepetitionDirect Repetition

When the melody and rhythm of an When the melody and rhythm of an answer phrase is identical to the answer phrase is identical to the ‘question’.‘question’.

For example the first two phrases of For example the first two phrases of the Bluesthe Blues

Rhythmic DisplacementRhythmic Displacement

What the answering phrase is What the answering phrase is identical to the question, but identical to the question, but commences on a different beat.commences on a different beat.

See example belowSee example below

Contextual Placement Contextual Placement (CP)(CP)

When the melody is identical but the When the melody is identical but the harmony changes.harmony changes.

For example:For example: First 8 bars of most blues songs:First 8 bars of most blues songs:““The Thrill Is Gone”: BB KingThe Thrill Is Gone”: BB King““Hound Dog”: Big Mamma ThorntonHound Dog”: Big Mamma Thornton““Mystery Train”: Elvis PresleyMystery Train”: Elvis Presley ““One Note Samba”One Note Samba” Middle section of “Rock Around The Clock”Middle section of “Rock Around The Clock”

New MaterialNew Material

Where the answering phrase Where the answering phrase consists of entirely new materialconsists of entirely new material

The Beatles: Hey Jude”The Beatles: Hey Jude”

Variation (V)Variation (V)

Where a phrase is loosely based on Where a phrase is loosely based on earlier material. earlier material.

““Jailhouse Rock”Jailhouse Rock”

Task Analysis (Unforgetable Task Analysis (Unforgetable and Ain’t Misbehavin’and Ain’t Misbehavin’

Melodic Analysis – Melodic Analysis – Vertical ConceptsVertical Concepts

Chord Tones (CT)Chord Tones (CT) - - short or long duration,. short or long duration,. Essentially notes in the chordEssentially notes in the chord

Colour Tones (ct)Colour Tones (ct) ( most common 7th, 9( most common 7th, 9thth, 11, 11thth, , 1313thth, Sharp 11, Sharp 11thth) Usually long in duration) Usually long in duration

Passing tones (APT/UPT)Passing tones (APT/UPT) (Always short) (Always short) (Consist of ‘(Consist of ‘accented’accented’ – on the beat, and – on the beat, and ‘‘unaccented’unaccented’ – off the beat) – off the beat)

Tension/ReleaseTension/Release Colour tones and to a lesser extent Colour tones and to a lesser extent

accented/unaccented passing notes provide accented/unaccented passing notes provide TensionTension. .

Chord tones provide the Chord tones provide the ReleaseRelease. The secret is to . The secret is to provide interest by mixing the two areas.provide interest by mixing the two areas.

General Points About General Points About Melodic AnalysisMelodic Analysis

There are often more than one way There are often more than one way of analysing a melody. Don’t get of analysing a melody. Don’t get caught up in minor details, but be caught up in minor details, but be consistent.consistent.

When considering phrase length – When considering phrase length – think of ‘think of ‘melodic motion’melodic motion’ and and ‘‘melodic rest’melodic rest’

‘‘Melodic Motion’ and Melodic Motion’ and ‘Melodic Rest’‘Melodic Rest’

Melodic MotionMelodic Motion: The duration from : The duration from the start of a phrase to its last note.the start of a phrase to its last note.

Melodic RestMelodic Rest: A period of rhythmic : A period of rhythmic inactivity, (often associated with inactivity, (often associated with cadences). Lasts from the end of one cadences). Lasts from the end of one phrase to the beginning of another, phrase to the beginning of another, and is often a longer note (vocally and is often a longer note (vocally people have to breath!!).people have to breath!!).

Interesting to examine the ratio Interesting to examine the ratio between these two factors.between these two factors.

Example Ratios Example Ratios (Melody:Rest)(Melody:Rest)

““Daisy” 3:1Daisy” 3:1 ““Oh Susanna” 3:1Oh Susanna” 3:1 ““Over The Rainbow” 3:1Over The Rainbow” 3:1 ““Penny Lane” (Chorus): 1:1Penny Lane” (Chorus): 1:1 ““Hotel California” (Chorus): 1:1Hotel California” (Chorus): 1:1

Performance AnalysisPerformance Analysis Performance practices and techniques can give a Performance practices and techniques can give a

song its ‘unique’ charactersong its ‘unique’ character Although also associated with live music making, Although also associated with live music making,

we are more concerned with its impact on we are more concerned with its impact on recorded music.recorded music.

Recording changes what may originally have been Recording changes what may originally have been considered an improvised moment into something considered an improvised moment into something that can be analysed repeatedly. that can be analysed repeatedly.

How does the musician communicate their musical How does the musician communicate their musical persona in a recorded performance: persona in a recorded performance:

In a single take?In a single take? Via overdubs?Via overdubs? Are they being themselves?Are they being themselves?

AuthenticityAuthenticity Many musicians have a Many musicians have a

sound that is associated sound that is associated with with themthem: :

Hendrix guitar soundHendrix guitar sound Phil Collins drum soundPhil Collins drum sound Duane Eddy guitar Duane Eddy guitar

soundsound Beach Boys style Beach Boys style

harmoniesharmonies All of these are a All of these are a

combination of combination of performance style performance style andand recorded sound.recorded sound.

What occurs in terms of reception What occurs in terms of reception when musicians of different styles when musicians of different styles and traditions combine? and traditions combine?

For example:For example:

Shakti and Shakti and RunDMC/AerosmithRunDMC/Aerosmith

Genre SynecdocheGenre Synecdoche ““The second main category of musical signs is the The second main category of musical signs is the

genre synecdoche. In verbal language, a synecdoche genre synecdoche. In verbal language, a synecdoche denotes a figure of speech in which a part substitutes denotes a figure of speech in which a part substitutes the whole, as in the expression 'all hands on deck', the whole, as in the expression 'all hands on deck', implying, at least from the captain's view, that the implying, at least from the captain's view, that the sailors' brawn is worth more than their brain. A sailors' brawn is worth more than their brain. A musical synecdoche would therefore be a set of musical synecdoche would therefore be a set of musical structures inside a given musical |376| style musical structures inside a given musical |376| style that refer to another (different, 'foreign', 'alien') that refer to another (different, 'foreign', 'alien') musical style by citing one or two elements supposed musical style by citing one or two elements supposed to be typical of that 'other' style when heard in the to be typical of that 'other' style when heard in the context of the style into which those 'foreign' elements context of the style into which those 'foreign' elements are imported. By citing part of the other style, the are imported. By citing part of the other style, the citation then alludes not only to that other style in its citation then alludes not only to that other style in its entirety but also potentially refers to the complete entirety but also potentially refers to the complete genre of which that other musical style is a subset” genre of which that other musical style is a subset” (Tagg (Tagg Towards a Sign Typology of MusicTowards a Sign Typology of Music ) )

‘‘Intentional and Intentional and ‘Extensional aspects of ‘Extensional aspects of

performance.performance. Intentional: Intentional:

Meaning Meaning in the in the performanceperformance as the as the players have more players have more freedomfreedom

Extensional: Extensional: Meaning in the Meaning in the notationnotation

Time and Place in Time and Place in performanceperformance

Interesting to examine how the time and Interesting to examine how the time and location of a recording influences the sound.location of a recording influences the sound.

Many artists have used specific ‘places’ to Many artists have used specific ‘places’ to influence a sound. For Example:influence a sound. For Example:

Phil Spector – Gold Star Studios in Phil Spector – Gold Star Studios in Hollywood.Hollywood.

Led Zeppelin (4Led Zeppelin (4thth album) Headley Grange album) Headley Grange Buddy Holly: Norman Petty’s studioBuddy Holly: Norman Petty’s studio Elvis Presley: Sun StudiosElvis Presley: Sun Studios Rolling Stones: Muscle Shoals StudioRolling Stones: Muscle Shoals Studio

Muscle Shoals StudioMuscle Shoals Studio

Sun StudiosSun Studios

Sometimes the peculiarities of a Sometimes the peculiarities of a room may lead to a specific room may lead to a specific recording technique and therefore recording technique and therefore sound.sound.

For example: For example: Louis ArmstrongLouis Armstrong early ‘Hot Five’ recordings early ‘Hot Five’ recordings (positioning of drums)(positioning of drums)

Buddy HollyBuddy Holly: (“Not Fade Away”) : (“Not Fade Away”) Studio too small for drums – used Studio too small for drums – used cardboard boxescardboard boxes

Note how Note how The Rolling StonesThe Rolling Stones attempted to emulate this sound in attempted to emulate this sound in the UK with their version of the the UK with their version of the song.song.

Stax StudiosStax Studios: Size of room, and the : Size of room, and the fact that musicians played together fact that musicians played together without headphones, sometimes led without headphones, sometimes led to vocal performances being ahead to vocal performances being ahead of the beat.of the beat.

Rolling Stones VersionRolling Stones Version

Modern recordings are often Modern recordings are often compiled in a variety of locations compiled in a variety of locations and times.and times.

Posthumous DuetsPosthumous Duets Jimi Hendrix: Crash Jimi Hendrix: Crash

LandingLanding The Beatles AnthologyThe Beatles Anthology: :

John LennonJohn Lennon Patsy Cline-Jim Reeves: Patsy Cline-Jim Reeves:

“I Fall to Pieces”“I Fall to Pieces” Hank Williams Jr and Hank Williams Jr and

Sr: “There’s a Tear in Sr: “There’s a Tear in my Beer”my Beer”

Nat King Cole and Nat King Cole and Natalie Cole: Natalie Cole: “Unforgettable”“Unforgettable”

Personal example: Sarah Personal example: Sarah Jane MorrisJane Morris

A Certain Kind Of Freedom (1990)A Certain Kind Of Freedom (1990) In today's digital age – unity of time In today's digital age – unity of time

and place is no longer a prerequisite and place is no longer a prerequisite for studio performance.for studio performance.

One Artist – Multiple One Artist – Multiple OverdubsOverdubs

Les PaulLes Paul Stevie WonderStevie Wonder Mike OldfieldMike Oldfield ETCETC Many modern Many modern

dance music over dance music over the last 20 years or the last 20 years or so are so are documented by a documented by a single ‘performer’.single ‘performer’.

Studio based ‘Virtual Studio based ‘Virtual Performances’Performances’

Techniques include:Techniques include: Compiling the best aspects of numerous takes, as Compiling the best aspects of numerous takes, as

opposed to going with a ‘single take’.opposed to going with a ‘single take’. ‘‘Punching in’ to redo specific aspects of a Punching in’ to redo specific aspects of a

performanceperformance Digital enhanced tuning and timingDigital enhanced tuning and timing Using a ‘sub mix’ to (for example bass and drums) Using a ‘sub mix’ to (for example bass and drums)

to bring about a specific type of performance (In to bring about a specific type of performance (In this case, it may be a particularly ‘tight’ this case, it may be a particularly ‘tight’ relationship between the instruments)relationship between the instruments)

Other sub mixes could focus on the interaction Other sub mixes could focus on the interaction between instruments.between instruments.

Phil Tagg’s Musicological Phil Tagg’s Musicological ModelModel

Examine VideosExamine Videos

Music (channel)

Emitter ReceiverIntended

‘message’‘adequate’ response

s t o r e o f s y m b o l s

s o c i o c u l t u r a l n o r m s

‘inadequate’ response

‘inadequate’ response

shared by Emitter and Receiver

shared by Emitter and Receiver

receiver only

receiver onlyemitter only

emitter only

codal incompetence

codal interference

‘inadequate’ encoding

‘inadequate’ encoding

Communication Model

1) The ‘Analysis Object’1) The ‘Analysis Object’ AO: AO: Analysis ObjectAnalysis Object. Tagg believes that it . Tagg believes that it

makes sense for the ‘AO’ to be makes sense for the ‘AO’ to be intended intended forfor and and received byreceived by large numbers of large numbers of people.people.

This enables us to study what is generally This enables us to study what is generally ““communicable”communicable”. .

Also states that the music to be analysed Also states that the music to be analysed should have clear ‘should have clear ‘Extra Musical Fields Extra Musical Fields of Association’of Association’

These are labelled as ‘Para Musical These are labelled as ‘Para Musical Fields Of Association’ in his theory.Fields Of Association’ in his theory.

2) Para Musical Fields of 2) Para Musical Fields of Association (PMFA)Association (PMFA)

These are essentially agreed (generic) These are essentially agreed (generic) emotional/expressiveemotional/expressive responses to the music responses to the music being analysed.being analysed.

As discussed later, this methodology is As discussed later, this methodology is interested in ascertaining exactly what interested in ascertaining exactly what makes the music happy, sad, invigorating, makes the music happy, sad, invigorating, etc.etc.

Also – what other associations does the Also – what other associations does the music have from a lyrical, image, music have from a lyrical, image, movements, social groups, historical periods, movements, social groups, historical periods, cultural identities, etc.cultural identities, etc.

3) ‘Parameters of Musical 3) ‘Parameters of Musical Expression’ (PME)Expression’ (PME)

Already discussed many of these in previous Already discussed many of these in previous sessions. These are the microcosmic factors that sessions. These are the microcosmic factors that carry the carry the meaningmeaning of the music. Tagg of the music. Tagg recommends:recommends:

1.1. Aspects of TimeAspects of Time2.2. Melodic AspectsMelodic Aspects3.3. Orchestral Aspects (Timbre)Orchestral Aspects (Timbre)4.4. Dynamic AspectsDynamic Aspects5.5. Acoustical Aspects (See below)Acoustical Aspects (See below)6.6. Electro Musical and mechanical aspects (See Electro Musical and mechanical aspects (See

below)below) Some factors will be present throughout, some Some factors will be present throughout, some

occasionally, and some omitted.occasionally, and some omitted.

Parameters of musical expression (1)Parameters of musical expression (1)• instrumentational

• timbral (timbre)

• number/type of voices/instruments

• mechanical devices: mutes, pedals, stops, plectrum, string types, reed types, mouthpieces, bows, sticks, brushes, &c...

• electro-acoustic devices: microphone types & techniques, loudspeakers, echo, reverb, delay, panning, filtering, mixers, amplifiers, equalisers, phasing, flanging, chorus, compression, distortion, vocoding, dubs, &c...

• performance techniques: vibrato, tremolo, tremolando, glissando, portamento, pizzicato, sul ponte, picking, strum, &c...

• vocal: booming, breathy, clean, clear, cracked, crying, deep, gravelly, harsh, hoarse, howling, growling, guttural, husky, light, melismatic, muffled, piercing, plaintive, raucous, rich, screeching, shouting, shrill, sonorous, soothing, squeaky, squawking, strident, syllabics, thin, warbling, warm, wheezing, whooping, &c...

• instrumental: as for vocal + blaring, bubbling, buzzing, chiming, clanking, clattering, crashing, grating, hissing, humming, jarring, muted, ringing, rumbling, scraping, stuttering, throbbing, tinkling, whirring, whistling, &c...

Parameters of musical expression (2)Parameters of musical expression (2)

• temporal parameters

• duration: [1] of piece and relationship of this duration to other connected aspects of communication (film, rite, sports event, dancing); [2] of sections within the piece

• internal order/treatment of musical events: intros, cadences, bridges, continuations, interruptions, recurrences (reiterations, repeats, recaps), sequences &c…

• pulse, tempo: [1] base rate; [2] surface rate.

• rhythmic texture: polyrhythm,

• metre (rhythmic grouping of pulse, time signature, etc.), e.g. simple, compound, symmetric, asymmetric, additive, divisive, &c...

• accentuation, e.g. upbeat, downbeat, syncopation, regular,.

Parameters of musical expression (3)Parameters of musical expression (3)

• tonal parameters

• tuning system: how octave is divided, retuning, detuning, &c.

• pitch range: average and total for each voice/part; ambitus, tessitura, &c.

• tonal vocabulary: scale, mode, motifs, number and type of different pitches/notes

• motivic/melodic contour: rising, falling, oscillating, arched, V-shaped, centric, wavy, terraced, tumbling strain, &c...

• harmonic parameters• tonal centre (if any)

• type of tonality: droned, modal, diatonic, tertial, quartal, bebop, impressionist, late romantic, twelve-tone, &c…

• harmonic change as long and short term phenomenon, harmonic rhythm.

• dynamics

• loud soft • sudden gradual

• constant variable

4) Inter Objective 4) Inter Objective Comparison Material Comparison Material

(IOCM)(IOCM) ‘‘Inter Objective Comparison Material’Inter Objective Comparison Material’ (IOCM) is (IOCM) is the range of music you compare the AO to.the range of music you compare the AO to.

The main problem a musicologist faces is how to The main problem a musicologist faces is how to describe what is essentially a describe what is essentially a non verbalnon verbal art form. art form.

The next step of the analysis is to decide on which The next step of the analysis is to decide on which of the following models to adopt:of the following models to adopt:

‘‘Inter Subjective Analysis’Inter Subjective Analysis’: The analysis of a : The analysis of a single piece, but not drawing comparisons to single piece, but not drawing comparisons to othersothers

‘‘Inter Objective Analysis’Inter Objective Analysis’: Establishes similarities : Establishes similarities between the Analysis Object and other music. between the Analysis Object and other music.

5) Items of Musical Code 5) Items of Musical Code (IMC)(IMC)

These factors are often very short – These factors are often very short – entitled ‘Musemes’.entitled ‘Musemes’.

Could also be harmonic, textural, Could also be harmonic, textural, melodic etc in nature.melodic etc in nature.

Factors that make the music what it Factors that make the music what it is.is.

Synopsis Of ProcessSynopsis Of Process

1.1. Find suitable ‘Analysis Object’Find suitable ‘Analysis Object’2.2. Search for relevant ‘Parameters of Musical Search for relevant ‘Parameters of Musical

Expression’ in ‘AO’ (PME) and document in Expression’ in ‘AO’ (PME) and document in ‘Form Chart’ and/or notated transcription.‘Form Chart’ and/or notated transcription.

3.3. Find ‘Items of Musical Code’ (IMC) Find ‘Items of Musical Code’ (IMC) (‘Musemes’ - (Minimal Units of Musical (‘Musemes’ - (Minimal Units of Musical Meaning) in ‘AO’.Meaning) in ‘AO’.

4.4. Find ‘Inter Objective Comparison Find ‘Inter Objective Comparison Materials’ (IOCM) that have similar ‘IMC’Materials’ (IOCM) that have similar ‘IMC’

5.5. Search for ‘Para Musical Fields of Search for ‘Para Musical Fields of Association’ (PMFA) in ‘AO’ and ‘IOCM’Association’ (PMFA) in ‘AO’ and ‘IOCM’

PMFCParamusical Fields

of Connotation (relevant to IOCM)

PMFCParamusical Fields

of Connotation (relevant to AO)

AOAnalysisObject

IOCMInterobjectiveComparison

Material

‘‘Hypothetical Hypothetical Substitution’Substitution’

If a piece of music conveys an emotion, this If a piece of music conveys an emotion, this is a useful technique to determine how.is a useful technique to determine how.

This is achieved by progressively altering This is achieved by progressively altering specific ‘Parameters of Musical Expression’ specific ‘Parameters of Musical Expression’ to ascertain what carries the emotion. to ascertain what carries the emotion.

For example how do the following influence For example how do the following influence the reception of the music?:the reception of the music?:

Key, melodic contour, tempo, lyrics, time Key, melodic contour, tempo, lyrics, time signature, dynamics, texture, timbre, signature, dynamics, texture, timbre, phrasingphrasing

AuthenticityAuthenticity

What is conceived as real or What is conceived as real or genuine?genuine?

Discussion often centred around:Discussion often centred around:

Historical continuityHistorical continuity

Examine: VideosExamine: Videos

Artistic Artistic Expression/SincerityExpression/Sincerity

Examine Videos:Examine Videos:

Commercial imperativesCommercial imperatives

For Example Major verses For Example Major verses Independent record labels. Independent record labels.

Rock music verses Pop musicRock music verses Pop music

Culture/Class of band and Culture/Class of band and audienceaudience

For Example:For Example: Much of early ‘Prog Rock’ was middle Much of early ‘Prog Rock’ was middle

class.class. Early Heavy Metal was working class.Early Heavy Metal was working class. Oasis/BlurOasis/Blur PunkPunk Why do musicians like Dylan and Why do musicians like Dylan and

Nigel Kennedy change their voice?Nigel Kennedy change their voice?

Technology and Technology and ProductionProduction

For Example more/less technology For Example more/less technology can indicate greater or lesser can indicate greater or lesser authenticityauthenticity

Use of analogue vs. digital domainsUse of analogue vs. digital domains

THE RECORD - An THE RECORD - An authentic means of authentic means of

production and production and performanceperformance Walter Benjamin Walter Benjamin (The Work Of Art In The (The Work Of Art In The

Age Of Mechanical Reproduction)Age Of Mechanical Reproduction) argued argued as early as 1936 that technology was as early as 1936 that technology was transforming the transforming the artistic natureartistic nature of of photography, film, and music.photography, film, and music.

Described traditional notions of Described traditional notions of ‘authenticity’ as “The artworks presence in ‘authenticity’ as “The artworks presence in time and space, its unique existence at the time and space, its unique existence at the place where it happens to be” (Zac 18).place where it happens to be” (Zac 18).

Described this ‘unique’ presence as the Described this ‘unique’ presence as the ‘Aura’.‘Aura’.

•Stated that in the age of mechanical reproduction – the ‘Aura’ withered.

•In other words the artwork was dependant on the direct perception of a unique physical presence. – mechanically reproduced art could not have an ‘Aura’ of its own!!

•Many popular music based musicologists (such as Zac: (2001) consider the importance placed on analysing a record as a ‘transferral‘, not a withering of the Aura.

According to Zac - Even though the physical presence of the author may not be present – the record represents a transferral and translation of the artist’s Aura (p.19).

•Authenticity therefore is judged not on a unique instance, but a unique “arrangement of elements” (production techniques, song structure, background of the artists, etc), which make up The Record.

•Therefore - All instances of a modern work intended for reproduction are ‘original’.

•Mike Stoller’s “We did not write songs, we wrote records” (Zac: 21) statement depicts this conceptual change in notions of authenticity.

Although records may have originally Although records may have originally been conceived as a been conceived as a meansmeans of of reproduction – they are now realities in reproduction – they are now realities in themselves.themselves.

Compare an early recording to a post 55 Compare an early recording to a post 55 one. How is the recording process one. How is the recording process different?different?

Listen: Hot Fives (1926): How is the Listen: Hot Fives (1926): How is the recording different conceptually?recording different conceptually?

Autographic/Autographic/AllographicAllographic

A ‘genuine’ painting posits the brush A ‘genuine’ painting posits the brush strokes of the artist – the physical strokes of the artist – the physical traces of its making – a fusion of traces of its making – a fusion of ideaidea and and actionaction..This is an excellent example of an This is an excellent example of an autographicautographic artwork – it artwork – it cannot be cannot be copiedcopied without loosing some of its without loosing some of its meaning.meaning.AllographicAllographic – determined by a set of – determined by a set of relationships involving some form of relationships involving some form of notation (for example a score or a notation (for example a score or a book), through which the ‘original’ can book), through which the ‘original’ can be recovered any number of timesbe recovered any number of times

QuestionQuestion: If we examined a lead sheet : If we examined a lead sheet and the recording of one of the tracks and the recording of one of the tracks from Radiohead’s new album (both from Radiohead’s new album (both documented by the band) – which one documented by the band) – which one would it be ‘Autographic’ or would it be ‘Autographic’ or ‘Allographic’ in nature?‘Allographic’ in nature?

Modern records are Modern records are autographicautographic in in nature, and therefore should be a nature, and therefore should be a primaryprimary aspect of musicological analysis aspect of musicological analysis

The discrete layers of a The discrete layers of a record – Song, record – Song,

Arrangement, and TrackArrangement, and Track SongSong: Includes basic harmony (chords), melody, lyrics, : Includes basic harmony (chords), melody, lyrics,

and some degree of formal design.and some degree of formal design. Musical ArrangementMusical Arrangement: A specific setting of the song. : A specific setting of the song.

Includes instrumentation, specific parts, groove, etc.Includes instrumentation, specific parts, groove, etc. TrackTrack: The recording itself, but includes both song and : The recording itself, but includes both song and

arrangement.arrangement. Song and Arrangement can be altered at any point. This is Song and Arrangement can be altered at any point. This is

not true for The Track, as it is a fixed set of relationships not true for The Track, as it is a fixed set of relationships that is an autographic representation of its makers.that is an autographic representation of its makers.

Compositional process can be simultaneous (all three Compositional process can be simultaneous (all three parameters occurring at the same time.parameters occurring at the same time.

Or linear – Song – Arrangement – TrackOr linear – Song – Arrangement – Track Interesting to analyse how songwriters and producers Interesting to analyse how songwriters and producers

develop their ideasdevelop their ideas

The SongThe Song

Can can be modified and changed (arranged), Can can be modified and changed (arranged), without altering the songs basic character.without altering the songs basic character.

Songs can therefore easily be differentiated Songs can therefore easily be differentiated from particular recorded versions – because from particular recorded versions – because they do not involve any precise SOUND. they do not involve any precise SOUND.

Songs are the most recognisable of the three Songs are the most recognisable of the three parameters, and songwriters always get parameters, and songwriters always get principal credit on a principal credit on a recordrecord, even if they have , even if they have had nothing to do with its construction.had nothing to do with its construction.

Songwriters have historically held a privileged Songwriters have historically held a privileged position in Popular Music.position in Popular Music.

It is only recently that musicians (often It is only recently that musicians (often important factors in forging a musical work) important factors in forging a musical work) have gained royalties through the PPL (in the have gained royalties through the PPL (in the UK). UK).

Tin Pan Alley – songwriters were usually Tin Pan Alley – songwriters were usually separated from the artists who performed their separated from the artists who performed their songs. The songs therefore had an independent songs. The songs therefore had an independent life – not related to their recorded versions.life – not related to their recorded versions.

Many Blues artists were forerunners of the Many Blues artists were forerunners of the modern day singer/songwriter.modern day singer/songwriter.

Post Rock & Roll – songs became linked to Post Rock & Roll – songs became linked to specific recordings (Tracks) to a unprecedented specific recordings (Tracks) to a unprecedented degree. degree.

Example 1Example 1

Listen: Tutti Fruti – Little Richard Listen: Tutti Fruti – Little Richard and then Pat Boone. What is ‘wrong’ and then Pat Boone. What is ‘wrong’ about the latter?about the latter?

THE SOUND!!!THE SOUND!!!

Example 2Example 2 Listen again to early Stones cover of Buddy Listen again to early Stones cover of Buddy

Holly track – ‘Not Fade Away’ and compare to Holly track – ‘Not Fade Away’ and compare to original.original.

Listen to both tracks:Listen to both tracks: They are not only copying the song but the They are not only copying the song but the

arrangement and the sounds (What we will arrangement and the sounds (What we will later come to know as ‘The Track’).later come to know as ‘The Track’).

Where as Tin Pan Alley songs were often Where as Tin Pan Alley songs were often presented on lead sheets or played to presented on lead sheets or played to publishers on piano, modern popular music publishers on piano, modern popular music needs the added detail of Arrangement and needs the added detail of Arrangement and certainly Track to depict its potential. certainly Track to depict its potential.

The ArrangementThe Arrangement More detailed than the song.More detailed than the song. Includes aspects such as – instrumentation, Includes aspects such as – instrumentation,

style or groove, texture, timbre etc.style or groove, texture, timbre etc. In the context of modern record making, In the context of modern record making,

electronic processing forms part of electronic processing forms part of ‘arranging’ technique, thus overlapping ‘arranging’ technique, thus overlapping with The Track. with The Track.

Bands can sometimes aim to obtain a ‘live’ Bands can sometimes aim to obtain a ‘live’ sound, or alternatively experiment with sound, or alternatively experiment with arranging techniques that are impossible arranging techniques that are impossible to recreate live.to recreate live.

Example 1 – Yesterday Example 1 – Yesterday (1966)(1966)

Listen to Song.Listen to Song. Arranged for voice, guitar, and string quartet. Arranged for voice, guitar, and string quartet. Arrangement has a clear identity which was not Arrangement has a clear identity which was not

conceptualised as part of the Track, and could be conceptualised as part of the Track, and could be reproduced live or notated (The string parts were).reproduced live or notated (The string parts were).

However the process of recording inadvertently captured However the process of recording inadvertently captured both of McCartney's attempts at singing the song.both of McCartney's attempts at singing the song.

The fact that the strings were overdubbed at a different The fact that the strings were overdubbed at a different ‘time’ makes this work different from a recording of a ‘time’ makes this work different from a recording of a live performance.live performance.

This soundscape is This soundscape is specific to recorded soundspecific to recorded sound, even , even though it sounds like it could be played live – the details though it sounds like it could be played live – the details dictate otherwisedictate otherwise..

Example 2 – Example 2 – Strawberry FieldsStrawberry Fields

Originally presented to band as gentle guitar/voice.Originally presented to band as gentle guitar/voice. Arranged by band into typical guitar/bass/drum format (apart Arranged by band into typical guitar/bass/drum format (apart

from mellotron and flute).from mellotron and flute). George Martin then rearranges entire piece to include George Martin then rearranges entire piece to include

trumpets and cellos, in addition to some percussion and trumpets and cellos, in addition to some percussion and reversed tape effects.reversed tape effects.

Lennon decided he liked the beginning of the first version and Lennon decided he liked the beginning of the first version and the end of the 2the end of the 2ndnd (even though they were in different keys) – (even though they were in different keys) – asked Martin to join them together. asked Martin to join them together.

Martin sped one up, slowed the other down, and spliced them Martin sped one up, slowed the other down, and spliced them around one minute into the song (the word “going”).around one minute into the song (the word “going”).

This arrangement therefore brings together head This arrangement therefore brings together head arrangement, studio manipulation, and orchestration into a arrangement, studio manipulation, and orchestration into a collection of compositional modes. collection of compositional modes.

It is of course – impossible to play live!It is of course – impossible to play live!

The TrackThe Track

The recording itself.The recording itself. It therefore includes the other two It therefore includes the other two

parameters.parameters.

When we hear the record, we experience both When we hear the record, we experience both Song and Arrangement through the Track.Song and Arrangement through the Track.

Very important to realise that Song and Very important to realise that Song and Arrangement retain ontological independence (we Arrangement retain ontological independence (we can analyse both). can analyse both).

They potentially have specific modes of They potentially have specific modes of representation (lead sheet, performance, etc) representation (lead sheet, performance, etc) outside of the Record.outside of the Record.

These modes of representation can change over These modes of representation can change over time – IE one may decide to alter the form of the time – IE one may decide to alter the form of the song, or the instrumentation of the arrangementsong, or the instrumentation of the arrangement

This is not the case for the Track – this is a fixed This is not the case for the Track – this is a fixed set of relationships, a mix of action and intent – set of relationships, a mix of action and intent – AUTOGRAPHIC!AUTOGRAPHIC!

It is interesting to consider how these three It is interesting to consider how these three parameters can potentially interrelate in the parameters can potentially interrelate in the compositional process, and more importantly howcompositional process, and more importantly how the Song and Arrangement are influenced by the the Song and Arrangement are influenced by the Autographic process. Autographic process.

When song writing and recording When song writing and recording originally came together they were originally came together they were sequential processes – often due to sequential processes – often due to financial implications (Studios were financial implications (Studios were expensive)expensive)

With the advent of the home studio, With the advent of the home studio, the process has become more the process has become more symbiotic and interchangeable.symbiotic and interchangeable.

For this reason, it is essential to For this reason, it is essential to consider the whole Record (Song, consider the whole Record (Song, Arrangement, and Track) as the focus Arrangement, and Track) as the focus of musicological analysis. of musicological analysis.

Musical TraditionsMusical Traditions Echard differentiates between the following:Echard differentiates between the following: ClichésClichés – Strongly associated with tradition. Even when – Strongly associated with tradition. Even when

heard outside with features related to another tradition, heard outside with features related to another tradition, it still serves as a reference to its own. For example:it still serves as a reference to its own. For example:

Do-Wop vocalsDo-Wop vocals Chuck Berry guitar licksChuck Berry guitar licks Particular types of clothingParticular types of clothing A particular riff or harmonic progression (1 6 2 5)A particular riff or harmonic progression (1 6 2 5) Typical FeaturesTypical Features – an integral aspect of the tradition, – an integral aspect of the tradition,

but not unique. They connote a tradition, but not but not unique. They connote a tradition, but not exclusively. For example:exclusively. For example:

A dominant acoustic guitar could be associated with A dominant acoustic guitar could be associated with Blues, Country, Folk.Blues, Country, Folk.

The acoustic guitar in rock therefore has a The acoustic guitar in rock therefore has a range of associations. range of associations.

Clichés are Clichés are more specificmore specific, and therefore can , and therefore can leave less space for further distinctive leave less space for further distinctive elaborations. More shallow!elaborations. More shallow!

Typical Features – less definite, and Typical Features – less definite, and therefore deeper. therefore deeper. More potential More potential associationsassociations..

Echard believes that clichés make it more Echard believes that clichés make it more difficult for an artist to be considered unique, difficult for an artist to be considered unique, as the paradigms come with so many as the paradigms come with so many identifiable associations. identifiable associations.

Style,Genre and Style,Genre and TraditionTradition

Important to realise that the Important to realise that the type of activitytype of activity has much to do has much to do with how one can describe a musical paradigm as a style, with how one can describe a musical paradigm as a style, genre, or tradition.genre, or tradition.

StyleStyle – a conventional or familiar – a conventional or familiar musicalmusical pattern of pattern of structural organisationstructural organisation interpreted as the distinctive mark interpreted as the distinctive mark of specific of specific productive contextsproductive contexts – –

These ‘productive contexts’ could be:These ‘productive contexts’ could be: Individual artists/bands (Queen, Led Zeppelin, etc)Individual artists/bands (Queen, Led Zeppelin, etc) A particular movement (Punk, Heavy Metal, etc)A particular movement (Punk, Heavy Metal, etc) An historical or geographical location (For example An historical or geographical location (For example

‘Harlam Stride’, ‘Bebop’, Hip Hop, Manchester etc).‘Harlam Stride’, ‘Bebop’, Hip Hop, Manchester etc). It is essentially the ability to recognise consistent It is essentially the ability to recognise consistent

tendencies in musical structural organisation, and to link tendencies in musical structural organisation, and to link them to points of origin (Echard: 59them to points of origin (Echard: 59))

GenreGenre – The work is grouped and discussed – The work is grouped and discussed according to its according to its emotional, social and/or cultural emotional, social and/or cultural functionfunction..

TraditionTradition – Individuals people, places, times, social – Individuals people, places, times, social groups, and correlates them to styles and genres. groups, and correlates them to styles and genres.

Therefore, an aspect such as the riff form “Smoke Therefore, an aspect such as the riff form “Smoke On The Water”, could be potentially described as all On The Water”, could be potentially described as all three:three:

1) A distorted riff, played in parallel 5ths, which was 1) A distorted riff, played in parallel 5ths, which was to become an archetypical cliché of the Heavy Metal to become an archetypical cliché of the Heavy Metal movement. (A style)movement. (A style)

2) Dark sounding, often performed by white 2) Dark sounding, often performed by white musicians from a working class background. (genre)musicians from a working class background. (genre)

3) A song which helped establish Black Sabbath as 3) A song which helped establish Black Sabbath as pioneers of Heavy Metal, influencing the music pioneers of Heavy Metal, influencing the music profoundly over the last 30+ years (Tradition).profoundly over the last 30+ years (Tradition).

Important to realise that a term such as Important to realise that a term such as ‘Rock’ can indicate a style, genre or tradition.‘Rock’ can indicate a style, genre or tradition.

Also important to realise that the boundaries Also important to realise that the boundaries between these categories are permeable.between these categories are permeable.

Walser describes genre as an “horizon of Walser describes genre as an “horizon of expectations” (27) – never static fulfilments expectations” (27) – never static fulfilments of conventional norms.of conventional norms.

This This dialogicdialogic perspective of style, genre, and perspective of style, genre, and tradition enables you to undergo a similar tradition enables you to undergo a similar process to how the categories were process to how the categories were established in the first place.established in the first place.

The The personalitypersonality of any piece of music, is in of any piece of music, is in part due to its relationship with people, part due to its relationship with people, places, times, and ideas.places, times, and ideas.

Each piece of music has numerous textural Each piece of music has numerous textural strands that potentially have their own strands that potentially have their own persona. The piece can be regarded as a persona. The piece can be regarded as a dialogue between these voices.dialogue between these voices.

The music can be regarded as The music can be regarded as intermusical, intermusical, referring to other music, social practices, referring to other music, social practices, emotional meaning in a discursive rather emotional meaning in a discursive rather than absolute way. than absolute way.

A dialogic perspective takes away the A dialogic perspective takes away the dilemma of discussing either the text or its dilemma of discussing either the text or its social function. It enables us to discuss both. social function. It enables us to discuss both.

Musical ideas can therefore come to life by Musical ideas can therefore come to life by relating them to circumstances through relating them to circumstances through which they were forged – this is ‘which they were forged – this is ‘Post Post StructuralismStructuralism..

Starting points/food for Starting points/food for thoughtthought

Ask yourself - is the style:-Ask yourself - is the style:- Regressive:Regressive: IE – Indie, Trad Jazz IE – Indie, Trad Jazz

revival. Post Modern.revival. Post Modern. Formative:Formative: A piece that is A piece that is

influential in forming a new style of influential in forming a new style of music.music.

ConsolidatoryConsolidatory: Simply a piece that : Simply a piece that consolidates the style.consolidates the style.

InnovatoryInnovatory: New Music!: New Music!

This argument could be extended by This argument could be extended by examining how Innovation examining how Innovation (Originality?) becomes Convention (Originality?) becomes Convention (Authentic).(Authentic).

CreativityCreativity: To engage with the : To engage with the unforeseen, unforeseen, but notbut not the the unforeseeable?unforeseeable?

OriginalityOriginality: To engage with the : To engage with the unforeseen unforeseen andand the unforeseeable? the unforeseeable?

Nattiez considers 3 levels of musicological Nattiez considers 3 levels of musicological analysis:analysis:

1) Immanent – What actually occurs in the music1) Immanent – What actually occurs in the music 2) Poietic – How music appears from the vantage 2) Poietic – How music appears from the vantage

point of those producing itpoint of those producing it 3) Esthetic – How music appears from the 3) Esthetic – How music appears from the

vantage point of listener.vantage point of listener.

Most essays consider factors 1 & 3. How are they Most essays consider factors 1 & 3. How are they different?different?

Moore’s vertical ‘layers’ of Moore’s vertical ‘layers’ of RockRock

‘‘High Frequency Melody’ (Voice or High Frequency Melody’ (Voice or melodic instrument)melodic instrument)

‘‘Harmonic Filler’ (Piano/Guitar)Harmonic Filler’ (Piano/Guitar) ‘‘Explicit Rhythmic Layer’ Explicit Rhythmic Layer’

(Drums/Percussion)(Drums/Percussion) ‘‘Low Register Melody’ (Bass)Low Register Melody’ (Bass)

Could also consider music in terms of Could also consider music in terms of ‘foreground’ and ‘background’ material.‘foreground’ and ‘background’ material.

Identifying RepetitionIdentifying Repetition Middleton identifies two types: Middleton identifies two types:

DiscursiveDiscursive – Phrase or longer – Phrase or longer MusematicMusematic – Small cells – Small cells

This terminology can be elaborated to include:This terminology can be elaborated to include: SequenceSequence SentenceSentence FormForm Phrase – Answering PhrasePhrase – Answering Phrase MotifMotif

Basic musicological Basic musicological questions to ask:questions to ask:

How does instrumentation interrelate to form a style How does instrumentation interrelate to form a style – i.e. how do bass and drums work together?– i.e. how do bass and drums work together?

Is the feel shuffle or straight?Is the feel shuffle or straight? What are the nature of specific sounds? For example:What are the nature of specific sounds? For example: Example 1Example 1 - how is a guitar sound produced? Is it - how is a guitar sound produced? Is it

clean/distorted, acoustic/electric, clean/distorted, acoustic/electric, effected/unaffected, valve/transistor? effected/unaffected, valve/transistor?

Example 2Example 2 - How is a vocal sound produced? - How is a vocal sound produced? Trained/Untrained, Black/White, English/American, Trained/Untrained, Black/White, English/American, Head/Chest, Pure/Vibrato, On the beat/Off the beat, Head/Chest, Pure/Vibrato, On the beat/Off the beat, natural/falsetto?natural/falsetto?

Consider how important specific elements are. For Consider how important specific elements are. For example is the harmonic structure incidental or example is the harmonic structure incidental or important, is the bass line an integral aspect of the important, is the bass line an integral aspect of the song?song?

How do you think the piece has been How do you think the piece has been composed and on what instrument? – listen for composed and on what instrument? – listen for ergonomic clichés.ergonomic clichés.

What flexibility do the musicians have? Is the What flexibility do the musicians have? Is the meaning of the music ‘meaning of the music ‘IntentionalIntentional’ - (enabling ’ - (enabling some freedom within an overall framework), or some freedom within an overall framework), or ‘ ‘ExtentionalExtentional’ (Pure notated music) ’ (Pure notated music)

Consider the 3 dimensions of sound: Consider the 3 dimensions of sound: Frequency (vertical pitch)Frequency (vertical pitch) Position (horizontal positioning)Position (horizontal positioning) Depth/DistanceDepth/Distance

Some final ThoughtsSome final Thoughts

Remember that interpretation of music is Remember that interpretation of music is semantic and very personal. Adorno identifies semantic and very personal. Adorno identifies 6 types of listener. The following are relevant 6 types of listener. The following are relevant regarding analysis:regarding analysis:

‘‘ExpertExpert’ – able to comprehend the full ’ – able to comprehend the full musicological complexity of a piece of musicmusicological complexity of a piece of music

‘‘EmotionalEmotional’ – uses music as a trigger for ’ – uses music as a trigger for personal emotions.personal emotions.

‘‘EntertainerEntertainer’ – listens to music as ’ – listens to music as background.background.

It is important to realise that many It is important to realise that many ‘styles’ are informed as much by ‘styles’ are informed as much by extraneous factors as they are extraneous factors as they are musicological. I.e.musicological. I.e.

Interface with ‘Tradition’Interface with ‘Tradition’ Dress Codes (Be-Bop, Punk)Dress Codes (Be-Bop, Punk) Production Techniques (Indie, Production Techniques (Indie,

Motown)Motown)

This multidimensionality makes music This multidimensionality makes music difficult to analyse. difficult to analyse.

Traditional Musicology determines the Traditional Musicology determines the meaning of music to be ‘internal’ (The ‘text’), meaning of music to be ‘internal’ (The ‘text’), whist sociologists believe it to be external whist sociologists believe it to be external (The ‘Context’). Modern techniques bring (The ‘Context’). Modern techniques bring these factors together, as in reality they both these factors together, as in reality they both inform each other.inform each other.

David Bracket labels these contexts ‘Primary David Bracket labels these contexts ‘Primary Signification’ and ‘Secondary Signification’.Signification’ and ‘Secondary Signification’.

Reminder of ModelsReminder of Models Diachronic AnalysisDiachronic Analysis – Time based. For – Time based. For

example comparing a single piece as it example comparing a single piece as it progresses or comparing a re arrangement of progresses or comparing a re arrangement of a work written 20 years earlier.a work written 20 years earlier.

Synchronic AnalysisSynchronic Analysis – Without reference to – Without reference to historical context. This could be analysing a historical context. This could be analysing a single piece without reference to anything single piece without reference to anything else, or examining a ‘snapshop’ of a mix – else, or examining a ‘snapshop’ of a mix – without reference to time.without reference to time.

EmicEmic – Consider the piece in relation to other – Consider the piece in relation to other music within the genremusic within the genre

EticEtic – Consider the piece individually. – Consider the piece individually.