A n I n t r o d u c t 1 o n t o

Frozen Ground

Engi • neer1ng

Orlando 8 . Andersland

M i c h i g a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y

Branko Ladanyi

E c o L e P o L y t e c h n i q u e o f t h e U n i v e r s i t é d e M o n t r é a L

CHAPMAN & HALL

I (f) p An lnternational Thomson Publishing Company

New York • Albany • Bonn • Boston • Cincinnati • Detriot • London • Madrid • Melbourne • Mexico City Pacific Grove • San Francisco • Singapore • Tokyo • Toronto • Washington

Contents

PREFACE

CHAPTER l. FROZEN GROUND

1.1 Frozen ground support systems Frozen earth wa/1, l ; Design considerations, 3

1.2 Seasonally and perennially frozen ground Cold regions: definition, 4; Subsurface temperatures, 4; Active Layer, 7; Permafrost, 8

1.3 Terrain features in permafrost areas Ground ice features, 10; Pattemed ground, 14

1.4 Engineering considerations Freezing process, 16; Thawing of frozen ground, 17; Frost action, 18; Useful aspects of frozen ground, 19; Ice as a construction materia[, 20 Problems

CHAPTER 2. PHYSICAL AND THERMAL PROPERTIES

2.1 Composition and structure of frozen ground Soil types, 23; Phase relationships, 24; Ice phase, 27; Partic/e size and size distribution, 28; Consistency of cohesive soils, 30

2.2 Soil classification Unified soil classification system, 31; Frozen soil classification, 35

2.3 Water-ice phase relationships Unfrozen water in frozen soil, 40; Effect of solutes on freezing, 42

2.4 SoiJ frost action Frost action process, 43; Frost susceptibility of soils, 45; Frost-heave forces, 50; Freeze-thaw effects on permeability, 51

l

l

4

lO

16

22

23

23

31

40

43

v

( (}/11('/11\

2.5 Thermal propcrtics Themwl conducticiry, 52; Heat capacity, 57; Thermal diffusil"ity, 59; Late/Il heat of fusion, 60; Thennal expansion (or contraction), 60 Problems

CHAPTER 3. HEAT FLOW IN SOILS

3.1 Heat transfer at the ground surface Clima tic factors, 64; Freezing (or thawing) indices, 66; Su1[ace n-factor, 67

3.2 Seasonal ground freezing (or thawing) Frost depth, 69; Thawing of frozen soil, 72; Design implications, 76

3.3 Temperature below cooled (or heated) areas Steady state heat flow, 82; Transient temperatures, 90; Periodic heat flow, 90

3.4 Thermal analysis: frozen ground support systems Single freeze pipe, 93; W ali formation, 97; Multiple rows of freeze pipes, 98

Problems

CHAPTER 4. THA W BEHA VIOR OF FROZEN GROUND

4.1 Thaw settlement

4.2 Consolidation of thawing soils Thaw consolidation, 105; Residua[ stress in thawing soils, 108

4.3 Thaw-consolidation in some layered systems Two layer soil problems, 113; Compressible soil over discrete ice layers, 115

Problems

CHAPTER 5. MECHANlCAL PROPERTIES OF FROZEN SOILS

5.1 Stress- strain- time and strength behavior Hydrostatic pressure effect on frozen soil behavior, 121; Shear stress effect on frozen

soil behauior, 122

5.2 Factors influencing creep and strength Creep of frozen soil under constant stress, 123; Stress-strain behauior under constant stra in rate, 125; l ce conteni effect on strength, l 26; No1mal pressure effect on strength, 127; Stra in rate effect on strength, 128; Temperature effect on strength, 130; Frozen soil behauior at cryogenic temperatures, 132

5.3 Analytical representation of creep and strength data Generai creep equation, 133; Strength of frozen soils, 137; Comparison with Vyalou 's creep and strength equations, 139; Norma! pressure effect on creep and strength, 139; Salinity effect on frozen soil creep and strength, 143

5.4 Frozen soil behavior in uniaxial tension

5.5 Deformability of frozen soils

5.6 Compressibility of frozen soils Problems

52

62

64

64

69

82

93

98

102

102

105

113

119

121

121

123

132

144

146

148 148

CHAPTER 6. CONSTRUCTION GROUND FREEZING

6.1 Design considerations Ground freezing applications, 15 l; Soil conditions. l 52; Grmmdwater flow, 155; Ground mocement, 155

6.2 Freezing methods and system installation Plimary plant and pumped loop secondary coolant, l 58; Expendable liquid refrigera n t, l 58; 1nsta/lation of the cooling system, 159

6.3 Structural design of frozen earth walls Curued walls, 163; Straight walls and combinations, 170; Tunnels, 170; Finite­element method, l 71

6.4 Monitoring requirements Freeze hole deuiation, 173; Temperature, 175; Frost boundary location and wall thickness, 178

6.5 Other construction considerations Protection of exposed frozen earth, 179; Concrete placement against frozen earth, 180 Problems

CHAPTER 7. FOUNDATIONS IN FROZEN SOILS

7.1 Generai considerations Foundations in seasonally frozen ground, 182; Foundations in permafrost, 183

7.2 Shallow foundations

Collie/li.\

Selection of foundation method, 187; Design of shallow foundations, 190; Bearing capacity, 191; Settlement considerations, 195

7.3 Pile foundations Pile types, 201; Pile placement, 201; Pile freezeback, 202; Axially loaded piles, 209; Laterally loaded piles, 219; Anchors in frozen ground, 220

7.4 Frost-heave forces on foundations Tangential forces on a vertical surface, 222; Design for frost heave, 223 Problems

CHAPTER 8. STABILITY OF SOIL MASSES IN COLO REGIONS

8.1 Landslides in permafrost: classification

8.2 Slopes in thawing permafrost Low-angle planar ftows, 227; Slides, 228

8.3 Slopes in frozen soils

8.4 Slope stabilization methods Construction and design techniques, 232; Stabilization of planar slides, 232; Stabilization of cut slopes, 232 Problems

CHAPTER 9. EARTHWORK IN COLO REGIONS

9.1 Site considerations Drainage, 237; Thermal and frost action factors, 239; Subsurface conditions, 240; Materia! sources, 240

151

15 L

157

163

173

179

181

182

182

187

201

222

223

225

225

227

230

231

236

237

237

viii (Oil/1!1111

9.2 Excavation and transport Meclranical excamtion, 243; Drilling and blasting. 248; Thawùzg frozen soil, 249; Hydraulic dredging. 254

9.3 Field placement Compaction, 255; Placement in water, 256

9.4 Water-retaining embankments o n permafrost Unfrozen embankments, 258; Frozen embankments, 259; Maintaining tlre frozen state, 259; Thennal and stability considerations, 260

9.5 E mbankment performance Frost heace, 261; Settlement, 262; Stability, 263; Artificial islands, 264

CHAPTER 10. FIELD INYESTIGATIONS

10.1. Sampling frozen ground Sampling methods, 267; Sample protection, 268

10.2 Ground-temperature measurement Temperature sensors and m easuring equipment, 270

10.3 Fie ld testing of frozen soils Fie/d test methods, 271; Pressuremeter test, 272; Deep static eone penetration test, 282; Other types of fie/d tests, 284

242

254

257

261

266

266

269

271

10.4 Geophysical methods 284 Seismic velocities in frozen ground, 287; Electrical properties of frozen ground, 288; Geophysicaltechniques used in frozen ground, 288; High-frequency electrical m ethods, 292; Borehole Logging in pennafrost, 294

APPENDIX A. SYMBOLS

APPENDIX B. SI UNITS

APPENDIX C. LABORATORY AND FIELD TESTS ON FROZEN SOILS

C.1 Handling, storage, and machining of specimens prior to testing

C.2 Uniaxial compression test

C.3 Uniaxial tensile test

C.4 Salinity of soil pore water

C.5 Thermosiphon

C.6 Pile load test in permafrost

REFERENCES

AUTHOR INDEX

SUBJECT INDEX

298

304

307

307

310

311

313

316

319

325

343

347

• 326 References

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Ai' \N, A. P., and J. L. DAVIS. 1976. lmpulsc radar sounding in permafrost. Radio Sci. 11(4):383-94.

ANNA , A. P. , and J. L. DAvts. 1978. High frcqucncy clcctri­cal mcthods for the detection of freezc- thaw interfaccs. In Proc. Jrd lnt. Conf. on Permafrost: Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Ottawa: National Research Council of Canada, Vol. l , pp. 496-500.

ARCONE, S. A., and A. J. DELANEY. 1984. Ficld diclectric mcasurcments of frozen silt using VH F pulses. Co/d Reg. Sci. Teclmol. , 9(1):29-37.

ARGUE, G. H ., J . A. FuLLERTON, G. H. JOIINSTON, and F. L. PECKOVER. 1981. Roads, railways and airfields. Chap. 8 in Pemwfrost Engineering and Constmction, ed. G. H. John­ston. New York: Wiley, pp. 345-91.

ARTEAU, J. 1984. Étude de la consolidation dcs sols gelés. Ph.D. diss., École Polytechnique, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.

ASIIBY, M. F., and P. D UVAL. 1985. The crcep of polycrys­talline ice. Co/d Reg. Sci. Technol. 11(3):285-300.

ASIIBY, M. F., and H. J. FROST. 1975. Deformation mecha­nism maps applied to the creep of e lements and simple inorganic compounds. Chap. li in Frontiers in Materials Science, ed. L. E. Murr and C. Ste in. New York: Ma rcel Dekkcr, pp. 391-419.

AUBERTIN, M., 0 . E. GtLL, and B. LAOANYI. 1991. An internai variable model for the creep of rocksalt. Rock Mech. Rock Eng. 24(2):81-97.

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BAKER, T. H. W. 1976a. Transportation, preparation and sto rage of frozen soi1 samples for laboratory testing. In Soil Specimen Preparation [or Laboratory Testing. ASTM Spec. Tech. Pubi. 599, pp. 88-11 2.

BAKER, T. H. W. 1976b. Preparation of Artificial/y Frozen Sand Specimens. Nati. Res. Counc. Can. Div. Build. Res. Pap. 682 (NRCC 15349).

BAKER, T. H. W. 1978. Effect of end conditions on the uniaxial compressive stre ngth of frozen sand. In Proc. 3rd tnt. Con[. on Permafrost, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Ottawa: National Research Council of Canada, Vol. l, pp. 609- 14.

BAKER, T. H. W. 1979. Strain rate effect on the compressive strc ngth of frozen sand. In Proc. First tnt. Symp. on Ground Freezing, Bochum, Germany, ed. H. L. Jessberger. Amste rdam: Elsevier, pp. 223-31; Eng. Geo/. 13(1979): 223-31.

BAKER, T. H. W. 1989. Personal communication. BAKER, T. H. W. 1991. Pe rsonal communication. BAKER, T. H. W., J . L. DAvts, H. N. HAYHOE, and G. C.

TOPP. 1982. Locating the frozen-unfrozen interface in soils using time-domain reflectometry. Can. Geotech. J. 19(4):511-17.

BAKER, T. H. W. and G. H . JOHNSTON. 1981. Cold regions earthwork. Chap. 6 in Permafrost Engineering Design and

Constmction, cd. G. Il. Johnston. ew York: Wilcy, pp. 219- 46.

BAKER, T. H. W., and J. M. Ko RAO. 1985. Effcct of sample pre paration on thc strcngth o f a rtificially frozen sand. In Proc. 4th lnt. Symp. on Ground Freezing, Sapporo, Japan. Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema, Vol. 2, pp. 171 -76.

BALJGH, M. M. 1984. The simplc pile approach to pile instal­lation in clays. In Analysis and Design of Pile Foundations, ed. J. R. Meycr. New York: ASCE, pp. 310-30.

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BELIKOV, M. P., G. A. PANASENKO, and A. S. ANTslFEROV. 1968. Earth dam in permafrost region constructed with plastic waterproof barrier (in Russian). Gidrotekh. Stroit. ( Hydrotech. Constr.) 10:878-80.

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BENSON, C. H., and M. A. 0THMAN. 1993. Hydraulic conduc­Livity of compacted clay frozen and thawed in situ. J. Geotech. Eng. 119(2):276-94.

BERG, R. L., and W. F. QutNN. 1977. Use of a light-colored surface to reduce seasonal thaw penetration beneath em­bank.ments on permafrost. In Proc. 2nd lnt. Symp. on Co/d Regions Engineering, University of Alaska, ed. J. L. Bur­dick and P. Johnson. Fairbanks, Alaska: Univ. of Alaska, pp. 86-99.

BERG, R. L., and N. SMtTH. 1976. Obseroations Along the Pipeline Hau/ Road Between Uuengood and the Yukon Riuer. U.S. Army Cold Reg. Res. Eng. Lab. Spec. Rep. 76-11.

Q

BERNELL, L 1965. Properties of frozen granular soils and thcir use in dam con truction. In Proc. 6th tnt . Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering. Toronto: Un iv. of To ronto Press. Vol. 2. pp. 451-55.

BtAREZ, J., J. P. MASCARELLI, and P. DESVARREAUX. 1967. Amélioration des propriétés mécaniques des sol par congélation a basse temperature (zero a - J80°C). C. R. Acad. Sci. 264(23): 1027.

BJGGAR, K. W. 1991. Adfreeze and grouted pilcs in saline permafrost. Ph. D. diss., Univ. of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.

BtGGAR, K. W., and D. C. SEGO. 1989. Ficld load testing of various pile configurations in saline permafrost and sea­sonally frozen rock. In Proc. 42nd Canadian Geotechnical Conf., Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, pp. 304- 12.

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BtYANOV, G. F., and V. I. MAKAROV. 1978. Characteristics of construction of frozen dams in western Yakutiya. In Proc. 3rd lnt. Con[. on Permafrost, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Ottawa: National Research Council of Canada, Vol. I , 779-84.

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BOURBONNAIS, J., and B. LADANYI. 1985a. Thc mechanical behavior of frozen sand down to cryogenic temperatures. In Proc. 4th lnt. Symp. on Ground Freezing, Sapporo, Japan. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema, Vol. 1, pp. 235-44.

R lfi.'rt'IICI'\ 327

BOURBO NAlS, J., and B. LAOANYI. 1985b. The mechanical behaviour of a frozen clay down to cryogenic tempera­tures. In Proc. 4th Int. Symp. on Ground Freezing, Sap­poro, Japan. Rottcrdam: A.A. Balkcma, Vol. 2, pp. 237-44.

BOURBONNAJS, J. , and B. LAOANYI. 1985c. Le comportement des sols gelés jusqu·aux tcmpératures cryogéniques. Twz­ne/s OuL'rages Souterrains (Paris) 69: l 12-14.

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BROWN, R. J. E. 1963. Relation between mean annua) air and ground tempera tures in the Permafrost Region of Canada. In Proc. lnt . Con[. on Pemwfrost, Lafayette, Ind. Pubi. 1287. Washington, D .C.: National Academy of Sciences­National Research Council, pp. 241-47.

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BROWN, R. J. E., and W. O. KUPSCH. 1974. Pemwfrost Termi­nology. Nati. Res. Counc. Can. Tech. Memo. 111.

BROWN, W. G. 1962. Steady temperature under the corner of a plate and under polygonal areas on the surface of a semi-infinite solid. Q. J. Mech. Appl. Math. 15(4):393-99.

328 References

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