Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering

A. K. Lakshminarayanan  Sridhar Idapalapati · M. Vasudevan    Editors

Advances in Materials and MetallurgySelect Proceedings of ICEMMM 2018

Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering

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A. K. Lakshminarayanan • Sridhar IdapalapatiM. VasudevanEditors

Advances in Materialsand MetallurgySelect Proceedings of ICEMMM 2018

123

EditorsA. K. LakshminarayananDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringSSN College of EngineeringChennai, India

Sridhar IdapalapatiNanyang Technological UniversitySingapore, Singapore

M. VasudevanIndira Gandhi Centre for Atomic ResearchKalpakkam, India

ISSN 2195-4356 ISSN 2195-4364 (electronic)Lecture Notes in Mechanical EngineeringISBN 978-981-13-1779-8 ISBN 978-981-13-1780-4 (eBook)https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1780-4

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018949339

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or partof the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmissionor information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilarmethodology now known or hereafter developed.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in thispublication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt fromthe relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in thisbook are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor theauthors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein orfor any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard tojurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

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Preface

The Two-Day International Conference on “Engineering Materials, Metallurgy andManufacturing” (ICEMMM 2018) is organized by the Department of MechanicalEngineering, SSN College of Engineering, Kalavakkam, Chennai. The adventof the digital age is seeing a robust growth of research in smart materials andtechnologies, while the manufacturing processes ensure making these new ageproducts and prototypes. The need for energy savings, environment protection, andgreen-rated processes are further accelerators in the right direction. We are thereforehappy to organize the International Conference on Engineering Materials,Metallurgy and Manufacturing—ICEMMM 2018, on February 15–16, 2018, in ouresteemed institution. The aim and scope of the conference is to provide a robustplatform for academicians, researchers, scientists, and students to present theirongoing research work in cutting-edge areas of materials, metallurgy, and manu-facturing. It is also the endeavor of this conference to bring to the forefront theseminal research works in these key areas by the eminent scholars worldwide andprovide them an opportunity to share their success stories with an earnest audience.This conference hopes to provide enough food for thought on the challenges facedby the industry and eagerly awaits the amalgamation of ideas and solutions toaddress the current and future requirements. We sincerely hope all the delegateswill cherish the exchange of new ideas and reap considerable benefits from theface-to-face interaction and the potential future networking.

Chennai, India A. K. LakshminarayananSingapore Sridhar IdapalapatiKalpakkam, India M. Vasudevan

v

ICEMMM 2018—Core Organizing Committee

Conveners

Dr. K. S. Vijay Sekar, Associate ProfessorDr. A. K. Lakshminarayanan, Associate Professor

Co-conveners

Dr. L. Poovazhagan, Associate ProfessorDr. M. Dhananchezian, Associate ProfessorDr. K. Jayakumar, Associate Professor

vii

Acknowledgements

We express our gratitude to the management of SSN Institutions for giving us theopportunity to organize this important conference and also thank all the delegatesfor making this event a grand success. We thank the keynote speakers; conferencechairs; advisory, program, and technical committees; reviewers; colleagues; thecollege administration; our friends; students; and well-wishers for making this eventa memorable one. We thank Springer for having consented to publish our papersthrough two book volumes. We thank one and all.

ix

Contents

Sliding Wear Response of Typical Bearing Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Ram Naresh, Ankit Aman, Anuj Gupta and S. Sivarajan

Investigating and Enhancing the Properties of BiodegradablePolymer Cassava Starch with Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styreneby the Addition of Cardanol Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9T. Panneerselvam, T. Prasanna Vengatesh and S. Raghuraman

Investigation on the Microstructure and Mechanical Propertiesof AA6082/TiO2 Surface Composites Produced by FrictionStir Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19Deepak Sandar, Rishika Chatterjee, R. Jayendra Bharathiand Peddavarapu Sreehari

Microstructure Evolution and Mechanical Properties of Al 1050/Al5083 Laminate Composites Produced by AccumulativeRoll Bonding Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29L. Poovazhagan, P. Ruthran, S. Sreyas, A. Thamizharasan and S. Thejas

Synthesis and Characterization of Nano-Glass ParticlesReinforced AZ91D Magnesium Alloy Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39G. Anbuchezhiyan, B. Mohan and T. Muthuramalingam

Microstructure and Abrasive Wear Behavior of Copper–BoronCarbide Nanocomposites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47L. Poovazhagan, H. Jeffrey Thomas and M. Selvaraj

On Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Concretes with Rubberas Partial Replacement to Well-Graded ConventionalAggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57Srinath Rajagopalan, P. Sreehari, B. Mahalingamand K. Mohammed Haneefa

xi

Effect of Crumb Rubber on Inorganic and High CompressibleClay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67S. V. Sivapriya and N. Charumathy

Hot Deformation Studies of Al–Cu–Mg Powder MetallurgyAlloy Composite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75Sai Mahesh Yadav Kaku and Asit Kumar Khanra

Evaluation of Vacuum Arc Melted-Powder MetallurgyAl–ZrB2 Composite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83Sai Mahesh Yadav Kaku

Interlaminar Fracture Behaviour of Hybrid Laminates Stackedwith Carbon/Kevlar Fibre as Outer Layers and GlassFibre as Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91A. Arockia Julias and Vela Murali

Microstructural Analysis and Simulation Studies of Semi-solidExtruded Al–Cu–Mg Powder Metallurgy Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101Katti Bharath, Asit Kumar Khanra and M. J. Davidson

Mechanical and Tribological Properties of A356/Al2O3/MoS2Hybrid Composites Synthesized Through Combined Stirand Squeeze Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115K. Sekar, M. Manohar and K. Jayakumar

Synthesis and Characterization of TiB2–SiC CeramicComposite Produced Through Spark Plasma Sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127P. G. HariKrishnan and K. Jayakumar

Finite Element Analysis of High-Speed Machiningof CFRP Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137K. Gobivel, K. S. Vijay Sekar and G. Prabhakaran

Characterization of Mechanical and Thermal Propertiesin Soda–Lime Glass Particulate Reinforced LM6Alloy Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149M. R. Shivakumar and N. V. R. Naidu

Tribo Performance of Brake Friction Composite with StainlessSteel Fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159K. Sathickbasha, A. S. Selvakumar, M. A. Sai Balaji, B. Surya Rajanand MD Javeed Ahamed

Influence of Stacking Sequence on Free Vibration Characteristicsof Epoxy-Based Flax/Sisal Composite Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171R. Murugan, N. Nithyanandan and V. Sathya

xii Contents

Influence of Cryogenic Treatment on As-Cast AZ91+1.5 wt%WCMg-MMNC Wear Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185P. Karuppusamy, K. Lingadurai and V. Sivananth

Dynamic Mechanical Analysis of Sub-micron Size Flyash ParticlesFilled Polyester Resin Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199P. Nantha Kumar, A. Rajadurai and T. Muthuramalingam

Influence of Copper Chills and Pouring Temperatureon Mechanical Properties of LM6 Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207D. M. Wankhede, B. E. Narkhede, S. K. Mahajan and C. M. Choudhari

Influence of Deep Cryogenic Treatment on the WearBehaviour of Different Al–Si Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217Bhanuchandar Pagidipalli, Chandan Nashine and Pratik S. Bhansali

Inverse Estimation of Interfacial Heat Transfer CoefficientDuring the Solidification of Sn-5wt%Pb Alloy Using EvolutionaryAlgorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227P. S. Vishweshwara, N. Gnanasekaran and M. Arun

Tractable Synthesis of Graphene Oxide by ElectrochemicalExfoliation Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239Azmeera Srinivasanaik and Archana Mallik

Fact-Finding on Physical and Mechanical Properties of 3Y-TZPToughened Alumina (ZTA) Composites Incorporation ofFunctionalized Multi-walled Carbon Nanotubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249D. Manikandan and S. Renold Elsen

Effect of Carbon Nano Tubes (CNT) on Hardnessof Polypropylene Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261R. Ashok Gandhi, V. Jayaseelan, K. Palani Kumar, B. K. Raghunathand S. Krishnaraj

Dissimilar Friction Welding of AISI 304 Austenitic StainlessSteel and AISI D3 Tool Steel: Mechanical Properties andMicrostructural Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271Sangathoti Haribabu, Muralimohan Cheepu, Lakshmipathi Tammineni,Naresh Kumar Gurasala, Venkateswarlu Devuriand Venkata Charan Kantumuchu

Corrosion Studies on Friction–Welded Aluminium AlloyAA6061-T6 to Copper with Nickel Interlayer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283E. Ravikumar, N. Arunkumar, D. Ananthapadmanabanand V. Prabhakaran

Contents xiii

Experimental Investigation of Mechanical and TribologicalProperties of Al 7075—MoS2/ZrO2/Ni Hybrid Composite . . . . . . . . . . . 299Anish Ranjan and A. Shanmugasundaram

Comparative Hardness Studies and Microstructural Characterizationof 87Sn–7Zn–3Al–3In and 87.5Sn–6 Zn–2Al–2.5In Lead-FreeSoldering Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311D. Arthur Jebastine Sunderraj, D. Ananthapadmanabanand K. Arun Vasantha Geethan

Study of Austempered Ductile Iron (ADI) on VaryingAustempering Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325Gurmeet Singh, Sahil Sharma and Dilkaran Singh

Experimental Analysis of the Influence of Combined Heatand Cryogenic Treatment on Mechanical Properties of Steel . . . . . . . . . 335Chandan Nashine, S. Anbarasu, Pratik S. Bhansali and Gunamani sahoo

Mechanical Properties’ Evaluation of Hemp Fibre-ReinforcedPolymer Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343R. Bhoopathi and M. Ramesh

Influence of Homogenization Temperature on Mechanical Propertiesfrom Outer to Inner Zone of Al–Cu–Si Alloy Castings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353E. Naveen, S. Ilangovan and Sanjivi Arul

Mechanical Characterization and Robustness of Self-compactingConcrete with Quarry Dust Waste and Class-F Fly Ash as Fillers . . . . . 365B. Mahalingam, P. Sreehari, Srinath Rajagopalan, S. Ramana Gopaland K. Mohammed Haneefa

An Experimental Investigation of Al–Zn–Cu Alloy onHardness, Microstructure and Wear Parameter OptimizationUsing Design of Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375J. Sreejith and S. Ilangovan

Investigation of Mechanical/Tribological Properties of CompositeErsatz Articular Cartilage with Nano Fillers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385K. N. D. Malleswara Rao, R. Praveen Kumar, T. Venkateswararao,B. Sudheer Kumar and G. Babu Rao

A Study on Sliding Wear Behaviour of Polyamide SixNano-Composites with MWCNT and Copper Nano-Particles . . . . . . . . 395T. Anand and T. Senthilvelan

Study of Mechanical and Wear Behaviour of MonotectoidBased Zinc–Aluminium Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405V. Sathya Prabu and S. Ilangovan

xiv Contents

Evaluation of Mechanical and Thermal Behaviour ofParticle-Reinforced Metal Matrix Composite Using RepresentativeVolume Element Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415P. Vignesh, R. Krishna Kumar and M. Ramu

Understanding the Effect of Tool Rotational Speed on Microstructureand Mechanical Properties of Friction Stir Processed ZE41 GradeMagnesium Alloy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427Radhika Koganti, A. K. Lakshminarayanan and T. Ramprabhu

Effect of Bamboo Fiber on Mechanical Properties of FlyAsh with Polypropylene Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437T. Venkateswara Rao, M. Somaiah Chowdary, Ch. Siva Sanakara Babuand Ch. Mohan Sumanth

Corrosion and Magnetic Characterization of Electroplated NiFeand NiFeW Soft Magnetic Thin Films for MEMS Applications . . . . . . . 447S. Venkateshwaran, E. Selvakumar, P. Senthamil selvan, M. Selvambikai,R. Kannan and A. S. Pradeep

Prediction and Analysis of Microstructure and Mechanical PropertiesAfter Equal Channel Angular Pressing of EN 47 Spring Steel . . . . . . . . 455S. Ramesh Kumar, V. Hari Shankar, R. E. Krishna Sangeethaaand K. V. Sai Tejaswy

Microstructural Characteristics and Tensile Propertiesof Linear Friction-Welded AA7075 Aluminum Alloy Joints . . . . . . . . . . 467P. Sivaraj, M. Vinoth Kumar and V. Balasubramanian

Finite Element Analysis of Polymer Networks withHeterogeneous Random Porous Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477Mehdi Jafari, A. Praveen Kumar and Mohammad Khalili

Numerical and Experimental Evaluation of HyperelasticMaterial Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485T. Sukumar, B. R. Ramesh Bapu and D. Durga Prasad

Electrospinning of PAN–Hematite Composite Nanofiber . . . . . . . . . . . . 495S. J. Vijay, Alexandre Tugirumubano, Sun Ho Go, Lee Ku Kwacand Hong Gun Kim

Effect of Al–Si Filler Rods on the Microstructureand Mechanical Properties of TIG-Welded ThickAA5083-F Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503R. Aarthi and K. Subbaiah

Contents xv

About the Editors

Dr. A. K. Lakshminarayanan holds a Ph.D. in manufacturing engineering fromAnnamalai University, in the area of welding of ferritic stainless steel. He receivedthe Best Faculty Award from the Department of Mechanical Engineering, SSNcollege of Engineering for the years 2013–14, 2014–15, and 2015–16. His areas ofspecialization include materials joining, surface engineering, advancedmetal-forming processes, fatigue, and stress corrosion cracking of welds. He haspublished more than 50 research papers in international peer-reviewed journals, andhis research work has been presented at over 30 international and national confer-ences. He is also a reviewer for various international journals. He has successfullycompleted a sponsored external project on “Developing FSW tools to weld stainlesssteels,” funded under the Government of India’s DST Young Scientist Scheme.

Dr. Sridhar Idapalapati is currently Associate Professor at the School ofMechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University(NTU), Singapore. He is Cambridge Nehru Scholar and holds a Ph.D. in mechanicsof solids from the University of Cambridge and a first-class honors (HMT GoldMedal recipient) degree in mechanical engineering from Jawaharlal NehruTechnological University (JNTU), India. Prior to joining NTU, he worked asVisiting Scientist at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST),USA. His research interests include design with sandwich structures, compositematerials, powder consolidation, biomaterials, and hard tissue implants. Recently,he has also begun working on wind energy. He has published more than 70 papersin international journals and seven book chapters.

xvii

Dr. M. Vasudevan received his Ph.D. in metallurgical engineering from IITMadras, India. He currently holds the position of Section Head, Advanced WeldingProcesses and Modeling Section, Materials Technology Division, Indira GandhiCentre for Atomic Research (IGCAR), Kalpakkam. He is also Professor in theDepartment of Atomic Energy, Homi Bhabha National Institute. He is an expert inthe areas of welding nuclear structural materials and modeling weld phenomena. Hehas published more than 120 research papers in international journals and receivedthe Metallurgist of the Year Award from the Indian Institute of Metals in 2016.

xviii About the Editors

Sliding Wear Response of TypicalBearing Materials

Ram Naresh, Ankit Aman, Anuj Gupta and S. Sivarajan

Abstract Bearing performance is an important factor to improve efficiency ofpumps. Depending on specific pump requirements, pump producers have variousalternatives for selection of bearing materials. Little friction, slightest to no wear,low-power utilization, and extended life are important features for pump bearings.Serious attention must be given to the tribological evaluation of typical bearingmaterials. In this work, a pin-on-disk wear testing instrument is employed to studythe sliding wear response of phosphor bronze, nylon 6/6, brass, DLC-coated steel,and WC/C coated steel. The tests were performed with an applied load of 10 N andsliding velocity of 0.6 m/s. EN 31 steel heat treated to 55 HRC was selected as diskmaterial. The experiments are conducted as per ASTM G99 standards. The lowvalue of coefficient of friction was noticed in nylon 6/6 and DLC-coated steel.

Keywords Bearing material � Friction � Wear � Nylon � Coated steelBrass

1 Introduction

Pump performance is remarkably affected by the life and performance of bearings.Different materials have been attempted for bearing parts in pumps, automobileengines, general industrial use, marine diesel engines, hydraulic turbine, andelectrical generator shafts [1, 2]. Most of the bearing materials are still copperbased. Lead- and tin-based materials are also familiar [3]. Bearing materials withpolymer base surpassed conventional bearing materials. The more and more diffi-cult operating environment, which recent designs of pumps and engines havedictated on bearing material, have led to the use of unconventional and novelbearing materials. Low friction, wear resistance, cost, conformability, and long life

R. Naresh � A. Aman � A. Gupta � S. Sivarajan (&)School of Mechanical and Building Sciences, Vellore Institute of Technology,Chennai, Indiae-mail: sivarajan.s@vit.ac.in

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019A. K. Lakshminarayanan et al. (eds.), Advances in Materials and Metallurgy,Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering,https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1780-4_1

1

are the major factors that go with the choice of bearing materials. Traditionalbearing materials are quite expensive, and this requires a quest for low-pricedbearing materials. Steel and gray irons are less costly and easily available. Nitridingtreatment is applied to plain carbon steel and gray iron [4]. This treated steelperforms adequately in relation to traditional bearing materials.

Polymer materials with inherent lubricity are to a greater extent substitutingmetallic components in bearings where dry, corrosive, and abrasive environmentdevelops [5]. Polymers are able to take in impact loading and bending due to itselastic properties. In comparison to metals, the frictional coefficient of polymers isreliant on the load, reducing with increase in load. Surface adhesion and defor-mation are the factors that contribute to friction in polymers. Friction and wearproperties of bearing materials were tested in oil and gas lubricated condition byseveral researchers [6–10]. In the present paper, the frictional behaviors of phosphorbronze, brass, nylon 6/6, DLC-coated steel, and WC/C coated steel, in dry conditionhave been determined using a pin-on-disk tribometer with a uniform load of 10 Nand uniform sliding speed of 0.6 m/s.

2 Experimental Work

Friction and wear tests were conducted as per ASTM G99 standard [11]. For thepin-on-disk wear test, two specimens are used. One, a pin with a radiused tip, isarranged perpendicular to the flat circular disk. The testing apparatus brings aboutthe disk specimen to revolve about the disk center. The sliding track is a circle onthe disk surface. The plane of the disk was located horizontally. The pin specimenis pushed against the disk at a definite load by means of an arm and attachedweights. The present study is conducted in order to compare the frictional and wearunder dry environment for phosphor bronze, brass, nylon 66, DLC-coated steel, andWC/C coated steel, sliding on an EN31 (hardness 55 HRC).

Wear results were described as volume loss for the pin and the disk separately.The amount of wear was evaluated by measuring linear dimensions of both spec-imens before and after the test. The length change of the pin and the depth changeof the disk wear track are determined by stylus profiling. Linear wear values werechanged to wear volume using suitable geometric relations. Wear results wereacquired by performing a test for a chosen sliding distance, load, and speed. Thewear will depend upon factors such as the applied load, machine features, slidingspeed, sliding distance, environment, and the material properties. The system has aload cell that allows the coefficient of friction to be determined. The pin specimen iscylinder with a radiused tip. The circular disk has a diameter of 55 mm andthickness of 10 mm. A surface roughness of 0.8 lm is maintained. Attention mustbe taken in surface preparedness to prevent subsurface damage that modifies thematerial significantly. Friction and wear tests were conducted with an applied loadof 10 N and sliding speed of 0.6 m/s at room temperature.

2 R. Naresh et al.

Before measuring or weighing, the specimens were cleaned and dried. Attentionis taken to remove all dirt from the specimens. Non-chlorinated cleaning agents andsolvents are used for cleaning. The disk was inserted securely in the holding deviceso that the disk is fixed perpendicular to the axis of the revolution. The pin spec-imen was attached safely in its holder and adjusted so that the specimen is per-pendicular to the disk surface when in contact. The mass was added to the systemlever to establish the chosen force pressing the pin against the disk. The motor wasstarted, and the speed was adjusted to the wanted value while holding the pinspecimen out of contact with the disk. The motor was stopped. The revolutioncounter was fixed to the required number of revolutions. The test was started withthe pin and disk in contact under load. The test is stopped when the requirednumber of revolutions was carried out. The specimens were removed, and loosewear debris is cleaned. The pin and disk wear track dimensions were re-measuredaccurately. The test was repeated with extra specimen to acquire sufficient data forstatistically important results. Figure 1 shows the photo of pin-on-disk tribometer.Table 1 gives the properties of bearing material. The wear parameters were selectedas per previous literature studies.

Fig. 1 Photo of pin-on-disk tribometer

Sliding Wear Response of Typical … 3

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Wear Results

It is advantageous for a bearing material to display a low frictional coefficient andlow specific wear rate over a range of functional regime. The results of wear ofphosphor bronze sample depicted two contrasting regions as shown in Fig. 2. At thebeginning, the wear rate increased up to a sliding distance of 400 m as the originalsurface asperities are removed. Between 400 and 1000 m of sliding distance, theplastic deformation formed along the wear test causes delamination and the wearrate is escalated. The results of the wear of brass sample show three contrastingregions as shown in Fig. 2. In the initial runoff period, limited wear rate is observedas the original surface asperities are taken off. The elimination of surface asperitiesis followed by a polished surface when the sliding distance is between 400 and 600after a sliding distance of 600 m; there is a steady-state wear. The results of wear ofnylon sample showed negligible wear for a sliding distance of 1000 m.

The plot of the DLC-coated specimen (Fig. 3) although starts at zero and con-tinues to possess negative values for a time period of 400 s. After a transient statefor 15 s, steady-state interaction is achieved. This negative sign of wear implies thatthe disk with which the pin is interacting is being worn off by the coating. This is ademonstration of abrasive wear mechanism where the pin is abrading the disk. Aftera time of 400 s, the coating has worn off and the substrate material of the pin beginsinteracting with the disk. This phenomenon can be avoided by providing aninterlayer of nitride coating as suggested in [8]. The wear track displays the pres-ence of foreign material which corresponds to the wear particles from the pin. Thispresence indicates that during the interaction of the surfaces, adhesive wear hastaken place during the steady-state wear phase which was followed by abrasivewear between the specimens after the coating was extinguished. The wear rate wascalculated to be 1.4893 � 10−6 m2/N.

The plot of WC-C (Fig. 3) shows similar behavior to DLC as it starts at zero andcontinues to possess a negative value up to a time elapse of 200 s. The steady-state

Table 1 Material specification

S.no.

Material Composition (%wt.) Hardness Density(g/cu cm)

1. Phosphor bronze(UNS C51000)

Cu 98, Sn 1.2, P 0.30, Zn 0.35, Fe0.10, Pb, 0.05

78(BHN)

8.8

2. Brass(UNS C46400)

Cu 64.5, Zn 35.3, Fe 0.05, Pb 0.15 58 BHN 8.55

3. Nylon 66 Aliphatic polyamide 80 shoreD

1.15

4. EN-31(hardened) Fe 96.32, Cr 1.6, C.90, Mn 0.75, Si0.35, S 0.040, P 0.040

60 HRC 8.86

4 R. Naresh et al.

Fig. 2 Variation of wear with sliding distance for phosphor bronze (PB), brass (BRS), and nylon6/6 (Nyl)

Fig. 3 Variation of wear with time for DLC-coated steel and WC/C coated steel

Sliding Wear Response of Typical … 5

operation culminates at 200 s which indicates the exhaustion of the coating. Theinteraction of the pin substrate material and disk begins at this point and reachessteady-state phase after a short period of operation in the transient phase. The weartrack formed on the disk by this specimen illustrates material transfer from the pin.This is similar to the case of the DLC pin which shows that the material transferoccurred during the steady-state interaction between the coating and disk. This isfollowed by the interaction between the pin substrate material and disk. Wear ratewas calculated to be 1.7937 � 10−6 m2/N.

3.2 Friction Results

The fluctuation of coefficient of friction with sliding distance is presented in Fig. 4.For phosphor bronze, the coefficient of friction is 0.3 at the beginning of the test andthen varied in the range of 0.9–1.2 for the remaining sliding distance. The frictioncoefficient of brass was around 0.3 for most of the sliding distance tested. In case ofbrass, transfer of material due to adhesion at the initial stage of sliding has con-trolled the coefficient of friction. When brass pin slides on steel, friction coefficientis governed by adhesion through shearing of brass pin asperities. Subsequently, thewear debris produced in the wear process is formed of brass only. No traces of steelare present in either the worn surface of brass pin or the debris. The frictioncoefficient for nylon is 0.28 for most of the sliding distance tested.

Fig. 4 Variation of coefficient of friction with sliding distance for phosphor bronze (PB), brass(BRS), and nylon 6/6 (Nyl)

6 R. Naresh et al.

The fluctuations of coefficient of friction with time for DLC-coated steel andWC/C coated steel are shown in Fig. 5. The plot of DLC varies indeterminately for350 s which is followed by the attainment of steady state. The mean value offriction coefficient is 0.387. The plot of WC-C varies in the transient state for 200 safter which it reaches steady state. The average value of friction coefficient is 0.803.The wear volume loss of pin and disk offers another perspective on analyzing theperformance of the coatings. As a general rule of thumb, the greater the volume lossof disk, the more abrasive the pin is and the more the pin can endure. The more thepin volume loss, the more the susceptible it is to wear out soon and less it canendure. The pin and disk wear results are shown in Table 2.

Fig. 5 Variation of coefficient of friction with time for DLC-coated steel and WC/C coated steel

Table 2 Pin and disk wear for phosphor bronze, brass, and nylon 6/6

S.No.

Material Load(in N)

Slidingdistance(m)

Wearvolume(10−3

cm3)

Pin wearvolume(10−3

mm3)

Diskwearvolume(mm3)

Wearrate(10−8

cm2)

Wearresistance(108

cm−2)

1. Phosphorbronze(UNSC51000)

10 1000 2.04545 92.94 4.385 2.0454 0.4888

2. Brass(UNSC46400)

10 1000 6.7836 1020 5.089 6.7836 0.1474

3. Nylon 10 1000 1.7391 12.27 2.6 1.7391 0.5750

Sliding Wear Response of Typical … 7

4 Conclusions

Friction and wear of different bearing materials under dry conditions were exam-ined utilizing a pin-on-disk tribometer. The following conclusions were drawn.

1. The maximum value of friction coefficient was observed in phosphor bronzebearing while the minimum value of friction coefficient was observed in nylon66 bearing without lubrication.

2. From wear rate results, maximum values were recorded for brass and theminimum values were recorded for nylon 66.

3. DLC-coated steel can be an excellent choice as bearing material under dryconditions since it recorded an average coefficient of 0.383, while it is inad-visable to use WC/C coated steel in dry condition for bearings.

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to the Management of VIT, Chennai for theirsupport to carry out this research work.

References

1. Nagata M, Fujita M, Yamada M, Kitahara T (2012) Evaluation of tribological properties ofbearing materials for marine diesel engines utilizing acoustic emission technique. Tribol Intl46:183–189

2. Gebretsadik DW, Hardell J, Prakash B (2015) Tribological performance of tin-based overlayplated engine bearing materials. Tribol Intl 92:281–289

3. Zeren A (2007) Embeddability behaviour of tin-based bearing material in dry sliding. MaterDes 28:2344–2350

4. Rae AR, Marappan R, Mohanram PV (1992) Performance studies on treated steels assubstitutes for conventional bearing materials. Wear 155:15–29

5. Thorp JM (1982) Friction of some commercial polymer-based bearing materials against steel.Tribol Intl 69–74

6. Abdollaha MFB, Mazlan MAA, Amiruddina H, Tamaldin N (2013) Frictional behavior ofbearing material under gas lubricated conditions. Proc Eng 68:688–693

7. Goudarzi MM, Jahromi SAJ, Nazarboland A (2009) Investigation of characteristics oftin-based white metals as a bearing material. Mater Des 30:2283–2388

8. Feyzullahoglu E, Sakiroglu N (2010) The wear of aluminium-based journal bearing materialsunder lubrication. Mater Des 31:2532–2539

9. Miyajima T, Tanaka Y, Iwai Y, Kagohara Y, Haneda S, Takayanagi S, Katsuki H (2013)Friction and wear properties of lead-free aluminum alloy bearing material with molybdenumdisulfide layer by a reciprocating test. Tribol Intl 59:17–22

10. Kuanyshev M, Nuralin B, Salimov B, Kaukarov A, Murzagaliev A, Narikov K, Shakeshev B(2017) The improvement of friction bearing manufacturing technology by using copper alloy.Int J Adv Manuf Technol 88:317–324

11. ASTM G99 (2010) Standard test method for wear testing with a Pin-on-Disk Apparatus.ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA. www.astm.org

8 R. Naresh et al.

Investigating and Enhancingthe Properties of BiodegradablePolymer Cassava Starchwith Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styreneby the Addition of Cardanol Oil

T. Panneerselvam, T. Prasanna Vengatesh and S. Raghuraman

Abstract Biodegradable polymers are produced in a way to decay by the naturalcause of micro-living organisms. Cassava starch which is a biodegradable polymerused for biomedical, packaging items. But the molecular weight is less than otherbiodegradable polymers. The aim of this research work is to investigate the prop-erties of biodegradable polymer manufactured from cassava starch containing thecombination of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), a non-biodegradable polymerwith the cardanol oil, a bio-phenolic compound which is employed as the com-patibilizer. They are blended with melt blending process using injection moulding.The use of cardanol oil in the mixture resulted in increase in the level of com-patibility evidenced by increase in the intermolecular weight, and the results haveshown the substantial plasticizing effect, increase of mechanical properties(tensile strength, impact strength and flexural strength) and increase in the inter-molecular weight which will make from biodegradable property of ‘disposables’ toapplications for ‘durables’.

Keyword Biodegradable polymers � Acrylonitrile butadiene styreneCassava starch � Cardanol oil � Mechanical properties

T. Panneerselvam � T. P. Vengatesh (&) � S. RaghuramanSchool of Mechanical Engineering, SASTRA University,Thanjavur 613401, Tamilnadu, Indiae-mail: yohanprasanna1994@gmail.com

T. Panneerselvame-mail: tpansel@mech.sastra.edu

S. Raghuramane-mail: raghu@mech.sastra.edu

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019A. K. Lakshminarayanan et al. (eds.), Advances in Materials and Metallurgy,Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering,https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1780-4_2

9

1 Introduction

The polymers used nowadays are mostly non-biodegradable type based on theirchemical and physical properties. The degradation is mainly based on three cate-gories, namely, photodegradation, thermal degradation and biodegradation.Thermal and photodegradation are done by the natural effect of heat and light fromthe sun. The biodegradation is caused by the microorganisms. The biodegradationstarts from the fragmentation and ends with mineralization. The fragmentation is themechanical breaking of the substance, and mineralization is the chemical disinte-gration of the substance. Generally, the non-biodegradable materials do not undergobiodegradation [1]. These non-biodegradable polymers produce lots of wasteswhich are hazard to the nature and cannot be recycled. Hence, biodegradablepolymer is required.

The biodegradation can be carried out in different ways as per the standard,ASTM D883 [2]. Biodegradable plastic, called as a polymer composite, degradesby the nature of the living microorganisms (e.g. fungi and bacteria). Thebiodegradation process is happened by two different mechanisms, called biofrag-mentation and biomineralization. Biofragmentation, a phenomenon in which apolymeric material goes to macroscopic disintegration due to geological reasonsover the period of time or changed to fossil fuels in due course of time by the actionof microorganisms [3].

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), thermoplastic polymer, has widerapplications in the engineering field. ABS consists of styrene, butadiene andacrylonitrile. The ABS composition attributes to many characteristics like ease ofprocessing, toughness, rigidity, impact strength, etc. ABS is mainly used in auto-motive sector for manufacturing headlight housings, radiator grills, interior trimparts, consoles and instrument panels [4].

Cassava, starchy tuberous root comes under the Euphorbiaceous family and it islargely cultivated in tropical regions of Asia, America and Africa. Cassava starch isa thermoplastic material by polymerization with plasticizer, and it has compatibilityto produce as well as develop biodegradable polymers. The researchers havereported in their work about glycerol and water which can be used as a plasticizer inpreparing starch. But the use of starch in biodegradable polymers preparation forindustrial applications is scarce due to its low stability, lesser strength and poorprocessability. Even if it has limitations, the cassava starch could be used as amatrix material in composites preparation by the injection moulding process withsuitable reinforcements [5].

However, a polymer composite preparation requires an utmost care in selecting asuitable blending material. The blending material actually increases the miscibilityin order to attain homogeneity in the composite. Cardanol oil is precipitation ofliquid from cashew nut shell, and it is a type of phenol. It has a good compatiblecapacity which increases the intermolecular weight of the component [6]. Theprocess is done by the addition of hydrochloric acid, glycerine and sodiumhydroxide. The hydrochloric acid is used to accelerate the reaction. The glycerine is

10 T. Panneerselvam et al.

used to improve the glass transition temperature of the cassava starch. The sodiumhydroxide is used to neutralize the solution.

2 Experimental Works

2.1 Materials

ABS polymer was provided by Noor trading Mart, Trichy in form of black pellets.At the received condition, the density of ABS was measured to 1.04 g/cc and a meltflow index was found to be 23 g/10 min. Cassava starch (18 wt% amylose and 82wt% amylopectin) was supplied by Linga Starch Products, Salem. The cashew nutshell liquid (CNSL) was bought from Golden Chemicals Pvt. Ltd., Pondicherry.The glycerine, HCl and NaOH are received from Meenakshi Chemicals Pvt. Ltd.,Pondicherry.

2.2 Processing

Initially, the starch and the ABS pallets were dried at 50 °C for 24 h. After thisprocess is over, injection moulding was done. In the injection moulding, the starchand the ABS were initially introduced for melting and then they were blended. Thestarch/ABS mixing ratio was kept as constant at the rate of 80/20 wt% in order toget a good balance as well as to improve toughness property of a final polymerproduct. The other sample is prepared with the same ratio of starch/ABS with 5% ofcardanol oil. At the given ratio, the glycerine, NaOH and HCl were also added tothe polymer mixture. The blended starch/ABS was moulded by using ahand-operated injection moulding machine. Temperature of the mould was set to65 °C, and then pellets were poured into the cylinder for melting, nearly 5 min andfinally injected. For tensile testing, flexural testing and impact testing, the mouldwas prepared to 120 mm � 30 mm � 4 mm to meet the specimen preparation sizeneeded as per the ASTM standards [7].

2.3 Characterization

2.3.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to study the microstructure ofstarch/ABS blends. The surface is gold coated to avoid any sample degradation.The prepared surfaces were observed under various magnifications (500X 1000X,

Investigating and Enhancing the Properties … 11

2000X, 5000X and 10,000X). Testing was done at TESCAN Vega 3SEM CENTAB, SASTRA Deemed University.

2.3.2 Impact Testing

Izod impact test was carried out on Starch/ABS specimens to assess its impactstrength using an Izod impact testingmachine atMetmech engineering andAnalyticallaboratory, Chennai. The sample was cut to 65.5 mm � 12.5 mm � 2 mm with the45° V notch in the middle of length as per the ASTMD256 [8]. The sample was cut tothe standard size by the waterjet cutting at ALIND-waterjet cutting, Chennai.

2.3.3 Flexural Testing

The flexural strength test was performed to starch/ABS blends by the flexuralstrength testing machine at Omega Inspection and Analytical Laboratory, Chennai.The specimen size was 50 mm � 20 mm � 4 mm as per the ASTM D790 [9].

2.3.4 Tensile Testing

The tensile tests of elaborated starch/ABS blends were assessed by UniversalTesting Machine at Metmech Engineering and Analytical Laboratory, Chennai. Thespecimen was made to dog bone shape with 100 mm � 20 mm � 4 mm (6 mmbreadth in middle for 38 mm) as per the ASTM D638 [10]. The sample was cut tothe standard size by the waterjet cutting at ALIND-waterjet cutting, Chennai.

3 Results and Discussion

3.1 Morphology Observation

Morphological observations of starch/ABS composites were performed throughSEM to reveal the dispersion states of starch. Figure 1a shows the blends of starch/ABS (80/20 wt%) without cardanol oil and Fig. 1b shows the blends with cardanol,5 wt%. The image was taken in both 5000X magnification and 10,000X magnifi-cation. In this mixture, the glycerol increases the plasticizing capacity of starch inpreheating and mixing with ABS. But ABS is immiscible with starch because it isnot homogenous in nature. When the cardanol oil is mixed with the starch/ABSblends, it increases the blending of starch/ABS due to its compatible process.

The dots in the image are the starch which was not completely miscible state inthe image, Fig. 1a. But as shown in Fig. 1b the dots were gradually reduced due to

12 T. Panneerselvam et al.

the addition of cardanol oil. The blending of starch is high with ABS in the image,Fig. 1b. This is because of the compatible capacity of the cardanol oil. Figure 2c, dshows the deep investigation of the blending and the huge difference in blending.The smoothness of the blends is increased due to the addition of cardanol oil.

(a)

ABS

Starch

(b)

ABS

Starch

Fig. 1 Scanning electron micrographs 5000X of starch/ABS (80/20 wt%) blends a without andb with 5 wt% cardanol oil

(a)

ABS

Starch

(b)

ABS

Starch

Fig. 2 Scanning electron micrographs 10,000X of starch/ABS (80/20 wt%) blends c without andd with 5 wt% cardanol oil

Investigating and Enhancing the Properties … 13

The smooth surface of starch/ABS blends reveals the good compatibility after beingmixed with cardanol oil. From Figs. 1 and 2, it is inferred that the starch and ABSare immiscible but the cardanol oil has increased the compatible property of thestarch and ABS. So the blending of starch and ABS is high when cardanol oil ismixed.

3.2 Mechanical Properties Analysis

3.2.1 Impact Testing

Table 1 shows the impact test results of starch/ABS blends without and with car-danol oil. Compared to the impact strength of ABS, the results of blends are verylow. But a small increase in impact strength is observed when the cardanol oil ismixed with starch/ABS blends. This result shows that the addition of cardanol oilgives more impact strength to the polymer material. The starch/ABS blends are notfully miscible as shown in Fig. 1, but the bond between them is increased when thecardanol oil is mixed. This shows the advantage of compatible oil mixed in theblending process.

3.2.2 Flexural Testing

The flexural test results of starch/ABS blends are shown in Table 2 which showsthe bending strength and load-bearing capacity of the material. It is found thatthe load-bearing capacity is better for the material without mixing the oil, but thebending capacity of the material is high when the oil is mixed. This shows theflexibility of the material. Polymer requires more flexibility when compared to othermaterial. So the cardanol oil increases the bending property of the material, but itsbrittleness is high when it is compared to normal blend, and the breakage at loadgiven shows the brittleness of the material. Due to its high compatibility, itincreases the brittleness of the material.

Table 1 Impact test results

Sample no. Material Impact load (KJ/m2)

Sample 1 ABS + starch 0.22

Sample 2 ABS + starch + cardanol oil 0.24

Table 2 Flexural test results

Sample No. Material Flexural load (KN) Stroke (mm)

Sample 1 ABS + starch 0.124 4.75

Sample 2 ABS + starch + cardanol oil 0.118 5.65

14 T. Panneerselvam et al.

3.2.3 Tensile Testing

The tensile test shows huge variation of the blends without (Sample 1) and with(Sample 2) oil mixing. Figure 3 shows the tensile properties of the starch/ABSwithout cardanol oil (Sample 1).

The result shows that tensile strength of sample 1 is 16.99 MPa. The load is0.42 kN when the breakage is happened. The maximum displacement is observedto 2.62 mm, and the percent elongation is 2.75%. The strain rate is 6.55. So starch/ABS (80/20 wt%) blends cannot be used for the application, when the starch ismixed directly to the ABS.

Figure 4 shows the tensile test results of starch/ABS blends with cardanol oil(Sample 2). The load is 0.56 kN when breakage is happened, and this is compar-atively good to Sample 1. The displacement is 4.76 mm which is higher than the

Fig. 3 The UTM tensile test report on starch/ABS (80/20 wt%) blends without cardanol oil

Fig. 4 The UTM tensile test report on starch/ABS (80/20 wt%) blends with cardanol oil

Investigating and Enhancing the Properties … 15